title: Key events of the 20th century

text: By the 1980s, the Soviet Union was weakening. The Sino-Soviet split had removed the USSR's most powerful ally, the People's Republic of China. Its arms race with the U.S. was draining the country of funds, and further weakened by internal pressures, ethnic and political. Mikhail Gorbachev, its last leader, attempted to reform the country with "glasnost" and "perestroika", but the formation of Solidarity, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the breaking-off of several Soviet republics, such as Lithuania, started a slippery slope of events that culminated in a coup to overthrow Gorbachev, organized by Communist Party hard-liners. Boris Yeltsin, president of Russia, organized mass opposition, and the coup failed. On December 26, 1991, the Soviet Union was officially disbanded into its constituent republics, thus putting a final line under the already exhausted Cold War.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: The creation of the transistor revolutionized the development of the computer. The first computers, room-sized electro-mechanical devices built to break cryptographical codes during World War II, quickly became at least 20 times smaller using transistors. Computers became reprogrammable rather than fixed-purpose devices. The invention of programming languages meant computer operators could concentrate on problem solving at a high-level, without having to think in terms of the individual instructions to the computer itself. The creation of operating systems also vastly improved programming productivity. Building on this, computer pioneers could now realize what they had envisioned. The graphical user interface, piloted by a computer mouse made it simple to harness the power of the computer and made it more accessible to new users. Storage for computer programs progressed from punched cards and paper tape to magnetic tape, floppy disks and hard disks. Core memory and bubble memory fell to random access memory.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: The invention of the word processor, spreadsheet and database greatly improved office productivity over the old paper, typewriter and filing cabinet methods. The economic advantage given to businesses led to economic efficiencies in computers themselves. Cost-effective CPUs led to thousands of industrial and home-brew computer designs, many of which became successful; a home-computer boom was led by the Apple II, the ZX80 and the Commodore PET.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: IBM, seeking to embrace the microcomputer revolution, devised its IBM Personal Computer (PC). Crucially, IBM developed the PC from third-party components that were available on the open market. The only impediment to another company duplicating the system's architecture was the proprietary BIOS software. Other companies, starting with Compaq, reverse engineered the BIOS and released PC compatible computers that soon became the dominant architecture. Microsoft, which produced an operating system for the PC, rode this wave of popularity to become the world's leading software company.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: The 1980s heralded the Information Age. The rise of computer applications and data processing made ethereal "information" as valuable as physical commodities. This brought about new concerns surrounding intellectual property issues. The U.S. Government made algorithms patentable, forming the basis of software patents. The controversy over these and proprietary software led Richard Stallman to create the Free Software Foundation and begin the GNU Project, paving the way for a free software movement.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: Computers also became a usable platform for entertainment. Computer games were first developed by software programmers exercising their creativity on large systems at universities, but these efforts became commercially successful in arcade games such as "Pong" and "Space Invaders". Once the home computer market was established, young programmers in their bedrooms became the core of a youthful video game industry. In order to take advantage of advancing technology, games consoles were created. Like arcade systems, these machines had custom hardware designed to do game-oriented operations (such as sprites and parallax scrolling) in preference to general purpose computing tasks.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: Computer networks appeared in two main styles; the local area network, linking computers in an office or school to each other, and the wide area network, linking the local area networks together. Initially, computers depended on the telephone networks to link to each other, spawning the Bulletin Board sub-culture. However, a DARPA project to create bomb-proof computer networks led to the creation of the Internet, a network of networks. The core of this network was the robust TCP/IP network protocol. Thanks to efforts from Al Gore, the Internet grew beyond its military role when universities and commercial businesses were permitted to connect their networks to it. The main impetus for this was electronic mail, a far faster and convenient form of communication than a conventional letter and memo distribution, and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). However, the Internet remained largely unknown to the general public, who were used to Bulletin Boards and services like Compuserve and America Online. This changed when Tim Berners-Lee devised a simpler form of Vannevar Bush's hypertext, which he dubbed the World Wide Web. "The Web" suddenly changed the Internet into a printing press beyond the geographic boundaries of physical countries; it was termed "cyberspace". Anyone with a computer and an Internet connection could write pages in the simple HTML format and publish their thoughts to the world.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: The Web's immense success also fueled the commercial use of the Internet. Convenient home shopping had been an element of "visions of the future" since the development of the telephone, but now the race was on to provide convenient, interactive consumerism. Companies trading through websites became known as "dot coms", due to the ".com" suffix of commercial Internet addresses. The change of the century also lead to the fear and paranoia of Y2K, where it was hypothesized that the World's computers would glitch and cause havoc on banks, prisons, transit systems and more.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: By the end of the century, more technological advances and scientific discoveries been made than in all of preceding history. Communications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left with truly independent new nation states, some cut from whole cloth, standing up after centuries of foreign domination.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 19th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a position of almost unchallenged domination, a major part of the process was Americanization. This led to anti-Western and anti-American feelings in parts of the world, especially the Middle East. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations, long marginalized by the West and by their own rulers, were rapidly integrating with the world economy.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: However, several problems faced the world. The gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the Third World. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment and the cost that goes along with it.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were other issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Despots such as Kim Jong-il of North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as SARS and West Nile continued to spread. In poor nations, malaria and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: Perhaps most importantly, it was speculated that in the long term, environmental problems threatened the planet's livability. The most serious problem was global warming, which was predicted to frequently flood coastal areas, due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.


title: Key events of the 20th century

text: The celebration of the 20th century’s ending, was what the majority say was at New Year's Eve 1999 and the beginning of the 21st century was at New Year's Day, 2000, while there were and still are a minority who says that the 20th century ended on New Year's Eve 2000 and the 21st century began on New Year's Day 2001.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Dr. Anandibai Gopalrao Joshi (31 March 1865 – 26 February 1887) was the first Indian female doctor of western medicine. She was the first woman from the erstwhile Bombay presidency of India to study and graduate with a two-year degree in western medicine in the United States. She was also referred to as "Anandibai Joshi" and "Anandi Gopal Joshi" (where "Gopal" came from "Gopalrao", her husband's first name).


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Originally named Yamuna, Joshi was born, raised in a Marathi Chitpavan Brahmin family As was the practice at that time and due to pressure from her mother, she was married at the age of nine to Gopalrao Joshi, a widower almost twenty years her senior. After marriage, Yamuna's husband renamed her 'Anandi'. Gopalrao Joshi worked as a postal clerk in Kalyan. Later, he was transferred to Alibag, and then, finally, to Kolhapoor (Kolhapur). He was a progressive thinker, and, unusually for that time, supported education for women. She was also a relative of Pandita Ramabai.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: At the age of fourteen, Anandibai gave birth to a boy, but the child lived only for a total of ten days due to lack of medical care. This proved to be a turning point in Anandi's life and inspired her to become a physician. After Gopalrao tried to enroll her in missionary schools and not working out, they moved to Calcutta. There she learned to read and speak Sanskrit and English.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Her husband encouraged her to study medicine. In 1880 he sent a letter to Royal Wilder, a well-known American missionary, stating his wife's interest in inquiring about a suitable post in the US for himself. Wilder published the correspondence in his "Princeton's Missionary Review". Theodicia Carpenter, a resident of Roselle, New Jersey, happened to read it while waiting to see her dentist. Impressed by both Anandibai's desire to study medicine, and Gopalrao's support for his wife, she wrote to Anandibai. Carpenter and Anandibai developed a close friendship and came to refer to each other as "aunt" and "niece." Later, Carpenter would host Anandibai in Rochelle during Joshi's stay in the U.S.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: While the Joshi couple was in Calcutta, Anandibai's health was declining. She suffered from weakness, constant headaches, occasional fever, and sometimes breathlessness. Theodicia sent her medicines from America, without results. In 1883, Gopalrao was transferred to Serampore, and he decided to send Anandibai by herself to America for her medical studies despite her poor health. Though apprehensive, Gopalrao convinced her to set an example for other women by pursuing higher education.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: A physician couple named Thorborn suggested that Anandibai apply to the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania. On learning of Anandibai's plans to pursue higher education in the West, orthodox Indian society censured her very strongly.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Anandibai addressed the community at Serampore College Hall, explaining her decision to go to America and obtain a medical degree. She discussed the persecution she and her husband had endured. She stressed the need for female doctors in India, emphasizing that Hindu women could better serve as physicians to Hindu women. Her speech received publicity, and financial contributions started pouring in from all over India.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: In the 1800s, it was very unusual for husbands to focus on their wives' education. Gopalrao was obsessed with the idea of Anandibai's education and wanted her to learn medicine and create her own identity in the world. One day, he came into the kitchen and found her cooking with her grandmother and proceeded to go into a raging fit. It was very uncommon for husbands to beat their wives for cooking instead of reading. As Gopalrao's obsession with Joshi's education grew, he sent her with Mrs Carpenter, a Philadelphian missionary, to America to study medicine. Before her voyage, she addressed a public hall in 1883. She addressed the lack of women doctors and said "I volunteer myself as one." She also mentioned how midwifery was not sufficient in any case and that instructors who teach these classes have conservative views. Gopalrao eventually moved to America when he felt displeased by her efforts. By the time he arrived in Philadelphia, she had completed her studies and was a doctor.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Anandibai travelled to New York from Kolkata (Calcutta) by ship, chaperoned by two female English missionary acquaintances of the Thorborns. In New York, Theodicia Carpenter received her in June 1883. Anandibai wrote to the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, asking to be admitted to their medical program, which was the second women's medical program in the world. Rachel Bodley, the dean of the college, enrolled her.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Anandibai began her medical training at age 19. In America, her health worsened because of the cold weather and unfamiliar diet. She contracted tuberculosis. Nevertheless, she graduated with an MD in March 1886; the topic of her thesis was "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus." The thesis utilized references from both Ayurvedic texts and American medical textbooks. On her graduation, Queen Victoria sent her a congratulatory message.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: In late 1886, Anandibai returned to India, receiving a grand welcome. The princely state of Kolhapur appointed her as the physician-in-charge of the female ward of the local Albert Edward Hospital.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Anandibai died of tuberculosis early the next year on 26 February 1887 before turning 22 in Pune. Years preceding her death, she was fatigued and felt constant weakness. Medicine was sent to her from America but there were no results so she kept studying medicine until death. Her death was mourned throughout India. Her ashes were sent to Theodicia Carpenter, who placed them in her family cemetery at the Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery in Poughkeepsie, New York. The inscription states that Anandi Joshi was a Hindu Brahmin girl, the first Indian woman to receive education abroad and to obtain a medical degree.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Despite practicing medicine for only two to three months, she rose to fame for her sheer determination and hardwork, to become the first Indian female to study western medicine, becoming an inspiration to all others who came after her.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: In 1888, American feminist writer Caroline Wells Healey Dall wrote Joshi's biography. Dall was acquainted with Joshi and admired her greatly. However, certain points in the biography, particularly its harsh treatment of Gopalrao Joshi, sparked controversy among Joshi's friends.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Doordarshan, an Indian public service broadcaster aired a Hindi series based on her life, called "Anandi Gopal" and directed by Kamlakar Sarang. Shrikrishna Janardan Joshi wrote a fictionalised account of her life in his Marathi novel "Anandi Gopal", which was adapted into a play of the same name by Ram G. Joglekar.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: Dr. Anjali Kirtane has extensively researched the life of Dr. Anandibai Joshi and has written a Marathi book entitled "डॉ. आनंदीबाई जोशी काळ आणि कर्तृत्व" ("Dr. Anandibai Joshi, Kaal ani Kartutva: Dr. Anandibai Joshi, her times and accomplishments") which contains rare photographs of Dr. Anandibai Joshi.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: The Institute for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences (IRDS), a non-governmental organization from Lucknow, has been awarding the Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine in honour of her early contributions to the cause of advancing medical science in India. In addition, the Government of Maharashtra has established a fellowship in her name for young women working on women's health. A crater on Venus has been named in her honour. The 34.3 km-diameter crater on Venus named 'Joshee' lies at latitude 5.5° N and longitude 288.8° E.


title: Anandi Gopal Joshi

text: "Anandi Gopal", an Indian biographical film on her life in Marathi by Sameer Vidwans released in 2019. It stars Bhagyashree Milind in the titular role, Lalit Prabhakar as her husband - Gopalrao Joshi and Yogesh Soman as her father - Ganpatrao Amriteshwar Joshi. In 2017, a Gujarati-language play titled "Dr. Anandibai Joshi", directed by Manoj Shah, premiered at the National Centre for the Performing Arts.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The Insurgency in Northeast India involves multiple armed separatist factions operating in some of India's northeastern states, which are connected to the rest of India by the Siliguri Corridor, a strip of land as narrow as wide.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Northeastern India consists of seven states (also known as the "Seven Sister States"): Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland. Tensions existed between insurgents in these states and the central government as well as amongst their native indigenous people and migrants from other parts of India and illegal immigrants. Government of India claims that Insurgency has seen rapid decline in recent years, with a 70 per cent reduction in insurgency incidents and an 80 per cent drop in civilian deaths in the Northeast in 2019 compared to 2013.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The 2014 Indian general election had an 80% voter turnout in all northeastern states, the highest among all states of India according to Indian government. Indian authorities claim that this shows the faith of the northeastern people in Indian democracy. Indian Chief of Defence Staff Gen Anil Chauhan then Eastern Army Commander claimed that as of 2020, the area of violence in the entire North-East has shrunk primarily to an area which is the tri-junction between Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and north Nagaland.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Mizoram's tensions were largely due to the simmering Assamese domination and the neglect of the Mizo people. In 1986, the Mizo accord ended the main secessionist movement led by the Mizo National Front, bringing peace to the region. Insurgency status is classified as partially active, due to secessionist/autonomy demands by the Chakmas and Brus. The Chakma and Reang tribes complain of religious and ethnic persecution, and complain that the dominant Mizo ethnic group, almost entirely Christian, wants to convert them to Christianity.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Manipur's long tradition of independence can be traced to the foundation of the Kangleipak State in 1110. The Kingdom of Manipur was conquered by Great Britain following the brief Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891, becoming a British protectorate.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Manipur became part of the Indian Union on 15 October 1949. Manipur's incorporation into the Indian state soon led to the formation of a number of insurgent organisations, seeking the creation of an independent state within the borders of Manipur, and dismissing the merger with India as involuntary.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Despite the fact that Manipur became a separate state of the Indian Union on 21 January 1972, the insurgency continued.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: On 8 September 1980, Manipur was declared an area of disturbance, when the Indian government imposed the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 on the region; the act currently remains in force.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The parallel rise of Naga nationalism in neighbouring Nagaland led to the emergence of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) activities in Manipur. Clashes between the Isak-Muivah and Khaplang factions of the NSCN further aggravated tensions, as Kuki tribals began creating their own guerrilla groups in order to protect their interests from alleged Naga violations. Skirmishes between the two ethnic groups took place during the 1990s. Other ethnic groups such as the Paite, Vaiphei, Pangals and Hmars followed suit establishing militant groups.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The first separatist faction known as the United National Liberation Front (UNLF) was founded on 24 November 1964.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Between 1977 and 1980, the People's Liberation Army of Manipur (PLA), the People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) and the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), were formed, immediately joining the war.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Nagaland was created in 1963 as the 16th state of the Indian Union, before which it was a district of Assam. Active Naga-Kuki insurgent groups mainly demand full independence. The Naga National Council led by Phizo was the first group to dissent in 1947 and in 1956 they went underground.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The National Socialist Council of Nagaland was formed in 1980 to establish a Greater Nagaland, encompassing parts of Manipur, Nagaland, and the north Cachar hills (Assam). The NSCN split in 1988 to form two groups, NSCN(IM) and NSCN(K). As of 2015, both groups have observed a ceasefire truce with the Indian government.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The National Socialist Council of Nagaland—Khaplang is the second faction with the same aim of a Greater Nagaland and was formed in 1988.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The insurgent groups in Tripura emerged at the end of the 1970s, as ethnic tensions between the Bangladeshi infiltration and the tribal native population who were outnumbered by the former, hailing from other parts of India and nearby Bangladesh, which resulted in their being reduced to minority status even threatening them economically, socially, culturally; this resulted in a clarion call for safeguarding tribal rights and cultures. Such being the extent of desperation, this naturally resulted in hatred and suspicion and their status is classified as active.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The first militant outfit to form was Tripura National Volunteers (TNV), which was active until 1988.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The National Liberation Front of Tripura was formed in March 1989. During the period 1992 to 2001, a total of 764 civilians and 184 members of the security forces were killed in NLFT attacks. In 2019, it signed the Tripura Peace Accord to end the insurgency.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The All Tripura Tiger Force was formed by local aboriginal tribes in 1990, who were gradually outnumbered both directly and indirectly, even at the cost of being threatened for their survival


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: economically and culturally, not to speak of their being reduced to minority population-wise; their sole aim is the expulsion of all Bangladeshi infiltration nearby Bangladesh.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Assam has been a refuge for militants for a number of years, due to its porous borders with Bangladesh and Bhutan and also due to its very close proximity to Burma. The main causes of the friction include anti-foreigner agitation in the 1980s, and the simmering indigenous-migrant tensions. The insurgency status in Assam is classified as "very active". The government of Bangladesh has arrested and extradited senior leaders of the ULFA.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The United Liberation Front of Assam was formed in April 1979 to establish a sovereign state of Assam for the indigenous people of Assam through an armed struggle. In recent times the organisation has lost its middle rung leaders after most of them were arrested.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The objective of the Kamtapur Liberation Organisation (KLO) is to carve out a separate Kamtapur Nation. The proposed state is to comprise six districts in West Bengal and four contiguous districts of Assam which are Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North and South Dinajpur and Malda of West Bengal and four contiguous districts of Assam – Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Dhubri and Goalpara. The KLO, in the beginning, was an unconcealed organisation, which was formed to address problems of the Koch Rajbongshi people, such as large-scale unemployment, land alienation, perceived neglect of Kamtapuri language, identity, and grievances of economic deprivation.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The state of Meghalaya was separated from the state of Assam in 1971, in order to satisfy the Khasi, Synteng and Garo for a separate state. The decision was initially praised as an example of successful national integration into the wider Indian state.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: This, however, failed to prevent the rise of national consciousness among the local tribal populations, later leading to a direct confrontation between Indian nationalism and the newly created Garo and Khasi nationalisms. A parallel rise of nationalism in the other members of the Seven Sister States further complicated the situation, resulting in occasional clashes between rebel groups.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The state wealth distribution system further fueled the rising separatist movements, as funding is practised through per-capita transfers, which largely benefits the leading ethnic group.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The first militant outfit to emerge in the region was the Hynniewtrep Achik Liberation Council (HALC). It was formed in 1992, aiming to protect the interests of Meghalaya's indigenous population from the rise of non-tribal ("Dkhar") immigration.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: A conflict of interest soon led to a split of the HALC. The Garo members formed the Achik Matgrik Liberation Army (AMLA) while the joint Jaintia-Khasi alliance of Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council (HNLC) was formed in 1993. The HNLC claims to represent the Khasi - Jaintia people, and its aim is to free Meghalaya from the alleged domination of the Garos and the outsiders (the "Dkhars").


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The AMLA passed into obscurity, while the Achik National Volunteers Council (ANVC) took its place. The Garo-Khasi drift persisted as the HNLC had set up the goal of turning Meghalaya into an exclusively Khasi region; the ANVC, on the other hand, sought the creation of an independent state in the Garo Hills.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: A number of non-Meghalayan separatist groups have also operated in the region, including the United Liberation Front of Assam and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland among others.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The most active outfit in the state is the Garo National Liberation Army (GNLA), which was formed in 2009.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The Hmar People's Convention-Democracy (HPC-D) is an armed insurgency group formed in 1995 to create an independent Hmar State in North East India. It is the offspring of the Hmar People's Convention (HPC), which entered into an agreement with the Government of Mizoram in 1994 resulting in the formation of the Sinlung Hills Development Council (SHDC) in North Mizoram. Their recruited cadres are from the States where the Hmar people are spread – Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. The HPC(D) is demanding a separate administrative unit under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The National Liberation Council of Taniland (NLCT) was active along the Assam – Arunachal Pradesh border, and its members belong to the Tani groups of people which are demanding Taniland. The group enjoys no support from the local population of Arunachal Pradesh who are fiercely pro-India and the group is all but defunct now. The Tani groups are one of the ethnic groups of northeast India (variously known as Mising in Assam and Adi, Nyishi, Galo, Apatani, Tagin, in Arunachal Pradesh) in India as well as the Lhoba in China who live along the frontier of India.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Following the 1990 Operations "Rhino" and "Bajrang", Assamese separatist groups relocated their camps to Bhutan. In 1996 the Bhutan government became aware of a large number of camps on its southern border with India. The camps were set up by four Assamese separatist movements: the ULFA, NDFB, Bodo Liberation Tigers Force (BLTF) and Kamtapur Liberation Organization (KLO). The camps also harboured separatists belonging to the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) and the All Tripura Tiger Force (ATTF).


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: India then exerted diplomatic pressure on Bhutan, offering support in removing the rebel organisations from its soil. The government of Bhutan initially pursued a peaceful solution, opening dialogue with the militant groups on 1998. Five rounds of talks were held with ULFA, three rounds with DNFB, with KLO ignoring all invitations sent by the government. In June 2001 ULFA agreed to close down four of its camps; however, the Bhutanese government soon realized that the camps had simply been relocated.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: By 2003 the talks had failed to produce any significant result. On 14 July 2003, military intervention was approved by the National Assembly. On 13 December 2003, the Bhutanese government issued a two-day ultimatum to the rebels. On 15 December 2003, after the ultimatum had expired, Operation All Clear – the first operation ever conducted by the Royal Bhutan Army – was launched.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: By 3 January 2004, the Royal Bhutan Army had killed about 120 militants. They managed to capture several senior ULFA commanders. Large numbers of rebels fled to Bangladesh and India. Militants also were dislodged from all 30 camps and 35 observation posts, with the camps burned and razed to the ground.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Between 2008 and 2011, Royal Bhutan Police and Royal Bhutan Army personnel undertook numerous actions against alleged north Indian militants. Several firefights occurred while Bhutan military personnel were required to dispose of several explosive devices and destroyed a number of guerrilla camps.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The Indo-Burmese border was drawn over the homeland of many ethnic groups, such as the Mizos/Chins and the Nagas, with communities with strong ethnic ties living on both sides of the border. Several separatist groups have operated out of Myanmar, crossing into India via the porous border.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: India-Myanmar military cooperation dates back to the 1960s when the Tatmadaw intercepted Naga and Mizo rebels heading to China for training. Indian support for the pro-democracy movement in the 1980s had caused the Tatmadaw to stop their operations against the northeastern rebel groups.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: After the 2015 Manipur ambush, India conducted surgical strikes against NSCN-K camps inside Myanmar, and inflicted significant casualties.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: In February and June 2019, Indian army and the Burmese Tatmadaw carried out joint operations "Sunrise" and "Sunrise II", targeting in co-ordination several militant groups along the Indo-Burma border including the Kamtapur Liberation Organisation (KLO), the NSCN-K, the United Liberation Front of Assam (I) and the National Democratic Front of Boroland (NDFB). In February, Burmese troops stormed the NSCN-K headquarters at Taga. The Indian army reciprocated by starting a major operation against the Arakan Army in south Mizoram.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: In Manipur the following militant groups have come together as the CorCOM which is a short name for Coordination Committee.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: CorCom is on the extremist organisations list of the Government of India, and is responsible for many bombings usually associated with Indian holidays and elections.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Some of the above-mentioned militant groups have formed an alliance to fight against the governments of India, Bhutan and Myanmar. They use the term "Western Southeast Asia" (WESEA) to describe the region in which they operate: Northeast India, Bhutan, North Bengal and Myanmar. These groups include:


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: Nine militant groups of the northeast, including the NSCN (Khaplang) and the ULFA faction led by Paresh Baruah, have come together to form a new unified front known as UNLFW during a meeting held in Myanmar in early 2015. Besides the NSCN (K) and ULFA-Independent, other groups that participated in the meeting held at Taga in Sagaing division of Myanmar earlier this month were the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), Kanglei Yawol Kunna Lup (KYKL), the People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), the United National Liberation Front (UNLF) and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (Songbijit faction) (NDFB).


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The MULTA is said to be part of the AMULFA, an organization that rejects separatism in favor of sharia law.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: In 1955, an order of the day from the then Chief of Army Staff Rajendrasinhji Jadeja to troops fighting insurgency in the north-east read,


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: The dispute over the 165-km Assam-Mizoram border has its origin in British era demarcations. In 1995, the first major skirmishes were reported in Lushai Hills along the border. In 2018, 50 people were injured in clashes between Mizo activists and Assam police.


title: Insurgency in Northeast India

text: On July 26, 2021, five Assam police personnel were killed in an exchange of fire with their Mizoram counterparts at the border town of Vairengte.


title: Seven Cities of Gold

text: The myth of the Seven Cities of Gold, also known as the Seven Cities of Cibola (), was popular in the 16th century and later featured in several works of popular culture. According to legend, the seven cities of gold referred to Aztec mythology revolving around the Pueblos of the Spanish Nuevo México, today's New Mexico and Southwestern United States.


title: Seven Cities of Gold

text: Besides "Cibola", names associated with similar lost cities of gold also included El Dorado, Paititi, City of the Caesars, Lake Parime at Manoa, Antilia, and Quivira.


title: Seven Cities of Gold

text: In the 16th century, the Spaniards in New Spain (now Mexico) began to hear rumors of "Seven Cities of Gold" called "Cíbola" located across the desert, hundreds of miles to the north. The stories may have their root in an earlier Portuguese legend about seven cities founded on the island of Antillia by a Catholic expedition in the 8th century, or one based on the capture of Mérida, Spain by the Moors in 1150.


title: Seven Cities of Gold

text: The later Spanish tales were largely caused by reports given by the four shipwrecked survivors of the failed Narváez expedition, which included explorers Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico. Eventually returning to New Spain, the adventurers said they had heard stories from natives about cities with great and limitless riches. In 1539, Italian Franciscan Marco da Nizza reached Zuni Pueblo and called it "Cibola". However, when conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado finally arrived at Cíbola in 1540, he discovered that the stories were unfounded and that there were, in fact, no treasures as the friar had described — only adobe towns.


title: Seven Cities of Gold

text: While among the towns, Coronado heard an additional rumor from a native he called "the Turk" that there was a city with plenty of gold called Quivira located on the other side of the great plains. However, when at last he reached this place (variously conjectured to be in modern Kansas, Nebraska or Missouri), he found little more than straw-thatched villages.


title: Seven Cities of Gold

text: The historic Cibola on the other hand is recorded in Spanish sources as another name for the Zuñi pueblo and the surrounding country. The Spanish soon discovered rich copper and turquoise mines in the Pueblo country which made the region famous for its mineral wealth even in recent times. The Pueblo Indians including the Zuñi are still well known for their turquoise and silver work.


title: Skillshare

text: Skillshare is an online learning community based in the United States for people who want to learn from educational videos. The courses, which are not accredited, are only available through paid subscription.


title: Skillshare

text: The majority of courses focus on interaction rather than lecturing, with the primary goal of learning by completing a project. The main course categories include creative arts, design, entrepreneurship, lifestyle and technology.


title: Skillshare

text: Michael Karnjanaprakorn and Malcolm Ong started Skillshare in New York City, New York in November 2010; the site was live in April 2011. Previously, Karnjanaprakorn led the product team at Hot Potato, a social media product bought by Facebook. Ong was the product manager at OMGPop. In August 2011, Skillshare raised $3.1 million in Series A funding led by Union Square Ventures and Spark Capital. In late 2013, Skillshare had raised $4.65 million in funding, and $6 million by February 2014, with financing co-led by Union Square Ventures and Spark Capital. Total funding reached $10 million.


title: Skillshare

text: Skillshare held the Penny Conference in April 2012, a one-day discussion on the current educational system and how to reform it, with Michael Karnjanaprakorn, Codecademy’s cofounder Zach Sims, and Pencils of Promise founder Adam Braun as speakers.


title: Skillshare

text: Skillshare launched 15 self-paced, online courses in August 2012, with students collaborating to complete a project. By November 2013, it hosted over 250 courses, and launched its School of Design.


title: Skillshare

text: Skillshare collaborated with Levi's to launch the School of MakeOurMark in October 2013, focusing on individual creativity with courses in photography, tattooing, and various forms of illustration.


title: Skillshare

text: In March 2014, Skillshare moved to a membership model for $9.95 a month. Later that year, the company announced a new open platform, where anyone could be a course instructor, and a free membership option to watch a limited amount of class content each month.


title: Skillshare

text: In May 2016, Skillshare raised $12 million in Series B funding. The company raised a further $28 million in Series C funding in July 2018 ($20 million in equity and $8 million in venture debt).


title: Skillshare

text: As of March 2019, Skillshare had over 27,000 premium classes and more than 2,000 free classes available. The platform has introduced the "Groups" feature that allows members to connect with other creators, share work, and take skills to the next level through engaging discussions and prompts.


title: Skillshare

text: In September 2021, Skillshare discontinued the option to offer classes for free and required users to have either a paid membership or free trial to access all courses (including classes that were previously available for free).


title: Skillshare

text: Skillshare organizes courses into advertising, business, design, fashion and style, film and video, food and drink, music, photography, gaming, technology, and writing and publishing, often taught by industry leaders. All online courses are self-paced.


title: Skillshare

text: Susan Orlean (creative non-fiction), Young Guru (audio mixing and recording), Yuko Shimizu (inking and drawing techniques), Marc Ecko (entrepreneurship and brand creation), Gary Vaynerchuk (social media strategy), Guy Kawasaki (entrepreneurship) and Paula Scher (graphic design).


title: Skillshare

text: In June 2018, the company launched Skillshare Originals, a collection of courses produced by The Skillshare's in-house team.


title: Media Markt

text: Media Markt is a German multinational chain of stores selling consumer electronics with over 1000 stores in Europe. With chain of stores Saturn it constitutes Media-Saturn Holding, owned by the retail company Ceconomy, which was demerged from Metro Group in 2017.


title: Media Markt

text: Media Markt was founded by entrepreneurs Leopold Stiefel, Walter Gunz, Erich Kellerhals, and Helga Kellerhals. The first store opened on 24 November 1979 in Munich. By 1985, nine other stores had opened near Munich.


title: Media Markt

text: In 1988 Kaufhof Warenhaus AG acquired a 54 percent majority in the holding company of the media stores founded in 1979. In 1989 expansion began in neighboring countries. Media Markt took over the competing retail chain Saturn in 1990, in which Kaufhof was already involved. In 1996 Kaufhof Holding, Metro Cash & Carry, Deutsche SB-Kauf AG and the German department store Asko AG (where a Metro holding company had previously each held shares) merged and formed Metro AG. Since the merger into the MediaMarktSaturn Retail Group, Media Markt and Saturn have been managed as independent brands in a centrally controlled group.


title: Media Markt

text: On November 17, 2010, the first Media Markt was opened on Huaihai Road, in Shanghai, China. Six more stores followed, which were realized together with Foxconn through a joint venture. In January 2013, it became known that Media Markt would withdraw from China because the Metro Group would not be able to raise the capital necessary for its further expansion.


title: Media Markt

text: In January 2013, Metro had around 78% of the shares. The Kellerhals family owned 21.67% through their indirectly held holding company Convergenta Invest.


title: Media Markt

text: Since 2017 Media-Saturn Holding which consists of Media Markt and Saturn chains is owned by Ceconomy, a company formed through a demerger from Metro Group.


title: Media Markt

text: In Italy, the Media World brand is used instead of Media Markt, while in Luxembourg the Saturn brand is used.


title: Media Markt

text: Every store is 10% owned by the store manager. Store managers have discretion as to which products to stock, range, pricing, personnel and material costs.


title: Media Markt

text: Media Markt had an aggressive advertising similar to American companies and also a few controversial commercials in the 2000s. It is known in Germany for its humorous, but sometimes crude, advertising campaigns; for example, the slogan ""Lasst euch nicht verarschen"" meaning "Don't let yourself be conned", literally verbal prefix "for-" (ver-) + ass (Arsch) + infinitive suffix "-en" (-en).


title: Media Markt

text: The well-known advertising campaigns of the brands Media Markt and Saturn are designed by the internal marketing organization redblue Marketing GmbH in Munich.


title: Media Markt

text: Media Markt's main slogan ""Ich bin doch nicht blöd"" (I'm not stupid) has been translated into the languages of the other countries where the company operates, except Italy:


title: Media Markt

text: Prior to the 2006 World Cup, Media Markt launched a campaign, claiming to be the "best fan supplier" (""Bester Fanausrüster""), with commercials showing international football fans shopping at Media Markt, showing exaggerated stereotypes of the participating countries, and making fun of the Austria team, which did not qualify. This included a French seductress, Dutch fans smoking marijuana in caravans, or a Saudi haggling - to pay more. German fans were portrayed with big bellies, asking for refrigerators to keep their beer cool, rather than looking for a new TV set.


title: Media Markt

text: An additional series of ads, promoting a rebate of €10 for each goal Germany scores (except penalty shoot-outs), showed international soccer fans begging the Germans to score as many goals as possible - against their own team.


title: Media Markt

text: When the Netherlands lost to Portugal, Media Markt used a quote from a 1980s show featuring Rudi Carrell, a Dutchman who was a long-time TV celebrity in Germany, to express "Schadenfreude". A World Cup trophy is shown to grieving Dutch fans in their caravan with the comment "This would have been your prize!".


title: Media Markt

text: In March 2006, the "Poland version" showed moustache-wearing Polish customers praising the shop for "prices deep like Polish soul" before hugging the German sales managers, who looked quite uncomfortable in the bear hugs. Afterwards, one of the Germans pointed out that his watch was still there, and that "The Pole is an honest person, after all". Then, the three men are shown to be missing their trousers.


title: Media Markt

text: This commercial caused a scandal in Poland, for the widely known unfounded German stereotype of Poles being thieves. Media Markt argued that the advertisements also made fun of other national clichés, including Germans, and none of the other clichés were perceived as negative towards the people they presented. It aimed to exaggerate the cliché of the Polish thief to dismiss it as unjustified prejudice, Media Markt claimed.


title: Media Markt

text: The store apologised and withdrew the advert after their Polish branch asked to do so, following protests in Poland, a call from the Polish embassy in Berlin and protests from German Polonia.


title: Media Markt

text: In January 2008 Media Markt launched a campaign presenting a fictitious country called "Dumb Land", where several characters with Eastern European accents were presented as being from this country, which even has an anthem. A central theme of this campaign presented a Boy Scout as an idiot. This really upset people as many consider Scouts to be responsible and valued members of society. An online petition was created to persuade Media Markt to withdraw the campaign and to offer a public apology. Due to this petition and a lot of pressure from the Scouting movement, Media Markt had to remove the Boy Scout from their campaign, including TV and radio ads.


title: Media Markt

text: Turkish Union Association in Eskişehir, Turkey motivated suspension of an advertisement campaign by the group on grounds that Media Markt "insulted Turkishness" by depicting consumers that purchased overpriced merchandise with animal heads. A ban of the advertisements lasted for 3 months in 2009. There have been many accusations on their official Facebook fan page about their false product advertisements in Turkey.


title: Media Markt

text: A former German campaign played on the German expression "saubillig" which means extremely cheap, but literally "sow (female pig) cheap". "Sau-" is a common emphasising prefix in colloquial German. Inside the stores, the entrances were signposted as "Schweingang" = wordplay on the word Eingang (Entrance) and Schwein (pig), and the exit as "Sausgang" = wordplay on the word Ausgang (Exit) and the German word for sow (Sau) - the female pig.


title: Media Markt

text: Media Markt promised in 2005 a promotion to sell items "without VAT" (with a discount equal to VAT). The prices for these items had previously been increased in order to actually achieve the normal price. A competitor sued a branch in Mannheim.


title: Media Markt

text: The MediaMarktSaturn Retail Group has made bait-and-switch in the past: articles were advertised extensively at extremely low prices but were sold out within a very short time. According to case law on the law against unfair competition (UWG) advertised special offers must be available for at least two days. Consumer advocates criticized that this was often not guaranteed at Media Markt and Saturn. The group denied that; there were only a few exceptions despite large stocks. It is generally difficult to provide concrete evidence of such cases, since consumer protection groups do not have access to the delivery dates of the companies.


title: Media Markt

text: In 2005, samples from the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung in the Munich area showed that Media Markt or Saturn stores were more expensive in 15 out of 21 cases than local competitors. In Berlin they were 11 out of 21 cases. The MediaMarktSaturn Retail Group countered the allegations with a "price guarantee" that promised buyers a refund of the price difference if they found the product at a cheaper price in another shop.


title: Media Markt

text: In 2013, 0% financing from the Spanish bank Banco Santander was criticized. A credit loss insurance that costs 10% is taken out only on a note in the small print.


title: Media Markt

text: According to research published by the "Financial Times" Germany in 2008, the MediaMarktSaturn Retail Group committed to Intel in 1999 to only sell PCs with Intel processors. The holding company received 85 million euros in purchase discounts and advertising grants from Intel in 2007 alone. The European antitrust authorities investigated the distortion of competition. Intel was fined 1.06 billion euros in May 2009 by the European Competition Commission for these and other antitrust violations.


title: Media Markt

text: The retail chain was moved by Intel's discount system to have only insignificant or no computers with AMD processors on offer. According to the European Commission, Intel has made direct and indirect payments to MSH since 1997. The payments were subject to the condition that, if possible, only offer Intel systems.


title: Media Markt

text: In 2014, in Krems an der Donau in Lower Austria, theft of the Media Markt, which is said to have been committed by employees, not only carried out bag checks, as is common in many companies but also body searches on all employees. The unions see this as a violation of human dignity. As a consequence, employees of other branches in Austria reported this procedure. This approach was blamed on the security service providers by the company.


title: Media Markt

text: On June 13, 2014, the Austrian Federal Competition Authority (BWB) announced a decision by the cartel court on April 23, 2014, against Media-Saturn Beteiligungs gmbH. A fine of 1,230,000 euros was imposed for vertical price matching of retail prices with the electronics industry between October 2009 and early 2013.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Kaal () is a 2005 Indian supernatural horror film written and directed by Soham Shah. It was jointly produced by Karan Johar and Shah Rukh Khan. The film stars John Abraham, Vivek Oberoi, Esha Deol, Lara Dutta and Ajay Devgn. It was released on 29 April 2005 and was an average commercial success at the box office.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: The story focuses on a wildlife expert, his wife, and a group of friends who battle against a mysterious entity in the fictional Orbit National Park (alluding to the world-famous Jim Corbett National Park, Nainital, Uttarakhand) for their lives while being helped by a mysterious tour guide. The film sends out the message on protecting the precious wildlife of India.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Two British nationals are killed by a ferocious tiger in Corbett National Park in India. This incident is followed by several other tiger attacks, and many deaths result, prompting "National Geographic" to send a correspondent, Krish Thapar to the national park and ascertain what really happened. Krish is accompanied by his wife Riya.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: friends Sajid and Vishal, are on a hunting trip in the hopes of sighting and shooting some big prey. Their car breaks down and Bagga, an alcoholic passerby driver, gives them a lift. Bagga's car accidentally hits Krish's car, which also breaks down and is at the middle of the road. The two groups decide to travel together in Bagga's car, leaving a mechanic to repair Krish's car.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Just a few seconds after they set off, the mechanic disappears and they believe that a wild animal just took him away and decide not to risk their lives to look for him.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Bagga finds them a guesthouse to stay which is owned by a man named DS Pandey. Pandey is a guide who agrees to lead them the next day to the core area, where tigers live, for hunting. That very night Pandey disappears and his decapitated body is found in the nearby swamp the next day. Krish starts to get suspicious about the real cause of the recent deaths in the jungle, as he is an animal expert and recognizes that Pandey's death was not the work of a tiger or any other wild animal.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Warned by a forest officer named Bashir Khan, the group decides to leave the jungle. Before they depart, they realize that Sajid has gone missing. Dev assumes that he has gone by himself to the core area for hunting. However, the group decide to leave without Sajid. Soon they find Sajid's decapitated body by a lake. The rest are soon confronted by three tigers on the way. The group is saved by a mysterious man who introduces himself as Kaali Pratap Singh and claims to live in the jungle.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: On their continued way out of the jungle, they find the road blocked by rocks due to the landslide caused by rain. Kaali shows up again and agrees to lead them out of the jungle.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Kaali appears to be very knowledgeable about the jungle and its history. Krish, who is now more curious about the mysterious deaths, asks him if he knows what's behind those deaths. Kaali responds by telling them a story about a crazy tour guide in this jungle, who used to lead tourists to the wrong places just to have them killed by wild animals. The people in the nearby villages later caught him and beat him to death but his ghost remains in the jungle and continues to kill tourists. None of them believe Kaali's story.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Bagga later disappears while repairing his car, rising the fear among the rest. Vishal is decapitated shortly thereafter when a window of their car flies and hus him due to the explosion.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: The rest of the group members carry on and reach a deserted guesthouse in the evening, outside which there is a well. They all go to sleep after being warned by Kaali not to get close to the well. Riya wakes up thirsty in the night. She decides to get water from the well despite Kaali's warning, and is later accidentally hung by her foot in the well and dies.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: The remaining group members figure out that Riya is dead and try to pull her body out from the well, while Dev suddenly notices that Kaali does not have a reflection in the well's water. Terrified by this, Dev makes an excuse to send Kaali away by asking him to gather some timbers which can be used to perform Riya's final rites. During this time, he checks all the videos which had been recorded by Vishal and notices that Kaali is not visible in any of them. Dev immediately realizes that the story Kaali told them earlier is true and that he is in fact the ghost of the tour guide mentioned in the story. Dev shows the videos to Krish and Ishika, proving to them that Kaali is a ghost and is indeed responsible for all the mysterious deaths happening in the jungle. They decide to escape the jungle once and for all. Kaali returns to the well with timbers and upon finding nobody there, he realizes that the trio have run away.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Flashbacks reveal that the villagers did not kill Kaali but instead, took him to the core area where he was brutally beaten up and then thrown in front of a hungry tiger that mauled him to death. The story shifts back to present day where Kaali’s ghost now standing by the well, expresses his immense anger and hatred for tourists who come to the jungle to hunt wild animals and disrupt their well being without any regrets. This is the sole reason why he misleads and then kills tourists.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Krish, Dev and Ishika experience several attempts on their lives on their way out of the jungle, apparently arranged by Kaali, but finally manage to reach the road where Bagga and Khan arrive in a jeep, driving them away from the jungle.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Sometime later, Krish who is now fully aware of what caused those mysterious deaths in that jungle, successfully completes his report in which, he deems the deaths as a result of tiger attacks. He reluctantly decides not to disclose the real cause of those deaths to anyone since no one will believe him but instead credits Kaali as the main contributor to the report. Meanwhile in the jungle, Kaali encounters a new group of tourists and has one of them killed by a truck.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: Shah had earlier assisted Karan Johar in "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." (2001). The filmmakers used 25 litres of real blood in the film. The idea of using computer-generated tigers was dropped because of the lack of its realism. The three tigers shown in "Kaal" were also used in the Hollywood film "Gladiator" (2000). Scenes involving tigers were shot in Bangkok, where they used to roam free on sets. Vivek Oberoi wanted to portray the character Kaali, but later accepted the one offered. The film was shot at the Jim Corbett National Park.


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics, noting it to be a different type of horror film. Planet Bollywood rated the film 5/10, stating," Soham Shah is as inept at directing performances as he is at writing an engaging screenplay or building any sort of momentum or pacing visually. Lack of strong characterization tells on the dismal level of performances from the cast. Lara Dutta cringes, cries, and yells randomly, while Esha Deol consistently carries a strange expression on her face that suggests she might have just swallowed a frog. Capable actors, Vivek Oberoi and John Abraham are sadly curtailed by their cardboard characters. Ajay Devgan tries his level best to rise above the non-existent screenplay, but the daunting task of saving the film single-handedly proves too difficult even for him."


title: Kaal (2005 film)

text: The music is composed by Salim–Sulaiman and Anand Raj Anand. The lyrics are penned by Shabbir Ahmed, Anand Raj Anand and Kailash Kher. According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", with around 16,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's seventh highest-selling.


title: Rain shadow

text: A rain shadow is an area of significantly reduced rainfall behind a mountainous region, on the side facing away from prevailing winds, known as its leeward side.


title: Rain shadow

text: Evaporated moisture from water bodies (such as oceans and large lakes) is carried by the prevailing onshore breezes towards the drier and hotter inland areas. When encountering elevated landforms, the moist air is driven upslope towards the peak, where it expands, cools, and its moisture condenses and starts to precipitate. If the landforms are tall and wide enough, most of the humidity will be lost to precipitation over the windward side (also known as the "rainward" side) before ever making it past the top. As the air descends the leeward side of the landforms, it is compressed and heated, producing foehn winds that "absorb" moisture downslope and cast a broad "shadow" of dry climate region behind the mountain crests. This climate typically takes the form of shrub–steppe, xeric shrublands or even deserts.


title: Rain shadow

text: The condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range. As atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point (which is not the same as its constant pressure dew point commonly reported in weather forecasts). At the adiabatic dew point, moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top and windward sides of the mountain. The air descends on the leeward side, but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture. Typically, descending air also gets warmer because of adiabatic compression (as with foehn winds) down the leeward side of the mountain, which increases the amount of moisture that it can absorb and creates an arid region.


title: Rain shadow

text: There are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in bands round Earth's equatorial region. The zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30° N and 30° S, blowing predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, blowing predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. Some of the strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the Roaring Forties of the Southern Hemisphere, between 30 and 50 degrees latitude.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda is a suburban city in northeastern Orange County, California, United States, approximately southeast of Downtown Los Angeles. It is part of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, and had a population of 68,336 at the 2020 census.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda is known for its connection to Richard Nixon, the 37th president of the United States. His birthplace is a National Historic Landmark, and his presidential library and museum are also located in the city.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The name Yorba Linda is made up of two parts: Yorba, after Don Bernardo Yorba, a Californio ranchero who historically owned the area, and Linda, Spanish for beautiful. The name was created 1908 by the Janss Investment Company.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The area is the home of the Tongva, Luiseño, and Juaneño tribal nations, who were there "as early as 4,000 years ago." The Tongva defined their world as Tovaangar, a nation which "extended from Palos Verdes to San Bernardino, from Saddleback Mountain to the San Fernando Valley" and included the entire territory of present-day Yorba Linda. Spanish colonization between 1769 and 1840 brought "disease, invasive species, and livestock" into the area, which "upended the ecological balance of the region and forced the Tongva to resettle around three missions." The village of Hutuknga was located in the area of Yorba Linda.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 1810, the Spanish crown granted José Antonio Yorba 63,414 acres of land, which "spread across much of modern-day Orange County." In 1834, following Mexico's independence from Spain, Yorba's most successful son, Bernardo Yorba (after whom the city would later be named), was granted the Rancho Cañón de Santa Ana by Mexican governor José Figueroa. Most of this original land was retained after the Mexican–American War in 1848 by descendants of the Yorba family. A portion of the city's land is still owned and developed by descendants of Samuel Kraemer, who acquired it through his marriage to Angelina Yorba, the great-granddaughter of Bernardo Yorba. The site of the Bernardo Yorba Hacienda, referred to as the Don Bernardo Yorba Ranch House Site, is listed as a California Historical Landmark.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Near that same site sits the second oldest private cemetery in the county, the historic Yorba Cemetery. The land was given to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles by Bernardo Yorba in 1858 since Orange County was not established out of Los Angeles County as a separate county until 1889. The cemetery closed in 1939 and was subsequently vandalized; however, in the 1960s, the Orange County Board of Supervisors took possession of the property to repair the damage, and tours are now available one day per month.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: A section of the land was sold in 1907 by the Yorba family to Fullerton businessman Jacob Stern, who used the land for barley fields and sheep grazing. Stern subsequently sold the tract to the Janss Investment Company, which first called the area Yorba Linda, and proceeded to subdivide the land and sell it for agriculture and manufacturing. In 1910, the agricultural aspect of that endeavor materialized, and the first of many lemon and orange groves were planted: at the time, the population was still less than 50. A year later, The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company began serving Yorba Linda, and the first school was constructed.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 1912, several things happened in Yorba Linda: it received its first post office; the Yorba Linda Citrus Association was founded; the Southern California Edison Company began providing electricity; and the first church was constructed. The area that would later become downtown was also connected to Los Angeles by the Pacific Electric Railway in 1912, primarily for citrus transport.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 1913, Richard Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, the chamber of commerce was set up, a library opened as part of the school, and avocado trees were first planted. A year later, a separate district was established for the library system.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 1915, the Susanna Bixby Bryant Ranch house was constructed. It is a museum that is open to the public.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 1917, the first street was paved, Yorba Linda Boulevard. The "Yorba Linda Star" began publication also. It has since become an online section of the OC Register. A printed version of the Star is available at various city buildings free of charge and is delivered to every household in Yorba Linda each Thursday. Past articles are on microfilm at the Yorba Linda Public Library.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The population exceeded 300 for the first time prior to 1920. In 1929, the citrus association's packing house burned down, as it was made of wood. It reopened the next year. During this period, the eastern two-thirds of Yorba Linda (east of the Yorba Linda Country Club) remained part of cattle and agricultural ranches controlled by pioneer families such as the Yorba, de los Reyes, Kraemer, Travis, Dominguez, Friend, and Bryant ranches.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: From 1943 to 1958, "approximately seventy thousand braceros were transported to Orange County," used by employers to service citrus crops. Braceros lived in temporary housing projects referred to as "camps," which were policed by local deputies throughout the county. The townspeople of Yorba Linda "refused to allow the housing of braceros in their city, forcing the nearby town of Placentia to board them within the segregated Mexican "colonia"."


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The small town had grown significantly by the 1960s, with more than 1,000 residents by the 1960 Census. Three annexation attempts were made by adjoining cities: Brea in 1958 and Anaheim and Placentia in 1963. These experiences culminated in incorporation, which occurred in 1967.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The new city implemented a municipal general plan in 1972. By the 1980 Census, the population was nearing 30,000. Within ten years it exceeded 50,000.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 1990, the Birthplace of Richard Nixon opened as a public library and museum. It would later become a federal presidential library. In 1994, the community center opened.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: With over 20,000 housing units in the city as of 2016, many residents now oppose further urban development and have organized to reduce traffic congestion. The Yorba Linda Preservation Foundation seeks to protect historical buildings in the city.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 2005, CNN ranked Yorba Linda as the 21st best place in the U.S. to live. In 2012, Yorba Linda was ranked 42nd on "Money" magazine's list of America's best small cities. Similarly, in an article by CNN Money, Yorba Linda was one of the richest U.S. cities and the richest in Orange County as reported by the Census data, showing a median household income of more than $120K: "Among towns of between 65,000 and 250,000 in population, Yorba Linda, California, where six-figure incomes are the rule, had the highest median income at $121,075". Yorba Linda has been identified as one of the richest cities in the U.S. by the U.S. Census Bureau, which shows a median household income of $121,075, higher than any other city in 2006.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In November 2008, eastern Yorba Linda suffered from fires that destroyed 113 homes and damaged 50 others. The destruction was due largely to erratic winds causing embers to fly up to half a mile away.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: On February 3, 2019, at approximately 1:45 pm, a twin engine 1981 Cessna (N414RS) on route from Fullerton Municipal Airport to Nevada crashed from roughly 7500 ft into a single family residence in the 19700 block of Crestknoll Drive near Glenknoll Elementary School. The pilot (75-year-old Antonio Pastini) and four individuals in the residence were killed.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of which is land and (2.67%), water.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: It has two ZIP codes, 92886 and 92887, covering approximately the western and eastern portions of the city, respectively. A third, 92885, exists exclusively for PO Boxes. The city is served by area codes 657 and 714 in a geographical overlay situation, in which 714 numbers were running out, so that 657 numbers are now also being issued in the same area. Eleven-digit dialing is therefore now required for local calls.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: It is bordered by Anaheim on the south, Placentia on the west and southwest, Brea on the northwest, Chino Hills State Park on the north, and Corona on the east.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The two nearest seismic faults are the Whittier Fault and the Chino Fault, both of which are part of the Elsinore Fault Zone.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The city receives to of rain per year on average. The average temperatures in January and July are and , respectively, with the overall average for the year at . Humidity, likewise respectively, is 52%, 60%, and 56% on average. Yorba Linda is situated in a transition zone between a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa") and a hot semi-arid climate ("BSh").


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: As of the 2000 Census, there were 58,918 people, 19,252 households, and 16,094 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,042.3 inhabitants per square mile (1,174.4/km). There were 19,567 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 81.5% White, 1.2% African American, 0.4% Native American, 11.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.7% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.3% of the population.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: There were 19,252 households, out of which 44.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.3% were married couples living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.4% were non-families. 12.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.05 and the average family size was 3.35.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.3% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 27.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.1 males.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: According to a 2007 estimate, the median household income in the city was $109,681, and the median income for a family was $122,373. Males had a median income of $66,712 versus $41,820 for females. The per capita income for the city was $36,173. 0% of the population were below the poverty line.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The Census reported that 64,044 people (99.7% of the population) lived in households, 97 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 93 (0.1%) were institutionalized.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: There were 21,576 households, out of which 8,535 (39.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 15,102 (70.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,844 (8.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 758 (3.5%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 554 (2.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 101 (0.5%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,119 households (14.5%) were made up of individuals, and 1,515 (7.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97. There were 17,704 families (82.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.29.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The population was spread out, with 15,792 people (24.6%) under the age of 18, 5,574 people (8.7%) aged 18 to 24, 13,848 people (21.6%) aged 25 to 44, 21,414 people (33.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 7,606 people (11.8%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.2 males.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: There were 22,305 housing units at an average density of , of which 18,108 (83.9%) were owner-occupied, and 3,468 (16.1%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.0%. 54,464 people (84.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 9,580 people (14.9%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: During 2009–2013, Yorba Linda had a median household income of $112,259, with 3.1% of the population living below the federal poverty line.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda has several major highways and roads that are important through the city. Imperial Highway (SR 90), Bastanchury Road, Esparanza Road, La Palma Avenue, and Yorba Linda Boulevard are west–east streets. North–south streets include Rose Drive, Fairmont Boulevard, Lakeview Avenue, Gypsum Canyon Road, Kellogg Drive, Van Buren Street, Richfield Road, and Village Center Drive. SR 241 has its northern terminus at the southern tip of the city and SR 91 runs through the eastern tip of the city.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 2016, construction began on the Yorba Linda Town Center, a 125,000-square-foot shopping and dining center on the corner of Yorba Linda Boulevard and Imperial Highway, featuring Bristol Farms as an anchor tenant. The shopping center opened in April 2019.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: There are over 1,000 businesses in the city, not including an additional 1,500 home-based businesses. The city also owns Black Gold Golf Club. Non-profit charities based in Yorba Linda include International Student Volunteers and STEMpowerment Inc.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Originally, the city pursued construction of an auto mall on the entire Savi Ranch site. The original plan was rejected by residents in favor of a combination of retail stores, restaurants, hotels, and office buildings. As of 2018, one of the three original car lots has been converted into state-mandated low-income housing, one specializes in wheelchair accessible vehicles, and the remaining car dealer, specializes in high-end, exotic, and specialty used cars.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: As a significant source of sales tax revenue to Yorba Linda and as one of the first anchor tenants (along with Best Buy), The Home Depot became a political talking point in its own right, due to the geography that divides Savi Ranch into two sections, the larger east side falling within Yorba Linda's city limits, and the west side where Home Depot is situated falling within the adjacent City of Anaheim boundaries. At the inception of Savi Ranch, the Home Depot was located in Savi Ranch East. In the early 2000s, however, the Super Kmart location in Savi Ranch West ceased operations and The Home Depot moved into the location it previously occupied, taking the sales tax revenue with it to Anaheim.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Also located in the Yorba Linda side of Savi Ranch is the headquarters of John Force Racing, housing operations & hosting displays of legendary 16-time NHRA Funny Car Champion John Force, his team of drivers, and their cars. An on-site museum is dedicated to Force's career.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda was, at one point in time, California's most conservative large community, as measured by the proportion of conservative to liberal voters. Although Democrats have been making inroads in Orange County as a whole as well as the city itself, Yorba Linda is still one of the most consistently Republican cities in the county and state as a whole. Every GOP candidate for president since the city's incorporation in 1967 has received over 52% of the vote in the city. In 2016, the city gave Donald Trump 59 percent of the vote and a 24-point margin of victory, despite the fact that he became the first Republican presidential nominee to lose Orange County since Alf Landon in 1936. Yorba Linda was one of only five cities in Orange County to support Trump with a majority of its vote both in 2016 and 2020. However, in 2020 the Democratic nominee and eventual winner Joe Biden gained at least 40 percent of Yorba Linda's vote.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: As of February 2020, the California Secretary of State reported that Yorba Linda had 43,989 registered voters; of those, 10,413 (23.67%) are registered Democrats, 22,025 (50.07%) are registered Republicans, and 9,604 (21.83%) have stated no political party preference. The city voted for California Proposition 8 by 65.8% and for Proposition 4 by 59.3%, displaying a socially conservative bent. Yorba Linda was one of just three California cities to pass a measure in their city council proclaiming its support for the Arizona immigration law, SB1070.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The city council consists of five members that are elected by residents to four-year terms, with a three-term limit. The council elects its own mayor at the end of every year, whose duties are largely ceremonial because the city employs a council-manager form of government and the city manager runs day-to-day operations.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda has four commissions, which meet monthly or bimonthly, to advise the city council about their respective projects.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The library commission operates the Yorba Linda Public Library, which has existed in some form since 1913, and is composed of five residents whose duties include selecting new materials for the library to acquire and establishing guidelines and regulations, among other things.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The planning commission is in charge of matters pertaining to land use, zoning, annexation, right-of-ways, and construction of new buildings, among other things; however, its five members are appointed by the council.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The traffic commission seeks to address issues of safety, flow, public complaints, parking, and others. Members serve terms of two years.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The parks and recreation commission is composed of council-appointed members as well and is tasked with a variety of responsibilities for all of the city's facilities and trails.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Law enforcement is currently contracted out to the Orange County Sheriff's Department (California). OCSD maintains a sub-station at Arroyo Park, where Captain Cory Martino is Chief of Police Services.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: From 1971 to 2013, police services were provided by the Brea Police Department. Beginning in 1971, this marked the first time in the state's history that a municipality, as opposed to a county sheriff's department, provided police services to another municipality. Prior to this setup, but after the city's incorporation in 1967, Yorba Linda did contract with the Orange County Sheriff's Department, which was and still is typical for municipalities that are not large enough or simply choose not to maintain an in-house police department.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: In 2012, the Yorba Linda City Council met with citizens and police chiefs from the Anaheim and Brea police departments, along with Orange County Sheriff Sandra Hutchens, to vote on a new public safety contract. The meeting lasted 9 hours, finally ending at 3:00am on Wednesday April 25. The verdict, Yorba Linda would end its contract with the Brea Police Department after 42 years of service by the Brea Police Department. The city signed a 5-year contract with the Orange County Sheriff's Department becoming effective May 2013.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The Yorba Linda Water District, headquartered in Placentia, serves nearly all residents. Golden State Water, which also has a field office in Placentia, serves the remainder.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Natural gas is provided by Southern California Gas Company, and electricity is provided by Southern California Edison.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda has a history of equestrianism with 30 horse trails totaling over 100 miles. As of August 2013, there are plans to construct public stables.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda is part of the Placentia-Yorba Linda Unified School District, which enrolled approximately 25,000 students as of the 2015–2016 school year. A small portion of Yorba Linda, however, is directed to the Orange Unified School District.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: St. Francis of Assisi School serves as the only Catholic school in the city. Many parents seeking a private school education for their children send their PS-8th graders to Heritage Oak Private School and high schoolers to nearby Lutheran High School of Orange County in the city of Orange, Servite High School (Anaheim, California) (boys), Cornelia Connelly School of the Holy Child (Anaheim, California) (girls) or Rosary High School (Fullerton, California) (girls), Mater Dei High School (co-ed) in Santa Ana, or Santa Margarita Catholic High School (co-ed) in Rancho Santa Margarita.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Yorba Linda High School opened its doors in 2009. The first full graduating class from YLHS was the class of 2012. As of 2015, one private high school, Friends Christian High School, is currently under construction. Historically, a majority of Yorba Linda students also attend Esperanza in Anaheim, and Valencia, or El Dorado in Placentia, the other three high schools in the Placentia-Yorba Linda School District. Students can take an assessment to be placed into the magnet Troy High School in nearby Fullerton which is part of the Fullerton Joint Union High School District. Troy High is one of the best performing high schools in the nation by standardized test scores.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: Nearby community colleges within twenty miles from the city hall include Fullerton College, Santiago Canyon College, Irvine Valley College, Cypress College, and Santa Ana College. Nearby four-year public universities include California State University, Fullerton, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, and University of California, Irvine.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The Yorba Linda Spotlight Theater Company is a nonprofit theater organization for children and teenagers that provides education and performance opportunities. The theater produces full-scale musical productions as well as offering classes in the performing arts.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The Yorba Linda Public Library is located at 4852 Lakeview Ave, Yorba Linda, CA 92886. The former library was built in 1960 and then expanded in size in 1970. The library is two floors and features community rooms, study rooms, and a variety of special collections and multimedia services.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: This new library, which also includes a Cultural Arts Center opened three blocks from the former library in late 2020.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The Yorba Linda Public Library offers services and programs for all ages. For children, this includes family story time, infant story time, toddler story time, preschool story time, Bookbug Club (grades K-3), tween events (grades 4–8), and family events like Lego Mania. For teens and adults, the library offers a variety of book clubs, classes, and special events.


title: Yorba Linda, California

text: The library has several special collections. The music lending collection offers musical instruments, vinyl records, and record players for check out. The seed lending library is a collaborative seed saving collection. The Healthy U collection offers board games, puzzles, day pack hike kits, sewing machines, and story time kits for check out. The library also has a 3D printer.


title: Northern Trust

text: Northern Trust Corporation is a financial services company headquartered in Chicago that caters to corporations, institutional investors, and ultra high net worth individuals. Northern Trust is one of the largest banking institutions in the United States and one of the oldest banks in continuous operation. As of June 30, 2021, it had $1.5 trillion in assets under management and $15.7 trillion in assets under custody. Northern Trust Corporation is incorporated in Delaware.


title: Northern Trust

text: The company has offices in 20 US states and locations across 23 countries in Canada, Europe, the Middle East, and the Asia-Pacific region. It is ranked 486th on the Fortune 1000 as of February 2019.


title: Northern Trust

text: Asset Servicing is a global provider of custodian bank, fund administration, investment operations outsourcing, investment management, investment risk and analytical services, employee benefits services, securities lending, foreign exchange market, treasury management, brokerage firm services, transition management services, banking, and cash management services to corporate and public pension funds, foundations, financial endowments, fund managers, insurance companies, sovereign wealth funds, and other institutional investors. At the end of May 2020, Northern Trust Corporation entered into a strategic alliance with BlackRock. This alliance entails working with BlackRock on its platform called Aladdin with mutual clients.


title: Northern Trust

text: Over 20% of the wealthiest families in the United States are clients of the company's wealth management division. It provides personal trust, investment management, custodian bank, and philanthropic services, financial consulting, guardianship and estate administration, qualified retirement plans and private and business banking. Wealth Management focuses on high-net-worth individuals and families, business owners, executives, professionals, retirees, and established privately held businesses in its target markets with assets typically exceeding $75 million. Wealth Management services are delivered through a network of 85 offices in 18 U.S. states as well as offices in London, Guernsey, and Abu Dhabi.


title: Northern Trust

text: Northern Trust Asset Management provides investment management services. It offers both active management and passive management strategies for equity and fixed income investing, as well as alternative asset classes such as private equity and hedge funds and multi-manager products and services.


title: Northern Trust

text: Northern Trust was founded in 1889 by Byron Laflin Smith in a one-room office in the Rookery Building in The Loop, Chicago, with a focus on providing trust and banking services for the city's prosperous citizens. It opened on August 12, 1889 with 7 accounts and $137,981.25 in deposits. Smith provided 40% of the bank's original capitalization of $1 million, and the original 27 shareholders included such businessmen and civic leaders as Marshall Field, Martin A. Ryerson, and Philip D. Armour.


title: Northern Trust

text: The company's headquarters building at 50 South LaSalle Street in the Financial District of Chicago dates from 1905 and was designed by Frost and Granger. The structure opened with five stories, but is designed to accommodate additional floors. However, when the bank needed additional space in 1965, it opted to construct a new 14-story building in the international style to the west and selected Cesar Pelli as its architect.


title: Northern Trust

text: The company's conservative policies served it well during the 1920s and the company's assets actually grew during the Great Depression, while many other banks suffered from bank failure.


title: Northern Trust

text: By 1941, nearly half of all the bank's commercial accounts were drawn from outside the Chicago metropolitan area. During World War II, the company took part in the government's war bond drives and provided loans for manufacturing war materials under special government programs. The war created more opportunities for the bank; all sectors of its business expanded.


title: Northern Trust

text: During the 1950s, Northern Trust spent heavily to develop automated banking services, including the first fully automated financial statements for trust clients.


title: Northern Trust

text: In October 1963, Solomon A. Smith died. Solomon Byron Smith became chairman of the executive committee and his brother, Edward Byron Smith, became chairman.


title: Northern Trust

text: Edward Byron Smith retired as chief executive officer in 1979. He was succeeded by E. Norman "Bud" Staub. A few years later, Philip W. K. Sweet took over but he resigned in 1984.


title: Northern Trust

text: In 1984, Weston Christopherson, former CEO of Jewel, took the helm. He is credited with guiding the bank through a difficult period when sour loans to Latin American countries were hurting profits. When oil prices dropped suddenly in the early 1980s, many South American nations realized they could not repay their enormous bank loans. The bank suffered uncharacteristically high losses. Aggressive management, loan reserves, and write-offs enabled the bank to restore its asset quality. During Christopherson's six years at Northern Trust, profits rose from $34 million to $113 million. At the time of his retirement in 1990, the company was the 11th most profitable of the 100 largest banks in the United States.


title: Northern Trust

text: William A. Osborn was named president and chief operating officer in 1993 and became chairman and chief executive officer, in addition to president, in 1995.


title: Northern Trust

text: In July 2005, Northern Trust and Enron reached a $365 million settlement with 20,000 employees of Enron after the energy company's collapse (see Enron scandal). Northern Trust had managed the 401k plan for Enron's employeees, who alleged mismanagement and breach of fiduciary duty. The initial settlement was reduced a year later to $32.5 million in an agreement approved by Federal judge Melinda Harmon, with Northern Trust neither admitting nor denying wrongdoing.


title: Northern Trust

text: Osborn stepped down as president in 2006 and as CEO on January 1, 2008. Frederick H. "Rick" Waddell then became chairman and CEO.


title: Northern Trust

text: During his tenure, Waddell was able to guide the bank through the financial crisis. In 2009 Northern Trust was one of 3 banks able to gain large profits. Other than M&T Bank, Northern Trust was the only bank in the S&P 500 Index not to lower its dividend during the financial crisis of 2007–2008.


title: Northern Trust

text: In November 2008, the United States Department of the Treasury invested $1.5 billion in the company as part of the Troubled Asset Relief Program and in June 2009, the company repurchased the investment from the Treasury. The company had been criticized for heavy spending on parties during a 2009 golf tournament that it sponsored, after receiving government funds.


title: Northern Trust

text: The company strives to give approximately 1.5% of its pre-tax profits to charities every year. In the 10 years preceding 2014, the company gave over $120 million in support of non-profit organizations.


title: Northern Trust

text: The company currently sponsors The Northern Trust, a PGA TOUR event that is the first event in the FedEx Cup playoffs. From 2008 through 2017, Northern Trust sponsored the Northern Trust Open in Los Angeles, also a PGA TOUR event.


title: Northern Trust

text: On October 2, 2017, Northern Trust acquired UBS Asset Management's fund administration servicing units in Switzerland and Luxembourg.


title: Northern Trust

text: Effective January 1, 2018, Michael O'Grady became chief executive officer of the company. He also assumed the chairmanship on January 23, 2019.


title: Mesosphere

text: The mesosphere (; ) is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define its limits: it begins at the top of the stratosphere (sometimes called the stratopause), and ends at the mesopause, which is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures below . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season (higher in winter and at the tropics, lower in summer and at the poles), but the lower boundary is usually located at altitudes from above sea level, and the upper boundary (the mesopause) is usually from .


title: Mesosphere

text: The stratosphere and mesosphere are sometimes collectively referred to as the "middle atmosphere", which spans altitudes approximately between above Earth's surface. The mesopause, at an altitude of , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere—the second-outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere. This is the turbopause, below which different chemical species are well-mixed due to turbulent eddies. Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform because the scale heights of different chemical species differ according to their molecular masses.


title: Mesosphere

text: The term near space is also sometimes used to refer to altitudes within the mesosphere. This term does not have a technical definition, but typically refers to the region roughly between the Armstrong limit (about 62,000 ft or 19 km, above which humans require a pressure suit in order to survive) and the Kármán line (where astrodynamics must take over from aerodynamics in order to achieve flight); or, by another definition, to the space between the highest altitude commercial airliners fly at (about 40,000 ft (12.2 km)) and the lowest perigee of satellites being able to orbit the Earth (about 45 mi (73 km)). Some sources distinguish between the terms "near space" and "upper atmosphere", so that only the layers closest to the Kármán line are described as "near space".


title: Mesosphere

text: Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing height, due to decreasing absorption of solar radiation by the rarefied atmosphere and increasing cooling by CO radiative emission. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere. Temperatures in the upper mesosphere fall as low as about , varying according to latitude and season.


title: Mesosphere

text: The main most important features in this region are strong zonal (East-West) winds, atmospheric tides, internal atmospheric gravity waves (commonly called "gravity waves"), and planetary waves. Most of these tides and waves start in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, and propagate to the mesosphere. In the mesosphere, gravity-wave amplitudes can become so large that the waves become unstable and dissipate. This dissipation deposits momentum into the mesosphere and largely drives global circulation.