text: In 638 CE, the Byzantine Empire lost the Levant to the Arab Islamic Empire. According to Moshe Gil, at the time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century, the majority of the population was Jewish or Samaritan. According to one estimate, the Jews of Palestine numbered between 300,000 and 400,000 at the time. This is contrary to other estimates which place the Jewish population at the time of the revolt against Heraclius as between 150,000 and 200,000. After the conquest, Arabs gradually became the majority population of the land, with Arab culture, language, and the religion of Islam dominating. The Muslims continued to ban the building of new synagogues. Until the Crusades took Palestine in 1099, various Muslim dynasties controlled Palestine. It was first ruled by the Medinah-based Rashidun Caliphs, then by the Damascus-based Umayyad Caliphate and after by the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphs. In the early Middle Ages, the Jewish communities of Palestine were dispersed among the key cities of the military districts of Jund Filastin and Jund al-Urdunn, with a number of poor Jewish villages existing in the Galilee and Judea.


title: History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel

text: In succeeding centuries a common view is that Christians and Muslims were equally divided. The conversion of the Christians to Islam -Gil maintaining they were a majority- is generally thought to have occurred on a large scale only after the Crusades, in the wake of Saladin's conquest, and as a result of disaffection for the Latins.


text: Historical sources mentions the settlement of Arab tribes and the establishment of new settlements in the 7th century, although little archaeological records have been preserved. However some Arabian settlements like Khirbet Suwwwana, located on outskirts of Jerusalem provides archaeological records of Islamic nomadic settlement and sedentarization among local population. The establishment of new Arab settlements during 7th and 8th century was relatively rare. The religious transformation of the land is evident with large congregation style mosques built in cities like Tiberias, Jarash, Beth Shean, Jerusalem and possibly Cesarea. However the establishment of these mosques point to the influx of Muslim newcomers, rather than to conversion of Jews and Christians to Islam. The settlement map of the land changed dramatically between 6th and 11th century. The sixth century map revealed an urban and rural society at its height, while the 11th century map shows a society that was economically and physically stagnant veering toward total collapse.


text: After the conquest, Jewish communities began to grow and flourish. Umar allowed and encouraged Jews to settle in Jerusalem. It was first time, after almost 500 years of oppressive Christian rule, that Jews were allowed to enter and worship freely in their holy city. Seventy Jewish families from Tiberias moved to Jerusalem in order to help strengthen the Jewish community there. But with the construction of the Dome of the Rock in 691 and the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 705, the Muslims established the Temple Mount as an Islamic holy site. The dome enshrined the Foundation Stone, the holiest site for Jews. Before Omar Abd al-Aziz died in 720, he banned the Jews from worshipping on the Temple Mount, a policy which remained in place for over the next 1,000 years of Islamic rule. In 717, new restrictions were imposed against non-Muslims that affected the Jews' status. As a result of the imposition of heavy taxes on agricultural land, many Jews were forced to migrate from rural areas to towns. Social and economic discrimination caused substantial Jewish emigration from Palestine. In addition, Muslim civil wars in the 8th and 9th centuries drove many non-Muslims out of the country, with no evidence of mass conversions except among Samaritans. By the end of the 11th century, the Jewish population of Palestine had declined substantially and lost some of its organizational and religious cohesiveness.


text: In around 875, Karaite leader Daniel al-Kumisi arrived in Jerusalem and established an ascetic community of Mourners of Zion. Michael the Syrian notes thirty synagogues which were destroyed in Tiberias by the earthquake of 749.


text: In the mid-8th-century, taking advantage of the warring Islamic factions in Palestine, a Persian Jewish false messiah from Isfahan named Abu Isa Obadiah inspired and organised a group of 10,000 armed Jews who hoped to restore the Holy Land to the Jewish nation. Soon after, when Al-Mansur came to power, Abu Isa joined forces with a Persian chieftain who was also conducting a rebellion against the caliph. The rebellion was subdued by the caliph and Abu Isa fell in battle in 755.


text: From at least the middle of the ninth century, possibly earlier, to the 11th century, the Palestinian Gaonate served as the chief Talmudic academy and central legalistic body of the Jewish community in Palestine. The Gaonate moved from Tiberias to Jerusalem in the mid-ninth century. It competed with the Babylonian Gaonate for the support of diaspora communities. In 1071, after Jerusalem was conquered by the Seljuq Turks, the Gaonate was expelled from Jerusalem and relocated to Tyre.


text: In 1039, part of the synagogue in Ramla was still in ruins, probably resulting from the earthquake of 1033. Jews also returned to Rafah and documents from 1015 and 1080 attest to a significant community there.


text: A large Jewish community existed in Ramle and smaller communities inhabited Hebron and the coastal cities of Acre, Caesarea, Jaffa, Ashkelon and Gaza. Al-Muqaddasi (985) wrote that "for the most part the assayers of corn, dyers, bankers, and tanners are Jews." Under the Islamic rule, the rights of Jews and Christians were curtailed and residence was permitted upon payment of the special tax.


text: Between the 7th and 11th centuries, Masoretes (Jewish scribes) in the Galilee and Jerusalem were active in compiling a system of pronunciation and grammatical guides of the Hebrew language. They authorised the division of the Jewish Tanakh, known as the Masoretic Text, which is regarded as authoritative till today.


text: According to Gilbert, from 1099 to 1291 the Christian Crusaders "mercilessly persecuted and slaughtered the Jews of Palestine."


text: In the crusading era, there were significant Jewish communities in several cities and Jews are known to have fought alongside Arabs against the Christian invaders. During the First Crusade, Jews were among the rest of the population who tried in vain to defend Jerusalem against the Crusaders during the Siege of Jerusalem. When Jerusalem fell, a massacre of 6,000 Jews occurred when the synagogue they were seeking refuge in was set alight. Almost all perished. In Haifa, the Jewish inhabitants fought side by side with Muslims in defending the city, and held out for a whole month, (June–July 1099).


text: Under Crusader rule, Jews were not allowed to hold land and involved themselves in commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most of them were artisans: glassblowers in Sidon, furriers and dyers in Jerusalem. At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and Gaza. In line with trail of bloodshed the Crusaders left in Europe on their way to conquer the Holy Land, in Palestine, both Muslims and Jews were indiscriminately massacred or sold into slavery. The Jewish community in Jerusalem was destroyed and would not be reconstituted for years, as most Jewish residents of the city were killed and the survivors were sold into slavery, some of whom were later redeemed by Jewish communities in Italy and Egypt. The redeemed slaves were subsequently brought to Egypt. Some Jewish prisoners of war were also deported by the Crusaders to Apulia in southern Italy. The Jewish communities of Jaffa and Ramleh were dispersed. However, Jewish communities in the Galilee were left unscathed.


text: Jewish communities in Palestine were apparently left undisturbed during the Second Crusade. Benjamin of Tudela and Pethahiah of Regensburg, who visited Palestine around 1160 and 1180 respectively, found well-established Jewish communities in Ashkelon, Ramleh, Caesarea, Tiberias, and Acre, with communities in other localities and scattered individual Jews living elsewhere. However, they found only a handful of Jews in Jerusalem.


text: A large volume of piyutim and midrashim originated in Palestine at this time. In 1165 Maimonides visited Jerusalem and prayed on the Temple Mount, in the "great, holy house". In 1141 Spanish poet, Yehuda Halevi, issued a call to the Jews to emigrate to the Land of Israel, a journey he undertook himself.


text: The Crusader rule over Palestine had taken its toll on the Jews. Relief came in 1187 when Ayyubid Sultan Saladin defeated the Crusaders in the Battle of Hattin, taking Jerusalem and most of Palestine. (A Crusader state centered around Acre survived in weakened form for another century.) In time, Saladin issued a proclamation inviting all Jews to return and settle in Jerusalem, and according to Judah al-Harizi, they did: "From the day the Arabs took Jerusalem, the Israelites inhabited it." al-Harizi compared Saladin's decree allowing Jews to re-establish themselves in Jerusalem to the one issued by the Persian Cyrus the Great over 1,600 years earlier.


text: In 1211, the Jewish community in the country was strengthened by the arrival of a group headed by over 300 rabbis from France and England, among them Rabbi Samson ben Abraham of Sens. The motivation of European Jews to emigrate to the Holyland in the 13th-century possibly lay in persecution, economic hardship, messianic expectations or the desire to fulfill the commandments specific to the land of Israel. In 1217, Spanish pilgrim Judah al-Harizi found the sight of the non-Jewish structures on the Temple Mount profoundly disturbing: "What torment to see our holy courts converted into an alien temple!" he wrote. During his visit, al-Harizi found a prosperous Jewish community living in the city. From 1219 to 1220, most of Jerusalem was destroyed on the orders of Al-Mu'azzam Isa, who wanted to remove all Crusader fortifications in the Levant, and as a result, the Jewish community, along with the majority of the rest of the population, left the city.


text: Nachmanides, the 13th-century Spanish rabbi and recognised leader of Jewry greatly praised the land of Israel and viewed its settlement as a positive commandment incumbent on all Jews. He wrote, "If the gentiles wish to make peace, we shall make peace and leave them on clear terms; but as for the land, we shall not leave it in their hands, nor in the hands of any nation, not in any generation." In 1267 he arrived in Jerusalem and found only two Jewish inhabitants – brothers, dyers by trade. Wishing to re-establish a strong Jewish presence in the holy city, he brought a Torah scroll from Nablus and founded a synagogue. Nahmanides later settled at Acre, where he headed a yeshiva together with Yechiel of Paris who had emigrated to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers. Upon arrival, he had established the "Beth Midrash ha-Gadol d'Paris" Talmudic academy where one of the greatest Karaite authorities, Aaron ben Joseph the Elder, was said to have attended.


text: In 1260, control passed to the Egyptian Mamluks and until 1291 Palestine became the frontier between Mongol invaders (occasional Crusader allies). The conflict impoverished the country and severely reduced the population. Sultan Qutuz of Egypt eventually defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut (near Ein Harod) and his successor (and assassin), Baibars, eliminated the last Crusader Kingdom of Acre in 1291, thereby ending the Crusader presence. Mamluk rule was to last until the Ottoman Empire conquered Palestine in 1517.


text: The era of Mamluk rule saw the Jewish population shrink substantially due to oppression and economic stagnation. The Mamluks razed Palestine's coastal cities, which had traditionally been trading centers that energized the economy, as they had also served as entry points for the Crusaders and the Mamluks wished to prevent any further Christian conquests. Mamluk misrule resulted in severe social and economic decline, and as the economy shrank, so did tax revenues, leading the Mamluks to raise taxes, with non-Muslims being taxed especially heavily. They also stringently enforced the "dhimmi" laws and added new oppressive and humiliating rules on top of the traditional dhimmi laws. Palestine's population decreased by two-thirds as people left the country and the Jewish and Christian communities declined especially heavily. Muslims became an increasingly larger percentage of the shrinking population. Although the Jewish population declined greatly during Mamluk rule, this period also saw repeated waves of Jewish immigration from Europe, North Africa, and Syria. These immigration waves possibly saved the collapsing Jewish community of Palestine from disappearing altogether.


text: In 1266 the Mamluk Sultan Baybars converted the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron into an exclusive Islamic sanctuary and banned Christians and Jews from entering. They previously were able to enter it for a fee. The ban remained in place until Israel took control of the building in 1967. In 1286, leader of German Jewry Meir of Rothenburg, was imprisoned by Rudolf I for attempting to lead a large group of Jews hoping to settle in Palestine. Exiled from France in 1306, Ishtori Haparchi (d. 1355) arrived in Palestine and settled Bet She'an in 1313. Over the next seven years, he compiled an informative geographical account of the land in which he attempts to identify biblical and talmudic era locations. Two other noted Spanish kabbalists, Hananel ibn Askara and Shem Tov ibn Gaon, emigrated to Safed around this time. During the tolerant reign of Nassir Mahomet (1299–1341) Jewish pilgrims from Egypt and Syria were able to spend the festivals in Jerusalem, which had a large Jewish community. Many of the Jerusalem Jews occupied themselves with study of the codes and the kabbalah. Others were artisans, merchants, calligraphers, or physicians. The vibrant community of Hebron engaged in weaving, dyeing, and glassware manufacturing; others were shepherds.


text: The 1428 attempt by German Jews to acquire rooms and buildings on Mount Zion over the Tomb of David had dire consequences. The Franciscans, who had occupied the site since 1335, petitioned Pope Martin V who issued a papal order prohibiting sea captains from carrying Jews to Palestine. In 1438, Italian rabbi Elijah of Ferrara settled in Jerusalem and became a lecturer and "dayyan". In 1455, a large group of prospective emigrants from across Sicily were arrested for attempting to sail to Palestine. Not wanting to forfeit revenue made from special Jewish taxes, the authorities were against the mass emigration of Jews and accused the group of planning to illegally smuggle gold off the island. After nine months of imprisonment, a heavy ransom freed 24 Jews who were then granted permission to travel to Palestine so long as they abandoned all their property.


text: In 1470, Isaac b. Meir Latif arrived from Ancona and counted 150 Jewish families in Jerusalem. In 1473, the authorities closed down the Nachmanides Synagogue after part of it had collapsed in a heavy rainstorm. A year later, after an appealing to Sultan Qaitbay, the Jews were given permission to repair it. The Muslims of the adjoining mosque however contested the verdict and for two days, proceeded to demolish the synagogue completely. The vandals were punished, but the synagogue was only rebuilt 50 years later in 1523. 1481 saw Italian Joseph Mantabia being appointed "dayyan" in Jerusalem. A few years later in 1488, Italian commentator and spiritual leader of Jewry, Obadiah ben Abraham arrived in Jerusalem. He found the city forsaken holding about seventy poor Jewish families. By 1495, there were 200 families. Obadiah, a dynamic and erudite leader, had begun the rejuvenation of Jerusalem's Jewish community. This, despite the fact many refugees from the Spanish and Portuguese expulsion of 1492-97 stayed away worried about the lawlessness of Mamluk rule. An anonymous letter of the time lamented: "In all these lands there is no judgement and no judge, especially for the Jews against Arabs." Mass immigration would start after the Turks conquered the region in 1517. Yet in Safed, the situation fared better. Thanks to Joseph Saragossi who had arrived in the closing years of the 15th century, Safed and its environs had developed into the largest concentration of Jews in Palestine. With the help of the Sephardic immigration from Spain, the Jewish population had increased to 10,000 by the early 16th century. Twenty-five years earlier Joseph Mantabia had counted just 300 families in and around Safed. The first record of Jews at Safed was provided by French explorer Samuel ben Samson 300 years earlier in 1210 when he found only 50 Jews in residence. At the beginning of the 17th century, Safed was to boast eighteen talmudical colleges and twenty-one synagogues.


text: Records cite at least 30 Jewish urban and rural communities in the country at the beginning of the 16th century.


text: Palestine was conquered by Turkish Sultan Selim II in 1516–17, and became part of the province of Syria for the next four centuries. At the onset of Ottoman rule in 1517, there were an estimated 5,000 Jews, comprising about 1,000 Jewish families, in Palestine. Jews mainly lived in Jerusalem, Nablus, Hebron, Gaza, Safed, and villages in the Galilee. The Jewish community was composed of both descendants of Jews who had never left the land and Jewish migrants from the diaspora.


text: In 1534, Spanish refugee Jacob Berab settled in Safed. He believed the time was ripe to reintroduce the old "semikah" (ordination) which would create for Jews worldwide a recognised central authority. In 1538, an assembly of twenty-five Safed rabbis ordained Berab, a step which they hoped would instigate the formation of a new Sanhedrin. But the plan faltered upon a strong and concerted protest by the chief rabbi of Jerusalem, Levi ben Jacob ibn Habib. Additionally, worried about a scheme which would invest excessive authority in a Jewish senate, possibly resulting in the first step toward the restoration of the Jewish state, the new Ottoman rulers forced Berab to flee Palestine and the plan did not materialize.


text: The 16th-century nevertheless saw a resurgence of Jewish life in Palestine. Palestinian rabbis were instrumental in producing a universally accepted manual of Jewish law and some of the most beautiful liturgical poems. Much of this activity occurred at Safed, which had become a spiritual centre, a haven for mystics. Joseph Karo's comprehensive guide to Jewish law, the "Shulchan Aruch", was considered so authoritative that the variant customs of German-Polish Jewry were merely added as supplement glosses. Some of the most celebrated hymns were written in Safed by poets such as Israel Najara and Solomon Alkabetz. The town was also a centre of Jewish mysticism; notable kabbalists included Moses Cordovero and the German-born Naphtali Hertz ben Jacob Elhanan. A new method of understanding the kabbalah was developed by Palestinian mystic Isaac Luria and espoused by his student Chaim Vital. In Safed, the Jews developed a number of branches of trade, especially in grain, spices, textiles and dyeing. In 1577, a Hebrew printing press was established in Safed. The 8,000 or 10,000 Jews in Safed in 1555 grew to 20,000 or 30,000 by the end of the century.


text: In around 1563, Joseph Nasi secured permission from Sultan Selim II to acquire Tiberias and seven surrounding villages to create a Jewish city-state. He hoped that large numbers of Jewish refugees and Marranos would settle there, free from fear and oppression; indeed, the persecuted Jews of Cori, Italy, numbering about 200, decided to emigrate to Tiberias. Nasi had the walls of the town rebuilt by 1564 and attempted to turn it into a self-sufficient textile manufacturing center by planting mulberry trees for the cultivation of silk. Nevertheless, a number of factors during the following years contributed to the plan's ultimate failure. Nasi's aunt, Doña Gracia Mendes Nasi supported a "yeshiva" in the town for many years until her death in 1569.


text: In 1567, a Yemenite scholar and Rabbi, Zechariah Dhahiri, visited Safed and wrote of his experiences in a book entitled "Sefer Ha-Musar". His vivid descriptions of the town Safed and of Rabbi Joseph Karo's "yeshiva" are of primary importance to historians, seeing that they are a first-hand account of these places, and the only extant account which describes the "yeshiva" of the great Sephardic Rabbi, Joseph Karo.


text: In 1576, the Jewish community of Safed faced an expulsion order: 1,000 prosperous families were to be deported to Cyprus, "for the good of the said island", with another 500 the following year. The order was later rescinded due to the realisation of the financial gains of Jewish rental income. In 1586, the Jews of Istanbul agreed to build a fortified "khan" to provide a refuge for Safed's Jews against "night bandits and armed thieves."


text: In 1569, the Radbaz moved to Jerusalem, but soon moved to Safed to escape the high taxes imposed on Jews by the authorities.


text: In 1610, the Yochanan ben Zakai Synagogue in Jerusalem was completed. It became the main synagogue of the Sephardic Jews, the place where their chief rabbi was invested. The adjacent study hall which had been added by 1625 later became the Synagogue of Elijah the Prophet.


text: In the 1648–1654 Khmelnytsky Uprising in Ukraine over 100,000 Jews were massacred, leading to some migration to Israel. In 1660 (or 1662), the majority Jewish towns of Safed and Tiberias were destroyed by the Druze, following a power struggle in Galilee.


text: The 17th century saw a steep decline in the Jewish population of Palestine due to the unstable security situation, natural catastrophes, and abandonment of urban areas, which turned Palestine into a remote and desolate part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman central government became feeble and corrupt, and the Jewish community was harassed by local rulers, janissaries, guilds, Bedouins, and bandits. The Jewish community was also caught between feuding local chieftains who extorted and oppressed the Jews. The Jewish communities of the Galilee heavily depended on the changing fortunes of a banking family close to the ruling pashas in Acre. As a result, the Jewish population significantly shrank.


text: In 1700, about 500 to 1,000 European Jewish followers of Judah HeHasid immigrated to Palestine and settled in Jerusalem. They were forced to give the Turkish authorities financial guarantees in the name of Jerusalem's Jewish community in exchange for permission to enter the Ottoman Empire. At the time approximately 200 Ashkenazi Jews and 1,000 Sephardi Jews lived in the city, most of them reliant on charity from the diaspora. The sudden influx of so many Ashkenazi immigrants produced a crisis. The local community was unable to help so many people and suspected some of the new arrivals of being Sabbateans, who they viewed with hostility. The newcomers built the Hurva Synagogue and incurred debts doing so. In 1720, due to failure to repay the debts, Arab creditors broke into the synagogue, set it on fire, and took over the area. The Ottoman authorities held both HeHasid's group and the pre-existing Ashkenazi community collectively responsible and expelled all Ashkenazi Jews from Jerusalem.


text: In 1714, Dutch researcher Adriaan Reland published an account of his visit to Palestine, and noted the existence of significant Jewish population centers throughout the country, particularly Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberias, and Gaza. Hebron also had a significant Jewish community at the time. The 18th century saw the Jewish population slightly recover. In 1740, Rabbi Haim Abulafia, the rabbi of Izmir, renewed Jewish settlement in Tiberias and the surrounding area under the patronage of local governor Zahir al-Umar. In 1742, a group of Jewish immigrants from Morocco and Italy led by Moroccan rabbi Chaim ibn Attar arrived in Palestine, and most settled in Jerusalem. At the time, the vast majority of Jews in Palestine were Sephardi or Mizrahi Jews, with only a small number of Ashkenazi Jews. The Ottoman authorities restricted the number of Jews permitted to live in Jerusalem. The Near East earthquake of 1759 destroyed much of Safed, killing 2,000 people with 190 Jews among the dead, and also destroyed Tiberias. In 1777, a group of about 300 Hasidic Jews from Lithuania led by Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk immigrated to Palestine. This was the first group of Jewish immigrants in some time that maintained contact with its country of origin. They had considered settling in Safed but due to the opposition this aroused most settled in Tiberias and some settled in Peki'in instead. They augmented the Jewish presence in the Galilee and extended the Ashkenazi presence to places outside Safed, where it had been concentrated until then. In 1800, there were about 6,500 Jews living in Palestine.


text: In the early 19th century, the disciples of the Vilna Gaon, a prominent rabbi in Eastern Europe, who were known as the Perushim, settled in the land of Israel. They came almost a decade after the arrival of two of his pupils, R. Hayim of Vilna and R. Israel ben Samuel of Shklov. In all there were three groups of the Gaon's students which emigrated to the land of Israel. They formed the basis of the Ashkenazi communities of Jerusalem and Safed. Their arrival encouraged an Ashkenazi revival in Jerusalem, whose Jewish community was mostly Sephardi following the expulsion of the Ashkenazim nearly a century earlier. Many of the descendants of the disciples became leading figures in modern Israeli society. The Gaon himself also set forth with his pupils to the Land, but for an unknown reason he turned back and returned to Vilna, where he died soon after.


text: During the siege of Acre in 1799, Napoleon issued a proclamation to the Jews of Asia and Africa to help him conquer Jerusalem. The siege was lost to the British, however, and the plan was never carried out.


text: In 1821 the brothers of murdered Jewish adviser and finance minister to the rulers of the Galilee, Haim Farkhi, formed an army with Ottoman permission, marched south and conquered the Galilee. They were held up at Akko which they besieged for 14 months after which they gave up and retreated to Damascus.


text: During the Peasants' Revolt under Muhammad Ali of Egypt's occupation, Jews were targeted in the 1834 looting of Safed and the 1834 Hebron massacre. By 1844, some sources report that Jews had become the largest population group in Jerusalem and by 1890 an absolute majority in the city, but as a whole the Jewish population made up far less than 10% of the region.


text: Throughout the 19th century up to the 1880s, Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe as well as groups of Sephardi Jews from Turkey, Bulgaria, and North Africa immigrated to Palestine. Jerusalem's Jewish population grew particularly fast as a result of Jewish migration from within the Land of Israel and abroad. In the aftermath of the Galilee earthquake of 1837, some Jewish residents of Safed and Tiberias, which had been hit hard by the earthquake, further expanded the population. As a result, the Jewish Quarter became overcrowded and squalid and Jews who moved to other parts of the city paid exorbitant rents to non-Jewish landlords. The Rothschild family attempted to ease the overcrowding by financing a set of apartments for Jews called the Batei Hamahse in the 1850s, but this proved inadequate. With the expansion of Jerusalem beyond the traditional Old City walls, Jews began settling outside of the Old City. In 1855, the Kerem Avraham district, which contained a vineyard and soap factory, was founded by James Finn, the British Consul in Jerusalem, to provide the Jews of Jerusalem employment so they would not have to subsist on donations from abroad. The first Jewish neighborhood built outside of the Old City walls was Mishkenot Sha'ananim, established in 1860. Mahane Israel, the second Jewish neighborhood built outside the Old City walls, was founded in 1867 as a settlement for Maghrebi Jews. The third Jewish neighborhood built outside the Old City was Nahalat Shiv'a, which was founded in 1869 as a cooperative effort by seven families who pooled their funds to purchase the land and build homes. In 1875, the Jewish neighborhood of Kirya Ne'emana and the first of the Jewish neighborhoods that would make up the Nachlaot district were founded. Jewish settlement activities also began to take place outside Jerusalem in the 1870s. In 1870, Mikveh Israel was established as a Jewish agricultural school and the first new Jewish settlement in Palestine in modern times. In 1878, Jews from Safed founded the village of Gei Oni, later Rosh Pinna, and religious Jewish pioneers who had immigrated from Europe founded the settlement of Petah Tikva. The Jewish population of Haifa was also bolstered by immigration from Morocco and Turkey in the 1870s.


text: In 1880, the Jewish population of Palestine numbered around 20,000 to 25,000, of whom two-thirds lived in Jerusalem. The Jewish population, known as the Old Yishuv, was divided into two predominant clusters. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities which had been established in the late Mamluk and early Ottoman periods and the Arabic-speaking communities who had already been living there since before the coming of Islam and had been culturally and linguistically Arabized. The Sephardic community traced its origins to not only Sephardim who settled in Palestine, but local Arabized Jews who had intermarried into the Sephardic community and Mizrahi Jews who had migrated from other parts of the Middle East and integrated into the Sephardic community. The second group was the Ashkenazi community, composed of primarily Haredi Jews who had migrated from Europe to settle in Palestine in the 18th and 19th centuries.


text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, tens of thousands of Jewish immigrants began arriving in Palestine and establishing new Jewish settlements. These immigrants were largely motivated by nationalism and a desire to live in the land of their ancestors as Zionism, or support for founding a new Jewish state, emerged. The first major such wave was the First Aliyah, which took place between 1881 and 1903. About 25,000 to 35,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine, mostly from Eastern Europe and Yemen, though about half subsequently left. About 28 significant Jewish settlements were established, and about 90,000 acres of land were purchased by Jews. During this period, the revival of the Hebrew language in Palestine began. A Hebrew school system was established and new words were coined to make Hebrew more practical for modern use. The effort was largely spearheaded by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda. As a result, Hebrew became an everyday spoken language again and gradually became the primary language of the Jewish population of Palestine. The Second Aliyah took place from 1904 to 1914 and saw around 35,000 Jews immigrate to Palestine. The majority of the Jewish immigrants came from the Russian Empire, though some also came from Yemen. Further Jewish settlements were established and in 1909, Tel Aviv was founded as the first modern Jewish city. The growth of the Jewish community of Palestine, which was known as the Yishuv, was disrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. During the war, many Jews were expelled from Palestine by the Ottoman authorities as enemy nationals, since they had immigrated from countries now at war with the Ottoman Empire. In 1917, the Ottoman authorities carried out the Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation, expelling the entire Jewish civilian populations of Tel Aviv and Jaffa. Many deportees subsequently died from hunger and disease.


text: In 1917, towards the end of World War I, following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Palestine was occupied by British forces. The United Kingdom was granted control of the area west of the River Jordan now comprising the State of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (Mandatory Palestine), and on the east bank of what later became Jordan (as a separate mandate) by the Versailles Peace Conference which established the League of Nations in 1919. Herbert Samuel, a former Postmaster General in the British cabinet, who was instrumental in drafting the Balfour Declaration was appointed the first High Commissioner of Mandatory Palestine, generally simply known as Palestine. During World War I the British had made two promises regarding territory in the Middle East. Britain had promised the local Arabs, through Lawrence of Arabia, independence for a united Arab country covering most of the Arab Middle East, in exchange for their supporting the British; and Britain had promised to create and foster a Jewish national home as laid out in the Balfour Declaration, 1917.


text: With the British conquest, Jews who had been expelled by the Ottomans were able to return, and Jewish immigration picked up again. The Third Aliyah saw about 40,000 Jewish immigrants arrive in Palestine from 1919 to the start of an economic crisis in Palestine in 1923, and between 1924 and 1928, the Fourth Aliyah saw about 80,000 more Jewish immigrants arrive in Palestine and the Fifth Aliyah, which took place between 1929 and 1939, saw the arrival of an estimated 225,000 to 300,000 Jewish immigrants. During this time, land continued to be purchased by Jews, many new Jewish settlements were established and existing Jewish communities in urban areas continued to grow. Tel Aviv in particular saw large-scale development and became a major city. It was home to over a third of the Jewish population by 1939. During this time, tensions with the Arabs increased over Jewish immigration. The 1921 Jaffa riots and 1929 Palestine riots saw Arab mobs violently attack Jewish population centers, and the tensions culminated in the 1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, which saw the Arabs launch widespread attacks against both Jews and the British.


text: In 1947, there were approximately 630,000 Jews living alongside approximately 1.2 million Arabs in Palestine. Following increasing levels of violence, the British government expressed a wish to withdraw from Palestine that year. The proposed plan of partition would have split Palestine into two states, an Arab state and a Jewish state, and the City of Jerusalem, giving slightly more than half the land area to the proposed Jewish state. Immediately following the adoption by the United Nations General Assembly of a resolution recommending the adoption and implementation of the Partition Plan (Resolution 181(II) ), and its subsequent acceptance by the Jewish leadership civil war broke out between the Arab community and the Jewish community, as armies of the Arab League, which rejected the Partition Plan which Israel accepted, sought to squelch the new Jewish state.


text: On 14 May 1948, one day before the end of the British Mandate, the leaders of the Jewish community in Palestine led by the future prime minister David Ben-Gurion, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel".


text: The armies of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq marched into the territory of what had just ceased to be the British Mandate, thus starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The nascent Israel Defense Forces repulsed the Arab armies, and extended Israel's borders beyond the original Resolution 181(II) boundaries for the proposed Jewish state. By December 1948, Israel controlled most of the portion of Mandate Palestine west of the Jordan River. The remainder of the Mandate came to be called the West Bank (controlled by Jordan), and the Gaza Strip (controlled by Egypt). Prior to and during this conflict, 711,000 Palestinians Arabs were expelled or fled their homes to become Palestinian refugees. One third went to the West Bank and one third to the Gaza Strip, occupied by Jordan and Egypt respectively, and the rest to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and other countries.


text: After the establishment of Israel, immigration of Holocaust survivors from Europe and a large influx of Jewish refugees from Arab countries had doubled Israel's population within one year of its independence. Overall, during the following years approximately 850,000 Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews fled or were expelled from Arab countries, Iran and Afghanistan. Of these, about 680,000 settled in Israel.


text: Israel's Jewish population continued to grow at a very high rate for years, fed by waves of Jewish immigration from round the world, including the massive immigration wave of Soviet Jews, who arrived in Israel in the early 1990s, according to the Law of Return. Some 380,000 Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union arrived in 1990–91 alone.


text: Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 Suez Crisis, 1967 Six-Day War, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, and 2006 Lebanon War, as well as a nearly constant series of other conflicts, among them the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Despite the constant security threats, Israel—a majorly Jewish state—has thrived economically. Throughout the 1980s and the 1990s there were numerous liberalization measures: in monetary policy, in domestic capital markets, and in various instruments of governmental interference in economic activity. The role of government in the economy was considerably decreased. On the other hand, some governmental economic functions were increased: a national health insurance system was introduced, though private health providers continued to provide health services within the national system. Social welfare payments, such as unemployment benefits, child allowances, old age pensions and minimum income support, were expanded continuously, until they formed a major budgetary expenditure. These transfer payments compensated, to a large extent, for the continuous growth of income inequality, which had moved Israel from among the developed countries with the least income inequality to those with the most.


title: Shane Larkin

text: DeShane Davis Larkin (born October 2, 1992) is an American-Turkish professional basketball player for Anadolu Efes of the Turkish Basketball Super League and the EuroLeague. He also represents the senior Turkish national team in international competition. He played college basketball for the University of Miami. He was selected by the Atlanta Hawks with the 18th overall pick in the 2013 NBA draft, where he was immediately traded to the Dallas Mavericks. He last played in the NBA in 2018 with the Boston Celtics. Larkin is the son of Hall of Fame baseball player Barry Larkin.


title: Shane Larkin

text: Larkin holds the record for the most points scored in a single EuroLeague game since the 2000–01 season, with 49 points scored on November 29, 2019. The record does not include the EuroLeague's games played from 1958–2000, when FIBA ran the competition. That record is held by Radivoj Korać, who scored 99 points in a single EuroLeague game on January 14, 1965.


title: Shane Larkin

text: Larkin was born in Saint Charles, Iowa on October 2, 1992, to parents Barry and Lisa Larkin. His father Barry is a Hall of Fame shortstop for the Cincinnati Reds. Other athletes in Larkin's family include his uncles, former Xavier University standout basketball player Byron Larkin, and former Major League first baseman Stephen Larkin. When Larkin was in elementary school, his father's former Reds teammates Tony Pérez and Pete Rose would give the younger Larkin tips on hitting a baseball. After being told this training was "all wrong" by a Little League coach, Larkin quit baseball and decided to focus on basketball.


title: Shane Larkin

text: Larkin played basketball for Dr. Phillips High School in Orlando, Florida. During his senior year he averaged 18.8 points, 6.4 rebounds, 6.3 assists, and 3.5 steals per game. He was a two-time all-state selection and ended his high school career with 320 career steals, a school record. Larkin was ranked as one of the top 30 point guards by Scout.com. After receiving offers from a number of schools, Larkin committed to DePaul University. He ended up requesting a transfer before the start of his freshman year due to a then unnamed medical condition. He chose Miami, a school closer to home to help his anxiety and where he was introduced to meditation and relaxation techniques by a new therapist.


title: Shane Larkin

text: Larkin missed the first game of the 2011–12 season because of his transfer from DePaul, but received a waiver from the NCAA allowing him to play hours before the Hurricanes' second game against Rutgers. During the first half of the season, Larkin quickly became the first man off the bench, averaging over 25 minutes per game. By the end of January, he had become the Hurricanes' starting point guard; he led the team in steals and was second on the team in assists. Larkin was selected to the All-ACC Freshman team at the conclusion of the season, finishing the year averaging 7.4 points, 2.5 assists, 2.5 rebounds, and 1.6 steals.


title: Shane Larkin

text: The 2012–13 Miami Hurricanes basketball team was arguably the best team in university history, achieving the school's first ever regular season and tournament Atlantic Coast Conference championship. Larkin was an important player in the team's success, playing some of his best games in many of the most crucial matchups of the season. Against then #1 ranked Duke University, Larkin had 18 points, 10 rebounds, and 5 assists as the Hurricanes blew out Duke by 27 points. Against North Carolina on February 9, Larkin shot 5 for 8 beyond the three-point line, had 9 assists, and delivered an alley-oop pass to Kenny Kadji off the backboard which prompted a standing ovation from Miami Heat players Dwyane Wade and LeBron James who were in attendance. Larkin led the Hurricanes to the Sweet 16 in the 2013 NCAA tournament. He was also selected the ACC Player of the Year by the ACC coaches. Virginia Tech's Erick Green was the ACC media's winner.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On June 27, 2013, Larkin was selected by the Atlanta Hawks with the 18th overall pick in the 2013 NBA draft. His draft rights were then traded to the Dallas Mavericks later that night. During a Summer League practice, he broke his ankle and was ruled out for three months. Despite the injury, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Mavericks on July 29. On November 18, 2013, Larkin made his NBA debut, recording 3 points, 3 assists, and 3 steals in a 97–94 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. On January 17, 2014, he scored a career-high 18 points in a 110–107 win over the Phoenix Suns. On April 23, he made his NBA postseason debut against the San Antonio Spurs in Game 2 of the Western Conference First Round. During his rookie season, he had multiple assignments with the Texas Legends of the NBA Development League.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On June 25, 2014, Larkin was traded, along with Wayne Ellington, José Calderón, Samuel Dalembert and two 2014 second-round picks, to the New York Knicks in exchange for Tyson Chandler and Raymond Felton. The following month, he joined the Knicks for the 2014 NBA Summer League. On April 5, 2015, he recorded 15 points and a career-high 11 rebounds in a 101–91 win over the Philadelphia 76ers.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On July 9, 2015, Larkin signed with the Brooklyn Nets. He made his debut for the Nets in the team's season opener against the Chicago Bulls on October 28, recording six points and eight assists as a starter in a 115–100 loss. On January 13, 2016, he scored a then season-high 17 points off the bench in a 110–104 win over his former team, the New York Knicks. On February 1, he recorded eight points, a career-high 14 assists and six rebounds off the bench in a 105–100 loss to the Detroit Pistons. On April 11, he scored a career-high 20 points as a starter in a 120–111 loss to the Washington Wizards.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On August 10, 2016, Larkin signed a one-year deal with Baskonia of the EuroLeague and Liga ACB. He was named Player of the Month of February 2017 in the Spanish League. On June 28, 2017, Larkin was registered by Baskonia for the right of first refusal. On July 9, 2017, Larkin signed an offer sheet with FC Barcelona Lassa. On July 14, 2017, Baskonia matched the offer sheet to Larkin, keeping Larkin in their roster. Six days later, he reached an agreement with the Boston Celtics, leaving a $6.3 million offer from Baskonia.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On July 31, 2017, Larkin signed with the Boston Celtics. In the Celtics' regular season finale on April 11, 2018, Larkin had 12 points, 10 assists and seven rebounds in a 110–97 win over the Brooklyn Nets. After the end of the Celtics' playoff run, and Larkin playing a meaningful role during their postseason, Larkin did not hear back from the Celtics apart from a sole exit interview with the Celtics head coach at the time, Brad Stevens. At the start of the offseason, Larkin made it clear that he wanted more responsibility if he would be back in the NBA. He said, “I will not go back to the NBA as a third point guard [...] So, if any team asks about that, we’re not even gonna answer the phone.”


title: Shane Larkin

text: On July 26, 2018, Larkin signed a one-year deal with Anadolu Efes of the Turkish Basketball Super League and the EuroLeague. On March 8, 2019, Larkin recorded a then career-high 37 points, shooting 12-of-15 from the field, along with five rebounds and two assists for 43 PIR in a 92–70 win over Barcelona. He was subsequently named EuroLeague Round 25 MVP.


title: Shane Larkin

text: In 2018–19 season, Efes qualified to the 2019 EuroLeague Final Four. In the semifinal, Larkin led his team to the final with a win over Fenerbahçe by scoring 30 points, 7 rebounds and 7 assists; he had a performance index rating (PIR) of 43, which set a new Final Four record. In the championship game against CSKA Moscow, Larkin scored 29 points which was an individual scoring-record for any EuroLeague championship game. Efes lost the final to CSKA, settling for second place. In 35 EuroLeague games played during the 2018–19 season, he averaged 12.5 points, 3.1 assists and 2.2 rebounds per game.


title: Shane Larkin

text: In the Turkish BSL, Efes reached the Finals after beating Banvit and Galatasaray 2–0 and 3–0 respectively. In Game 7 of the BSL Finals against Fenerbahçe, Larkin scored 38 points while shooting 11–18. Larkin led Efes to an 89–74 win and to its first Turkish league title in 10 years. He was subsequently named the BSL Finals MVP.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On November 29, 2019, Larkin set EuroLeague Basketball's single-game scoring record since the year 2000, with 49 points scored in a game against FC Bayern Munich. However, the league's overall single-game scoring record, including all of the games played since 1958, when FIBA owned the competition, is 99 points scored by Radivoj Korać, on January 14, 1965.


title: Shane Larkin

text: On May 21, 2022, with Anadolu Efes, Larkin won the most prestigious European championship again, Euroleague, beating Olympiakos in the semi-final and Real Madrid in the final. Making history in the competition for being the third team in history to win back to back championships.


title: Shane Larkin

text: Larkin is a member of the senior Turkish national team. In February 2020, it was announced that Larkin would miss the 2021 EuroBasket Qualification Tournament with an injury.


title: Shane Larkin

text: Larkin has stated that he views Turkey as "more of a home" when asked about the possibility of playing for the Turkish national team. On February 7, 2020, it was announced that Larkin received Turkish citizenship.


title: Meiyang Chang

text: Meiyang Chang (born 6 October 1982) is an Indian actor, television host, singer and a dentist. He came to prominence as a contestant on the third season of the singing reality show "Indian Idol". Following this, he began his acting career with the film "Badmaash Company". He also appeared in other films like "Detective Byomkesh Bakshy", "Sultan" and "Bharat". His latest work includes "Undekhi" and "Modern Love Mumbai".


title: Meiyang Chang

text: Meiyang is an alumnus of the De Nobili School (Dhanbad), Colonel Brown Cambridge School Dehradun and Wynberg Allen School Mussoorie. Chang is a third generation Indian-Chinese, with roots in China's Hubei province. He is also a qualified dentist with a BDS degree from Vokkaligara Sangha Dental College & Hospital, Bangalore.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: Lactobacillus acidophilus (New Latin 'acid-loving milk-bacillus') is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive, homofermentative, anaerobic microbe first isolated from infant feces in the year 1900. The species is most commonly found in humans, specifically the gastrointestinal tract, oral cavity, and vagina, as well as various fermented foods such as fermented milk or yogurt. The species most readily grows at low pH levels (below 5.0), and has an optimum growth temperature of 37 °C. Certain strains of "L. acidophilus" show strong probiotic effects, and are commercially used in dairy production. The genome of "L. acidophilus" has been sequenced.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: "L. acidophilus" has antagonistic effects on the growth for "Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium," and "Clostridium perfringens". Out of the four organisms, "Staphylococcus aureus" is the most affected. Along with "S. aureus", the other Gram-positive bacteria, "C. perfringens," was affected more by "L. acidophilus," than the two other bacteria that are Gram-negative. "L. acidophilus" is found to also reduce oral plaque formation by "Streptococcus mutans".


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: "Lactobacillus acidophilus" was first isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract in 1900 by Ernst Moro with the original name "Bacillus acidophilus." Over time, there have been many changes to the methods for characterizing taxonomy of organisms, leading to the genus distinction of "Lactobacillus" in 1929. Complication around finding the original strain arose when multiple strains of a single isolate were given a variety of names. Most studies on "L. acidophilus" was focused on one particular strand, "Lactobacillus acidophilus" NCFM. With the large amount of information discovered about "L. acidophilus"NCFM, the US Food and Drug Administration has been adjudged the microbe to be an approved ingredient in beverages, dairy products, and other probiotic foods.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: "Lactobacillus acidophilus" is an immobile rod-shaped (bacillus), gram-positive organism that ranges in size from 2-10 μm in size. Being, gram positive, "L. acidophilus" has one phospholipid bilayer membrane with a large cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan exterior to the membrane. The cell wall of "L. acidophilus" is interwoven with teichoic acids and surface proteins, with anionic and neutral polysaccharides as well as an S-layer lining the exterior of the cell. The S-layer proteins of "L. acidophilus" have been shown to adhere to epithelial cells as well as mucus and other extracellular proteins. The S-layer is made of two structural domains. The C-terminal domain is responsible for cell wall anchoring, while the N-terminal domain is responsible for interacting with the cell environment, as well as S-layer self assembly. In the "L. acidophilus" species, the N-terminal region shows high amino acid variability along with low sequence homology (31-72%). However, the C-terminus shows low amino acid variability and high amino acid sequence homology (77-99%)."L. acidophilus" does not have any extracellular means of motion like a flagellum or pilli, and therefore is an immobile microbe.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: "L. acidophilus" is a homofermentative anaerobic microorganism, meaning it only produces lactic acid as an end product of fermentation; and that it can only ferment hexoses (not pentoses) by way of the EMP pathway (glycolysis). "L. acidophilus" has a slower growth time in milk than when in a host due to limited available nutrients. Because of its use as a probiotic in milk, a study done by the American journal of dairy science examined the nutrient requirements of "L. acidophilus" in an effort to increase its low growth rate. The study found that glucose and the amino acids Cysteine, Glutamic acid, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tyrosine, Valine, and Arginine are essential nutrients to the growth of "L. acidophilus", with Glycine, Calcium-pantothenate, and Mn2+ acting as stimulatory nutrients. The study helps to explain the low growth rate of "L. acidophilus" in milk, as some of the amino acids necessary to "L. acidophilus" growth are lacking in milk. Adding amino acids with high rates of consumption to fermented milk is a possible solution to this problem.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: The specialization of prokaryotic genomes is distinguishable when recognizing how the prokaryote replicates its DNA during replication. In "L. acidophilus," replication begins at an origin called oriC and moves bi-directionally in the form of replication forks. The DNA is synthesized continuously on the leading strand and in discontinuous Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand with help from the DNA polymerase III enzyme. An RNA primer is needed to initiate the DNA synthesis on the leading and lagging strands. DNA polymerase III follows the RNA primer with the synthesis of DNA in the 5' to 3' direction. "L. acidophilus" consists of a small genome with a low guanine-cytosine content, approximately 30%. A study comparing 46 genomes of varying strains of "L. acidophilus" found the genome size ranged from 1.95 Mb to 2.09 Mb, with an average size of 1.98 Mb. The average number of coding sequences in the genome was 1780, with the strains isolated from fermented foods and commercial probiotics having more coding sequences on average than those isolated from humans. "L. acidophilus" has an open state pan-genome (all of the genes within a species), meaning that the pan-genome size increased as the number of genomes sequenced increased. The core-genome (the genes shared by all individuals of a species) consist of around 1117 genes in the case of "L. acidophilus." Genetic analysis also revealed that all "L. acidophilus" strains contained at least 15 families of glycosyl hydrolases, which are the key enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism. Each of the 15 GH families were involved in metabolizing common carbohydrates, such as glucose, galactose, fructose, sucrose, starch, and maltose. Genes encoding antibiotic resistance by means of antibiotic efflux, antibiotic target alteration, and antibiotic target protection were present in all "L. acidophilus" strains, providing protection against 18 different classes of antibiotic across all strains. Fluoroquinolone, glycopeptide, lincosamide, macrolide and tetracycline were the five classes of antibiotic to which "L. acidophilus" displayed the highest level of tolerance, with more than 300 genes relevant to these classes.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: "L. acidophilus" grows naturally in the oral, intestinal, and vaginal cavities of mammals. Nearly all Lactobacillus species have special mechanisms for heat resistance which involves enhancing the activity of chaperones. Chaperones are highly conserved stress proteins that allow for enhanced resistance to elevated temperatures, ribosome stability, temperature sensing, and control of ribosomal function at high temperatures. This ability to function at high temperatures is extremely important to cell yield during the fermentation process, and genetic testing on "L. acidophilus" in order to increase its temperature tolerance is currently being done. When being considered as a probiotic, it is important for "L. acidophilus" to have traits suitable for life in the gastrointestinal tract. Tolerance of low pH and high toxicity levels are often required. These traits vary and are strain specific. Mechanisms by which these tolerances are expressed include differences in cell wall structure, along with other changes is protein expression. Changes in salt concentration have been shown to affect "L. acidophilus" viability, but only after exposure to higher salt concentrations. In another experiment highlighted by the American Dairy Science Association, viable cell counts only showed a significant reduction after exposure to NaCl concentrations of 7.5% or higher. Cells were also observed to distinctly elongate when grown in conditions of 10% NaCl concentration or higher. "L. acidophilus" is also very well suited for living in a dairy medium, as fermented milk is the ideal method of delivery for introducing "L. acidophilus" into a gut microbiome. The viability of "L. acidophilus" cells encapsulated by spray drying technology stored at refrigerated condition (4 °C) is higher than the viability of cells stored at room temperature (25 °C).


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: Quorum sensing among cells is the process among which cell signaling can lead to coordinated activities which can ultimately help bacteria control gene expression in a consecutive sequence. This is accomplished via detection of small autoinducers which are secreted in response to increasing cell-population density. In "Lactobacillus acidophilus," which can be found in the gastrointestinal tract, quorum sensing is important for bacterial interaction when considering biofilm formation and toxin secretion.  In "L. acidophilus", along with many other bacteria, the "luxS"-mediated quorum sensing is involved in the regulation of behavior. In monoculture, the production of "luxS" increased during the exponential growth phase and started to plateau as it progressed to the stationary phase. Up-regulation of "luxS" can occur when "L. acidophilus" is placed in co-cultivation with another "Lactobacillus" species.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: "Lactobacillus acidophilus" is part of the vaginal microbiota along with other species in the genus including "Lactobacillus crispatus", "Lactobacillus gasseri", "Lactobacillus jensenii", and "Lactobacillus iners".


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: In experiments, "L. acidophilus" seemed to decrease "Candida albicans"’ ability to adhere to vaginal epithelial cells; however, "L. acidophilus"’ role in preventing yeast infections is unclear because this species of "Lactobacilli" has also been found not to have a very strong ability to adhere to (and thereby colonize) the vaginal cells.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: Research has shown that the presence of "L. acidophilus" can produce a variety of probiotic effects in humans, such as; acting as a barrier against pathogens, assisting in lactose digestion, enhancing immune response, and reducing cholesterol level. "L. acidophilus" must exist in concentrations of 10^5 - 10^6 c.f.u (colony-forming units) per mL in order for these effects to be seen. A study conducted at the Wake Forest School of Medicine examined the affects of "L. acidophilus" on the structure and composition of the gut microbiome of mice with respect to the age of the mice. The research established the importance of the interactions between microbes within a gut microbial environment on the overall health of the organism, and the data showed that mice supplemented with "L. acidophilus" had reduced proteobacteria levels, and increased levels of other probiotic bacteria when compared to other mice of similar age. Another study conducted at Marantha Christian University studied the impact of "L. acidophilus" cell free supernatants (a liquid medium containing the metabolites produced by microbial growth) on the growth pattern "Salmonella typhi", the microbe assiciated with Typhoid fever. The study showed that the presence of "L. acidophilus" metabolites significantly inhibited the growth curves displayed by "S. typhi", supporting the idea that "L. acidophilus" presence has a positive impact on the species makeup of a gut microbial community, providing the organism with intestinal health benefits. The innate immune system of "L. acidophilus" also produces antimicrobial peptides. The group of short peptides found there have shown antimicrobial properties such as their strength against viruses and other cell types, including cancer cells. There is also some evidence supporting the use of a symbiotic gel (containing "L. acidophilus") in treating gastrointestinal symptoms in patients who had received a hemodialysis treatment. This gel also reduced the occurrence of vomit, heartburn, and stomachaches. Further study concerning this subject is needed to draw firm conclusions.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: As stated in a journal from the American Dairy Science Association, ""Lactobacillus acidophilus" is a commercial strain and probiotic that is widely used in the dairy industry to obtain high-quality fermentation products." Increased levels of beneficial bacteria, and decreased levels of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine due to the consumption of fermented milk containing strains of "L. acidophilus" has a range of probiotic effects. Reduced serum cholesterol levels, stimulated immune response, and improved lactic acid digestion are all probiotic effects associated with intestinal "L. acidophilus"presence". L. acidophilus" was also effective in reducing "Streptococcus mutans" levels in saliva, as well as decreasing risk factors associated with the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The strain of "L. acidophilus" that has been most widely researched, and is most widely used as an antibiotic is referred to as NCFM.


title: Lactobacillus acidophilus

text: Although probiotics are generally safe, when they are used by oral administration there is a small risk of passage of viable bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood stream (bacteremia), which can cause adverse health consequences. Some people, such as those with a compromised immune system, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, cardiac valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events.


title: Company of Heroes 3

text: Company of Heroes 3 is an upcoming real-time strategy game developed by Relic Entertainment and published by Sega for Microsoft Windows. A sequel to "Company of Heroes 2", the game features new mechanics and modes and is set in the Italian and North African theaters of World War II. The game was originally set to be released on November 17, 2022, but it was delayed to February 23, 2023. The games also set to release for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S in 2023.


title: Company of Heroes 3

text: In "Company of Heroes 3", the players take the role of Allied Forces during their invasion of Italy and Axis forces in the North African campaign.


title: Company of Heroes 3

text: The game has features new to the series such as the Tactical Pause system, which allows the player to pause a battle and queue up commands to be done after the game is resumed. "Company of Heroes 3" also has an improved destruction system that gives the title more granular destruction, such as individual tiles and bricks crumbling off buildings. Italian Partisans are allied NPCs that can either be used on the map or be called in during battles. The story is dynamic, and the player's interactions with the game's various commanders can affect the narrative's ending.


title: Company of Heroes 3

text: The game was officially announced in July 2021. The team chose the Mediterranean theatre as the setting allowed the inclusion of a variety of environments, which is a feature frequently requested by players of older games. In addition, the team added that the Italian areas in the game offered "broader palette for environmental gameplay" and players can make use of verticality of the maps to plan their moves and attacks.


title: Company of Heroes 3

text: At the beginning of development, the studio recruited modders and competitive players to form a player council. The council worked with Relic during preproduction to determine what the new entry should focus on mechanically and where the game should take place. The executive producer commented on how it was chosen: "And we all agreed that we wanted a new theatre, we didn't want to revisit the Western Front or the Eastern Front. So really, the only two things left were the Mediterranean and Pacific. We put them both on the board, and it was just 10-0. Mediterranean over Pacific." Player testing for "Company of Heroes 3" started in prior to the official announcement through Amplitude's Games2Gether program. A demo for the game was available for a limited time shortly after the announcement.


title: Company of Heroes 3

text: In August 2022, the Polish toy company Cobi announced that they have acquired a license with Relic Entertainment to publish North Africa and Italy themed brick sets.


title: Sadakatsiz

text: Sadakatsiz () is a Turkish psychological thriller television series produced by Med Yapım. It is an adaptation of the British television series "Doctor Foster," starring Cansu Dere, Caner Cindoruk, and Melis Sezen. The first episode was aired on 7 October 2020 and was directed by Neslihan Yeşilyurt. The script was written by the Kemal Hamamcıoğlu and Dilara Pamuk duo in the first season and by the Arzu Daştan Mutlu, Mustafa Mutlu, Gamze Arslan and Nuriye Bilici quartet since the second season. The series ended with its 60th episode aired on 25 May 2022.


title: Sadakatsiz

text: Doctor Asya (Cansu Dere) lives a peaceful and happy life with her husband Volkan (Caner Cindoruk) and their son Ali (Alp Akar). This situation changes when she finds out that her husband has been having an affair with a young woman named Derin (Melis Sezen) for two years. Asya must choose between saving her marriage and taking revenge on her "unfaithful" husband.


title: Chartreux

text: The Chartreux is a rare breed of cat from France, and is recognised by a number of registries around the world. The Chartreux is large and muscular (called "cobby") with relatively short, fine-boned limbs, and very fast reflexes. They are known for their blue (silver-grey) water-resistant short hair double coats which are often slightly thick in texture (often showing "breaks" like a sheepskin) and orange or copper-coloured eyes. Chartreux cats are also known for their "smile"; due to the structure of their heads and their tapered muzzles, they often appear to be smiling. Chartreux are exceptional hunters and are highly prized by farmers.


title: Chartreux

text: As for every French cat with a pedigree, the first letter of the official name of a Chartreux cat encodes the year of its birth. All Chartreux born in the same year have official names beginning with the same letter. The code letters rotate through the alphabet each year, omitting the letters K, Q, W, X, Y, and Z. For example, a Chartreux born in 2021 would have an official name starting with the letter S.


title: Chartreux

text: The Chartreux is mentioned for the first time in 1558 by Joachim du Bellay in a poem entitled , or "A small kitten's death" in English.


title: Chartreux

text: There is another representation of a Chartreux in 1747 in the Jean-Baptiste Perronneau's painting , into which the cat is painted as a pet, quite rare for the time.


title: Chartreux

text: There is a legend that the Chartreux are descended from cats brought to France by Carthusian monks to live in the order's head monastery, the Grande Chartreuse, located in the Chartreuse Mountains north of the city of Grenoble. But in 1972, the Prior of the Grande Chartreuse denied that the monastery's archives held any records of the monks' use of any breed of cat resembling the Chartreux.


title: Chartreux

text: Legend also has it that the Chartreux's ancestors were feral mountain cats from what is now Syria, brought back to France by returning Crusaders in the 13th century, many of whom entered the Carthusian monastic order.


title: Chartreux

text: The first documented mention of the breed was by the French naturalist Buffon in the 18th century. The breed was greatly diminished during the first World War and wild populations were not seen after World War II, except perhaps in Belle-Île-en-Mer where the Léger sisters started breeding the best subjects. A later concerted effort by European cat fanciers-breeders kept the Chartreux from extinction. The first Chartreux were brought to the U.S. in 1971 by Helen and John Gamon of La Jolla, California. In 1987, the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) advanced the Chartreux breed to championship status. There are fewer than two dozen active Chartreux breeders in North America .


title: Chartreux

text: Historically, famous Chartreux owners include the French novelist Colette, Charles Baudelaire and the French president Charles de Gaulle.


title: Chartreux

text: Chartreux cats tend to be quiet, rarely making noises such as mewing or crying, and some are even completely mute. They are quite observant and intelligent, with some Chartreux learning to operate radio on/off buttons and to open screen door latches. They take about two years to reach adulthood. Chartreux cats are playful cats well into their adult years; some can be taught to fetch small objects in the same manner as a dog. Chartreux are good with children and other animals. They are non-aggressive, affectionate, good travelers and generally very healthy. Chartreux tend to bond with one person in their household, preferring to be in their general vicinity (often following their favoured person from room to room), though they are still loving and affectionate to the other members of the household.


title: Swashbuckler

text: A swashbuckler is a genre of European adventure literature that focuses on a heroic protagonist stock character who is skilled in swordsmanship, acrobatics, guile and possesses chivalrous ideals. A "swashbuckler" protagonist is heroic, daring, and idealistic: he rescues damsels in distress, protects the downtrodden, and uses duels to defend his honor or that of a lady or to avenge a comrade.


title: Swashbuckler

text: Swashbucklers often engage in daring and romantic adventures with bravado or flamboyance. Swashbuckler heroes are gentleman adventurers who dress elegantly and flamboyantly in coats, waistcoats, tight breeches, large feathered hats, and high leather boots, and they are armed with the thin rapiers used by aristocrats.


title: Swashbuckler

text: Swashbucklers are not unrepentant brigands or pirates, although some may rise from such disreputable stations and achieve redemption. His opponent is typically characterized as a dastardly villain. While the hero may face down a number of henchmen to the villain during a story, the climax is a dramatic one-on-one sword battle between the protagonist and the villain. There is a long list of swashbucklers who combine courage, skill, resourcefulness, and a distinctive sense of honor and justice, as for example "Cyrano de Bergerac", "The Three Musketeers", "The Scarlet Pimpernel", Robin Hood, and Zorro.


title: Swashbuckler

text: As a historical fiction genre, it is often set in the Renaissance or Cavalier era. The stock character also became common in the film genre, which extended the genre to the Golden Age of Piracy. As swashbuckler stories are often mixed with the romance genre, there will often be a beautiful, aristocratic female love interest to whom the hero expresses a refined, courtly love. At the same time, since swashbuckler plots are often based on intrigues involving corrupt religious figures or scheming monarchs, the heroes may be tempted by alluring femme fatales or vampish courtesans.


title: Swashbuckler

text: "Swashbuckler" is a compound of "swash" (archaic: to swagger with a drawn sword) and "buckler" (a small shield gripped in the fist) dating from the 16th century.


title: Swashbuckler

text: While man-at-arms and sellswords of the era usually wore armor of necessity, their counterparts in later romantic literature and film (see below) often did not, and the term evolved to denote a daring, devil-may-care demeanor rather than brandishment of accoutrements of war. Swashbuckling adventures and romances are generally set in Europe from the late Renaissance up through the Age of Reason and the Napoleonic Wars, extending into the colonial era with pirate tales in the Caribbean.


title: Swashbuckler

text: Jeffrey Richards traces the swashbuckling novel to the rise of Romanticism, and an outgrowth of the historical novel, particularly those of Sir Walter Scott, "... medieval tales of chivalry, love and adventure rediscovered in the eighteenth century". This type of historical novel was further developed by Alexandre Dumas.


title: Swashbuckler

text: John Galsworthy said of Robert Louis Stevenson's 1888 swashbuckling romance, "The Black Arrow", that it was "a livelier picture of medieval times than I remember elsewhere in fiction." Anthony Hope's 1894 "The Prisoner of Zenda" initiated an additional subset of the swashbuckling novel, the Ruritanian romance.


title: Swashbuckler

text: The perceived significant and widespread role of swordsmanship in civilian society as well as warfare in the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods led to fencing being performed on theatre stages as part of plays. Soon actors were taught to fence in an entertaining, dramatic manner. Eventually fencing became an established part of a classical formation for actors.


title: Swashbuckler

text: Consequently, when movie theaters mushroomed, ambitious actors took the chance to present their accordant skills on the screen. Since silent movies were no proper medium for long dialogues, the classic stories about heroes who would defend their honour with sword in hand were simplified and sheer action would gain priority. This was the birth of a new kind of film hero: the swashbuckler. For Hollywood actors to depict these skilled sword fighters, they needed advanced sword training. Four of the most famous instructors for swashbuckling swordplay are William Hobbs, Anthony De Longis, Bob Anderson and Peter Diamond.


title: Swashbuckler

text: The larger-than-life heroics portrayed in some film franchise adventures (most notably the "Indiana Jones" movies) set in the modern era have been described as swashbuckling.


title: Swashbuckler

text: The genre has, apart from swordplay, always been characterized by influences that can be traced back to the chivalry tales of Medieval Europe, such as the legends of Robin Hood and King Arthur. It soon created its own drafts based on classic examples like "The Mark of Zorro" (1920), "The Three Musketeers" (1921), "Scaramouche" (1923) and "The Scarlet Pimpernel" (1934). Some films did also use motifs of pirate stories. Often these films were adaptations of classic historic novels published by well-known authors such as Alexandre Dumas, Rafael Sabatini, Baroness Emma Orczy, Sir Walter Scott, Johnston McCulley, and Edmond Rostand.


title: Swashbuckler

text: Swashbucklers are one of the most flamboyant Hollywood film genres, unlike cinema verite or modern realistic filmmaking. The genre attracted large audiences who relished the blend of escapist adventure, historic romance, and daring stunts in cinemas before it became a fixture on TV screens. With the focus on action, adventure, and, to a lesser degree, romance, there is little concern for historical accuracy. Filmmakers may mix incidents and events from different historical eras.


title: Swashbuckler

text: As a first variation of the classic swashbuckler there have also been female swashbucklers. Maureen O'Hara in "Against All Flags" and Jean Peters in "Anne of the Indies" were very early action film heroines. Eventually the typical swashbuckler motifs were used up because they had so often been shown on TV screens. Later films such as "The Princess Bride", the "Pirates of the Caribbean" series and "The Mask of Zorro" include modern takes on the swashbuckler archetype.


title: Swashbuckler

text: Television followed the films, especially in the UK, with "The Adventures of Robin Hood", "Sword of Freedom", "The Buccaneers", and "Willam Tell" between 1955 and 1960. US TV produced two series of "Zorro" in 1957 and 1990. Following the 1998 film "The Mask of Zorro", a TV series about a female swashbuckler, the "Queen of Swords", aired in 2000.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: High Society is a 1956 American musical romantic comedy film directed by Charles Walters and starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly, and Frank Sinatra. The film was produced by Sol C. Siegel for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and shot in VistaVision and Technicolor, with music and lyrics by Cole Porter.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: The film is a musical remake of the 1940 film "The Philadelphia Story" which was based on the 1939 play "The Philadelphia Story" by Philip Barry. "High Society"'s screenplay was written by John Patrick and involves a successful popular jazz musician (Crosby) who tries to win back the affections of his ex-wife (Kelly), who is preparing to marry another man. The cast also features Celeste Holm, John Lund, and Louis Calhern, in his final film, with a musical contribution by Louis Armstrong. The film was Kelly's last professional appearance before she married Prince Rainier III and became Princess consort of Monaco.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: Successful singer-composer C.K. Dexter-Haven (the grandson of a Newport "robber baron") is divorced from wealthy Newport, Rhode Island socialite Tracy Samantha Lord. Dexter, who lives next door to the Lord estate, remains in love with her but she is now engaged to socially prominent and snobbish George Kittredge. As Tracy prepares for her upcoming wedding, Dexter is busily organizing elements of the Newport Jazz Festival.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: Meanwhile, "Spy", a fictional tabloid newspaper, possesses embarrassing information about Tracy's errant father, Seth Lord, and has coerced the family into allowing reporter Mike Connor and photographer Liz Imbrie to cover the nuptials. Tracy, resenting their forced presence, begins an elaborate charade, including introducing her Uncle Willy as her father, while Seth is passed off as "wicked" Uncle Willy.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: As a wedding gift, Dexter gives Tracy a scale model of their former sailboat, "True Love," which evokes her memories about their happy honeymoon aboard it. Tracy gradually realizes George knows little about her true self and has instead created an idealized image of her. When Tracy drives Mike around Newport, he notices some neglected mansions; Tracy explains many owners have been forced to board up or sell off their properties due to high taxes. Her Uncle Willy is selling his own estate. The two form a mutual attraction, leaving Tracy to choose from three very different men during a course of self-discovery. During the wedding-eve party at Uncle Willy's house, George catches a tipsy Tracy kissing Dexter on the patio. George leaves Tracy in an empty room to sober up but, still tipsy, she climbs out the window and runs into Mike. George finds her again after she and Mike have had a swim in the Lords' pool. The next day, Tracy has hazy memories of the previous night. She initially intends to go through with the wedding, then prods George into agreeing to call it off. While informing the waiting guests the wedding is canceled, Dexter suddenly proposes that he be the groom. Knowing she loves him, Tracy accepts. Liz and Mike, who now realize they love each other, tell Tracy and Dexter that they are not writing a story about the wedding or other events to protect the family's privacy.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: Filming took place between January and March 1956. The location scenes were mostly shot in and around Clarendon Court in Newport, Rhode Island, which was then owned by Mae Cadwell Hayward, and later purchased in 1970 by Claus von Bülow.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: The location, according to Turner Classic Movies, enabled them to take advantage of the Newport Jazz Festival, established in 1954, incorporating it into the film by giving Crosby's character a background as a descendant of a Gilded Age robber baron who became a jazz composer and friend of jazz star Louis Armstrong, who plays himself in the film, and patron of the Festival. As name-checked by Crosby in the song "Now You Has Jazz", where each musician takes a small solo, Armstrong's band members were Edmond Hall (clarinet), Trummy Young (trombone), Billy Kyle (piano), Arvell Shaw (bass), and Barrett Deems (drums).


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: This film featured Kelly's final role before she became Princess of Monaco; it was released three months after her marriage to Prince Rainier III. In the film, Kelly wore the Cartier engagement ring given to her by Rainier. Sinatra was 40 and Crosby 53 while playing the love interests of Kelly, who was 26 during the filming. Sinatra biographers George Jacobs and William Stadiem claimed Crosby kept his distance from Sinatra during the production and remained strictly professional when Sinatra desired companionship, and that it "killed" Sinatra to think that Crosby considered himself a higher class singer. However, this is rejected by TCM, which states that "in spite of a rumored rivalry between Frank Sinatra and Bing Crosby, the two worked together very amicably during the shoot."


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: They claim that Sinatra was fascinated with Grace Kelly – as were many of her previous co-stars – and would have loved to have an affair with her but feared rejection and embarrassment in front of Crosby, who had previously had an affair with Kelly.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: The sailboat used in the film, the True Love (originally the Venona II based on the Malabar design by John Alden built for racing), sails on Seneca Lake out of Watkins Glen, NY as an excursion boat for Seneca Sailing Adventures, LLC.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: Producer Sol C. Siegel paid Porter $250,000 for his first original film score in eight years; it introduced a couple of pop standards, including "True Love" and "You're Sensational". Not only did Sinatra and Crosby collaborate for the first time, but behind the scenes two master orchestrators – Conrad Salinger and Nelson Riddle – melded their arrangements under the baton of Johnny Green. Armstrong and his band get a couple of standout moments and Kelly has her only role in a musical.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: A soundtrack album was released the year of the film's release and was a major success in both America and the United Kingdom. It has been said that one of the main reasons star Sinatra was drawn to the film was a mock-tipsy duet with his boyhood idol Crosby on "Well, Did You Evah!", a song from an earlier Porter show, "DuBarry Was a Lady" (1939), re-adapted and added at the last minute when it was noted that the two singers did not have a duet to perform in the film.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: The title of the song "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" gained new significance a half-century later as the title of a global game show franchise. "I Love You, Samantha" has also become a jazz favorite for improvisations.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: Opening on July 17, 1956, "High Society" garnered mixed reviews, often being compared as a lesser offering to "The Philadelphia Story", a previous adaptation in 1940 of the same play starring Cary Grant in the Crosby part, Katharine Hepburn in the Kelly role, and James Stewart in an Oscar-winning turn as the reporter played in the remake by Sinatra. "Variety" observed: ""High Society" should spell high finance business all over. It's a solid entertainment every minute of its footage. Fortified with a strong Cole Porter score, film is a pleasant romp for cast toppers Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly and Frank Sinatra who, tactfully, get alphabetical top billing. Their impact is almost equally consistent. Although Sinatra has the top pop tune opportunities, the Crooner makes his specialties stand up and out on showmanship and delivery, and Miss Kelly impresses as the femme lead with pleasantly comedienne overtones. This is perhaps her most relaxed performance ..."


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" described it as "flimsy as a gossip-columnist's word", missing "the snap and the crackle that its un-musical predecessor had." According to "Time", in spite of its "Who's Who cast" the film is "simply not top-drawer"; a "good deal of the screenplay seems as dated today as the idle rich ... [Kelly] lacks the gawky animal energy that Katharine Hepburn brought to the 1939 play and the 1941 movie, [Crosby] saunters through the part rather sleepily, without much of the old Bing zing [, and] Sinatra plays the reporter like a dead-end kid with a typewriter."


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: At the North American box-office, "High Society" was a success. It was one of the 10 highest grossing films of 1956 in the US and Canada earning $5,602,000, and $2,656,000 elsewhere, resulting in a profit of $1,148,000.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: "High Society" received two Academy Award nominations, and nearly received a third. The film was initially nominated in the 1956 Academy Awards for Best Motion Picture Story, even though it was based on the 1940 film "The Philadelphia Story" and thus was not eligible in that category. Moreover, the nominated writers, Elwood Ullman and Edward Bernds, had written not this film, but a 1955 Bowery Boys film also titled "High Society".


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: According to the book "Inside Oscar", Steve Broidy, president of The Bowery Boys home studio Allied Artists, told the press, "This just proves what we've known all along – that the Bowery Boys series couldn't have lasted this long if not for the fine writers." The joking in the press aside, Ullman and Bernds sent a telegram to the Academy Award Board of Governors, acknowledging the error and requesting that their names be removed from the final ballot.


title: High Society (1956 film)

text: More than 40 years following the film's release, it was adapted for the stage as a Broadway musical with several Porter songs from other sources added to the score. The Broadway production opened on April 27, 1998, at the St. James Theatre, with John McMartin and Anna Kendrick. Kendrick received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. The show ran for 144 performances.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Radiators are heat exchangers used for cooling internal combustion engines, mainly in automobiles but also in piston-engined aircraft, railway locomotives, motorcycles, stationary generating plant or any similar use of such an engine.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Internal combustion engines are often cooled by circulating a liquid called "engine coolant" through the engine block, and cylinder head where it is heated, then through a radiator where it loses heat to the atmosphere, and then returned to the engine. Engine coolant is usually water-based, but may also be oil. It is common to employ a water pump to force the engine coolant to circulate, and also for an axial fan to force air through the radiator.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: In automobiles and motorcycles with a liquid-cooled internal combustion engine, a radiator is connected to channels running through the engine and cylinder head, through which a liquid (coolant) is pumped. This liquid may be water (in climates where water is unlikely to freeze), but is more commonly a mixture of water and antifreeze in proportions appropriate to the climate. Antifreeze itself is usually ethylene glycol or propylene glycol (with a small amount of corrosion inhibitor).


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: A by product of the combustion process is a large amount of heat. If heat were allowed to increase unchecked in the engine, components would eventually expand to the point where they would cease to rotate. To combat this affect, coolant is circulated through the engine where it absorbs the heat from the engine. Once the coolant absorbs the heat from the engine it continues its flow to the radiator. The radiator transfers the heat from the fluid inside to the air outside, thereby cooling the fluid, which in turn cools the engine. Radiators are also often used to cool automatic transmission fluids, air conditioner refrigerant, intake air, and sometimes to cool motor oil or power steering fluid. Radiators are typically mounted in a position where they receive airflow from the forward movement of the vehicle, such as behind a front grill. Where engines are mid- or rear-mounted, it is common to mount the radiator behind a front grill to achieve sufficient airflow, even though this requires long coolant pipes. Alternatively, the radiator may draw air from the flow over the top of the vehicle or from a side-mounted grill. For long vehicles, such as buses, side airflow is most common for engine and transmission cooling and top airflow most common for air conditioner cooling.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Automobile radiators are constructed of a pair of metal or plastic header tanks, linked by a core with many narrow passageways, giving a high surface area relative to volume. This core is usually made of stacked layers of metal sheet, pressed to form channels and soldered or brazed together. For many years radiators were made from brass or copper cores soldered to brass headers. Modern radiators have aluminum cores, and often save money and weight by using plastic headers with gaskets. This construction is more prone to failure and less easily repaired than traditional materials.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: An earlier construction method was the honeycomb radiator. Round tubes were swaged into hexagons at their ends, then stacked together and soldered. As they only touched at their ends, this formed what became in effect a solid water tank with many air tubes through it.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Some vintage cars use radiator cores made from coiled tube, a less efficient but simpler construction.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Radiators first used downward vertical flow, driven solely by a thermosyphon effect. Coolant is heated in the engine, becomes less dense, and so rises. As the radiator cools the fluid, the coolant becomes denser and falls. This effect is sufficient for low-power stationary engines, but inadequate for all but the earliest automobiles. All automobiles for many years have used centrifugal pumps to circulate the engine coolant because natural circulation has very low flow rates.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: A system of valves or baffles, or both, is usually incorporated to simultaneously operate a small radiator inside the vehicle. This small radiator, and the associated blower fan, is called the heater core, and serves to warm the cabin interior. Like the radiator, the heater core acts by removing heat from the engine. For this reason, automotive technicians often advise operators to turn on the heater and set it to high if the engine is overheating, to assist the main radiator.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: The engine temperature on modern cars is primarily controlled by a wax-pellet type of thermostat, a valve that opens once the engine has reached its optimum operating temperature.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: When the engine is cold, the thermostat is closed except for a small bypass flow so that the thermostat experiences changes to the coolant temperature as the engine warms up. Engine coolant is directed by the thermostat to the inlet of the circulating pump and is returned directly to the engine, bypassing the radiator. Directing water to circulate only through the engine allows the engine to reach optimum operating temperature as quickly as possible whilst avoiding localized "hot spots." Once the coolant reaches the thermostat's activation temperature, it opens, allowing water to flow through the radiator to prevent the temperature from rising higher.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Once at optimum temperature, the thermostat controls the flow of engine coolant to the radiator so that the engine continues to operate at optimum temperature. Under peak load conditions, such as driving slowly up a steep hill whilst heavily laden on a hot day, the thermostat will be approaching fully open because the engine will be producing near maximum power while the velocity of airflow across the radiator is low. (Being a heat exchanger, the velocity of air flow across the radiator has a major effect on its ability to dissipate heat.) Conversely, when cruising fast downhill on a motorway on a cold night on a light throttle, the thermostat will be nearly closed because the engine is producing little power, and the radiator is able to dissipate much more heat than the engine is producing. Allowing too much flow of coolant to the radiator would result in the engine being over-cooled and operating at lower than optimum temperature, resulting in decreased fuel efficiency and increased exhaust emissions. Furthermore, engine durability, reliability, and longevity are sometimes compromised, if any components (such as the crankshaft bearings) are engineered to take thermal expansion into account to fit together with the correct clearances. Another side effect of over-cooling is reduced performance of the cabin heater, though in typical cases it still blows air at a considerably higher temperature than ambient.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: The thermostat is therefore constantly moving throughout its range, responding to changes in vehicle operating load, speed, and external temperature, to keep the engine at its optimum operating temperature.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: On vintage cars you may find a bellows type thermostat, which has corrugated bellows containing a volatile liquid such as alcohol or acetone. These types of thermostats do not work well at cooling system pressures above about 7 psi. Modern motor vehicles typically run at around 15 psi, which precludes the use of the bellows type thermostat. On direct air-cooled engines, this is not a concern for the bellows thermostat that controls a flap valve in the air passages.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Other factors influence the temperature of the engine, including radiator size and the type of radiator fan. The size of the radiator (and thus its cooling capacity) is chosen such that it can keep the engine at the design temperature under the most extreme conditions a vehicle is likely to encounter (such as climbing a mountain whilst fully loaded on a hot day).


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Airflow speed through a radiator is a major influence on the heat it dissipates. Vehicle speed affects this, in rough proportion to the engine effort, thus giving crude self-regulatory feedback. Where an additional cooling fan is driven by the engine, this also tracks engine speed similarly.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Engine-driven fans are often regulated by a fan clutch from the drivebelt, which slips and reduces the fan speed at low temperatures. This improves fuel efficiency by not wasting power on driving the fan unnecessarily. On modern vehicles, further regulation of cooling rate is provided by either variable speed or cycling radiator fans. Electric fans are controlled by a thermostatic switch or the engine control unit. Electric fans also have the advantage of giving good airflow and cooling at low engine revs or when stationary, such as in slow-moving traffic.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Before the development of viscous-drive and electric fans, engines were fitted with simple fixed fans that drew air through the radiator at all times. Vehicles whose design required the installation of a large radiator to cope with heavy work at high temperatures, such as commercial vehicles and tractors would often run cool in cold weather under light loads, even with the presence of a thermostat, as the large radiator and fixed fan caused a rapid and significant drop in coolant temperature as soon as the thermostat opened. This problem can be solved by fitting a radiator blind (or radiator shroud) to the radiator that can be adjusted to partially or fully block the airflow through the radiator. At its simplest the blind is a roll of material such as canvas or rubber that is unfurled along the length of the radiator to cover the desired portion. Some older vehicles, like the World War I-era S.E.5 and SPAD S.XIII single-engined fighters, have a series of shutters that can be adjusted from the driver's or pilot's seat to provide a degree of control. Some modern cars have a series of shutters that are automatically opened and closed by the engine control unit to provide a balance of cooling and aerodynamics as needed.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Because the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines increases with internal temperature, the coolant is kept at higher-than-atmospheric pressure to increase its boiling point. A calibrated pressure-relief valve is usually incorporated in the radiator's fill cap. This pressure varies between models, but typically ranges from .


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: As the coolant system pressure increases with a rise in temperature, it will reach the point where the pressure relief valve allows excess pressure to escape. This will stop when the system temperature stops rising. In the case of an over-filled radiator (or header tank) pressure is vented by allowing a little liquid to escape. This may simply drain onto the ground or be collected in a vented container which remains at atmospheric pressure. When the engine is switched off, the cooling system cools and liquid level drops. In some cases where excess liquid has been collected in a bottle, this may be 'sucked' back into the main coolant circuit. In other cases, it is not.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Before World War II, engine coolant was usually plain water. Antifreeze was used solely to control freezing, and this was often only done in cold weather. If plain water is left to freeze in the block of an engine the water can expand as it freezes. This effect can cause severe internal engine damage due to the expanding of the ice.


title: Radiator (engine cooling)

text: Development in high-performance aircraft engines required improved coolants with higher boiling points, leading to the adoption of glycol or water-glycol mixtures. These led to the adoption of glycols for their antifreeze properties.