title: Cell culture

text: Biological products produced by recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology in animal cell cultures include enzymes, synthetic hormones, immunobiologicals (monoclonal antibodies, interleukins, lymphokines), and anticancer agents. Although many simpler proteins can be produced using rDNA in bacterial cultures, more complex proteins that are glycosylated (carbohydrate-modified) currently must be made in animal cells. An important example of such a complex protein is the hormone erythropoietin. The cost of growing mammalian cell cultures is high, so research is underway to produce such complex proteins in insect cells or in higher plants, use of single embryonic cell and somatic embryos as a source for direct gene transfer via particle bombardment, transit gene expression and confocal microscopy observation is one of its applications. It also offers to confirm single cell origin of somatic embryos and the asymmetry of the first cell division, which starts the process.


title: Cell culture

text: Cell culture is also a key technique for cellular agriculture, which aims to provide both new products and new ways of producing existing agricultural products like milk, (cultured) meat, fragrances, and rhino horn from cells and microorganisms. It is therefore considered one means of achieving animal-free agriculture. It is also a central tool for teaching cell biology.


title: Cell culture

text: Research in tissue engineering, stem cells and molecular biology primarily involves cultures of cells on flat plastic dishes. This technique is known as two-dimensional (2D) cell culture, and was first developed by Wilhelm Roux who, in 1885, removed a portion of the medullary plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in warm saline for several days on a flat glass plate. From the advance of polymer technology arose today's standard plastic dish for 2D cell culture, commonly known as the Petri dish. Julius Richard Petri, a German bacteriologist, is generally credited with this invention while working as an assistant to Robert Koch. Various researchers today also utilize culturing laboratory flasks, conicals, and even disposable bags like those used in single-use bioreactors.


title: Cell culture

text: Aside from Petri dishes, scientists have long been growing cells within biologically derived matrices such as collagen or fibrin, and more recently, on synthetic hydrogels such as polyacrylamide or PEG. They do this in order to elicit phenotypes that are not expressed on conventionally rigid substrates. There is growing interest in controlling matrix stiffness, a concept that has led to discoveries in fields such as:


title: Cell culture

text: Cell culture in three dimensions has been touted as "Biology's New Dimension". At present, the practice of cell culture remains based on varying combinations of single or multiple cell structures in 2D. Currently, there is an increase in use of 3D cell cultures in research areas including drug discovery, cancer biology, regenerative medicine, nanomaterials assessment and basic life science research. 3D cell cultures can be grown using a scaffold or matrix, or in a scaffold-free manner. Scaffold based cultures utilize an acellular 3D matrix or a liquid matrix. Scaffold-free methods are normally generated in suspensions. There are a variety of platforms used to facilitate the growth of three-dimensional cellular structures including scaffold systems such as hydrogel matrices and solid scaffolds, and scaffold-free systems such as low-adhesion plates, nanoparticle facilitated magnetic levitation, and hanging drop plates. Culturing cells in 3D leads to wide variation in gene expression signatures and partly mimics tissues in the physiological states. A 3D cell culture model showed cell growth similar to that of in vivo than did a monolayer culture, and all three cultures were capable of sustaining cell growth. As 3D culturing has been developed it turns out to have a great potential to design tumors models and investigate malignant transformation and metastasis, 3D cultures can provide aggerate tool for understanding changes, interactions, and cellular signaling.


title: Cell culture

text: Eric Simon, in a 1988 NIH SBIR grant report, showed that electrospinning could be used to produced nano- and submicron-scale polystyrene and polycarbonate fibrous scaffolds specifically intended for use as "in vitro" cell substrates. This early use of electrospun fibrous lattices for cell culture and tissue engineering showed that various cell types including Human Foreskin Fibroblasts (HFF), transformed Human Carcinoma (HEp-2), and Mink Lung Epithelium (MLE) would adhere to and proliferate upon polycarbonate fibers. It was noted that, as opposed to the flattened morphology typically seen in 2D culture, cells grown on the electrospun fibers exhibited a more histotypic rounded 3-dimensional morphology generally observed "in vivo".


title: Cell culture

text: As the natural extracellular matrix (ECM) is important in the survival, proliferation, differentiation and migration of cells, different hydrogel culture matrices mimicking natural ECM structure are seen as potential approaches to in vivo –like cell culturing. Hydrogels are composed of interconnected pores with high water retention, which enables efficient transport of substances such as nutrients and gases. Several different types of hydrogels from natural and synthetic materials are available for 3D cell culture, including animal ECM extract hydrogels, protein hydrogels, peptide hydrogels, polymer hydrogels, and wood-based nanocellulose hydrogel.


title: Cell culture

text: The 3D Cell Culturing by Magnetic Levitation method (MLM) is the application of growing 3D tissue by inducing cells treated with magnetic nanoparticle assemblies in spatially varying magnetic fields using neodymium magnetic drivers and promoting cell to cell interactions by levitating the cells up to the air/liquid interface of a standard petri dish. The magnetic nanoparticle assemblies consist of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, and the polymer polylysine. 3D cell culturing is scalable, with the capability for culturing 500 cells to millions of cells or from single dish to high-throughput low volume systems.


title: Cell culture

text: Cell culture is a fundamental component of tissue culture and tissue engineering, as it establishes the basics of growing and maintaining cells "in vitro".


title: Cell culture

text: The major application of human cell culture is in stem cell industry, where mesenchymal stem cells can be cultured and cryopreserved for future use. Tissue engineering potentially offers dramatic improvements in low cost medical care for hundreds of thousands of patients annually.


title: Cell culture

text: Vaccines for polio, measles, mumps, rubella, and chickenpox are currently made in cell cultures. Due to the H5N1 pandemic threat, research into using cell culture for influenza vaccines is being funded by the United States government. Novel ideas in the field include recombinant DNA-based vaccines, such as one made using human adenovirus (a common cold virus) as a vector,


title: Cell culture

text: The technique of co-culturing is used to study cell crosstalk between two or more types of cells on a plate or in a 3D matrix. The cultivation of different stem cells and the interaction of immune cells can be investigated in an in vitro model similar to biological tissue. Since most tissues contain more than one type of cell, it is important to evaluate their interaction in a 3D culture environment to gain a better understanding of their interaction and to introduce mimetic tissues. There are two types of co-culturing: direct and indirect. While direct interaction involves cells being in direct contact with each other in the same culture media or matrix, indirect interaction involves different environments, allowing signaling and soluble factors to participate.


title: Cell culture

text: Cell differentiation in tissue models during interaction between cells can be studied using the Co-Cultured System to simulate cancer tumors, to assess the effect of drugs on therapeutic trials, and to study the effect of drugs on therapeutic trials. The co-culture system in 3D models can predict the response to chemotherapy and endocrine therapy if the microenvironment defines biological tissue for the cells.


title: Cell culture

text: A co-culture method is used in tissue engineering to generate tissue formation with multiple cells interacting directly.


title: Cell culture

text: Microfluidics technique is developed systems that can perform a process in a flow which are usually in a scale of micron. Microfluidics chip are also known as Lab-on-a-chip and they are able to have continuous procedure and reaction steps with spare amount of reactants and space. Such systems enable the identification and isolation of individual cells and molecules when combined with appropriate biological assays and high-sensitivity detection techniques.


title: Cell culture

text: OoC systems mimic and control the microenvironment of the cells by growing tissues in microfluidics. Combining tissue engineering, biomaterials fabrication, and cell biology, it offers the possibility of establishing a biomimetic model for studying human diseases in the laboratory. In recent years, 3D cell culture science has made significant progress, leading to the development of OoC. OoC is considered as a preclinical step that benefits pharmaceutical studies, drug development and disease modeling. OoC is an important technology that can bridge the gap between animal testing and clinical studies and also by the advances that the science has achieved could be a replace for in vivo studies for drug delivery and pathophysiological studies.


title: Cell culture

text: Besides the culture of well-established immortalised cell lines, cells from primary explants of a plethora of organisms can be cultured for a limited period of time before senescence occurs (see Hayflick's limit). Cultured primary cells have been extensively used in research, as is the case of fish keratocytes in cell migration studies.


title: Cell culture

text: Plant cell cultures are typically grown as cell suspension cultures in a liquid medium or as callus cultures on a solid medium. The culturing of undifferentiated plant cells and calli requires the proper balance of the plant growth hormones auxin and cytokinin.


title: Cell culture

text: Cells derived from Drosophila melanogaster (most prominently, Schneider 2 cells) can be used for experiments which may be hard to do on live flies or larvae, such as biochemical studies or studies using siRNA. Cell lines derived from the army worm "Spodoptera frugiperda", including Sf9 and Sf21, and from the cabbage looper "Trichoplusia ni", High Five cells, are commonly used for expression of recombinant proteins using baculovirus.


title: Cell culture

text: For bacteria and yeasts, small quantities of cells are usually grown on a solid support that contains nutrients embedded in it, usually a gel such as agar, while large-scale cultures are grown with the cells suspended in a nutrient broth.


title: Cell culture

text: The culture of viruses requires the culture of cells of mammalian, plant, fungal or bacterial origin as hosts for the growth and replication of the virus. Whole wild type viruses, recombinant viruses or viral products may be generated in cell types other than their natural hosts under the right conditions. Depending on the species of the virus, infection and viral replication may result in host cell lysis and formation of a viral plaque.


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Oththa Seruppu Size 7 (), simply known as Oththa Seruppu (), is a 2019 Indian Tamil-language thriller film produced, written and directed by R. Parthiban under the banner Bioscope Film Framers. The film stars Parthiepan himself as the only character. The background score for the film is composed by C. Sathya and the film has only one song, which is composed by Santhosh Narayanan. The film entered the Asia Book of Records and India Book of Records for having a single person writing, directing, solo acting and producing a film. It was the third South Indian film to feature a single actor after "The Guard" (2001- Malayalam) and "Shanti" (2005- Kannada).


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: "Oththa Seruppu" premiered at the Singapore South Asian Film Festival on 30 August 2019. The film was released worldwide on 20 September 2019.The film opened to high critical acclaim.


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: It is being remade in Hindi with Abhishek Bachchan in the lead role and directed by Parthiban. The movie was also reported to be remade in Indonesian making it the first Tamil movie to be remade in that language and the second Indian movie to be remade in that language after "Drishyam".


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Masilamani (R.Parthiepan) is a suspect in a murder case and cops take him in custody for investigation. The movie starts with a middle-aged Masilamani (Parthiban) being interrogated by police personnel in a police station. The audience gets to hear only the voices of everyone else other than Masilamani. The deputy commissioner is leading the interrogation. Though some other cops in the unit suggest that they better use the typical police interrogation technique (which uses force and human right violation techniques), the deputy commissioner refuses to say that there is already a letter from human rights commission that they will be watching over this investigation. At some point, it becomes clear that Masilamani has a kid who needs medication and even with medication Masilamani's son is expected to live only for a few more years. Masilamani outwits the cops during the interrogation and hence a lady psychologist is brought in to help solve the case. It is revealed that Masilamani's wife is dead and her body is presently held at the mortuary. Eventually, Masilamani starts to confess to not only the one murder he was accused of but also to two more murders; all three of which happened using the same Modus Operandi (MO).


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Masilamani during his confession states that he married Usha. They have a kid who is suffering from a terminal disease. His wife started to have affairs. When Masilamani confronted his wife about the affair, she regrets her affair and says that she did it for the money to pay for their son's medical expenses. Masilamani though dejected agrees to live with his wife, provided she changes her way of life. She also blames the men in her affair for forcing her to sleep with them because they have a video of her taking bath and are blackmailing her with her nude video. Masilamani realizing that he won't be able to legally fight these powerful men decides to murder them using a particular MO, which includes leaving a "single slipper of size 7" next to the dead bodies. Usha accidentally finds the other pair of the "single slipper of size 7" and figures out that Masilamani is involved in the serial killing of the men with who she had affairs. In a panic mode, Usha arranges henchman to murder Masilamani. It is also revealed that Usha had affairs not because of blackmail but rather slept with those men willingly. But due to a quirk of fate, Usha gets killed in a road accident, as the henchman escapes (But later it is revealed that henchman was also murdered in the same MO).


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Masilamani continues his revenge plot and kills the rest of the men who had an affair with his wife. He always leaves a "single slipper of size 7" next to all the murders. It is revealed that many years back the current head of police personnel helped a powerful minister to get away with murdering his own brother and in the process accidentally left a "single slipper of size 7" next to his dead brother's body. Masilamani knew of the murder and the modus operandi of the murder and even had proof of the murder. Now that Masilamani has committed these three murders in the same MO, he makes a veiled threat that he will reveal the proof of the scandal if he is not released of his crime. He even states that the same MO in all the crimes will suggest that the one who murdered the minister's brother will be the prime suspect in all the subsequent murders. Because a powerful minister and a cop were involved in a murder and the subsequent cover-up, the cops decide to let go of Masilamani for the fear of all truths coming out. The movie ends with Masilamani walking out of the police station, with his son, making peace with his wife's death.


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: The background score is composed by C. Sathya. The film has only one song, titled "Kulirudha Pulla" which is composed by Santhosh Narayanan, and released on 19 May 2019. The song has lyrics written by Vivek, and it was sung by Sid Sriram, Sangeetha Karuppiah and R. Parthiepan.


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: The first look was released on 8 May 2019, and the making video of the film was released on 9 May 2019. The official trailer of the film was unveiled on 27 May 2019.


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: The film was premiered at Singapore South Asian International Film Festival on 30 August 2019. The film was released alongside Suriya's Kaappaan.


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Chennai Vision reviewing it noted, ""Oththa Seruppu Size 7" is a rare attempt in Indian cinema. For, the film is written, directed, acted and produced by only one man-R Parthiepan."


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Behindwoods rated 3.25/5 and stated that "Oththa Seruppu is a unique and engrossing film that is crafted with cinematic experiments. A must watch for Parthiban's passionate filmmaking!."


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Sify rated 3/5 and stated that "Oththa Seruppu Size 7 review: Go for it if you are looking for something new and you will surely love the experience."


title: Oththa Seruppu Size 7

text: Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion South wrote "Oththa Seruppu has also got to be one of the wittiest “message movies” ever, for, despite the cover of crime, the narrative is actually about haves and have-nots".


title: WHOIS

text: WHOIS (pronounced as the phrase "who is") is a query and response protocol that is widely used for querying databases that store the registered users or assignees of an Internet resource, such as a domain name, an IP address block or an autonomous system, but is also used for a wider range of other information. The protocol stores and delivers database content in a human-readable format. The current iteration of the WHOIS protocol was drafted by the Internet Society, and is documented in .


title: WHOIS

text: Whois is also the name of the command-line utility on most UNIX systems used to make WHOIS protocol queries. In addition WHOIS has a sister protocol called "Referral Whois" (RWhois).


title: WHOIS

text: Elizabeth Feinler and her team (who had created the Resource Directory for ARPANET) were responsible for creating the first WHOIS directory in the early 1970s. Feinler set up a server in Stanford's Network Information Center (NIC) which acted as a directory that could retrieve relevant information about people or entities. She and the team created domains, with Feinler's suggestion that domains be divided into categories based on the physical address of the computer.


title: WHOIS

text: The process of registration was established in . WHOIS was standardized in the early 1980s to look up domains, people, and other resources related to domain and number registrations. As all registration was done by one organization at that time, one centralized server was used for WHOIS queries. This made looking up such information very easy.


title: WHOIS

text: At the time of the emergence of the internet from the ARPANET, the only organization that handled all domain registrations was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States government (created during 1958.). Responsibility of domain registration remained with DARPA as the ARPANET became the Internet during the 1980s. UUNET began offering domain registration service; however, they simply handled the paperwork which they forwarded to the DARPA Network Information Center (NIC). Then the National Science Foundation directed that management of Internet domain registration would be handled by commercial, third-party entities. InterNIC was formed in 1993 under contract with the NSF, consisting of Network Solutions, Inc., General Atomics and AT&T. The General Atomics contract was canceled after several years due to performance issues.


title: WHOIS

text: 20th century WHOIS servers were highly permissive and would allow wild-card searches. A WHOIS query of a person's last name would yield all individuals with that name. A query with a given keyword returned all registered domains containing that keyword. A query for a given administrative contact returned all domains the administrator was associated with. Since the advent of the commercialized Internet, multiple registrars and unethical spammers, such permissive searching is no longer available.


title: WHOIS

text: On December 1, 1999, management of the top-level domains (TLDs) , , and was assigned to ICANN. At the time, these TLDs were converted to a thin WHOIS model. Existing WHOIS clients stopped working at that time. A month later, it had self-detecting Common Gateway Interface support so that the same program could operate a web-based WHOIS lookup, and an external TLD table to support multiple WHOIS servers based on the TLD of the request. This eventually became the model of the modern WHOIS client.


title: WHOIS

text: By 2005, there were many more generic top-level domains than there had been in the early 1980s. There are also many more country-code top-level domains. This has led to a complex network of domain name registrars and registrar associations, especially as the management of Internet infrastructure has become more internationalized. As such, performing a WHOIS query on a domain requires knowing the correct, authoritative WHOIS server to use. Tools to do WHOIS domain searches have become common and are offered by providers such as IONOS and Namecheap.


title: WHOIS

text: In 2003, an IETF committee was formed to create a new standard for looking up information on domain names and network numbers: Cross Registry Information Service Protocol (CRISP). Between January 2005 and July 2006, the working name for this proposed new standard was Internet Registry Information Service (IRIS) The initial IETF Proposed Standards RFCs for IRIS are:


title: WHOIS

text: As of March 2009, the CRISP IETF Working Group concluded, after a final RFC 5144 was published by the group .


title: WHOIS

text: Note: The IETF CRISP working group is not to be confused with the Number Resource Organization's (NRO) Team of the same name "Consolidated RIR IANA Stewardship Proposal Team" (CRISP Team).


title: WHOIS

text: In 2013, the IETF acknowledged that IRIS had not been a successful replacement for WHOIS. The primary technical reason for that appeared to be the complexity of IRIS. Further, non-technical reasons were deemed to lie in areas upon which the IETF does not pass judgment. Meanwhile, ARIN and RIPE NCC managed to serve WHOIS data via RESTful web services. The charter (drafted in February 2012) provided for separate specifications, for number registries first and for name registries to follow. The working group produced five proposed standard documents:


title: WHOIS

text: The WHOIS protocol had its origin in the ARPANET "NICNAME protocol" and was based on the "NAME/FINGER Protocol", described in (1977). The NICNAME/WHOIS protocol was first described in in 1982 by Ken Harrenstien and Vic White of the Network Information Center at SRI International.


title: WHOIS

text: WHOIS was originally implemented on the Network Control Protocol (NCP) but found its major use when the TCP/IP suite was standardized across the ARPANET and later the Internet.


title: WHOIS

text: The "command line" server query is normally a single name specification. i.e. the name of a resource. However, servers accept a query, consisting of only the question mark (?) to return a description of acceptable command line formats. Substitution or "wild-card" formats also exist, e.g., appending a full-stop (period) to the query name returns all entries beginning with the query name.


title: WHOIS

text: On the modern Internet, WHOIS services are typically communicated using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Servers listen to requests on the well-known port number 43. Clients are simple applications that establish a communications channel to the server, transmit a text record with the name of the resource to be queried and await the response in form of a sequence of text records found in the database. This simplicity of the protocol also permits an application, and a command line interface user, to query a WHOIS server using the Telnet protocol.


title: WHOIS

text: In 2014, June ICANN published the recommendation for status codes, the "Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP) domain status codes"


title: WHOIS

text: WHOIS lookups were traditionally performed with a command line interface application, but now many alternative web-based tools exist.


title: WHOIS

text: A WHOIS database consists of a set of text records for each resource. These text records consists of various items of information about the resource itself, and any associated information of assignees, registrants, administrative information, such as creation and expiration dates.


title: WHOIS

text: Two data models exist for storing resource information in a WHOIS database, the "thick" and the "thin" model.


title: WHOIS

text: The thick model usually ensures consistent data and slightly faster queries, since only one WHOIS server needs to be contacted. If a registrar goes out of business, a thick registry contains all important information (if the registrant entered correct data, and privacy features were not used to obscure the data) and registration information can be retained. But with a thin registry, the contact information might not be available, and it could be difficult for the rightful registrant to retain control of the domain.


title: WHOIS

text: If a WHOIS client did not understand how to deal with this situation, it would display the full information from the registrar. Unfortunately, the WHOIS protocol has no standard for determining how to distinguish the thin model from the thick model.


title: WHOIS

text: Specific details of which records are stored vary among domain name registries. Some top-level domains, including and , operate a thin WHOIS, requiring domain registrars to maintain their own customers' data. The other global top-level registries, including , operate a thick model. Each country-code top-level registry has its own national rules.


title: WHOIS

text: The first applications written for the WHOIS information system were command-line interface tools for Unix and Unix-like operating systems (i.e. Solaris, Linux etc.). WHOIS client and server software is distributed as free open-source software and binary distributions are included with all Unix-like systems. Various commercial Unix implementations may use a proprietary implementation (for example, Solaris 7).


title: WHOIS

text: A WHOIS command line client passes a phrase given as an argument directly to the WHOIS server. Various free open source examples can still be found on sites such as sourceforge.net. However, most modern WHOIS tools implement command line flags or options, such as the -h option to access a specific server host, but default servers are preconfigured. Additional options may allow control of the port number to connect on, displaying additional debugging data, or changing recursion/referral behavior.


title: WHOIS

text: Like most TCP/IP client–server applications, a WHOIS client takes the user input and then opens an Internet socket to its destination server. The WHOIS protocol manages the transmission of the query and reception of results.


title: WHOIS

text: With the advent of the World Wide Web and especially the loosening up of the Network Solutions monopoly, looking up WHOIS information via the web has become quite common. At present, popular web-based WHOIS-queries may be conducted from ARIN, RIPE and APNIC. Most early web-based WHOIS clients were merely front-ends to a command-line client, where the resulting output just gets displayed on a web page with little, if any, clean-up or formatting.


title: WHOIS

text: Currently, web based WHOIS clients usually perform the WHOIS queries directly and then format the results for display. Many such clients are proprietary, authored by domain name registrars.


title: WHOIS

text: The need for web-based clients came from the fact that command-line WHOIS clients largely existed only in the Unix and large computing worlds. Microsoft Windows and Macintosh computers had no WHOIS clients installed by default, so registrars had to find a way to provide access to WHOIS data for potential customers. Many end-users still rely on such clients, even though command line and graphical clients exist now for most home PC platforms. Microsoft provides the Sysinternals Suite that includes a whois client at no cost.


title: WHOIS

text: CPAN has several Perl modules available that work with WHOIS servers. Many of them are not current and do not fully function with the current (2005) WHOIS server infrastructure. However, there is still much useful functionality to derive including looking up AS numbers and registrant contacts.


title: WHOIS

text: WHOIS services are mainly run by registrars and registries; for example the Public Interest Registry (PIR) maintains the .ORG registry and associated WHOIS service.


title: WHOIS

text: WHOIS servers operated by regional Internet registries (RIR) can be queried directly to determine the Internet service provider responsible for a particular resource.


title: WHOIS

text: The records of each of these registries are cross-referenced, so that a query to ARIN for a record which belongs to RIPE will return a placeholder pointing to the RIPE WHOIS server. This lets the WHOIS user making the query know that the detailed information resides on the RIPE server. In addition to the RIRs servers, commercial services exist, such as the Routing Assets Database used by some large networks (e.g., large Internet providers that acquired other ISPs in several RIR areas).


title: WHOIS

text: There is currently no widely extended way for determining the responsible WHOIS server for a DNS domain, though a number of methods are in common use for top-level domains (TLDs). Some registries use DNS SRV records (defined in RFC 2782) to allow clients to discover the address of the WHOIS server. Some WHOIS lookups require searching the procuring domain registrar to display domain owner details.


title: WHOIS

text: Normally the contact information of the resources assignee is returned. However, some registrars offer private registration, in which case the contact information of the registrar is shown instead.


title: WHOIS

text: Some registry operators are wholesalers, meaning that they typically provide domain name services to a large number of retail registrars, who in turn offer them to consumers. For private registration, only the identity of the wholesale registrar may be returned. In this case, the identity of the individual as well as the retail registrar may be hidden.


title: WHOIS

text: Below is an example of WHOIS data returned for an individual resource holder. This is the result of a WHOIS query of example.com:


title: WHOIS

text: Referral Whois (RWhois) is an extension of the original Whois protocol and service. RWhois extends the concepts of Whois in a scalable, hierarchical fashion, potentially creating a system with a tree-like architecture. Queries are deterministically routed to servers based on hierarchical labels, reducing a query to the primary repository of information.


title: WHOIS

text: Lookups of IP address allocations are often limited to the larger Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) blocks (e.g., /24, /22, /16), because usually only the regional Internet registries (RIRs) and domain registrars run RWhois or Whois servers, although RWhois is intended to be run by even smaller local Internet registries, to provide more granular information about IP address assignment.


title: WHOIS

text: RWhois is intended to replace Whois, providing an organized hierarchy of referral services where one could connect to any RWhois server, request a look-up and be automatically re-directed to the correct server(s). However, while the technical functionality is in place, adoption of the RWhois standard has been weak.


title: WHOIS

text: RWhois services are typically communicated using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Servers listen to requests on the well-known port number 4321.


title: WHOIS

text: Rwhois was first specified in in 1994 by Network Solutions, but the specification was superseded in 1997 by .


title: WHOIS

text: The referral features of RWhois are different than the feature of a Whois server to refer responses to another server, which RWhois also implements.


title: WHOIS

text: One criticism of WHOIS is the lack of full access to the data. Few parties have realtime access to the complete databases.


title: WHOIS

text: Others cite the competing goal of domain privacy as a criticism, although this problem is strongly mitigated by domain privacy services. Currently, the "Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers" (ICANN) broadly requires that the mailing address, phone number and e-mail address of those owning or administering a domain name to be made publicly available through the "WHOIS" directories. The registrant's (domain owner's) contact details, such as address and telephone number, are easily accessible to anyone who queries a WHOIS server. However, that policy enables spammers, direct marketers, identity thieves or other attackers to loot the directory for personal information about these people. Although ICANN has been exploring changing WHOIS to enable greater privacy, there is a lack of consensus among major stakeholders as to what type of change should be made. Some domain registrars offer private registrations (also known as domain privacy), by which the contact information of the registrar is shown instead of the customer's. With the offer of private registration from many registrars, some of the risk has been mitigated.


title: WHOIS

text: Studies have shown that spammers can and do harvest plain-text email addresses from WHOIS servers. For this reason, some WHOIS servers and websites offering WHOIS queries have implemented rate-limiting systems, such as web-based CAPTCHA and limited amounts of search queries per user IP address.


title: WHOIS

text: The WHOIS requirements conflict with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), effective in the European Union 25 May 2018, which places strict regulations on the processing and publication of personally identifiable information. ICANN stated in November 2017 that it would not reprimand "noncompliance with contractual obligations related to the handling of registration data" if registrars provide alternative solutions for compliance with its rules, until the WHOIS requirements are updated to take GDPR into account.


title: WHOIS

text: The WHOIS protocol was not written with an international audience in mind. A WHOIS server and/or client cannot determine the text encoding in effect for the query or the database content. Many servers were originally using US-ASCII and Internationalization concerns were not taken into consideration until much later. This might impact the usability or usefulness of the WHOIS protocol in countries outside the USA. In the case of internationalized domain names it is the responsibility of the client application to perform the translation of the domain name between its native language script and the DNS name in punycode.


title: WHOIS

text: In cases where the registrant's (Domain Owner) identity is public, anyone can easily confirm the status of a domain via WHOIS.


title: WHOIS

text: In the case of private registrations, ascertaining registration information may be more difficult. If a registrant, who acquired a domain name, wants to verify the registrar has completed the registration process, three steps may be required:


title: WHOIS

text: This provides some confidence that the retailer actually registered the name. But if the registrar goes out of business, as with the failure of RegisterFly in 2007, the rightful domain holder with privacy-protected registrations may have difficulty regaining the administration of their domain name. Registrants using "private registration" can attempt to protect themselves by using a registrar that places customer data in escrow with a third party.


title: WHOIS

text: ICANN requires that every registrant of a domain name be given the opportunity to correct any inaccurate contact data associated with their domain. For this reason, registrars are required to periodically send the holder the contact information on record for verification, but they do not provide any guarantee about the accuracy of information if the registrant provided inaccurate information.


title: WHOIS

text: WHOIS has generated policy issues in the United States federal government. As noted above, WHOIS creates a privacy issue which is also tied to free speech and anonymity. However, WHOIS is an important tool for law enforcement officers investigating violations like spam and phishing to track down the holders of domain names. As a result, law enforcement agencies have sought to make WHOIS records both open and verified:


title: WHOIS

text: The Expert Working Group (EWG) of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) recommended on 24 June 2013 that WHOIS should be scrapped. It recommends that WHOIS be replaced with a system that keeps information secret from most Internet users, and only discloses information for "permissible purposes". ICANN's list of permissible purposes includes domain-name research, domain-name sale and purchase, regulatory enforcement, personal data protection, legal actions, and abuse mitigation. Although WHOIS has been a key tool of journalists in determining who was disseminating certain information on the Internet, the use of WHOIS by the free press is not included in ICANN's proposed list of permissible purposes.


title: WHOIS

text: The EWG collected public input on the initial report until 13 September 2013. Its final report was issued on 6 June 2014, without meaningful changes to the recommendations. , ICANN is in the "process of re-inventing WHOIS," working on "ICANN WHOIS Beta."


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: Bhadla Solar Park is the largest solar park in the world as of 2022 and is spread over a total area of in Bhadla, Phalodi tehsil, Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: The park has a total capacity of 2245 MW. The park had witnessed the lowest bid for solar power in India as of December 2020 at per kilowatt-hour.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: Officially recognized as a sandy, dry, and arid region with an area of about , Bhadla is located about north of Jodhpur and about west of the state capital Jaipur. The region has been described as "almost unlivable" due to its climate. Normal temperatures in Bhadla hover between , with hot winds and sand storms occurring frequently. The nearest habitation to Bhadla is the village of Bap located about away, and the closest urban areaa tehsil town called Phalodiis situated away.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: In the first phase, NTPC Limited auctioned 420 MW of capacity split into 6 packages of 70 MW each. The Finnish company Fortum quoted the lowest tariff of 4.34/kW⋅h. Rising Sun Energy and Solairedirect won 2 packages, each quoting a price of 4.35/kW⋅h. Yarrow Infrastructure won the remaining package quoting a price of 4.36/kW⋅h.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: In December 2016, Solairedirect signed an agreement with Ecoppia, a PV panel cleaning solutions developer, to provide automated cleaning solutions to the project. Due to the park's location in a desert region, it is prone to dust storms. Solairedirect secured a loan of from IDBI Bank in February 2017 to help finance the project.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: The Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) auctioned 250 MW capacity in the second phase for which 27 firms submitted bids.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: SECI auctioned 500 MW capacity in the third phase on 11 May 2017. ACME won 200 MW at a price of per kW⋅h. SBG was awarded the remaining 300 MW at a price of . ACME commissioned the 200 MW capacity in September 2018.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: SECI also actioned 500 MW for on December 22, 2017. The Hero Future Energies has been awarded 300 MW and SoftBank Group 200 MW.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: South Africa's Phelan Energy Group and Avaada Power were awarded 50 MW and 100 MW of capacity, respectively. Their bids of 2.62 per kilowatt-hour were the lowest tariffs for any solar power project in India. It was also lower than NTPC's average coal power tariff of 3.20 per kilowatt-hour. SBG Cleantech, a consortium of Softbank Group, Airtel and Foxconn, was awarded the remaining 100 MW capacity at a rate of 2.63/kW⋅h.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: SECI tendered bids for the remaining 750 MW capacity in June 2017. In this way, the entire solar park will be completed by December 2018, and with 2055 MW installed capacity, it will be the one of the world's largest solar parks.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: On 22 February 2017, NTPC announced that it had commissioned 115 MW of capacity at the park. An additional 45 MW of capacity was commissioned on 8 March, and 25 MW on 18 March. NTPC announced the commissioning of 20 MW capacity at the park on 23 March, and 55 MW on 25 March 2017, taking the total commissioned capacity of the Bhadla park to 260 MW. In September 2018, 1365 MW had been commissioned.


title: Bhadla Solar Park

text: After its full capacity became operational, the park became the largest fully commissioned PV project in the world at 2,245 MW, with its investment rising to .


title: Richard II (play)

text: The Life and Death of King Richard the Second, commonly called Richard II, is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written around 1595. It is based on the life of King Richard II of England (ruled 1377–1399) and chronicles his downfall and the machinations of his nobles. It is the first part of a tetralogy, referred to by some scholars as the Henriad, followed by three plays about Richard's successors: "Henry IV, Part 1"; "Henry IV, Part 2"; and "Henry V".


title: Richard II (play)

text: Although the First Folio (1623) includes the play among the histories, the earlier Quarto edition of 1597 calls it "The tragedie of King Richard the second".


title: Richard II (play)

text: William le Scrope, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, featured in "Thomas of Woodstock" (as Sir Thomas Scroop), is an off-stage character referred to as "The Earl of Wiltshire."


title: Richard II (play)

text: The play spans only the last two years of Richard's life, from 1398 to 1400. It begins with King Richard sitting majestically on his throne in full state, having been requested to arbitrate a dispute between Thomas Mowbray and Richard's cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, later Henry IV, who has accused Mowbray of squandering money given to him by Richard for the king's soldiers and of murdering Bolingbroke's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester. Bolingbroke's father, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, meanwhile, believes it was Richard himself who was responsible for his brother's murder. After several attempts to calm both men, Richard acquiesces and it is determined that the matter be resolved in the established method of trial by battle between Bolingbroke and Mowbray, despite the objections of Gaunt.The tournament scene is very formal with a long, ceremonial introduction, but as the combatants are about to fight, Richard interrupts and sentences both to banishment from England. Bolingbroke is originally sentenced to ten years' banishment, but Richard reduces this to six years upon seeing John of Gaunt's grieving face, while Mowbray is banished permanently. The king's decision can be seen as the first mistake in a series leading eventually to his overthrow and death, since it is an error which highlights many of his character flaws, displaying as it does indecisiveness (in terms of whether to allow the duel to go ahead), abruptness (Richard waits until the last possible moment to cancel the duel), and arbitrariness (there is no apparent reason why Bolingbroke should be allowed to return and Mowbray not). In addition, the decision fails to dispel the suspicions surrounding Richard's involvement in the death of the Duke of Gloucester – in fact, by handling the situation so high-handedly and offering no coherent explanation for his reasoning, Richard only manages to appear more guilty. Mowbray predicts that the king will sooner or later fall at the hands of Bolingbroke.


title: Richard II (play)

text: After an impassioned invective against the visiting king from his sick-bed, John of Gaunt dies and Richard seizes all of his land and money. This angers the nobility, who accuse Richard of wasting England's money, of taking Gaunt's money (belonging by rights to his son, Bolingbroke) to fund war in Ireland, of taxing the commoners, and of fining the nobles for crimes committed by their ancestors. They then help Bolingbroke to return secretly to England, with a plan to overthrow Richard. There remain, however, subjects who continue to be faithful to the king, among them Bushy, Bagot, Green and the Duke of Aumerle (son of the Duke of York), cousin of both Richard and Bolingbroke. When King Richard leaves England to attend to the war in Ireland, Bolingbroke seizes the opportunity to assemble an army and invades the north coast of England. Executing both Bushy and Green, Bolingbroke wins over the Duke of York, whom Richard has left in charge of his government in his absence.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Upon Richard's return, Bolingbroke not only reclaims his lands but lays claim to the very throne. After a dramatic public ceremony where he has the captive king publicly renounce his crown, he crowns himself King Henry IV, and has Richard taken prisoner to the castle of Pomfret. Aumerle and others plan a rebellion against the new king, but York discovers his son's treachery and reveals it to Henry, who spares Aumerle as a result of the intercession of the Duchess of York while executing the other conspirators. After interpreting King Henry's "living fear" as a reference to the still-living Richard, an ambitious nobleman (Exton) goes to the prison and murders him. King Henry repudiates the murderer and vows to journey to Jerusalem to cleanse himself of his part in Richard's death.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Shakespeare's primary source for "Richard II", as for most of his chronicle histories, was Raphael Holinshed's "Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande"; the publication of the second edition in 1587 provides a "terminus post quem" for the play. Edward Hall's "The Union of the Two Illustrious Families of Lancaster and York" appears also to have been consulted, and scholars have also supposed Shakespeare familiar with Samuel Daniel's poem on the civil wars.


title: Richard II (play)

text: A somewhat more complicated case is presented by the anonymous play sometimes known as "The First Part of Richard II". This play, which exists in one incomplete manuscript copy (at the British Museum) is subtitled "Thomas of Woodstock", and it is by this name that scholars since F. S. Boas have usually called it. This play treats the events leading up to the start of Shakespeare's play (though the two texts do not have identical characters). This closeness, along with the anonymity of the manuscript, has led certain scholars to attribute all or part of the play to Shakespeare, though many critics view this play as a secondary influence on Shakespeare, not as his work.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The earliest recorded performance of "Richard II" was a private one, in Canon Row, the house of Edward Hoby, on 9 December 1595. The play was entered into the Register of the Stationers Company on 29 August 1597 by the bookseller Andrew Wise; the first quarto was published by him later that year, printed by Valentine Simmes. The second and third quartos followed in 1598 – the only time a Shakespeare play was printed in three editions in two years. Q4 followed in 1608, and Q5 in 1615. The play was next published in the First Folio in 1623.


title: Richard II (play)

text: "Richard II" exists in a number of variations. The quartos vary to some degree from one another, and the folio presents further differences. The first three quartos (printed in 1597 and 1598, commonly assumed to have been prepared from Shakespeare's holograph) lack the deposition scene. The fourth quarto, published in 1608, includes a version of the deposition scene shorter than the one later printed, presumably from a prompt-book, in the 1623 First Folio. The scant evidence makes explaining these differences largely conjectural. Traditionally, it has been supposed that the quartos lack the deposition scene because of censorship, either from the playhouse or by the Master of the Revels Edmund Tylney and that the Folio version may better reflect Shakespeare's original intentions. There is no external evidence for this hypothesis, however, and the title page of the 1608 quarto refers to a "lately acted" deposition scene (although, again, this could be due to earlier censorship which was later relaxed).


title: Richard II (play)

text: The play is divided into five acts and its structure is as formal as its language. It has a double complementary plot describing the fall of Richard II and the rise of Bolingbroke, later known as Henry IV. Critic John R. Elliott Jr. notes that this particular history play can be distinguished from the other history plays because it contains an ulterior political purpose. The normal structure of Shakespearean tragedy is modified to portray a central political theme: the rise of Bolingbroke to the throne and the conflict between Richard and Bolingbroke over the kingship. In Acts IV and V, Shakespeare includes incidents irrelevant to the fate of Richard that are later resolved in the future plays of the "Richard II"–"Henry V" tetralogy.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The literary critic Hugh M. Richmond notes that Richard's beliefs about the Divine Right of Kings tend to fall more in line with the medieval view of the throne. Bolingbroke, on the other hand, represents a more modern view of the throne by arguing that not only bloodline but also intellect and political savvy contribute to the makings of a good king. Richard believes that as king he is chosen and guided by God, he is not subject to human frailty and the English people are his to do with as he pleases. Elliott argues that mistaken notion of his role as king is what ultimately leads to Richard's failure. Elliott goes on further and points out that it is Bolingbroke's ability to relate and speak with those of the middle and lower classes that allows him to take the throne.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Unusually for Shakespeare, "Richard II" is written entirely in verse, and one of only four of his plays that are, the others being "King John" and the first and third parts of "Henry VI". It thus contains no prose. There are also great differences in the use of language amongst the characters. Traditionally, Shakespeare uses prose to distinguish social classes: the upper classes generally speak in poetry while the lower classes speak in prose. In "Richard II", there is no prose, but Richard uses flowery, metaphorical language in his speeches, whereas Bolingbroke, who is also of the noble class, uses a more plain and direct language. In "Richard II", besides the usual blank verse (unrhymed pentameters), there are long stretches of heroic couplets (pairs of rhymed pentameters). The play contains a number of memorable metaphors, including the extended comparison of England with a garden in Act III, Scene iv and of its reigning king to a lion or to the sun in Act IV.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The language of "Richard II" is more eloquent than that of the earlier history plays, and serves to set the tone and themes of the play. Shakespeare uses lengthy verses, metaphors, similes and soliloquies to reflect Richard's character as a man who likes to analyse situations rather than act upon them. He always speaks in tropes using analogies such as the sun as a symbol of his kingly status. Richard places great emphasis on symbols which govern his behaviour. His crown serves as a symbol of his royal power and is of more concern to him than his actual kingly duties.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The play was performed and published late in the reign of Elizabeth I of England, at a time when the queen's advanced age made the succession an important political concern. The historical parallels in the succession of "Richard II" may not have been intended as political comment on the contemporary situation, with the weak Richard II analogous to Queen Elizabeth and an implicit argument in favour of her replacement by a monarch capable of creating a stable dynasty, but lawyers investigating John Hayward's historical work, "The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie IV", a book previously believed to have taken from Shakespeare's "Richard II", chose to make this connection. Samuel Schoenbaum contests that Hayward had written his work prior to "Richard II", joking that "there is nothing like a hypothetical manuscript to resolve an awkwardness of chronology", as Hayward noted he had written the work several years before its publication. Hayward had dedicated his version to Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex and when Essex was arrested for rebellion in February 1601 Hayward had already been imprisoned, to strengthen the case against the earl for "incitement to the deposing of the Queen". That Hayward had made his dedication was fortunate for Shakespeare, otherwise he too might have lost his liberty over the affair.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Shakespeare's play appears to have played a minor role in the events surrounding the final downfall of Essex. On 7 February 1601, just before the uprising, supporters of the Earl of Essex, among them Charles and Joscelyn Percy (younger brothers of the Earl of Northumberland), paid for a performance at the Globe Theatre on the eve of their armed rebellion. By this agreement, reported at the trial of Essex by the Chamberlain's Men actor Augustine Phillips, the conspirators paid the company forty shillings "above the ordinary" (i.e., above their usual rate) to stage this play, which the players felt was too old and "out of use" to attract a large audience. Eleven of Essex's supporters attended the Saturday performance.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Elizabeth was aware of the political ramifications of the story of Richard II: according to a well-known but dubious anecdote, in August 1601 she was reviewing historical documents relating to the reign of Richard II when she supposedly remarked to her archivist William Lambarde, "I am Richard II, know ye not that?" In the same historical report the Queen is said to have complained that the play was performed forty times in "open streets and houses" but there is no extant evidence to corroborate this tale. At any rate, the Chamberlain's Men do not appear to have suffered for their association with the Essex group; but they were commanded to perform it for the Queen on Shrove Tuesday in 1601, the day before Essex's execution.


title: Richard II (play)

text: In his analysis of medieval political theology, "The King’s Two Bodies", Ernst Kantorowicz describes medieval kings as containing two bodies: a body natural, and a body politic. The theme of the king's two bodies is pertinent throughout "Richard II", from the exile of Bolingbroke to the deposition of King Richard II. The body natural is a mortal body, subject to all the weaknesses of mortal human beings. On the other hand, the body politic is a spiritual body which cannot be affected by mortal infirmities such as disease and old age. These two bodies form one indivisible unit, with the body politic superior to the body natural.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Many critics agree that in "Richard II", this central theme of the king's two bodies unfolds in three main scenes: the scenes at the Coast of Wales, at Flint Castle, and at Westminster. At the coast of Wales, Richard has just returned from a trip to Ireland and kisses the soil of England, demonstrating his kingly attachment to his kingdom. This image of kingship gradually fades as Bolingbroke's rebellion continues. Richard starts to forget his kingly nature as his mind becomes occupied by the rebellion. This change is portrayed in the scene at Flint Castle during which the unity of the two bodies disintegrates and the king starts to use more poetic and symbolic language. Richard's body politic has been shaken as his followers have joined Bolingbroke's army, diminishing Richard's military capacity. He has been forced to give up his jewels, losing his kingly appearance. He loses his temper at Bolingbroke, but then regains his composure as he starts to remember his divine side. At Flint Castle, Richard is determined to hang onto his kingship even though the title no longer fits his appearance. However at Westminster the image of the divine kingship is supported by the Bishop of Carlisle rather than Richard, who at this point is becoming mentally unstable as his authority slips away. Biblical references are used to liken the humbled king to the humbled Christ. The names of Judas and Pilate are used to further extend this comparison. Before Richard is sent to his death, he "un-kings" himself by giving away his crown, sceptre, and the balm that is used to anoint a king to the throne. The mirror scene is the final end to the dual personality. After examining his plain physical appearance, Richard shatters the mirror on the ground and thus relinquishes his past and present as king. Stripped of his former glory, Richard finally releases his body politic and retires to his body natural and his own inner thoughts and griefs. Critic J. Dover Wilson notes that Richard's double nature as man and martyr is the dilemma that runs through the play eventually leading to Richard's death. Richard acts the part of a royal martyr, and due to the spilling of his blood, England continually undergoes civil war for the next two generations.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The play ends with the rise of Bolingbroke to the throne, marking the start of a new era in England. According to historical research, an English translation of Machiavelli's "The Prince" might have existed as early as 1585, influencing the reigns of the kings of England. Critic Irving Ribner notes that a manifestation of Machiavellian philosophy may be seen in Bolingbroke. Machiavelli wrote "The Prince" during a time of political chaos in Italy, and writes down a formula by which a leader can lead the country out of turmoil and return it to prosperity. Bolingbroke seems to be a leader coming into power at a time England is in turmoil, and follows closely the formula stated by Machiavelli. At the start of "Richard II" Bolingbroke accuses Mowbray and ulteriorly attacks the government of King Richard. He keeps Northumberland by his side as a tool to control certain constituents. From the minute Bolingbroke comes into power, he destroys the faithful supporters of Richard such as Bushy, Green and the Earl of Wiltshire. Also, Bolingbroke is highly concerned with the maintenance of legality to the kingdom, an important principle of Machiavellian philosophy, and therefore makes Richard surrender his crown and physical accessories to erase any doubt as to the real heir to the throne. Yet, Irving Ribner still notes a few incidents where Bolingbroke does not follow true Machiavellian philosophy, such as his failure to destroy Aumerle, but such incidents are minuscule compared to the bigger events of the play. Even Bolingbroke's last statement follows Machiavellian philosophy as he alludes to making a voyage to the Holy Land, since Machiavellian philosophy states rulers must appear pious. Therefore, this particular play can be viewed as a turning point in the history of England as the throne is taken over by a more commanding king in comparison to King Richard II.


title: Richard II (play)

text: On 9 December 1595, Sir Robert Cecil enjoyed "K. Richard" at Sir Edward Hoby's house in Canon Row, and it might have been Shakespeare's "Richard II", although some suspected that it was a different play, a painting, or a historical document.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Another commissioned performance of a different type occurred at the Globe Theatre on 7 Feb. 1601. This was the performance paid for by supporters of the Earl of Essex's planned revolt (see Historical Context above).


title: Richard II (play)

text: It is said that on 30 September 1607, the crew of Capt. William Keeling acted "Richard II" aboard the British East India Company ship "The Red Dragon", off Sierra Leone, but the authenticity of this record is doubted.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The play retained its political charge in the Restoration: a 1680 adaptation at Drury Lane by Nahum Tate was suppressed for its perceived political implications. Tate attempted to mask his version, called "The Sicilian Usurper", with a foreign setting; he attempted to blunt his criticism of the Stuart court by highlighting Richard's noble qualities and downplaying his weaknesses. Neither expedient prevented the play from being "silenc'd on the third day," as Tate wrote in his preface. Lewis Theobald staged a successful and less troubled adaptation in 1719 at Lincoln's Inn Fields; Shakespeare's original version was revived at Covent Garden in 1738.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The play had limited popularity in the early twentieth century, but John Gielgud exploded onto the world's theatrical consciousness, through his performance as Richard at the Old Vic Theatre in 1929, returning to the character in 1937 and 1953 in what ultimately was considered as the definitive performance of the role. Another legendary Richard was Maurice Evans, who first played the role at the Old Vic in 1934 and then created a sensation in his 1937 Broadway performance, revived it in New York in 1940 and then immortalised it on television for the Hallmark Hall of Fame in 1954. In England, Paul Scofield, who played it at the Old Vic in 1952, was considered the definitive Richard of more modern times. In the 1968–1970 seasons of the Prospect Theatre Company, Ian McKellen made a breakthrough performance as Richard, opposite Timothy West as Bolingbroke. The production, directed by Richard Cottrell, toured Britain and Europe, featuring in the Edinburgh Festival in 1969 and on BBC TV in 1970. In 1974, Ian Richardson and Richard Pasco alternated the roles of Richard and Bolingbroke in a production from John Barton at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre: nearly fifty years later this was still a standard by which performances were being judged. One of the most accessible versions was the 1978 television production by the BBC of the play, shown as part of "The Shakespeare Plays" (a several years-long project to put all of Shakespeare's plays on tape). This version, still available on DVD, starred Derek Jacobi as Richard, with John Gielgud making an appearance as John of Gaunt. In 1997, Fiona Shaw played the role as a man. More recently, the play was staged by Trevor Nunn in modern costume at the Old Vic in 2005, with Kevin Spacey in the title role, and by Michael Grandage at the Donmar Warehouse in 2011–12 with Eddie Redmayne in the title role.


title: Richard II (play)

text: Additionally the role was played by Mark Rylance at the Globe Theatre in 2003. An often overlooked production, the lead actor handles the character in, as "The Guardian" noted, perhaps the most vulnerable way ever seen. The play returned to the Globe in 2015 with Charles Edwards in the title role.


title: Richard II (play)

text: In summer 2012, BBC Two broadcast a filmed adaptation together with other plays in the Henriad under the series title "The Hollow Crown" with Ben Whishaw as Richard II.


title: Richard II (play)

text: No film version for cinema release has ever been made; however, the 1949 film "Train of Events" includes a sub-plot featuring an amateur dramatics society performing the last scenes of "Richard II".


title: Richard II (play)

text: The Royal Shakespeare Company produced the play with David Tennant in the lead role in 2013. It has been released as a Cineplex Odeon special worldwide movie event. Tennant reprised the role for his U.S. stage debut, at BAM, in April 2016.


title: Richard II (play)

text: The Almeida Theatre, Islington, London, produced the play with Simon Russell Beale in the lead role in 2019.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: The Tom and Jerry Show is an American flash animated television series produced by Warner Bros. Animation and Turner Entertainment and animated by Renegade Animation. It is based on the "Tom and Jerry" characters and theatrical cartoon series created by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera. The series first premiered in Canada on Teletoon on March 1, 2014, and began airing on Cartoon Network in the United States on April 9, 2014, but also aired on Boomerang in the U.S.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: Beginning in 2017, the series moved to Boomerang in the U.S. The fourth season was released on February 1, 2021, on Boomerang SVOD and on the Cartoon Network app. The fifth and final season was released on the Cartoon Network app, also on February 1, and on February 2, but the season has been removed from the app and has not been added back. The fifth season also aired on Boomerang on February 15, 2021.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: The show was followed by a HBO Max series named "Tom and Jerry Special Shorts", which are by the same crew as "Looney Tunes Cartoons" and are in the vein of the classic shorts. Another series, "Tom and Jerry in New York", was also released on HBO Max on July 1, 2021, which is done by the same production team as "The Tom and Jerry Show."


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: The series follows the antics of Tom in his pursuit to catch Jerry. Each episode consists of two 11-minute segments (in the first season) and three 7-minute segments (starting from the second season) into a full-length 22-minute episode.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: Each scenario was introduced, used, or discontinued in each season. The series can follow one of these scenarios:


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: "The Tom and Jerry Show" was initially announced to consist of 26 episodes divided into 52 11-minute segments to air on Cartoon Network, with the intention to remain faithful to the original theatrical short series. The show was originally intended to premiere on Cartoon Network in 2013 before being pushed back to April 9, 2014.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: From the second season onward, the art style of the show was retooled and the series running time for the segments is now 7 minutes to more closely resemble the original MGM shorts. Because of the running time switch, the half-hour episodes contain 3 segments instead of 2.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: The series is produced by Warner Bros. Animation and Renegade Animation, with Renegade handling the actual production work under the supervision of Darrell Van Citters and Ashley Postelwaite, both of whom used to work for Warner Bros. before leaving to form Renegade in 1992. Renegade Animation is also known for producing "Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi" and "The Mr. Men Show". It is the second "Tom and Jerry" television series produced in the 16:9 widescreen aspect ratio and the first to be animated in Adobe Flash. It is also the second made-for-television iteration of the cartoons to emulate the theatrical shorts and the fifth made-for-television "Tom and Jerry" production. It was also the longest–running "Tom and Jerry" series, overtaking "Tom & Jerry Kids".


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: "The Tom and Jerry Show" premiered on March 1, 2014 on Teletoon in Canada. The series premiered on April 9, 2014 on Cartoon Network in the United States. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it began airing on April 12, 2014 on Boomerang, and also on CITV in 2016 (including all episodes following "Say Uncle"). It premiered on April 21, 2014 on Cartoon Network in India. In Australia, Cartoon Network premiered it on May 5, 2014. The series began airing on Boomerang in the United States on January 5, 2015. In Indonesia, it is currently broadcast on GTV since February 13, 2017 and on RCTI since August 13, 2017. In China, it is broadcast on China Central Television. In Japan from September 23, 2014 NHK BS Premium broadcast it with the title "New Tom and Jerry Show" on December 15, 2015. In India, the show retelecasted on 14 November 2020 with new Hindi dialogues in Cartoon Network India.


title: The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)

text: The series has received generally mixed to favorable reviews, with criticism primarily directed at the switch from traditional hand-drawn animation to flash animation since the previous "Tom and Jerry" TV series, "Tom and Jerry Tales".


title: Junior Messias

text: Walter Messias Júnior (born 13 May 1991) is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder and forward for club AC Milan.


title: Junior Messias

text: Messias started his senior career in the lower-tier, non-professional Italian divisions, being discovered by former Torino player and manager Ezio Rossi, who persuaded him to join Casale in 2015.


title: Junior Messias

text: At the end of the 2017–18 season his team Gozzano was promoted to Serie C. He made his professional Serie C debut for Gozzano on 23 September 2018 in a game against Cuneo, starting the game and played the whole match. He scored his first professional-level goal on 26 September 2018, against Piacenza.


title: Junior Messias

text: On 31 January 2019, Messias' rights were sold to Serie B club Crotone, who loaned him back to Gozzano until the end of the 2018–19 season. He finished his first professional-level season with 33 appearances (32 as a starter) and four goals. Messias made his Serie B debut for Crotone on 24 August 2019 in a game against Cosenza, starting the game and played the whole match. He was instrumental in Crotone's promotion to the Italian top flight (the second in the club history) by scoring six goals throughout the season, and was confirmed as part of the team squad for the 2020–21 Serie A campaign.


title: Junior Messias

text: He scored his first Serie A goal on 25 October 2020 against Cagliari, followed by two braces in December against Spezia and Parma.


title: Junior Messias

text: In 2021, Messias joined AC Milan on a one year loan deal with an option to buy. He made his debut for the club on 4 October 2021, coming on as a substitute in a 3–2 win over Atalanta. On 24 November, he scored his first goal for Milan on his UEFA Champions League debut; he scored the only goal of a 1–0 group stage win over Atlético Madrid. Messias described his header as "the most important moment of [his] career".. On 1 December 2021, he received his first league start scoring a brace in a 3–0 away win for Milan against Genoa.


title: Junior Messias

text: On 17 January against Spezia, Messias last minute goal and potentially the winner was controversially disallowed by the referee due to a beforehand foul on his teammate, Rebic, Spezia went on to score the second and win 2–1, the referee apologized to Milan players for the incident. On 19 February, he scored the opener against Salernitana in 2–2 draw. On 15 April, he scored against Genoa again to seal 2–0 win.


title: Junior Messias

text: On 15 May he provided the assist to Leao against Atalanta in the first goal as Milan won 2–0, One week later Milan was crowned The Scudetto title after 11 year absence. Overall Messias contribution in the campaign was 5 goals and 2 assists in 26 matches.


title: Junior Messias

text: A Brazilian by birth, Messias moved to Italy in 2011 together with his wife and son, joining his brother in Turin, where he started working in the delivery sector and playing football for an amateur team of the local Peruvian community in his free time.


title: The Little Drummer Girl (TV series)

text: The Little Drummer Girl is a British television drama based on the 1983 novel of the same name by John le Carré and first aired on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 28 October 2018 and on AMC in the United States during November 2018.


title: The Little Drummer Girl (TV series)

text: In 1979, an aspiring English actress is recruited by Mossad to infiltrate a Palestinian group plotting terrorism in Europe.


title: The Little Drummer Girl (TV series)

text: The series holds an approval rating of 95% based on 67 critics, and an average score of 7.77/10 on Rotten Tomatoes. The critics' consensus reads ""The Little Drummer Girl" marches to a steady beat of assured plotting, extraordinary art direction, and a uniformly terrific cast that makes the show's smolderingly slow burn pace bearable." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 75 out of 100 based on 18 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Little Drummer Girl (TV series)

text: Alan Sepinwell of "Rolling Stone" awarded "The Little Drummer Girl" 3.5 out of five stars, praising the acting and lush presentation but criticizing what he regarded as the show's "convoluted" story. He observed that it followed the formula of the critically acclaimed "The Night Manager" television series, an adaptation of another one of Le Carré's novels. Judy Berman, reviewing for "TIME", praised the TV series for its suspense, exploring moral dilemmas and the legacy of British foreign policy in the Middle East, and for having nuanced characters on both sides.


title: The Little Drummer Girl (TV series)

text: Troy Patterson of "The New Yorker" described the series as a "subtly nutty geopolitical thriller distilled to an exercise in psychological suspense". He also praised Florence Pugh, Alexander Skarsgård, and Michael Shannon's performances as the main protagonists Charlie Ross, Gadi Becker, and Martin Kurtz. Matt Zoller Seitz of "Vulture" described the series as "a lavishly produced, intelligent, tasteful mixed bag, more interesting to think about than to watch." Jesse Schedeen of IGN awarded the series 8.2 out of 10, praising Pugh's "mesmerizing" performance and Park Chan-Wook's strong directorial vision for overcoming its storytelling flaws.


title: Hunger strike

text: A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke a feeling of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not solid food.


title: Hunger strike

text: In cases where an entity (usually the state) has or is able to obtain custody of the hunger striker (such as a prisoner), the hunger strike is often terminated by the custodial entity through the use of force-feeding.


title: Hunger strike

text: Fasting was used as a method of protesting injustice in pre-Christian Ireland, where it was known as "Troscadh" or "Cealachan". Detailed in the contemporary civic codes, it had specific rules by which it could be used. The fast was often carried out on the doorstep of the home of the offender. Scholars speculate that this was due to the high importance the culture placed on hospitality. Allowing a person to die at one's doorstep, for a wrong of which one was accused, was considered a great dishonor. Others say that the practice was to fast for one whole night, as there is no evidence of people fasting to death in pre-Christian Ireland. The fasts were primarily undertaken to recover debts or get justice for a perceived wrong. There are legends of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, using the hunger strike as well.


title: Hunger strike

text: In India, the practice of a hunger protest, where the protester fasts at the door of an offending party (typically a debtor) in a public call for justice, was abolished by the government in 1861; this indicates the prevalence of the practice prior to that date, or at least a public awareness of it.


title: Hunger strike

text: In the first three days, the body is still using energy from glucose. After that, the liver starts processing body fat, in a process called ketosis. After depleting fat, the body enters a "starvation mode". At this point the body "mines" the muscles and vital organs for energy, and loss of bone marrow becomes life-threatening. There are examples of hunger strikers dying after 46 to 73 days of strike, for example the 1981 Irish hunger strike.


title: Hunger strike

text: In the early 20th century suffragettes frequently endured hunger strikes in British prisons. Marion Dunlop was the first in 1909. She was released, as the authorities did not want her to become a martyr. Other suffragettes in prison also undertook hunger strikes. The prison authorities subjected them to force-feeding, which the suffragettes categorized as a form of torture. Emmeline Pankhurst's sister Mary Clarke died shortly after being force-fed in prison, and others including Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton are believed to have had serious health problems caused by force feeding, dying of a heart attack not long after. William Ball, a working class supporter of women's suffrage, was the subject of a pamphlet "Torture in an English Prison" not only due to the effects of force-feeding, but a cruel separation from family contact and mental health deterioration, secret transfer to a lunatic asylum and needed lifelong mental institutional care.


title: Hunger strike

text: In 1913 the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913 (nicknamed the "Cat and Mouse Act") changed policy. Hunger strikes were tolerated but prisoners were released when they became sick. When they had recovered, the suffragettes were taken back to prison to finish their sentences. About 100 women received medals for hunger striking or enduring force-feeding.


title: Hunger strike

text: Like their British counterparts, American suffragettes also used this method of political protest. A few years before the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, a group of American suffragettes led by Alice Paul engaged in a hunger strike and endured forced feedings while incarcerated at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia.


title: Hunger strike

text: Hunger strikes have deep roots in Irish society and in the Irish psyche. Fasting in order to bring attention to an injustice which one felt under his lord, and thus shame him, was a common feature of early Irish society and this tactic was fully incorporated into the Brehon legal system. The tradition is ultimately most likely part of the still older Indo-European tradition of which the Irish were part. Within the 20th century a total of 22 Irish republicans died on hunger strike with survivors suffering long term health and psychological effects.


title: Hunger strike

text: The tactic was used by physical force republicans during the 1916–23 revolutionary period. Early use of hunger strikes was countered with force-feeding, culminating in 1917 in the death of Thomas Ashe in Mountjoy Prison. During the Anglo-Irish war, in October 1920, the Lord Mayor of Cork, Terence MacSwiney, died on hunger strike in Brixton prison. At the same time, the 1920 Cork hunger strike took place. Two other Cork Irish Republican Army (IRA) men, Joe Murphy and Michael Fitzgerald, died in this protest. Over a period of 94 days, from August 11 to November 12, 1920, John and Peter Crowley, Thomas O'Donovan, Michael Burke, Michael O'Reilly, Christopher Upton, John Power, Joseph Kenny and Seán Hennessy, demanding reinstatement of political status and release from prison, undertook a hunger strike at Cork County Gaol. Arthur Griffith called off the strikes after the deaths of MacSwiney, Murphy and Fitzgerald.


title: Hunger strike

text: During the early 1920s, the vessel was used as a prison ship for the holding of Irish republicans by the British. Conditions on board were "unbelievable" and there were several hunger strikes, including one involving upwards of 150 men in the winter of 1923.


title: Hunger strike

text: In February 1923, 23 women (members of Cumann na mBan) went on hunger strike for 34 days over the arrest and imprisonment without trial of Irish republican prisoners. The Free State subsequently released the women republican prisoners. Most of the male republicans were not released until the following year. After the end of the Irish Civil War in October 1923, up to 8,000 IRA prisoners went on hunger strike to protest their continued detention by the Irish Free State (a total of over 12,000 republicans had been interned by May 1923). Three men, Denny Barry, Joseph Whitty, and Andy O'Sullivan, died during the 1923 Irish Hunger Strikes. The strike, however, was called off by Republican leadership in the camps (23 November 1923) before any more deaths occurred.


title: Hunger strike

text: Under de Valera's first Fianna Fáil government in 1932, military pensions were awarded to dependants of republicans who died in 1920s hunger strikes on the same basis as those who were killed in action. During the state of emergency of World War II another De Valera government interned many IRA members, three of whom died on hunger strike: Sean McCaughey, Tony D'Arcy and Jack McNeela. Hundreds of others carried out shorter hunger strikes during the de Valera years.


title: Hunger strike

text: The tactic was revived by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) in the early 1970s, when several republicans successfully used hunger strikes to get themselves released from custody without charge in the Republic of Ireland. Michael Gaughan died after being force-fed in Parkhurst Prison in 1974. Frank Stagg, an IRA member being held in Wakefield Prison, died in 1976 after a 62-day hunger strike which he began as a campaign to be repatriated to Ireland.


title: Hunger strike

text: In 1980, seven Irish Republican prisoners, six from the IRA and one from the Irish National Liberation Army, in the Maze Prison launched a hunger strike as a protest against the revocation by the British Government of a prisoner-of-war-like Special Category Status for paramilitary prisoners in Northern Ireland. The strike, led by Brendan Hughes, was called off before any deaths, when the British government seemed to offer to concede their demands; however, the British Government then reneged on the details of the agreement. The prisoners then called another hunger strike the following year. This time, instead of many prisoners striking at the same time, the hunger strikers started fasting one after the other in order to maximise publicity over the fate of each one.


title: Hunger strike

text: Bobby Sands was the first of ten Irish republican paramilitary prisoners to die after 66 days during the 1981 hunger strike, with Kieran Doherty being the last to die after 71 days. There was widespread sympathy for the hunger strikers from Irish republicans and the broader nationalist community on both sides of the Irish border. Sands was elected as an MP for Fermanagh and South Tyrone to the United Kingdom's House of Commons and two other prisoners, Paddy Agnew (who was not a hunger striker) and Kieran Doherty, were elected to Dáil Éireann in the Republic of Ireland by electorates who wished to register their opposition to the British Government's policy. The ten men survived without food for 46 to 73 days, taking only water and salt, before succumbing. After the deaths of the men and severe public disorder, the British Government granted partial concessions to the prisoners, and the strike was called off. The hunger strikes gave a significant propaganda boost to a previously severely demoralised IRA.


title: Hunger strike

text: Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned in 1908, 1909, 1913, 1917, 1919, 1922, 1930, 1932, 1933, and 1942. Because of Gandhi's stature around the world, British authorities were loath to allow him to die in their custody; Gandhi engaged in several famous hunger strikes to protest British rule of India.


title: Hunger strike

text: In addition to Gandhi, various others used the hunger strike option during the Indian independence movement, including Jatin Das, who fasted to death, and Bhagat Singh. It was only on the 116th day of their fast, on October 5, 1929, that Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt gave up their strike (surpassing the 97-day world record for hunger strikes which was set by an Irish revolutionary). During this hunger strike that lasted 116 days and ended with the British succumbing to his wishes, he gained much popularity among the common Indians. Before the strike his popularity was limited mainly to the Punjab region.


title: Hunger strike

text: Potti Sriramulu was an Indian revolutionary who died after undertaking a hunger strike for 58 days in 1952 after Indian independence in an attempt to achieve the formation of a separate state, to be known as Andhra State. His death became instrumental in the linguistic re-organisation of states.


title: Hunger strike

text: He is revered as "Amarajeevi" (Immortal being) in Coastal Andra for his role in achieving the linguistic re-organisation of states. As a devout follower of Mahatma Gandhi, he worked for much of his life to uphold principles such as truth, non-violence and patriotism, as well as causes such as Harijan movement to end the traditional alienation of, and accord respect and humane treatment to those traditionally called "untouchables" in Indian society.


title: Hunger strike

text: On April 3, 1972, Pedro Luis Boitel, an imprisoned poet and dissident, declared himself on hunger strike. After 53 days on hunger strike, receiving only liquids, he died of starvation on May 25, 1972. His last days were related by his close friend, poet Armando Valladares. He was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cólon Cemetery in Havana.


title: Hunger strike

text: Guillermo Fariñas did a seven-month hunger strike to protest against the extensive Internet censorship in Cuba. He ended it in Autumn 2006, with severe health problems although still conscious. Reporters Without Borders awarded its cyber-freedom prize to Guillermo Fariñas in 2006.


title: Hunger strike

text: Jorge Luis García Pérez (known as Antúnez) has done hunger strikes. In 2009, following the end of his 17-year imprisonment, Antúnez, his wife Iris, and Diosiris Santana Pérez started a hunger strike to support other political prisoners. Leaders from Uruguay, Costa Rica, and Argentina declared their support for Antúnez.


title: Hunger strike

text: On February 23, 2010, Orlando Zapata, a dissident arrested in 2003 as part of a crackdown on opposition groups, died in a hospital while undertaking a hunger strike that had been ongoing for 85 days. His hunger strike was a protest against poor prison conditions. Amnesty International had declared him a prisoner of conscience.


title: Hunger strike

text: In Turkey, the hunger strike has been used as a form of resistance historically, however, it was not until after the coup of September 12, 1980, that hunger strikes were recognised as a national issue in Turkey when a hunger strike was held at Diyarbakir Prison to protest inhumane practices in the prison. Other large-scale hunger strikes include one that took place at Buca Prison in 1996, in which 12 prisoners lost their lives, and another that began in October 2000 in prisons throughout the country to oppose the construction and transfer of prisoners to F-type prisons, which are high-security and isolate prisoners from lawyers, families, and other outsiders, and in which 107 people lost their lives by the middle of 2003.


title: Hunger strike

text: Article 8 of the 1975 World Medical Association Declaration of Tokyo states that doctors are not allowed to force-feed hunger strikers. They are supposed to understand the prisoner's independent wishes, and it is recommended to have a second opinion as to the capability of the prisoner to understand the implication of their decision and be capable of informed consent.


title: Hunger strike

text: The World Medical Association (WMA) recently revised and updated its Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers. Among many changes, it unambiguously states that force feeding is a form of inhumane and degrading treatment in its Article 21.


title: Hunger strike

text: The American Medical Association (AMA) is a member of the WMA, but the AMA's members are not bound by the WMA's decisions, as neither organization has formal legal powers. The AMA has formally endorsed the WMA Declaration of Tokyo and has written several letters to the US government and made public statements in opposition to US physician involvement in force feeding of hunger strikers in contravention of medical ethics. The United States Code of Federal Regulations rule on hunger strikes by prisoners states, "It is the responsibility of the Bureau of Prisons to monitor the health and welfare of individual inmates, and to ensure that procedures are pursued to preserve life." It further provides that when "a medical necessity for immediate treatment of a life or health threatening situation exists, the physician may order that treatment be administered without the consent of the inmate."


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Old Great Bulgaria or Great Bulgaria (Medieval Greek: Παλαιά Μεγάλη Βουλγαρία, "Palaiá Megálē Voulgaría"), also often known by the Latin names "Magna Bulgaria" and "Patria Onoguria" ("Onogur land"), was a 7th-century nomadic empire formed by the Onogur Bulgars on the western Pontic–Caspian steppe (modern southern Ukraine and southwest Russia). Great Bulgaria was originally centered between the Dniester and lower Volga.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: The original capital was Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula between the Black and Azov seas. In the mid-7th century, Great Bulgaria expanded west to include Avar territory and was centered on Poltava. During the late 7th century, however, an Avar-Slavic alliance in the west, and Khazars in the east, defeated the Bulgars, and Great Bulgaria disintegrated. Successor states are the First Bulgarian Empire and Volga Bulgaria.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: The etymology of the ethnonym "Bulgar" is not completely understood; it is difficult to trace the name back earlier than the 4th century AD. It is generally believed to derive from the Turkic verb "bulğha" (to "stir", "mix", "disturb", "confuse"), possibly suggesting that other Turkic peoples regarded the Bulgars as a "mixed" people, or as "rebellious".


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Later Byzantine scholars implied that the Bulgars had previously been known as the Onogurs ("Onoğur"). Agathon wrote about the "nation of Onogur Bulğars", Nikephoros I stated that Kubrat was lord of the "Onogundurs", Theophanes referred to them as "Onogundur Bulgars" and Constantine VII remarked that the Bulgars formerly called themselves "Onogundurs". Variations of the name include "Onoguri, Onoghuri, Onghur, Ongur, Onghuri, Onguri, Onogundur, Unogundur", and "Unokundur". There are several theories about the origin of the name "Onogur". In some Turkic languages "on" means "10" and "ğur" "arrow"; and "ten arrows" might imply a federation of ten tribes, i.e. the Western Turkic Khaganate. Within the Turkic languages, "z" sounds in the easternmost languages tend to have become "r" in the westernmost Turkic languages; therefore, the ethnonym Oghuz may be the source of "Oghur"; that is, "on Oğur" would mean "ten clans of Oghuz".


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Between 630 and 635, Khan Kubrat managed to unite the Onogur Bulgars with the tribes of the Kutrigurs and Utigurs under a single rule, creating a powerful confederation which was referred to by the medieval authors in Western Europe as Old Great Bulgaria, or "Patria Onoguria". According to some scholars, it is more correctly called the Onogundur-Bulgar Empire.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Some scholars assume that it stretched as far west as the Pannonian Plain and included among its subjects some of the Pannonian Avars. It is presumed that Kubrat's capital was the ancient city of Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula. Kubrat's grave was discovered in 1912 at Pereshchepina, Ukraine.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: According to the "Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans", Kubrat was from the royal clan Dulo and a rightful heir to the Bulgar throne. He was awarded the title of patrician (honorary, high title for a nobleman) by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius. Hermann Zotenberg (1883), while translating John of Nikiu's "Chronicles" from Old Ethiopian, intentionally replaced the name Qetrades to Kubrat. Since then, the historiography holds a misconception that Kubrat was raised and baptized by the Byzantine court, while John's character Qetrades has no real-life connection to the ruler of the Great Bulgaria Kubrat.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Kubrat quickly managed to overthrow Avar domination, extending Onogur influence among the Bulgars in Pannonia in what became known as Hungary. Ultimately, although there is no evidence that the Utigurs were independent of the Onogurs until after Kubrat's empire disintegrated, it is believed he seceded from the Onogurs when they became entangled in dynastic wars. After Kubrat's burial in Mala Pereshchepina, the Khazars, who had triumphed in the collapse of Onoguria, subjugated Kubrat's eldest son and heir Batbayan, forcing his other sons to flee north up the Volga (2nd son Kotrag) and west into the Balkans (4th son Kuber and 3rd son Asparukh) and Italy (5th son Alcek, Alzek)


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: The events following Kubrat's death are described by the Byzantine Patriarch Nikephoros I. In the times of Emperor Constantine IV, he narrates, Kubrat died and Batbayan, the eldest of his five sons, was left in charge of the state. Under strong Khazar pressure, Kubrat's other sons disregarded their father's advice to stay together in order to resist the enemies and soon departed, taking their own tribes.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Some also believe that the present-day Balkars of the Caucasus are the descendants of the Batbayan horde even though they speak a Turkic language of the Kipchak type.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: After Kotrag, the leader of the Kutrigurs, took control on the western steppe, Batbayan led them into the upper Volga-Ural region. There they established Volga Bulgaria, at the confluence of the Volga and Kama. As the Volga or Silver Bulgars ("Bessermens"), they converted voluntarily to Islam in the 9th century. They managed to preserve their national identity well into the 13th century, by repelling the first Mongol attacks in 1223. However, they were eventually subdued, their capital Bolghar city became one of major cities of the Golden Horde of the Mongols and the Bulgars mixed with the Tatars. The citizens of the modern Russian republics of Tatarstan and Chuvashia are considered to be descendants of those Bulgars.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Kuber ruled in Sirmium over a mixed group of peoples – Bulgars, Byzantine subjects, Slavs, and Germanic tribes – as a vassal of the Avar Khagan. After a revolt he led his people to Macedonia. There he settled in the region of Keremisia and made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city of Thessaloniki. After this, he disappears from history and his people were later consolidated into the First Bulgarian Empire by Khan Krum.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Other Bulgars, circa 662, led by their "Duke Alzeco" (Alcek) sought refuge from the Avars with the Lombards and requested land from the Lombard King Grimoald I in exchange for military service "for an uncertain reason", initially staying near Ravenna and later moving further south. Grimoald sent Alcek and his followers to his son Romuald in Benevento and they were then granted by Romuald land northeast of Naples in the "spacious but up till that time deserted" towns of Sepino, Bovianum (Boiano), and Isernia, in the present-day region of Molise in the Apennines. Instead of the title "Duke", Altzek was granted the Lombard title of "Gastald". Paul the Deacon in his "Historia Langobardorum" writing after the year 787 says that in his time Bulgars still inhabited the area, and that even though they speak "Latin", "they have not forsaken the use of their own tongue".


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: Excavations in the necropolis of Vicenne-Campochiaro near Boiano, which dates from the 7th century, found among 130 burials that there were 13 human burials alongside horses along with artifacts of Germanic and Avar origin. Horse burials are characteristic of Central Asian horse-nomads, and therefore these burials are clearly those of the Bulgar settlers of Molise and Campania.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: After the state disintegrated under Khazar attack in 668, Asparukh parted ways with his brothers and led some of the Bulgars to seek a secure home. He was followed by 30,000 to 50,000 Bulgars.


title: Old Great Bulgaria

text: After the Battle of Ongal, Asparukh founded the First Bulgarian Empire, which was officially recognized as an independent state by the Byzantine Empire in 681.


title: Symone (drag queen)

text: Reggie Gavin (born January 14, 1995), known by the stage name Symone, is an American drag queen and model. She is best known as the winner of season 13 of "RuPaul's Drag Race" (2021). She is a member of the queer art collective House of Avalon.


title: Symone (drag queen)

text: Born Reggie Gavin, Symone was raised in Conway, Arkansas, as the youngest of three children, with two siblings who are significantly older. A shy child due to anxiety about being gay, Symone discovered drag as a teenager in 2009 after "RuPaul's Drag Race" debuted, and began to experiment with makeup and drag, attending senior prom in a dress.