title: Death of Edgar Allan Poe

text: Griswold also claimed that Poe had asked him to be his literary executor. He had served as an agent for several American authors, but it is unclear whether Poe appointed him to be the executor or whether Griswold became executor through a trick or a mistake by Poe's aunt and mother-in-law, Maria. In 1850 he presented, in collaboration with James Russell Lowell and Nathaniel Parker Willis, a collection of Poe's work that included a biographical article titled "Memoir of the Author", in which Poe was depicted as a depraved, drunk, drug-addled madman. Many parts of it were believed to have been fabricated by Griswold, and it was denounced by those who had known Poe, including Sarah Helen Whitman, Charles Frederick Briggs, and George Rex Graham. This account became popularly accepted, in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted. It also remained popular because many readers assumed that Poe was similar to his fictional characters or were thrilled at the thought of reading the works of an "evil" man.


title: Death of Edgar Allan Poe

text: A more accurate biography of Poe did not appear until John Henry Ingram's of 1875. Even so, historians continued to use Griswold's depiction as a model for their own biographies of Poe, including W. H. Davenport in 1880, Thomas R. Slicer in 1909, and Augustus Hopkins Strong in 1916. Many used Poe as a cautionary tale against alcohol and drugs. In 1941, Arthur Hobson Quinn presented evidence that Griswold had forged and re-written a number of Poe's letters that were included in his "Memoir of the Author". By then, Griswold's depiction of Poe was entrenched in the mind of the public, both in America and around the world, and this distorted image of the author has become part of the Poe legend despite attempts to dispel it.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Denis Dmitriyevich Cheryshev (; born 26 December 1990) is a Russian professional footballer who plays as a left winger for club Venezia and the Russia national team.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: A youth product of Real Madrid, he made his debut for the reserves in 2009 and with the first team in 2012. He then had loan spells at Sevilla, Villarreal and Valencia before joining Villarreal permanently in 2016, and returned to Valencia on loan two years later. In June 2019, he signed permanently for the latter.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Having earned 45 caps and scored 23 goals in its youth categories, Cheryshev made his debut for Russia in 2012. He was a participant at the 2018 World Cup, scoring four goals as the team reached the quarter-finals, and Euro 2020.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Soviet Union, Cheryshev started his career at Sporting de Gijón, where his father Dmitri was playing at the time. He soon followed him to his next club, Burgos CF, entering locals CD Burgos Promesas 2000 at the age of 9.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: During his spell, Cheryshev was selected to play for the youth levels of the Castile and León regional team.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Cheryshev joined Real Madrid in 2002, and completed his formative years in their academy. Still a junior, he appeared in nine Segunda División games with Real Madrid Castilla during the 2008–09 season; it was also during this time he formed a long-lasting friendship with future Spanish national team player Nacho.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Over the next two years, Cheryshev played 61 matches and scored 11 goals for the reserve side. He was an important attacking unit as the latter campaign ended in promotion to Segunda División, after a five-year absence.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Cheryshev made his debut in division two on 17 August 2012, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–2 away loss against Villarreal CF. On 27 November, he played his official game with the first team, in a 3–0 home win (7–1 on aggregate) over CD Alcoyano in the round of 32 of the Copa del Rey.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: In September 2013, Cheryshev was loaned to fellow league club Sevilla FC for the remainder of the campaign with the possibility of a permanent deal. As a result of persistent injury concerns, he made only four league appearances and the Andalusians opted not to exercise the option, with the player joining Villarreal on loan for 2014–15 instead.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Cheryshev scored on his debut for Villarreal on 24 August 2014, netting the second goal in a 2–0 win at Levante UD. Having recovered from the injuries which plighted his time at his previous team, he thrived at El Madrigal and netted seven times from 40 appearances in all competitions.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Returned to the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Cheryshev made top flight debut for Real Madrid on 19 September 2015, playing 13 minutes in a 1–0 defeat of Granada CF. He scored his first competitive goal for them on 2 December, featuring 45 minutes in a 3–1 away victory over Cádiz CF in the Spanish Cup's round of 32. However, his appearance in the match drew controversy as he was ineligible for selection after having collected three yellow cards in the previous edition of the tournament, and resulted in Real Madrid being expelled from the tournament. President Florentino Pérez claimed that the Royal Spanish Football Federation had not informed the club that the player was suspended and challenged the action taken against the team, though he was unsuccessful.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: On 1 February 2016, Cheryshev was loaned to Valencia CF until June. He made his debut two days later, coming on as a second-half substitute in 7–0 away loss against FC Barcelona in the semi-finals of the domestic cup. He scored his first and only goal on 13 February, when he headed home in a 2–1 win over RCD Espanyol at the Mestalla Stadium.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: On 15 June 2016, Cheryshev returned to Villarreal on a permanent deal where he signed a contract until 2021. On 14 August 2018 he returned to Valencia on loan, scoring twice during the season to help to a fourth-place finish.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Cheryshev joined Valencia permanently on 29 June 2019, for a fee of €6 million. Three years later, following a spell marred by injury problems, he left after his contract expired.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: On 31 August 2022, Cheryshev signed a two-year deal with Venezia F.C. with the option for an additional season. He scored twice in his third Serie B appearance, a 4–1 away win against Cagliari Calcio on 1 October.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Prior to making his international debut with Russia, Cheryshev was also eligible to represent Spain as he held dual nationality. In a 2011 interview with "Marca" he indicated that he felt more Spanish than Russian, but accepted a call up to the Russian team in November 2012. He made his debut eight days later in a 2–2 friendly draw with the United States, the same opposition his father Dmitri had played against 20 years earlier.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Cheryshev played his first competitive game on 14 August 2013, when he came on as a half-time substitute in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Northern Ireland in Belfast; after just five minutes on the pitch, he had to be stretchered off in an eventual 1–0 loss. He was called up to a provisional 25-man squad for the finals on 16 May 2014, being the only player present not playing his club football in Russia. He was, however, left out of Fabio Capello's final list and also later missed the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament due to injury.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: After an absence of more than two years, Cheryshev appeared for the national team again on 27 March 2018 in a friendly with France. On 11 May, he was included in an extended squad for that year's World Cup, also being named as one of the final 23 players. He made his debut in the competition on 14 June, replacing the injured Alan Dzagoev midway through the first half of the group stage opener against Saudi Arabia in Moscow and scoring twice in a 5–0 win. He scored his third goal in the tournament against Egypt in a 3–1 victory, adding another in the quarter-finals when he curled a strike past Croatia's Danijel Subašić from just outside the 18-yard area to open the scoring, but in an eventual 4–3 penalty shoot-out loss.


title: Denis Cheryshev

text: Cheryshev made a preliminary 30-man squad for Euro 2020 in May 2021. On 2 June, he was included in the final squad. He came on for Daler Kuzyayev after the latter was stretchered off in the first group game against Belgium, spending 33 minutes on the field before being himself replaced in a 3–0 defeat; according to manager Stanislav Cherchesov, he was substituted because he "did not fit into the game". He did not take the field in the following two matches, with the country being eliminated in the group stage.


title: Farrier

text: A farrier is a specialist in equine hoof care, including the trimming and balancing of horses' hooves and the placing of shoes on their hooves, if necessary. A farrier combines some blacksmith's skills (fabricating, adapting, and adjusting metal shoes) with some veterinarian's skills (knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the lower limb) to care for horses' feet.


title: Farrier

text: While the practice of putting protective hoof coverings on horses dates back to the first century, evidence suggests that the practice of nailing iron shoes into a horse’s hoof is a much later invention. One of the first archaeological discoveries of an iron horseshoe was found in the tomb of Merovingian king Childeric I, who reigned from 458-481/82. The discovery was made by Adrien Quinquin in 1653, and the findings were written about by Jean-Jacques Chifflet in 1655. Chifflet wrote that the iron horseshoe was so rusted that it fell apart as he attempted to clean it. He did, however, make an illustration of the shoe and noted that it had four holes on each side for nails. Although this discovery places the existence of iron horseshoes during the later half of the 5th century, their further usage is not recorded until closer to the end of the millennia. Carolingian Capitularies, legal acts composed and published by Frankish kings until the 9th Century, display a high degree of attention to detail when it came to military matters, even going as far as to specify which weapons and equipment soldiers were to bring when called upon for war. With each Capitulary that calls for horsemen, no mention of horseshoes can be found. Excavations from Viking-age burials also demonstrate a lack of iron horseshoes, even though many of the stirrups and other horse tack survived. A burial dig in Slovenia discovered iron bits, stirrups, and saddle parts but no horseshoes. The first literary mention of nailed horseshoes is found within Ekkehard’s Waltharius, written c. 920 AD. The practice of shoeing horses in Europe likely originated in Western Europe, where they had more need due to the way the climate affected horses' hooves, before spreading eastward and northward by 1000 AD.


title: Farrier

text: The task of shoeing horses was originally performed by blacksmiths, owing to the origin of the word found within the Latin "ferrum". However, by the time of Edward III of England (r. 1327-1377) the position, among others, had become much more specialized. This was part of a larger trend in specialization and the division of labour in England at the time. In 1350, Edward released an ordinance concerning pay and wages within the city of London. In the ordinance it mentioned farriers and decreed that they were not to charge more for their services than "they were wont to take before the time of the pestilence." The pestilence mentioned was the Black Death, which places the existence of farriers as a trade independent of blacksmiths at the latest in 1346. In 1350, a statute from Edward designated the shoer of horses at court to be the ferrour des chivaux (literally Shoer of Horses), who would be sworn in before judges. The ferrour des chivaux would swear to do his craft properly and to limit himself solely to it. The increasing division of labour in England, especially in regards to the farriers, proved beneficial for Edward III during the first phase of the Hundred Years' War. The English army traveled into France with an immense baggage train that possessed its own forges in order for the Sergeants-Farrier and his assistants to shoe horses in the field. The increased specialization of the 14th Century allowed Edward to create a self-sufficient army, thus contributing to his military success in France.


title: Farrier

text: The word farrier can be traced back to the Middle English word ferrǒur, which referred to a blacksmith who also shoed horses. Ferrǒur can be traced back to the even earlier Old French ferreor, which in itself is based upon the Latin ferrum, meaning iron.


title: Farrier

text: A farrier's routine work is primarily hoof trimming and shoeing. In ordinary cases, trimming each hoof so it retains proper foot function is important. If the animal has a heavy work load, works on abrasive footing, needs additional traction, or has pathological changes in the hoof or conformational challenges, then shoes may be required. Additional tasks for the farrier include dealing with injured or diseased hooves and application of special shoes for racing, training, or "cosmetic" purposes. Horses with certain diseases or injuries may need remedial procedures for their hooves, or need special shoes.


title: Farrier

text: In countries such as the United Kingdom, people other than registered farriers cannot legally call themselves a farrier or carry out any farriery work (in the UK, this is under the Farriers (Registration) Act 1975). The primary aim of the act is to "prevent and avoid suffering by and cruelty to horses arising from the shoeing of horses by unskilled persons".


title: Farrier

text: However, in other countries, such as the United States, farriery is not regulated, no legal certification exists, and qualifications can vary. In the US, four organizations - the American Farrier's Association (AFA), the Guild of Professional Farriers (GPF), the Brotherhood of Working Farriers, and the Equine Lameness Prevention Organization (ELPO) - maintain voluntary certification programs for farriers. Of these, the AFA's program is the largest, with about 2800 certified farriers. Additionally, the AFA program has a reciprocity agreement with the Farrier Registration Council and the Worshipful Company of Farriers in the UK.


title: Farrier

text: Within the certification programs offered by the AFA, the GPF, and the ELPO, all farrier examinations are conducted by peer panels. The farrier examinations for these organizations are designed so that qualified farriers may obtain a formal credential indicating they meet a meaningful standard of professional competence as determined by technical knowledge and practical skills examinations, length of field experience, and other factors. Farriers who have received a certificate of completion for attending a farrier school or course may represent themselves as having completed a particular course of study. Sometimes, usually for purposes of brevity, they use the term "certified" in advertising.


title: Farrier

text: Where professional registration exists, on either a compulsory or voluntary basis, a requirement for continuing professional development activity often exists to maintain a particular license or certification. For instance, farriers voluntarily registered with the American Association of Professional Farriers require at least 16 hours of continuing education every year to maintain their accreditation.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (soundtrack)

text: Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Vol. 2 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the soundtrack album for the Marvel Studios film "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2". Featuring the songs present on Peter Quill's mixtape in the film, the album was released by Hollywood Records on April 21, 2017. A separate film score album, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (Original Score), composed by Tyler Bates, was also released by Hollywood Records on the same date. "Awesome Mix Vol. 2" was the United States' eighth best-selling album of 2017 with 600,000 copies.


text: By August 2014, "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" writer and director James Gunn had "some ideas listed, but nothing for sure" in terms of songs to include in Quill's "Awesome Mix Vol. 2" mixtape. In April 2015, Gunn said he felt "a little pressure for the soundtrack because so many people loved <nowiki>[</nowiki>the first film's soundtrack<nowiki>]</nowiki> and we went platinum and all that other stuff. But I feel like the soundtrack in the second one is better." In June 2015, Gunn stated that all of the songs for "Awesome Mix Vol. 2" had been chosen and built into the script. One of the most exciting things for Gunn in selecting the songs for the album "was knowing I would be making bands that may have been forgotten suddenly be a topic of conversation." Gunn had hoped to include "She's Gone" by Hall & Oates in the film, calling it "one of the greatest pop songs ever written", but could not find a place for it, as with "Teenage Lament '74" by Alice Cooper In January 2016, Gunn stated that he had chosen an additional David Bowie song to appear in the film (after "Moonage Daydream" was featured in the first film) but had cut the original scene it was featured in. The inclusion would have made Bowie the only artist to be featured on both mixtapes. With Bowie's death however, Gunn hoped to find a way to include the chosen song somewhere else in the film as a "fair and appropriate" way to honor him, as Bowie was one of Gunn's idols. Gunn called the "Awesome Mix Vol. 2" "more diverse" than the first one, with "some really incredibly famous songs and then some songs that people have never heard."


text: The film's trailers featured Sweet's "Fox on the Run", George Harrison's "My Sweet Lord", Fleetwood Mac's "The Chain", Jay and the Americans' "Come a Little Bit Closer", Bowie's "Suffragette City", and Parliament's "Flash Light", which Gunn noted were all being considered for inclusion on the "Awesome Mix Vol. 2". "Fox on the Run" and Cheap Trick's "Surrender" had been considered for inclusion in the first film on "Awesome Mix Vol. 1".


text: "Mr. Blue Sky" by Electric Light Orchestra (ELO) is included in the beginning of the film, which Gunn felt was "the perfect song to start the movie because it's really joyous, but there's a really dark underpinning to it," and felt it would go well with "the most hugely insane shot I've ever done". The sequence originally included the ELO song "Livin' Thing". Acquiring the rights to "Mr. Blue Sky" proved difficult for Gunn, noting Marvel "had to really fight to get the song, and I personally appealed to Jeff Lynne," which was made harder due to Lynne previously approving a song for the first film which ended up being cut. Gunn added that "The Chain" and "Brandy (You're a Fine Girl)" were the two songs that were "the most deeply embedded into the fibers of the film." Looking Glass lead guitarist and vocalist Elliot Lurie felt the inclusion of "Brandy (You're a Fine Girl)" in the film allowed for a deeper meaning to be explored from the song, noting "maybe, in retrospect, subconsciously [the song] was a metaphor. [The film] is certainly the use that has shined the brightest light on the song since it was originally a hit."


text: Skip Haynes, surviving member of Aliotta Haynes Jeremiah, "was so thrilled" that "Lake Shore Drive", a regional hit in the Midwest where Gunn grew up, was included and "rescued from historical oblivion", that he "recorded a new version incorporating the director's name into the chorus." "Guardians Inferno" is an original song for the film, co-written by Gunn and score composer Tyler Bates, "meant as a sort of "Guardians" take on Meco's disco "Star Wars" theme ["Star Wars Theme/Cantina Band"]." David Hasselhoff was chosen as the vocalist because he is one of Peter Quill's childhood heroes, and Gunn was a fan of Hasselhoff when he starred on "Knight Rider". Edgar Wright, director of "Baby Driver", consulted with Gunn before "Vol. 2" released, to ensure the two films would not feature the same songs on their soundtracks.


text: "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol.2: Awesome Mix Volume 2 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)" was released by Hollywood Records on April 21, 2017. It was released on cassette on June 23, 2017, and on vinyl LP on August 11, 2017. The vinyl version is a deluxe edition featuring Bates' original score from the film. Marvel and Doritos partnered for their Rock Out Loud campaign to create "a custom-designed, limited-edition series of Doritos bags featuring a built-in cassette tape deck-inspired player that plays" "Awesome Mix Vol. 2" and can be recharged. The custom bags were available to purchase on April 28, 2017, on Amazon.com. In addition, on May 5, 2017, Doritos hosted Rock Out Loud pop-up recording booths in New York and Los Angeles, where fans got the chance to sing one of the songs from "Awesome Mix Vol. 2" and "have the opportunity to win various prizes, including the custom cassette player replica Doritos bags, concert and other event tickets, and free bags of Doritos."


text: On August 6, 2017, Marvel released the music video of "Guardians Inferno" to promote the home media release of the film. The 1970s-style video was directed by David Yarovesky, and features Hasselhoff alongside James Gunn, Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, Pom Klementieff, Karen Gillan, Michael Rooker and Sean Gunn. Stan Lee and Guillermo Rodriguez also make cameo appearances on the video.


text: All songs—with the exception of "Fox on the Run", which is played in the trailer—are featured in the film. Also featured in the film was the song "Un Deye Gon Hayd (The Unloved Song)" by Jimmy Urine. It was written for the film and appears during the scene on Contraxia.


text: The album debuted at number eight on the "Billboard" 200 chart with 34,000 units in its first week, almost all of which came from traditional album sales. It later peaked at number four, reaching 87,000 units, again nearly all traditional album sales. "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Vol. 2" finished 2017 as the country's eighth highest-selling album with 600,000 copies, and has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was also the best-selling album on cassette tape in the United States in 2017, selling 19,000 copies.


text: Tyler Bates had returned to score the film by August 2015. As with "Guardians of the Galaxy", Bates wrote some of the score first so that Gunn could film to the music, as opposed to Bates scoring to the film. Recording for the score began in January 2017 at Abbey Road Studios. "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (Original Score)" was released by Hollywood Records on April 21, 2017, and on vinyl LP on August 11, 2017, as part of a deluxe edition that also includes "Awesome Mix Volume 2".


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: The 2018–19 La Liga season, also known as LaLiga Santander for sponsorship reasons, was the 88th since its establishment. The season began on 17 August 2018 and finished on 19 May 2019. Fixtures for the 2018–19 season were announced on 24 July 2018. This was the first La Liga season to use the VAR.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: Barcelona were the defending champions, and they secured a second consecutive title with three games to spare following victory over Levante on 27 April. Huesca, Rayo Vallecano and Valladolid joined as the promoted clubs from the 2017–18 Segunda División. They replaced Málaga, Las Palmas and Deportivo La Coruña, who were relegated to the 2018–19 Segunda División.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: This is the first season since 2008–09 that did not feature the league's all time second-highest top scorer Cristiano Ronaldo, who scored 311 goals in 292 La Liga matches.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: Several clubs made managerial changes before the start of the season. Among them were Real Madrid, when Zinedine Zidane resigned following the club's third consecutive UEFA Champions League victory. He was replaced by Julen Lopetegui, who was managing the Spanish national team at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia at the time of announcement and was dismissed from that job as a result. Other incomers included Pablo Machín at Sevilla, who was hired after his success with newly promoted Girona the previous season.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: In the transfer window, the biggest deal saw Real Madrid lose Cristiano Ronaldo to Juventus for a fee of €112 million; the Portuguese forward had scored 450 goals in 438 games during his nine years in the Spanish capital. Real Madrid's additions included Belgium international goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois for €35 million from Chelsea, and striker Mariano returned to the club from Lyon for €22 million. Defending champions Barcelona added Clément Lenglet to their defence, Arturo Vidal to midfield, and spent over €40 million on Brazilian forward Malcom. Players exiting Barcelona included Andrés Iniesta at the end of a successful 16-year-spell, as he signed for Vissel Kobe in Japan.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: Veterans Gabi and Fernando Torres also left Atlético Madrid for new teams in Asia, while the same club welcomed in the likes of World Cup-winning French midfielder Thomas Lemar and Portugal's Gelson Martins. After a successful previous season, in which the team finished fourth and returned to the Champions League, Valencia made permanent the loan signing of Portuguese winger Gonçalo Guedes from Paris Saint-Germain and Geoffrey Kondogbia from Inter Milan. Forward Simone Zaza and midfielder João Cancelo both left to Italy, while Kevin Gameiro arrived as replacement. Athletic Bilbao sold Kepa Arrizabalaga to Chelsea for €80 million, a world record fee for a goalkeeper.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: The tenth round of matches featured the first "El Clásico" of the season, which Barcelona won 5–1 at home against Real Madrid with a hat-trick by Luis Suárez. The result put Madrid into 9th place, and led to the dismissal of Lopetegui after only five months. Other early pace-setters included Sevilla with their prolific strike partnership of André Silva and Wissam Ben Yedder, Alavés who were briefly league leaders in mid-October, Espanyol, and Valladolid who had been taken over by former Brazil international Ronaldo.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: A total of 20 teams will contest the league, including 17 sides from the 2017–18 season and three promoted from the 2017–18 Segunda División. This will include the two top teams from the Segunda División, and the winners of the play-offs.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: The first team to be relegated from La Liga were Málaga. Their relegation was ensured on 19 April 2018, following a late 0−1 defeat to Levante, ending their 10-year spell in the top division.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: The second team to be relegated were Las Palmas, after a 0−4 home defeat to Deportivo Alavés on 22 April 2018, ending their three-year spell in the league.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: The last team to be relegated were Deportivo La Coruña, following a 2−4 home loss to Barcelona on 29 April 2018. This result ensured Deportivo's third relegation in seven years, and also handed Barcelona their 25th La Liga title.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: Rayo Vallecano was the second team to earn promotion to La Liga on 27 May 2018 by winning against Lugo as well, this time 1–0. Rayo returned after a two-year absence.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: Valladolid was the last team to be promoted after beating Sporting Gijón and Numancia in the play-offs. Valladolid returned to top division after 4 years.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: This was the first season since the 2014–15 season without any teams from the archipelagos of Spain (teams located on the Balearic Islands and Canary Islands) since Las Palmas was relegated and Tenerife failed to qualify for the promotion play-offs.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: On 16 August 2018, La Liga signed a 15-year agreement with Relevant Sports (owners of the International Champions Cup) to schedule one match per season within the United States. This would mark the first time ever that an official La Liga league match would be held there. The match between Girona and Barcelona, to be played on 27 January 2019, was selected to be played in Miami, but it required the approval of the Royal Spanish Football Federation. On 21 September 2018, the Spanish Football Federation denied approval of the match being held in Miami. On 26 October 2018, following a request for guidance from the Spanish Football Federation, US Soccer and CONCACAF, the FIFA Council discussed La Liga's proposal. At the end of the meeting, the FIFA Council stated that "Consistent with the opinion expressed by the Football Stakeholders Committee, the Council emphasised the sporting principle that official league matches must be played within the territory of the respective member association". On 13 December 2018, Barcelona left their disposition to play the match in Miami without effect.


title: 2018–19 La Liga

text: The Zamora Trophy is awarded by newspaper "Marca" to the goalkeeper with the lowest goals-to-games ratio. A goalkeeper has to have played at least 28 games of 60 or more minutes to be eligible for the trophy.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within is a 2004 action-adventure video game developed and published by Ubisoft for GameCube, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, and Xbox on December 2, 2004. A port for the PlayStation Portable, titled Prince of Persia: Revelations, was developed and released by Pipeworks Software on December 6, 2005. A mobile version of "Warrior Within" was published by Gameloft on June 3, 2010 for the iPhone; however, due to issues with the in-game menu, it was pulled from the App Store for two weeks, re-releasing on June 18, 2010.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The game is the fifth main installment in the "Prince of Persia" series, and the sequel to 2003's "". Set seven years after its predecessor, the story follows the Prince as he searches for a way to stop an entity called the Dahaka that is relentlessly pursuing him as punishment for his meddling with the Sands of Time. He travels to the mysterious Island of Time, where he attempts to prevent the Empress of Time from creating the Sands in the first place, hoping this act will appease the Dahaka.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Gameplay in "Warrior Within" builds upon that of "The Sands of Time", adding new features, specifically, options in combat. The Prince has the ability to wield two weapons at a time as well as the ability to steal his enemies' weapons and throw them. The Prince's repertoire of combat moves has been expanded into varying strings that allow players to attack enemies with more complexity than was possible in the previous game. "Warrior Within" has a darker tone than its predecessor adding in the ability for the Prince to dispatch his enemies with various gory finishing moves. In addition to the rewind, slow-down, and speed-up powers from "Sands of Time", the Prince also has a new sand power: a circular "wave" of sand that knocks down all surrounding enemies as well as damaging them.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Upon release, the game was generally well-received by critics, who singled out the improved combat, level design, story, and soundtrack. However, the radical shift in tone from its more light-hearted predecessor and the Prince's characterization garnered mixed reactions. Following "Warrior Within", two more games set in "The Sands of Time" continuity were released: "" on December 1, 2005, which is a direct sequel to "Warrior Within"; and "" on May 18, 2010, set between "The Sands of Time" and "Warrior Within".


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Much as its predecessor, "Warrior Within" is a 3D platformer centered on exploration and melee combat. The level design revolves around navigating treacherous environments with parkour and freerunning-styled moves. Unlike "Sands of Time", the game world is highly nonlinear; the player would often return to already visited locations several times from various directions, often traversing time portals to visit the same places in the present and the past in order to find ways around obstacles which would be impassable in either time alone. Secret areas can be found and explored to gain additional health points and unique weapons, which culminates in discovering a weapon capable of inflicting damage on the Dahaka, unlocking the game's canonical ending. In addition to normal platforming, the game also features episodes where the Prince is chased by the Dahaka and must quickly navigate trap-ridden hallways to reach safety. The game's atmosphere has a distinctive darker and grittier theme, in contrast to the colorful palette of the previous game.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The game's combat system preserves aspects of the prior game's dual wield melee combat, while introducing new ones. While "Sands of Time" designates a sword as the Prince's primary weapon and the Dagger of Time as his secondary weapon, "Warrior Within" makes the sword his mandatory primary weapon, while requiring him to obtain and find a secondary weapon from fallen enemies or weapon racks in order to use one. With this added feature, this new combat system emphasizes a free-flow fighting style. The idea is to use the environment, fifty eight secondary weapons and the Prince's own acrobatic abilities to dispatch enemies with ease and aggression, complete with graphic violence effects that can be toggled in the in-game options menu. Two-hand fighting introduces numerous additional acrobatic combos to dispatch enemies with greater efficiency and brutality. Off-hand weapons have varying bonuses and penalties applied to the player's damage and hit points; they can be thrown at enemies to allow a limited form of ranged combat. Most also have limited durability and break after a number of hits, or after they are thrown as projectiles. Aside from bosses, the enemies are sand creatures of varying sizes. Unlike the "Sands of Time", where rounds of heavy combat are interspersed with rounds of exploration, enemies can be encountered anywhere along the way, alone and in packs; some common enemies would respawn as the player revisits locations.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: As in "Sands of Time", the Prince possesses limited control of time with his Medallion of Time; the Sands can be used for more efficient combat as well as to slow down and even rewind time, allowing the Prince to retry ill-timed jumps or escape Dahaka's clutches.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Seven years after the events of "", following the reversal of his devastating release of the Sands in the palace of Azad, the Prince is hunted by a being called the Dahaka as the Prince was destined to die after releasing the Sands. Seeking advice from a wise man, the Prince learns the Sands were created on a distant island by the Empress of Time. Despite the wise man's warnings about changing fate, the Prince resolves to travel to the island and prevent the Sands' creation. The Prince's ship is attacked by Shahdee, servant of the Empress, but he survives and washes up on the island. He chases Shahdee into the ruins and follows her through a time portal into the past, killing her in combat after finding her apparently attacking another woman Kaileena. Despite believing the Prince's efforts are futile, Kaileena helps him gain access to the Empress's throne room. During his efforts he is stalked by a being called the Sand Wraith, which is captured and killed by the Dahaka. Before confronting the Empress, the Prince offers to take Kaileena to Babylon, but she reluctantly refuses.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: In the throne room, Kaileena reveals herself as the Empress, attacking the Prince in an attempt to change her fate of death at his hands. The Prince fights and kills her, but the Dahaka still pursues him; it was the Empress's death that created the Sands of Time. Briefly losing hope, the Prince finds a carving from the army which first recovered the Sands, detailing an artefact called the Mask of the Wraith that allows the wearer to change their fate. He plans to use a time portal to bring Kaileena into the present, allowing the Sands to be created while negating their discovery and transportation to Azad, freeing him from the Dahaka. The Mask transforms the Prince into the same Sand Wraith which stalked him before, and he sees Kaileena's efforts to change her fate despite Shahdee's pessimism, and that she was fighting with a rebellious Shahdee when the Prince appeared. As the Sand Wraith, the Prince succeeds in getting his other self taken by the Dahaka instead, taking his place in the timeline and freeing him of the Mask. The Prince continues to the throne room and, despite his pleas to Kaileena that they can change fate, she attacks him as before.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The ending changes depending on whether the Prince acquired a special weapon called the Water Sword. Without the Water Sword, the Prince kills Kaileena in the present as planned and the Dahaka absorbs her and all remnants of the Sands' power before vanishing. With the Water Sword, the Prince defends Kaileena from the Dahaka's attack and uses the Water Sword to kill it; the two build a boat and leave the island, sleeping together during the voyage. In both endings, Babylon is shown in flames and under attack from an invading army.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Pre-production on "Warrior Within" began within Ubisoft Montreal during the final stages of production on "The Sands of Time" in 2003. Due to commitments writing the script for a , series creator Jordan Mechner was not involved in the production of "Warrior Within". During early brainstorming sessions, the team decided to create a darker follow-up to "The Sands of Time" building on the existing gameplay. Production lasted roughly one year, with sixty new staff being brought on board to help production and using feedback from "The Sands of Time" for their work. Lead producer Bertrand Hélias described the production as having multiple highs and lows. The game used Jade, the same engine as "The Sands of Time". The team were told by a Sony representative that they had hit the technical limits of the PlayStation 2, but the team found ways of adjusting the engine and getting more performance and larger environments. They also aimed for a similar push in graphical quality for the Xbox platform. The game was set to run at 30 frames per second, allowing more computing power to make other areas of the world work.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Senior producer Yannis Mallat found "The Sands of Time" short, so the sequel would be three times longer, while being more fleshed out regarding level design and combat. For considering the powers of the "Sands of Time" were not so essential to the gameplay of the first game and thus were hardly used by players, the gameplay of "Warrior Within" would integrate them further with moments that required "specific actions to be done". The world would be more open-ended to give a higher degree of freedom, and the different time periods would allow for level design changes. The team also incorporated some concepts and enemies that had to be cut from the previous game. The Prince's ability to slide down drapes using his swords was taken from a suggestion from a fans in the Ubisoft forums. The free-form combat system, which allowed for both weapon switching and using the environment during combat, was born from the Prince's new persona as a hardened and skilled fighter. An early plan was for the Prince to not have a main weapon, with an option to fight bare handed, but this was dropped. The attack animations also drew inspiration from the fight scenes of Jackie Chan. Time-based powers were retained due to their central place in "The Sands of Time", adding in further gameplay elements related to the Sands. Considering complaints on the final boss of "The Sands of Time", focus would be given on finishing with a proper climactic battle. The team also included more actual boss fights, again due to feedback. The expanded gameplay capacities of the Prince necessitated a redesign of the enemy AI and environments to both accommodate it and continue presenting a challenge to players.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: One of the notable changed compared to "The Sands of Time" was the visual design and presentation of the Prince. Mallat was approached by the pre-production team, who wanted to go in a darker direction than "The Sands of Time". Mallat felt the Prince in "The Sands of Time" was lacking something despite being a good character, and the darker direction both appealed to his wish to evolve the series and was given the go-ahead by Ubisoft's marketing team. The plot was eventually chosen to be "not just saving the world or saving a damsel, it's the story of the Prince of Persia and who, really, is this guy." The final narrative and aesthetic tone was described as being closer to survival horror, with the Prince becoming a more mature and potentially relatable character compared to his portrayal in "The Sands of Time". Some of the story was communicated outside cutscenes, with the team aiming for a more interactive story experience. Hugues Martel, lead animator for "The Triplets of Belleville", acted as an advisor and concept artist for the cutscenes and storyboards, working together with art director Raphaël Lacoste.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The script was written by Corey May and Dooma Wendschuh of Sekretagent Productions. They were brought on board when they approached Ubisoft about adapting one of their other video game series for television, working with the production team to incorporate the narrative into the gameplay. Hiring professional scriptwriters was part of the team's effort to make the Prince and the overall narrative feel more realistic. They described the story's theme as showing that anything could be possible when enough effort was given, shown through the Prince attempting to achieve the impossible and change his fate. The story was meant to be relatable to players, with the Prince being shown as frightened and desperate due to the Dahaka's pursuit. The female characters were written to initially appear as stereotypes, such as Kaileena being a damsel-in-distress, then subvert player expectations later in the story. Developing enemy personalities was the motivation behind including dialogue between the Prince and his enemies. The original game's style of narration by a character was dropped for "Warrior Within", with Mallat later feeling "something was lost" from the presentation because of this.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The voice of the Prince was recast from "The Sands of Time", with Robin Atkin Downes replacing Yuri Lowenthal. In a later interview, Lowenthal felt that this was a conscious decision by Ubisoft to fit in with the game's overall tonal shift, and thought it was the right decision. Lead sound designer Jonathan Pilon explained the change as necessary due to the Prince's more hardened and world-worn portrayal, in addition to the new voice better fitting his redesigned appearance. Kaileena is voiced by Italian actress Monica Bellucci. She accepted the role based on interest in the story, and her liking of Kaileena's character due to her personality and her position as someone who knows their fate. The role was a "new experience" due to using only her voice to give personality to an otherwise animated character. As with her other roles, she had a voice coach to prepare herself for the character.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The art direction was "darker and more oppressive", was influenced by the storyline, using a "monochromatic" palate to create a consistent design throughout the game's areas and communicate the narrative and gameplay. Each time period would express opposite feelings through different palettes and elements, with the present using desaturated colors and buildings overtaken by vegetation, while the past has brighter colors and a "luxurious, and still somehow intimidating" look. Persia still served as the main visual influence, only this time focusing on more ancient Near East locations like Babylon and its Hanging Gardens. The art was created using computers, with an incremental process of beginning with broad strokes to establish mood and then adding finer detail. The overall artistic and character design also drew inspiration from the movie adaptations of "The Lord of the Rings".


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The Prince was redesigned, with the two artists most involved being Mikael Labat and Nicolas Bouvier. During the early stages, some hybrid designs with his appearance in "The Sands of Time" were created, but it was soon decided that the team was not being radical enough with the redesign. His "charisma" needed to be new, yet consistent with the events of "The Sands of Time". His new armor reflected this change: it is made up of interlaced leather straps, granting him protection while giving him freedom to perform his acrobatic movements. The new character design had more variety in the enemy types. The graphic design was improved over the first game, with additional detail to character models and environments, and improvements to the lighting engine. The aim was to create as realistic a render as possible of the team's artwork, whether it was realistic or fantastical. The CGI cutscene animations were based on live action shots created during pre-production with members of Two Worlds Theatre. The team worked with minimal props and outfits, filming fifteen minutes of footage over two days. Those early movies continued to be a reference for the team when creating character movements. The panning camera shots showing large environments and interactive elements drew direct inspiration from Chan's work.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Pilon had worked on the previous game's sound design, and with the rest of the sound team wanted to create a darker atmosphere both in the music and overall sound design. While some sounds for the Prince's movement were reused from "The Sands of Time", most of the sound design for the environment and enemies was new. The goal was to have players feel like they were cutting down real enemies, with the sound design aiming for a visceral style. There was an increased range of sounds for enemies, including some garbled voice lines. They used the same sound output support used in "The Sands of Time"; Dolby Pro Logic for PS2 and GameCube, Dolby Digital for Xbox, and both Dolby Digital and EAX for PC.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Stuart Chatwood, composer of "The Sands of Time" and member of Canadian rock band The Tea Party, returned for "Warrior Within". Chatwood worked on the in-game music. He was involved from an early stage, with Ubisoft providing concept art and gameplay videos so he could create music inspired by them. Matching the tonal shift of "Warrior Within", the music was taken in a darker direction, with Ubisoft wanting a "heavy sounding score". To achieve this, the in-game music made use of heavy metal music. While these were used for action and fight sequences, more ambient themes were used for exploration. The Arabic elements from the previous game were retained, but made "subtle" and less prominent. Also joining the project was Inon Zur, a multimedia composer known for his orchestral style. He later described his work as focusing on cutscenes and "big battles". Ubisoft wanted orchestral music during the cutscenes to contrast against the in-game music, leading them to bringing Zur on board. Zur's music was performed by the Hollywood Studio Orchestra and recorded at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Alongside original music, the tracks "I Stand Alone" and "Straight Out of Line" were licensed from rock band Godsmack. Use of these songs were mostly limited to encounters with the Dahaka. In retrospect, staff members noted a mixed reaction from fans to the musical change. An English soundtrack release was impossible due to technical issues with the music contract. A soundtrack album was released in Japan by Team Entertainment on October 19, 2005. Music from "Warrior Within" was included in a soundtrack album as a pre-order bonus for the PS2 and Xbox versions of "The Two Thrones". Music from "Warrior Within" was later included in digital compilation album released on January 3, 2011.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: According to Ubisoft, "Prince of Persia: Warrior Within" sold 1.9 million units worldwide in its debut month. "Warrior Within"s PlayStation 2 version received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Critical reviews of "Warrior Within" ranged from positive to mixed. The GameCube, PC, PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions received "favorable" reviews, while the iOS and PSP versions received "mixed or average reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Elsewhere, the mobile phone version received "universal acclaim" according to GameRankings. Reviewers praised the inclusion and familiar platforming elements of the previous game with mixed feelings of the new combat elements. "Warrior Within" also contained more content than "The Sands of Time", taking anywhere from 15–20 hours to complete.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Jordan Mechner, who was the creator of the original "Prince of Persia" and worked on "The Sands of Time" but not "Warrior Within", however, commented in "Wired" that "I'm not a fan of the artistic direction, or the violence that earned it an M rating. The story, character, dialog, voice acting, and visual style were not to my taste."


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Eurogamer complained that the game lost much of its charm by making the game's visuals grimier, the story less involving and mature compared to "Sands of Time", and the addition of blood and scantily-clad female characters was in poor taste. "Penny Arcade" parodied the Prince in comic form, claiming the once witty, likeable Prince character, turned into a more aggressive Gothic character, making him a "cookie cutter brooding tough guy with zero personality." GameSpot, who in their year-end awards griped on the tonal shift saying that "the series had to lose a measure of its soul for us to enjoy more of that fantastic gameplay", also criticized the game for having uneven difficulty progression and numerous glitches and bugs.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: IGN gave the Mobile version 9.6 out of 10, calling it "Gameloft's triumph" and "likely the best game of the year." GameSpot gave the same version 9.2 out of 10, calling it "a dominant game on its own merits, but it's identical to the first game in one respect: Anyone who is remotely interested in playing an action game on their handset should download it." In Japan, "Famitsu" gave the PS2 version a score of one nine, two eights, and one nine for a total of 34 out of 40.


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: Non video-game publications also gave the game some favorable reviews. "Detroit Free Press" gave the Xbox version all four stars and stated: "The prince has gone from an "Aladdin"-style teenager to a grim, angry young adult. He's even more beautifully drawn than before, and this year's installment adds a much better combat system." "The Sydney Morning Herald" gave the game four stars out of five, saying, "Exploring the labyrinthine citadel is rewarding, although backtracking and frequent deaths can be frustrating." However, "The New York Times" panned the game by giving it an unfavorable review and stating that, "The tone of the game has gone from an Arabian Nights fantasy to something akin to a Marilyn Manson music video. In dark and grimy settings, the once gallant prince curses and jeers as he swings his sword at demons whose decapitations are lovingly shown in slow motion to a soundtrack of screeching guitars."


title: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within

text: The editors of "Computer Gaming World" nominated "Warrior Within" for their 2004 "Action Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to "".


title: Universal grammar

text: Universal grammar (UG), in modern linguistics, is the theory of the genetic component of the language faculty, usually credited to Noam Chomsky. The basic postulate of UG is that there are innate constraints on what the grammar of a possible human language could be. When linguistic stimuli are received in the course of language acquisition, children then adopt specific syntactic rules that conform to UG. The advocates of this theory emphasize and partially rely on the poverty of the stimulus (POS) argument and the existence of some universal properties of natural human languages. However, the latter has not been firmly established, as some linguists have argued languages are so diverse that such universality is rare. It is a matter of empirical investigation to determine precisely what properties are universal and what linguistic capacities are innate.


title: Universal grammar

text: The theory of universal grammar proposes that if human beings are brought up under normal conditions (not those of extreme sensory deprivation), then they will always develop language with certain properties (e.g., distinguishing nouns from verbs, or distinguishing function words from content words). The theory proposes that there is an innate, genetically determined language faculty that knows these rules, making it possible for children to learn to speak. This faculty does not know the vocabulary of any particular language (so words and their meanings must be learned), and there remain several parameters which can vary freely among languages (such as whether adjectives come before or after nouns) which must also be learned. Evidence in favor of this idea can be found in studies like Valian (1986), which show that children of surprisingly young ages understand syntactic categories and their distribution before this knowledge shows up in production.


title: Universal grammar

text: As Chomsky puts it, "Evidently, development of language in the individual must involve three factors: genetic endowment, which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language acquisition possible; external data, converted to the experience that selects one or another language within a narrow range; [and] principles not specific to the Faculty of Language."


title: Universal grammar

text: Occasionally, aspects of universal grammar seem describable in terms of general details regarding cognition. For example, if a predisposition to categorize events and objects as different classes of things is part of human cognition, and directly results in nouns and verbs showing up in all languages, it could be assumed that rather than this aspect of universal grammar being specific to language, it is more generally a part of human cognition. To distinguish properties of languages that can be traced to other facts regarding cognition from properties of languages that cannot, the abbreviation UG* can be used. UG is the term often used by Chomsky for those aspects of the human brain which cause language to be the way that it is (i.e. are universal grammar in the sense used here), but here for the purposes of discussion, it is used for those aspects which are furthermore specific to language (thus UG, as Chomsky uses it, is just an abbreviation for universal grammar, but UG* as used here is a subset of universal grammar).


title: Universal grammar

text: In the same article, Chomsky casts the theme of a larger research program in terms of the following question: "How little can be attributed to UG while still accounting for the variety of 'I-languages' attained, relying on third factor principles?" (I-languages meaning internal languages, the brain states that correspond to knowing how to speak and understand a particular language, and third factor principles meaning "principles not specific to the Faculty of Language" in the previous quote). Chomsky has speculated that UG might be extremely simple and abstract, for example only a mechanism for combining symbols in a particular way, which he calls "merge". The following quote shows that Chomsky does not use the term "UG" in the narrow sense UG* suggested above:


title: Universal grammar

text: "The conclusion that merge falls within UG holds whether such recursive generation is unique to FL (faculty of language) or is appropriated from other systems."


title: Universal grammar

text: In other words, merge is seen as part of UG because it causes language to be the way it is, universal, and is not part of the environment or general properties independent of genetics and environment. Merge is part of universal grammar whether it is specific to language, or whether, as Chomsky suggests, it is also used for example in mathematical thinking. The distinction is the result of the long history of argument about UG*: whereas some people working on language agree that there is universal grammar, many people assume that Chomsky means UG* when he writes UG (and in some cases he might actually mean UG* [though not in the passage quoted above]).


title: Universal grammar

text: Some students of universal grammar study a variety of grammars to extract generalizations called linguistic universals, often in the form of "If X holds true, then Y occurs." These have been extended to a variety of traits, such as the phonemes found in languages, the word orders which different languages choose, and the reasons why children exhibit certain linguistic behaviors. Other linguists who have influenced this theory include Richard Montague, who developed his version of this theory as he considered issues of the argument from poverty of the stimulus to arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The application of the idea of universal grammar to the study of second language acquisition (SLA) is represented mainly in the work of McGill linguist Lydia White.


title: Universal grammar

text: Syntacticians generally hold that there are parametric points of variation between languages, although heated debate occurs over whether UG constraints are essentially universal due to being "hard-wired" (Chomsky's principles and parameters approach), a logical consequence of a specific syntactic architecture (the generalized phrase structure approach) or the result of functional constraints on communication (the functionalist approach).


title: Universal grammar

text: In an article entitled "The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?" Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch present the three leading hypotheses for how language evolved and brought humans to the point where they have a universal grammar.


title: Universal grammar

text: The first hypothesis states that the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLb) is strictly homologous to animal communication. This means that homologous aspects of the faculty of language exist in non-human animals.


title: Universal grammar

text: The second hypothesis states that the FLb is a derived and uniquely human adaptation for language. This hypothesis holds that individual traits were subject to natural selection and came to be specialized for humans.


title: Universal grammar

text: The third hypothesis states that only the faculty of language in the narrow sense (FLn) is unique to humans. It holds that while mechanisms of the FLb are present in both human and non-human animals, the computational mechanism of recursion is recently evolved solely in humans. This is the hypothesis which most closely aligns to the typical theory of universal grammar championed by Chomsky.


title: Universal grammar

text: The term "universal grammar" predates Noam Chomsky, but pre-Chomskyan ideas of universal grammar are different. For Chomsky, UG is "[the] theory of the genetically based language faculty", which makes UG a theory of language acquisition, and part of the innateness hypothesis. Earlier grammarians and philosophers thought about universal grammar in the sense of a universally shared property or grammar of all languages. The closest analog to their understanding of universal grammar in the late 20th century are Greenberg's linguistic universals.


title: Universal grammar

text: The idea of a universal grammar can be traced back to Roger Bacon's observations in his "Overview of Grammar" and "Greek Grammar" that all languages are built upon a common grammar, even though it may undergo incidental variations; and the 13th century speculative grammarians who, following Bacon, postulated universal rules underlying all grammars. The concept of a universal grammar or language was at the core of the 17th century projects for philosophical languages. An influential work in that time was Grammaire générale by Claude Lancelot and Antoine Arnauld. They tried to describe a general grammar for languages, coming to the conclusion that grammar has to be universal. There is a Scottish school of universal grammarians from the 18th century, as distinguished from the philosophical language project, which included authors such as James Beattie, Hugh Blair, James Burnett, James Harris, and Adam Smith. The article on grammar in the first edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (1771) contains an extensive section titled "Of Universal Grammar".


title: Universal grammar

text: This tradition was continued in the late 19th century by Wilhelm Wundt and in the early 20th century by linguist Otto Jespersen. Jespersen disagreed with early grammarians on their formulation of "universal grammar", arguing that they tried to derive too much from Latin, and that a UG based on Latin was bound to fail considering the breadth of worldwide linguistic variation. He does not fully dispense with the idea of a "universal grammar", but reduces it to universal syntactic categories or super-categories, such as number, tenses, etc. Jespersen does not discuss whether these properties come from facts about general human cognition or from a language specific endowment (which would be closer to the Chomskyan formulation). As this work predates molecular genetics, he does not discuss the notion of a genetically conditioned universal grammar.


title: Universal grammar

text: During the rise of behaviorism, the idea of a universal grammar (in either sense) was discarded. In the early 20th century, language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that language acquisition, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of trials, errors, and rewards for success. In other words, children learned their mother tongue by simple imitation, through listening and repeating what adults said. For example, when a child says "milk" and the mother will smile and give her child milk as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, thus enhancing the child's language development. UG reemerged to prominence and influence in modern linguistics with the theories of Chomsky and Montague in the 1950s–1970s, as part of the "linguistics wars".


title: Universal grammar

text: In 2016 Chomsky and Berwick co-wrote their book titled "Why Only Us," where they defined both the minimalist program and the strong minimalist thesis and its implications to update their approach to UG theory. According to Berwick and Chomsky, the strong minimalist thesis states that "The optimal situation would be that UG reduces to the simplest computational principles which operate in accord with conditions of computational efficiency. This conjecture is ... called the Strong Minimalist Thesis (SMT)." The significance of SMT is to significantly shift the previous emphasis on universal grammars to the concept which Chomsky and Berwick now call "merge". "Merge" is defined in their 2016 book when they state "Every computational system has embedded within it somewhere an operation that applies to two objects X and Y already formed, and constructs from them a new object Z. Call this operation Merge." SMT dictates that "Merge will be as simple as possible: it will not modify X or Y or impose any arrangement on them; in particular, it will leave them unordered, an important fact... Merge is therefore just set formation: Merge of X and Y yields the set {X, Y}."


title: Universal grammar

text: Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a limited set of constraints for organizing language. This implies in turn that all languages have a common structural basis: the set of rules known as "universal grammar".


title: Universal grammar

text: Speakers proficient in a language know which expressions are acceptable in their language and which are unacceptable. The key puzzle is how speakers come to know these restrictions of their language, since expressions that violate those restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. Chomsky argued that this poverty of stimulus means that Skinner's behaviourist perspective cannot explain language acquisition. The absence of negative evidence—evidence that an expression is part of a class of ungrammatical sentences in a given language—is the core of his argument. For example, in English, an interrogative pronoun like "what" cannot be related to a predicate within a relative clause:


title: Universal grammar

text: Such expressions are not available to language learners: they are, by hypothesis, ungrammatical. Speakers of the local language do not use them, and would note them as unacceptable to language learners. Universal grammar offers an explanation for the presence of the poverty of the stimulus, by making certain restrictions into universal characteristics of human languages. Language learners are consequently never tempted to generalize in an illicit fashion.


title: Universal grammar

text: The presence of creole languages is sometimes cited as further support for this theory, especially by Bickerton's controversial language bioprogram theory. Creoles are languages that develop and form when disparate societies come together and are forced to devise a new system of communication. The system used by the original speakers is typically an inconsistent mix of vocabulary items, known as a pidgin. As these speakers' children begin to acquire their first language, they use the pidgin input to effectively create their own original language, known as a creole. Unlike pidgins, creoles have native speakers (those with acquisition from early childhood) and make use of a full, systematic grammar.


title: Universal grammar

text: According to Bickerton, the idea of universal grammar is supported by creole languages because certain features are shared by virtually all in the category. For example, their default point of reference in time (expressed by bare verb stems) is not the present moment, but the past. Using pre-verbal auxiliaries, they uniformly express tense, aspect, and mood. Negative concord occurs, but it affects the verbal subject (as opposed to the object, as it does in languages like Spanish). Another similarity among creoles can be seen in the fact that questions are created simply by changing the intonation of a declarative sentence, not its word order or content.


title: Universal grammar

text: However, extensive work by Carla Hudson-Kam and Elissa Newport suggests that creole languages may not support a universal grammar at all. In a series of experiments, Hudson-Kam and Newport looked at how children and adults learn artificial grammars. They found that children tend to ignore minor variations in the input when those variations are infrequent, and reproduce only the most frequent forms. In doing so, they tend to standardize the language that they hear around them. Hudson-Kam and Newport hypothesize that in a pidgin-development situation (and in the real-life situation of a deaf child whose parents are or were disfluent signers), children systematize the language they hear, based on the probability and frequency of forms, and not that which has been suggested on the basis of a universal grammar. Further, it seems to follow that creoles would share features with the languages from which they are derived, and thus look similar in terms of grammar.


title: Universal grammar

text: Many researchers of universal grammar argue against a concept of relexification, which says that a language replaces its lexicon almost entirely with that of another. This goes against universalist ideas of a universal grammar, which has an innate grammar.


title: Universal grammar

text: Geoffrey Sampson maintains that universal grammar theories are not falsifiable and are therefore pseudoscientific. He argues that the grammatical "rules" linguists posit are simply post-hoc observations about existing languages, rather than predictions about what is possible in a language. Similarly, Jeffrey Elman argues that the unlearnability of languages assumed by universal grammar is based on a too-strict, "worst-case" model of grammar, that is not in keeping with any actual grammar. In keeping with these points, James Hurford argues that the postulate of a language acquisition device (LAD) essentially amounts to the trivial claim that languages are learnt by humans, and thus, that the LAD is less a theory than an explanandum looking for theories.


title: Universal grammar

text: Morten H. Christiansen and Nick Chater have argued that the relatively fast-changing nature of language would prevent the slower-changing genetic structures from ever catching up, undermining the possibility of a genetically hard-wired universal grammar. Instead of an innate universal grammar, they claim, "apparently arbitrary aspects of linguistic structure may result from general learning and processing biases deriving from the structure of thought processes, perceptuo-motor factors, cognitive limitations, and pragmatics".


title: Universal grammar

text: In addition, it has been suggested that people learn about probabilistic patterns of word distributions in their language, rather than hard and fast rules (see Distributional hypothesis). For example, children overgeneralize the past tense marker "ed" and conjugate irregular verbs as if they were regular, producing forms like "goed" and "eated" and correct these deviancies over time. It has also been proposed that the poverty of the stimulus problem can be largely avoided, if it is assumed that children employ "similarity-based generalization" strategies in language learning, generalizing about the usage of new words from similar words that they already know how to use.


title: Universal grammar

text: Language acquisition researcher Michael Ramscar has suggested that when children erroneously expect an ungrammatical form that then never occurs, the repeated failure of expectation serves as a form of implicit negative feedback that allows them to correct their errors over time such as how children correct grammar generalizations like "goed" to "went" through repetitive failure. This implies that word learning is a probabilistic, error-driven process, rather than a process of fast mapping, as many nativists assume.


title: Universal grammar

text: In the domain of field research, the Pirahã language is claimed to be a counterexample to the basic tenets of universal grammar. This research has been led by Daniel Everett. Among other things, this language is alleged to lack all evidence for recursion, including embedded clauses, as well as quantifiers and colour terms. According to the writings of Everett, the Pirahã showed these linguistic shortcomings not because they were simple-minded, but because their culture—which emphasized concrete matters in the present and also lacked creation myths and traditions of art making—did not necessitate it.


title: Universal grammar

text: Some other linguists have argued, however, that some of these properties have been misanalyzed, and that others are actually expected under current theories of universal grammar. Chomsky himself has called Everett a charlatan, and other experts have even accused him of purposely ignoring instances of recursion. Other linguists have attempted to reassess Pirahã to see if it did indeed use recursion. In a corpus analysis of the Pirahã language, linguists failed to disprove Everett's arguments against universal grammar and the lack of recursion in Pirahã. However, they also stated that there was "no strong evidence for the lack of recursion either" and they provided "suggestive evidence that Pirahã may have sentences with recursive structures".


title: Universal grammar

text: Daniel Everett has argued that even if a universal grammar is not impossible in principle, it should not be accepted because we have equally or more plausible theories that are simpler. In his words, "universal grammar doesn't seem to work, there doesn't seem to be much evidence for [it]. And what can we put in its place? A complex interplay of factors, of which culture, the values human beings share, plays a major role in structuring the way that we talk and the things that we talk about." Michael Tomasello, a developmental psychologist, also supports this claim, arguing that "although many aspects of human linguistic competence have indeed evolved biologically, specific grammatical principles and constructions have not. And universals in the grammatical structure of different languages have come from more general processes and constraints of human cognition, communication, and vocal-auditory processing, operating during the conventionalization and transmission of the particular grammatical constructions of particular linguistic communities."


title: Actor model

text: The actor model in computer science is a mathematical model of concurrent computation that treats "actor" as the universal primitive of concurrent computation. In response to a message it receives, an actor can: make local decisions, create more actors, send more messages, and determine how to respond to the next message received. Actors may modify their own private state, but can only affect each other indirectly through messaging (removing the need for lock-based synchronization).


title: Actor model

text: The actor model originated in 1973. It has been used both as a framework for a theoretical understanding of computation and as the theoretical basis for several practical implementations of concurrent systems. The relationship of the model to other work is discussed in actor model and process calculi.


title: Actor model

text: According to Carl Hewitt, unlike previous models of computation, the actor model was inspired by physics, including general relativity and quantum mechanics. It was also influenced by the programming languages Lisp, Simula, early versions of Smalltalk, capability-based systems, and packet switching. Its development was "motivated by the prospect of highly parallel computing machines consisting of dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of independent microprocessors, each with its own local memory and communications processor, communicating via a high-performance communications network." Since that time, the advent of massive concurrency through multi-core and manycore computer architectures has revived interest in the actor model.


title: Actor model

text: Following Hewitt, Bishop, and Steiger's 1973 publication, Irene Greif developed an operational semantics for the actor model as part of her doctoral research. Two years later, Henry Baker and Hewitt published a set of axiomatic laws for actor systems. Other major milestones include William Clinger's 1981 dissertation introducing a denotational semantics based on power domains and Gul Agha's 1985 dissertation which further developed a transition-based semantic model complementary to Clinger's. This resulted in the full development of actor model theory.


title: Actor model

text: Major software implementation work was done by Russ Atkinson, Giuseppe Attardi, Henry Baker, Gerry Barber, Peter Bishop, Peter de Jong, Ken Kahn, Henry Lieberman, Carl Manning, Tom Reinhardt, Richard Steiger and Dan Theriault in the Message Passing Semantics Group at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Research groups led by Chuck Seitz at California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and Bill Dally at MIT constructed computer architectures that further developed the message passing in the model. See Actor model implementation.


title: Actor model

text: Research on the actor model has been carried out at California Institute of Technology, Kyoto University Tokoro Laboratory, Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, SRI, Stanford University, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Pierre and Marie Curie University (University of Paris 6), University of Pisa, University of Tokyo Yonezawa Laboratory, Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) and elsewhere.


title: Actor model

text: The actor model adopts the philosophy that "everything is an actor". This is similar to the "everything is an object" philosophy used by some object-oriented programming languages.


title: Actor model

text: Decoupling the sender from communications sent was a fundamental advance of the actor model enabling asynchronous communication and control structures as patterns of passing messages.


title: Actor model

text: Recipients of messages are identified by address, sometimes called "mailing address". Thus an actor can only communicate with actors whose addresses it has. It can obtain those from a message it receives, or if the address is for an actor it has itself created.


title: Actor model

text: The actor model is characterized by inherent concurrency of computation within and among actors, dynamic creation of actors, inclusion of actor addresses in messages, and interaction only through direct asynchronous message passing with no restriction on message arrival order.


title: Actor model

text: Over the years, several different formal systems have been developed which permit reasoning about systems in the actor model. These include:


title: Actor model

text: There are also formalisms that are not fully faithful to the actor model in that they do not formalize the guaranteed delivery of messages including the following (See Attempts to relate actor semantics to algebra and linear logic):


title: Actor model

text: The actor model can be used as a framework for modeling, understanding, and reasoning about a wide range of concurrent systems. For example:


title: Actor model

text: Arguably, the first concurrent programs were interrupt handlers. During the course of its normal operation a computer needed to be able to receive information from outside (characters from a keyboard, packets from a network, "etc"). So when the information arrived the execution of the computer was "interrupted" and special code (called an interrupt handler) was called to put the information in a data buffer where it could be subsequently retrieved.


title: Actor model

text: In the early 1960s, interrupts began to be used to simulate the concurrent execution of several programs on one processor. Having concurrency with shared memory gave rise to the problem of concurrency control. Originally, this problem was conceived as being one of mutual exclusion on a single computer. Edsger Dijkstra developed semaphores and later, between 1971 and 1973, Tony Hoare and Per Brinch Hansen developed monitors to solve the mutual exclusion problem. However, neither of these solutions provided a programming language construct that encapsulated access to shared resources. This encapsulation was later accomplished by the serializer construct ([Hewitt and Atkinson 1977, 1979] and [Atkinson 1980]).


title: Actor model

text: The first models of computation ("e.g.", Turing machines, Post productions, the lambda calculus, "etc.") were based on mathematics and made use of a global state to represent a computational "step" (later generalized in [McCarthy and Hayes 1969] and [Dijkstra 1976] see Event orderings versus global state). Each computational step was from one global state of the computation to the next global state. The global state approach was continued in automata theory for finite-state machines and push down stack machines, including their nondeterministic versions. Such nondeterministic automata have the property of bounded nondeterminism; that is, if a machine always halts when started in its initial state, then there is a bound on the number of states in which it halts.


title: Actor model

text: Edsger Dijkstra further developed the nondeterministic global state approach. Dijkstra's model gave rise to a controversy concerning unbounded nondeterminism (also called "unbounded indeterminacy"), a property of concurrency by which the amount of delay in servicing a request can become unbounded as a result of arbitration of contention for shared resources "while still guaranteeing that the request will eventually be serviced". Hewitt argued that the actor model should provide the guarantee of service. In Dijkstra's model, although there could be an unbounded amount of time between the execution of sequential instructions on a computer, a (parallel) program that started out in a well defined state could terminate in only a bounded number of states [Dijkstra 1976]. Consequently, his model could not provide the guarantee of service. Dijkstra argued that it was impossible to implement unbounded nondeterminism.


title: Actor model

text: Hewitt argued otherwise: there is no bound that can be placed on how long it takes a computational circuit called an "arbiter" to settle (see metastability (electronics)). Arbiters are used in computers to deal with the circumstance that computer clocks operate asynchronously with respect to input from outside, "e.g.", keyboard input, disk access, network input, "etc." So it could take an unbounded time for a message sent to a computer to be received and in the meantime the computer could traverse an unbounded number of states.


title: Actor model

text: The actor model features unbounded nondeterminism which was captured in a mathematical model by Will Clinger using domain theory. In the actor model, there is no global state.


title: Actor model

text: Messages in the actor model are not necessarily buffered. This was a sharp break with previous approaches to models of concurrent computation. The lack of buffering caused a great deal of misunderstanding at the time of the development of the actor model and is still a controversial issue. Some researchers argued that the messages are buffered in the "ether" or the "environment". Also, messages in the actor model are simply sent (like packets in IP); there is no requirement for a synchronous handshake with the recipient.


title: Actor model

text: A natural development of the actor model was to allow addresses in messages. Influenced by packet switched networks [1961 and 1964], Hewitt proposed the development of a new model of concurrent computation in which communications would not have any required fields at all: they could be empty. Of course, if the sender of a communication desired a recipient to have access to addresses which the recipient did not already have, the address would have to be sent in the communication.


title: Actor model

text: For example, an actor might need to send a message to a recipient actor from which it later expects to receive a response, but the response will actually be handled by a third actor component that has been configured to receive and handle the response (for example, a different actor implementing the observer pattern). The original actor could accomplish this by sending a communication that includes the message it wishes to send, along with the address of the third actor that will handle the response. This third actor that will handle the response is called the "resumption" (sometimes also called a continuation or stack frame). When the recipient actor is ready to send a response, it sends the response message to the "resumption" actor address that was included in the original communication.


title: Actor model

text: So, the ability of actors to create new actors with which they can exchange communications, along with the ability to include the addresses of other actors in messages, gives actors the ability to create and participate in arbitrarily variable topological relationships with one another, much as the objects in Simula and other object-oriented languages may also be relationally composed into variable topologies of message-exchanging objects.


title: Actor model

text: As opposed to the previous approach based on composing sequential processes, the actor model was developed as an inherently concurrent model. In the actor model sequentiality was a special case that derived from concurrent computation as explained in actor model theory.


title: Actor model

text: Hewitt argued against adding the requirement that messages must arrive in the order in which they are sent to the actor. If output message ordering is desired, then it can be modeled by a queue actor that provides this functionality. Such a queue actor would queue the messages that arrived so that they could be retrieved in FIFO order. So if an actor codice_1 sent a message codice_2 to an actor codice_3, and later codice_1 sent another message codice_5 to codice_3, there is no requirement that codice_2 arrives at codice_3 before codice_5.


title: Actor model

text: In this respect the actor model mirrors packet switching systems which do not guarantee that packets must be received in the order sent. Not providing the order of delivery guarantee allows packet switching to buffer packets, use multiple paths to send packets, resend damaged packets, and to provide other optimizations.


title: Actor model

text: For example, actors are allowed to pipeline the processing of messages. What this means is that in the course of processing a message codice_2, an actor can designate the behavior to be used to process the next message, and then in fact begin processing another message codice_5 before it has finished processing codice_2. Just because an actor is allowed to pipeline the processing of messages does not mean that it "must" pipeline the processing. Whether a message is pipelined is an engineering tradeoff. How would an external observer know whether the processing of a message by an actor has been pipelined? There is no ambiguity in the definition of an actor created by the possibility of pipelining. Of course, it is possible to perform the pipeline optimization incorrectly in some implementations, in which case unexpected behavior may occur.


title: Actor model

text: Locality means that in processing a message, an actor can send messages only to addresses that it receives in the message, addresses that it already had before it received the message, and addresses for actors that it creates while processing the message. (But see Synthesizing addresses of actors.)


title: Actor model

text: Also locality means that there is no simultaneous change in multiple locations. In this way it differs from some other models of concurrency, "e.g.", the Petri net model in which tokens are simultaneously removed from multiple locations and placed in other locations.


title: Actor model

text: The idea of composing actor systems into larger ones is an important aspect of modularity that was developed in Gul Agha's doctoral dissertation, developed later by Gul Agha, Ian Mason, Scott Smith, and Carolyn Talcott.


title: Actor model

text: A key innovation was the introduction of "behavior" specified as a mathematical function to express what an actor does when it processes a message, including specifying a new behavior to process the next message that arrives. Behaviors provided a mechanism to mathematically model the sharing in concurrency.


title: Actor model

text: Behaviors also freed the actor model from implementation details, "e.g.", the Smalltalk-72 token stream interpreter. However, it is critical to understand that the efficient implementation of systems described by the actor model require "extensive" optimization. See Actor model implementation for details.


title: Actor model

text: Other concurrency systems ("e.g.", process calculi) can be modeled in the actor model using a two-phase commit protocol.


title: Actor model

text: There is a "Computational Representation Theorem" in the actor model for systems which are closed in the sense that they do not receive communications from outside. The mathematical denotation denoted by a closed system formula_1 is constructed from an initial behavior formula_2 and a behavior-approximating function formula_3 These obtain increasingly better approximations and construct a denotation (meaning) for formula_1 as follows [Hewitt 2008; Clinger 1981]:


title: Actor model

text: In this way, formula_1 can be mathematically characterized in terms of all its possible behaviors (including those involving unbounded nondeterminism). Although formula_7 is not an implementation of formula_1, it can be used to prove a generalization of the Church-Turing-Rosser-Kleene thesis [Kleene 1943]:


title: Actor model

text: A consequence of the above theorem is that a finite actor can nondeterministically respond with an number of different outputs.


title: Actor model

text: One of the key motivations for the development of the actor model was to understand and deal with the control structure issues that arose in development of the Planner programming language. Once the actor model was initially defined, an important challenge was to understand the power of the model relative to Robert Kowalski's thesis that "computation can be subsumed by deduction". Hewitt argued that Kowalski's thesis turned out to be false for the concurrent computation in the actor model (see Indeterminacy in concurrent computation).


title: Actor model

text: Nevertheless, attempts were made to extend logic programming to concurrent computation. However, Hewitt and Agha [1991] claimed that the resulting systems were not deductive in the following sense: computational steps of the concurrent logic programming systems do not follow deductively from previous steps (see Indeterminacy in concurrent computation). Recently, logic programming has been integrated into the actor model in a way that maintains logical semantics.


title: Actor model

text: Migration in the actor model is the ability of actors to change locations. "E.g.", in his dissertation, Aki Yonezawa modeled a post office that customer actors could enter, change locations within while operating, and exit. An actor that can migrate can be modeled by having a location actor that changes when the actor migrates. However the faithfulness of this modeling is controversial and the subject of research.


title: Actor model

text: A delicate point in the actor model is the ability to synthesize the address of an actor. In some cases security can be used to prevent the synthesis of addresses (see Security). However, if an actor address is simply a bit string then clearly it can be synthesized although it may be difficult or even infeasible to guess the address of an actor if the bit strings are long enough. SOAP uses a URL for the address of an endpoint where an actor can be reached. Since a URL is a character string, it can clearly be synthesized although encryption can make it virtually impossible to guess.


title: Actor model

text: Synthesizing the addresses of actors is usually modeled using mapping. The idea is to use an actor system to perform the mapping to the actual actor addresses. For example, on a computer the memory structure of the computer can be modeled as an actor system that does the mapping. In the case of SOAP addresses, it's modeling the DNS and the rest of the URL mapping.


title: Actor model

text: Robin Milner's initial published work on concurrency was also notable in that it was not based on composing sequential processes. His work differed from the actor model because it was based on a fixed number of processes of fixed topology communicating numbers and strings using synchronous communication. The original communicating sequential processes (CSP) model published by Tony Hoare differed from the actor model because it was based on the parallel composition of a fixed number of sequential processes connected in a fixed topology, and communicating using synchronous message-passing based on process names (see Actor model and process calculi history). Later versions of CSP abandoned communication based on process names in favor of anonymous communication via channels, an approach also used in Milner's work on the calculus of communicating systems and the π-calculus.


title: Actor model

text: These early models by Milner and Hoare both had the property of bounded nondeterminism. Modern, theoretical CSP ([Hoare 1985] and [Roscoe 2005]) explicitly provides unbounded nondeterminism.


title: Actor model

text: Petri nets and their extensions (e.g., coloured Petri nets) are like actors in that they are based on asynchronous message passing and unbounded nondeterminism, while they are like early CSP in that they define fixed topologies of elementary processing steps (transitions) and message repositories (places).


title: Actor model

text: The actor model has influenced the development of the π-calculus and subsequent process calculi. In his Turing lecture, Robin Milner wrote:


title: Actor model

text: Now, the pure lambda-calculus is built with just two kinds of thing: terms and variables. Can we achieve the same economy for a process calculus? Carl Hewitt, with his actors model, responded to this challenge long ago; he declared that a value, an operator on values, and a process should all be the same kind of thing: an actor.


title: Actor model

text: This goal impressed me, because it implies the homogeneity and completeness of expression ... But it was long before I could see how to attain the goal in terms of an algebraic calculus...


title: Actor model

text: So, in the spirit of Hewitt, our first step is to demand that all things denoted by terms or accessed by names—values, registers, operators, processes, objects—are all of the same kind of thing; they should all be processes.


title: Actor model

text: The actor model has had extensive influence on commercial practice. For example, Twitter has used actors for scalability. Also, Microsoft has used the actor model in the development of its Asynchronous Agents Library. There are many other actor libraries listed in the actor libraries and frameworks section below.


title: Actor model

text: According to Hewitt [2006], the actor model addresses issues in computer and communications architecture, concurrent programming languages, and Web services including the following:


title: Actor model

text: Many of the ideas introduced in the actor model are now also finding application in multi-agent systems for these same reasons [Hewitt 2006b 2007b]. The key difference is that agent systems (in most definitions) impose extra constraints upon the actors, typically requiring that they make use of commitments and goals.


title: Actor model

text: A number of different programming languages employ the actor model or some variation of it. These languages include:


title: Actor model

text: Actor libraries or frameworks have also been implemented to permit actor-style programming in languages that don't have actors built-in. Some of these frameworks are:


title: Bishōjo

text: In Japanese popular culture, a , also romanized as bishojo or bishoujo, is a cute girl character. "Bishōjo" characters appear ubiquitously in media including manga, anime, and computer games (especially in the "bishojo" game genre), and also appear in advertising and as mascots, such as for maid cafés. An attraction towards "bishōjo" characters is a key concept in "otaku" (manga and anime fan) subculture.


title: Bishōjo

text: The development of the "bishōjo" aesthetic in manga of the early 1980s marked a departure from previous realistic styles, and the emergence of the aesthetic of "cute eroticism" ("kawaii ero") and "moe".


title: Bishōjo

text: The "bishōjo" character type emerged in the "lolicon" boom of the early 1980s, particularly in the works of manga artist Hideo Azuma. Azuma's characters combined the round bodies of Osamu Tezuka characters and the round and emotive faces of "shōjo" manga. At the time, the dominant style in seinen and pornographic manga was "gekiga", a realistic style characterized by sharp angles, dark hatching, and gritty lines; in contrast, Azuma's work displayed light shading and clean, circular lines. In doing so, Azuma developed "cute eroticism" ("kawaii ero"), a form of eroticism based on manga-style characters. "Lolicon" (derived from "Lolita complex") was one of several terms referring to this expansion in cute characters in manga and anime, and a corresponding attraction to and affection for such characters. Synonyms include "two-dimensional complex" ("nijigen konpurekkusu"), "two-dimensional fetishism" ("nijikon fechi"), "two-dimensional syndrome" ("nijikon shōkōgun"), "cute girl syndrome" ("bishōjo shōkōgun"), and simply "sickness" ("byōki").


title: Bishōjo

text: Several characters created by Hayao Miyazaki are considered icons of the "bishōjo" boom, particularly Clarisse from the film "" (1979), Lana from the TV series "Future Boy Conan" (1978), and Nausicaä from his manga and film "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" (1984). Another creator strongly associated with the boom was Rumiko Takahashi, whose character Lum from her manga "Urusei Yatsura" (1978–1987) gained immense popularity. Cultural critic Hiroki Azuma identifies Lum as a key development in fan interaction and response to "bishōjo" characters:


title: Bishōjo

text: "Bishōjo" characters are typified by design elements (such as personality archetypes, clothing, and accessories) that are known and acknowledged by the audience.


title: Bishōjo

text: "Bishōjo" characters appear in almost all genres of anime and manga and in many video games, especially in dating sims and visual novels, sometimes to get more players or simply just to make a game look good. Bishōjo characters tend to attract males. Bishōjo characters sometimes are the most popular female characters as most people like anime, manga, dating sims, and visual novels more when the art stands out, looks pretty, and has beautiful females.