title: Laura Palmer

text: The next night, BOB comes through Laura's window and begins raping her, only to transform into Leland. The next morning she warns Leland to stay away from her. Upset, Laura uses more cocaine and has trouble concentrating at school. When Bobby realizes Laura was only using him to score cocaine, he breaks off their relationship. Subsequently, Laura breaks up with James, then goes to a cabin in the woods to have an orgy with Leo, One-Eyed Jack's poker dealer Jacques Renault (Walter Olkewicz), and prostitute Ronette Pulaski (Phoebe Augustine). Leland has followed her there; he attacks Jacques, leaving him incapacitated. Leo finds Jacques and promptly leaves. Both girls, having been tied up during their trysts with Jacques and Leo, are taken from the cabin by Leland to an abandoned train car. Laura asks Leland if he is going to kill her, but BOB appears and tells Laura he intends to possess her. MIKE has tracked Leland/BOB to the train, but when Ronette tries to let him in, Leland beats her unconscious. MIKE manages to throw in Teresa's ring. Laura puts it on, which prevents BOB from possessing her. Enraged, Leland/BOB stabs Laura to death. Leland/BOB places Laura's body in the lake. As her corpse drifts away, Leland/BOB enters the Red Room, where he encounters MIKE and the Man from Another Place, who announce they want their share of "garmonbozia", a supernatural substance generated by pain and fear.


title: Laura Palmer

text: Laura is the protagonist of the 2014 film, "Twin Peaks: The Missing Pieces", which features deleted scenes from "Fire Walk With Me", pieced together to make a feature-length film.


title: Laura Palmer

text: "The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer", written by Jennifer Lynch (David Lynch's daughter), was published in 1990. The novel portrays Laura falling into a world of prostitution and cocaine abuse, while maintaining the "status quo" as homecoming queen and high school student. Published during the summer between the original broadcasts of the first and second seasons, the book provided information regarding Laura's veiled personal life, including her knowledge of and/or relationship with BOB.


title: Laura Palmer

text: "Laura's Ghost", written by Courtenay Stallings, was published in 2020 and features interviews from Sheryl Lee, Grace Zabriskie, and Jennifer Lynch. The book examines Laura Palmer's character and her influence on pop culture and women's lives.


title: Laura Palmer

text: Funko has released POP! Vinyl and Reaction Figures of Laura wrapped in plastic and a POP! Vinyl of Laura's Black Lodge counterpart.


title: Laura Palmer

text: Laura's murder was possibly inspired by the unsolved death of Hazel Irene Drew (1888-1908), who was found dead in Teal's Pond in Sand Lake, New York and the story of which Mark Frost was told by his grandmother Betty Calhoun. This story is told in David Bushman and Mark T. Givens' "Murder at Teal's Pond: Hazel Drew and the Mystery That Inspired Twin Peaks" (2022) which includes an introduction by Frost explaining the connection.


title: Laura Palmer

text: Due to budget constraints, Lynch intended to cast a local girl from Seattle, reportedly "just to play a dead girl". The local girl ended up being Sheryl Lee. Lynch stated "But no one—not Mark, me, anyone—had any idea that she could act, or that she was going to be so powerful just being dead." And then, while Lynch shot the home movie that James takes of Donna and Laura, he realized that Lee had something special. "She did do another scene—the video with Donna on the picnic—and it was that scene that did it." As a result, Sheryl Lee became a semi-regular addition to the cast, appearing in flashbacks as Laura, as well as Laura's cousin, Maddy Ferguson.


title: Lists of UK Singles Chart number ones

text: The UK Singles Chart is a weekly record chart which for most of its history was based on single sales from Sunday to Saturday in the United Kingdom. Since July 2014 it has also incorporated streaming data, and from 10 July 2015 has been based on a Friday to Thursday week. As of 13 May 2021, 1386 singles have reached number one. The chart was founded in 1952 by Percy Dickins of "New Musical Express" ("NME"), who telephoned 20 record stores to ask what their top 10 highest-selling singles were. Dickins aggregated the results into a top 12 hit parade, which was topped by "Here in My Heart" by Al Martino. "NME"s chart was published each week in its eponymous magazine.


title: Lists of UK Singles Chart number ones

text: The sources, in accordance with the official canon of the Official Charts Company, are the "New Musical Express" chart from 1952 to 1960; the "Record Retailer" chart from 1960 to 1969; and the Official UK Singles Chart from 1969 onwards.


title: Lists of UK Singles Chart number ones

text: The calendar year that has featured the most UK number ones is 2000, which featured 42 singles reaching the top spot; the year with the fewest number ones is 2016 with 10, followed by 1954. The act that has achieved the most number ones is American entertainer Elvis Presley, who has topped the chart 21 times – Presley's second number one, "Jailhouse Rock", was the first single ever to debut at the top of the chart. The most successful band are The Beatles, who have achieved 17 number ones on the chart. The Beatles' first chart-topper, "From Me to You", reached number one in May 1963.


title: Lists of UK Singles Chart number ones

text: In the 1970s, the required number of sales needed to top the chart was roughly 150,000. During 1992, when few releases were reaching number one, sales of CD singles were low: songs needed to sell only 60–70,000 each week to remain at the top. In 2000, when turnover of number ones was high, tracks could often sell between 100,000 and 200,000 copies in a single week. UK chart commentator James Masterton remarked in 2003: "When record sales are high, public interest in a song expires very quickly and this creates a need for ever more new product to take its place." Sales figures improved in 2008 and continued into the early 2010s, peaking in 2013, before declining over the next few years as audio streaming became popular. Eventually, streaming was incorporated into the sales chart.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Karimanal Venkatesan Anand (30 October 1966 30 April 2021) was an Indian cinematographer, film director and photojournalist, worked mainly in the Tamil film industry. After a short period as a journalist, he became a cinematographer in the early 1990s, working on about fifteen films in the Southern and Hindi cinema industries. Anand won the National Film Award for Best Cinematography for his debut film as a cinematographer, "Thenmavin Kombath". In 2005, Anand turned film director with the critically acclaimed "Kana Kandaen". He was a founding member of the Indian Society of Cinematographers (ISC).


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand was born in Chennai, in the state of Tamil Nadu in India on 30 October 1966 to Karimanal Munuswamy Venkatesan and Anusuya Venkatesan. His childhood days were spent in Pulicat. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in Physics from DG Vaishnav College in June 1986,


title: K. V. Anand

text: followed by a master's degree in Visual Communications from Loyola College, Chennai. During his college days Anand participated in annual trekking expeditions in the Himalayas. His exploratory trips to various remote locations in India triggered his passion for photography. Anand participated in inter-collegiate, state and national level photography contests. His visual images earned him numerous photography awards.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand worked as a freelance photo journalist for leading newspapers and magazines such as "Kalki", "India Today", "Illustrated Weekly", Aside and other national publications. Within a short period of time, his photos were published in more than 200 magazine covers and had taken photos of 10 Chief Ministers in close quarters. Anand continued to freelance in industrial photography, advertisements and cover pages for fictional Tamil novels.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand met cinematographer P. C. Sreeram and expressed his interest to work for him as an assistant. He joined him, serving as an apprentice for Sreeram's film such as "Gopura Vasalile", "Amaran", "Meera", "Devar Magan" and "Thiruda Thiruda". Actually, he joined as the sixth assistant to Sreeram when Jeeva, another prominent figure in cinematography was the first assistant to Sreeram. When director Priyadarshan had approached P. C. Sreeram to work on his Malayalam film, "Thenmavin Kombath" (1994), he was unavailable and thus recommended Anand to be given the opportunity. The film received positive reviews and Anand won the National Film Award for Best Cinematography for his debut venture, with the award committee noting he showed "outstanding cinematography executed with sincerity, imagination and flexibility". Anand's first Tamil film was the romantic drama "Kadhal Desam" (1996), which also won critical acclaim for showcasing Chennai in a futuristic mould. He also then teamed up with director Shankar for the production of the political thriller "Mudhalvan" (2000), winning appreciation for his experimental camera ramping and the general grandeur.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand has wielded the camera for 14 films in languages including Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Hindi. His final work as a cinematographer came with "Sivaji" (2007), the Rajinikanth-starrer directed by Shankar, the most expensive Tamil film ever made at the time of release.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand turned a film director with "Kana Kandaen" (2005), a thriller film starring Srikanth, Prithviraj and Gopika. The film opened to favourable reviews from critics, with a reviewer from Rediff.com noting "Anand has succeeded in making an extremely watchable, highly thrilling film with a 'different' story". Despite the success of the film, Anand opted to return to cinematography to fulfil commitments for Rajinikanth's "Sivaji" (2007) directed by Shankar, which became the most expensive Tamil film ever made at the time.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand then collaborated with AVM Productions and Suriya in "Ayan" (2009), an action entertainer set on the backdrop of the Indo-African drug smuggling trade. In order to prepare the script, Anand did a lot of research and is said to have spoken to a lot of custom officers to understand the modus operandi of smuggling. The film opened in April 2009 to positive reviews, and became one of the year's highest-grossing Tamil language films. A critic from Rediff.com called the film a "must-watch" adding "what gets you by surprise is the thread of logic that laces practically every encounter, and the way Anand's screenplay covers all the angles". A reviewer from Sify.com stated "Anand pushes the commercial cinematic envelope and brings a savvy freshness in treatment and packaging hitherto unexplored in "Ayan"".


title: K. V. Anand

text: His third directorial venture, "Ko" (2011), narrated the tale of photojournalists caught up in a political corruption scandal. Starring Jiiva, Ajmal Ameer, Karthika Nair and Piaa Bajpai, the film also received a positive from film critics and the box office. A reviewer from The Hindu described the film as a "tale with a realistic twist" and mentioned that Anand "strikes gold with "Ko"". The critic added "blending the commercial with the realistic is a challenge, but Anand proves adept at it." Likewise, The Times of India noted "With "Ko", director Anand gives notice of his immense talent once again, making a movie that is all set to lord over the box office this summer".


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand worked with Suriya again in "Maattrraan" (2012), and was inspired to make the film after watching a documentary about the conjoined twins Chang and Eng Bunker. While preparing the script, he worked closely with a team of doctors to ensure the medical condition of open-heart transplant, as shown in the film, could be showcased as realistically as possible. He later made a mythical thriller film, "Anegan" (2015) starring Dhanush, and another political thriller film, "Kavan" (2017), with Vijay Sethupathi. His final film "Kaappaan" (2019), starring Suriya and Mohanlal, told the tale of a Special Protection Group (SPG) officer who protects the Prime Minister.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand has collaborated with composer Harris Jayaraj, editor Anthony and script writers Subha for several of his ventures, describing them as "constant fixtures". While noting he shared a good rapport with Jayaraj, he has stated that Anthony is like his "alter ego" and "his biggest critic", with the pair often working closely during the post-production stages of films. He met the writer duo Suresh and Bala of Subha, during his stint as a photo journalist with the magazine, India Today. Jagan has a part in most of his films. Despite being a cinematographer himself, Anand opted not to wield the camera for his own ventures and has actively tried to select different cinematographers for each of his projects, like Soundararajan. S, M. S. Prabhu, Richard M. Nathan, Om Prakash and Abhinandan Ramanujam.


title: K. V. Anand

text: During the script-writing process, Anand often finished up to six drafts, though mentioned he rarely "locks his script", suggesting it is always open to changes for improvisations on the shooting spot. He often rephrased dialogues; and sometimes has invented titles during the drafting process, being constantly on the lookout for short and crisp titles. His titles are usually in Chaste Tamil, such as Ayan, Ko, Anegan and Kavan.


title: K. V. Anand

text: Anand died in Chennai in the early hours of 30 April 2021 following a cardiac arrest. At the time, he was tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Teleost

text: Teleostei (; Greek "teleios" "complete" + "osteon" "bone"), members of which are known as teleosts ), is, by far, the largest infraclass in the class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes, containing 96% of all extant species of fish. Teleosts are arranged into about 40 orders and 448 families. Over 26,000 species have been described. Teleosts range from giant oarfish measuring or more, and ocean sunfish weighing over , to the minute male anglerfish "Photocorynus spiniceps", just long. Including not only torpedo-shaped fish built for speed, teleosts can be flattened vertically or horizontally, be elongated cylinders or take specialised shapes as in anglerfish and seahorses.


title: Teleost

text: The difference between teleosts and other bony fish lies mainly in their jaw bones; teleosts have a movable premaxilla and corresponding modifications in the jaw musculature which make it possible for them to protrude their jaws outwards from the mouth. This is of great advantage, enabling them to grab prey and draw it into the mouth. In more derived teleosts, the enlarged premaxilla is the main tooth-bearing bone, and the maxilla, which is attached to the lower jaw, acts as a lever, pushing and pulling the premaxilla as the mouth is opened and closed. Other bones further back in the mouth serve to grind and swallow food. Another difference is that the upper and lower lobes of the tail (caudal) fin are about equal in size. The spine ends at the caudal peduncle, distinguishing this group from other fish in which the spine extends into the upper lobe of the tail fin.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts have adopted a range of reproductive strategies. Most use external fertilisation: the female lays a batch of eggs, the male fertilises them and the larvae develop without any further parental involvement. A fair proportion of teleosts are sequential hermaphrodites, starting life as females and transitioning to males at some stage, with a few species reversing this process. A small percentage of teleosts are viviparous and some provide parental care with typically the male fish guarding a nest and fanning the eggs to keep them well-oxygenated.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts are economically important to humans, as is shown by their depiction in art over the centuries. The fishing industry harvests them for food, and anglers attempt to capture them for sport. Some species are farmed commercially, and this method of production is likely to be increasingly important in the future. Others are kept in aquariums or used in research, especially in the fields of genetics and developmental biology.


title: Teleost

text: Distinguishing features of the teleosts are mobile premaxilla, elongated neural arches at the end of the caudal fin and unpaired basibranchial toothplates. The premaxilla is unattached to the neurocranium (braincase); it plays a role in protruding the mouth and creating a circular opening. This lowers the pressure inside the mouth, sucking the prey inside. The lower jaw and maxilla are then pulled back to close the mouth, and the fish is able to grasp the prey. By contrast, mere closure of the jaws would risk pushing food out of the mouth. In more advanced teleosts, the premaxilla is enlarged and has teeth, while the maxilla is toothless. The maxilla functions to push both the premaxilla and the lower jaw forward. To open the mouth, an adductor muscle pulls back the top of the maxilla, pushing the lower jaw forward. In addition, the maxilla rotates slightly, which pushes forward a bony process that interlocks with the premaxilla.


title: Teleost

text: The pharyngeal jaws of teleosts, a second set of jaws contained within the throat, are composed of five branchial arches, loops of bone which support the gills. The first three arches include a single basibranchial surrounded by two hypobranchials, ceratobranchials, epibranchials and pharyngobranchials. The median basibranchial is covered by a toothplate. The fourth arch is composed of pairs of ceratobranchials and epibranchials, and sometimes additionally, some pharyngobranchials and a basibranchial. The base of the lower pharyngeal jaws is formed by the fifth ceratobranchials while the second, third and fourth pharyngobranchials create the base of the upper. In the more basal teleosts the pharyngeal jaws consist of well-separated thin parts that attach to the neurocranium, pectoral girdle, and hyoid bar. Their function is limited to merely transporting food, and they rely mostly on lower pharyngeal jaw activity. In more derived teleosts the jaws are more powerful, with left and right ceratobranchials fusing to become one lower jaw; the pharyngobranchials fuse to create a large upper jaw that articulates with the neurocranium. They have also developed a muscle that allows the pharyngeal jaws to have a role in grinding food in addition to transporting it.


title: Teleost

text: The caudal fin is homocercal, meaning the upper and lower lobes are about equal in size. The spine ends at the caudal peduncle, the base of the caudal fin, distinguishing this group from those in which the spine extends into the upper lobe of the caudal fin, such as most fish from the Paleozoic (541 to 252 million years ago). The neural arches are elongated to form uroneurals which provide support for this upper lobe. In addition, the hypurals, bones that form a flattened plate at the posterior end of the vertebral column, are enlarged providing further support for the caudal fin.


title: Teleost

text: In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness. While teleost bones are well calcified, they are constructed from a scaffolding of struts, rather than the dense cancellous bones of holostean fish. In addition, the lower jaw of the teleost is reduced to just three bones; the dentary, the angular bone and the articular bone.


title: Teleost

text: The teleosts were first recognised as a distinct group by the German ichthyologist Johannes Peter Müller in 1845. The name is from Greek "teleios", "complete" + "osteon", "bone". Müller based this classification on certain soft tissue characteristics, which would prove to be problematic, as it did not take into account the distinguishing features of fossil teleosts. In 1966, Greenwood et al. provided a more solid classification. The oldest fossils of teleosteomorphs (the stem group from which teleosts later evolved) date back to the Triassic period ("Prohalecites", "Pholidophorus"). However, it has been suggested that teleosts probably first evolved already during the Paleozoic era. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras they diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all living fish species are teleosts.


title: Teleost

text: The cladogram below shows the evolutionary relationships of the teleosts to other extant clades of bony fish, and to the four-limbed vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of bony fish during the Devonian period. Approximate divergence dates (in millions of years, mya) are from Near et al., 2012.


title: Teleost

text: The phylogeny of the teleosts has been subject to long debate, without consensus on either their phylogeny or the timing of the emergence of the major groups before the application of modern DNA-based cladistic analysis. Near et al. (2012) explored the phylogeny and divergence times of every major lineage, analysing the DNA sequences of 9 unlinked genes in 232 species. They obtained well-resolved phylogenies with strong support for the nodes (so, the pattern of branching shown is likely to be correct). They calibrated (set actual values for) branching times in this tree from 36 reliable measurements of absolute time from the fossil record. The teleosts are divided into the major clades shown on the cladogram, with dates, following Near et al.


title: Teleost

text: The most diverse group of teleost fish today are the Percomorpha, which include, among others, the tuna, seahorses, gobies, cichlids, flatfish, wrasse, perches, anglerfish, and pufferfish. The cladogram below, which is based on Betancur-R "et al.", 2017, shows the relationships between extant percomorphs. Teleosts, and percomorphs in particular, thrived during the Cenozoic era. Fossil evidence shows that there was a major increase in size and abundance of teleosts immediately after the mass extinction event at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary ca. 66 mya.


title: Teleost

text: The first fossils assignable to this diverse group appear in the Early Triassic, after which teleosts accumulated novel body shapes predominantly gradually for the first 150 million years of their evolution (Early Triassic through early Cretaceous).


title: Teleost

text: The most basal of the living teleosts are the Elopomorpha (eels and allies) and the Osteoglossomorpha (elephantfishes and allies). There are 800 species of elopomorphs. They have thin leaf-shaped larvae known as leptocephali, specialised for a marine environment. Among the elopomorphs, eels have elongated bodies with lost pelvic girdles and ribs and fused elements in the upper jaw. The 200 species of osteoglossomorphs are defined by a bony element in the tongue. This element has a basibranchial behind it, and both structures have large teeth which are paired with the teeth on the parasphenoid in the roof of the mouth. The clade Otocephala includes the Clupeiformes (herrings) and Ostariophysi (carps, catfishes and allies). Clupeiformes consists of 350 living species of herring and herring-like fishes. This group is characterised by an unusual abdominal scute and a different arrangement of the hypurals. In most species, the swim bladder extends to the braincase and plays a role in hearing. Ostariophysi, which includes most freshwater fishes, includes species that have developed some unique adaptations. One is the Weberian apparatus, an arrangement of bones (Weberian ossicles) connecting the swim bladder to the inner ear. This enhances their hearing, as sound waves make the bladder vibrate, and the bones transport the vibrations to the inner ear. They also have a chemical alarm system; when a fish is injured, the warning substance gets in the water, alarming nearby fish.


title: Teleost

text: The majority of teleost species belong to the clade Euteleostei, which consists of 17,419 species classified in 2,935 genera and 346 families. Shared traits of the euteleosts include similarities in the embryonic development of the bony or cartilaginous structures located between the head and dorsal fin (supraneural bones), an outgrowth on the stegural bone (a bone located near the neural arches of the tail), and caudal median cartilages located between hypurals of the caudal base. The majority of euteleosts are in the clade Neoteleostei. A derived trait of neoteleosts is a muscle that controls the pharyngeal jaws, giving them a role in grinding food. Within neoteleosts, members of the Acanthopterygii have a spiny dorsal fin which is in front of the soft-rayed dorsal fin. This fin helps provide thrust in locomotion and may also play a role in defense. Acanthomorphs have developed spiny ctenoid scales (as opposed to the cycloid scales of other groups), tooth-bearing premaxilla and greater adaptations to high speed swimming.


title: Teleost

text: The adipose fin, which is present in over 6,000 teleost species, is often thought to have evolved once in the lineage and to have been lost multiple times due to its limited function. A 2014 study challenges this idea and suggests that the adipose fin is an example of convergent evolution. In Characiformes, the adipose fin develops from an outgrowth after the reduction of the larval fin fold, while in Salmoniformes, the fin appears to be a remnant of the fold.


title: Teleost

text: There are over 26,000 species of teleosts, in about 40 orders and 448 families, making up 96% of all extant species of fish. Approximately 12,000 of the total 26,000 species are found in freshwater habitats. Teleosts are found in almost every aquatic environment and have developed specializations to feed in a variety of ways as carnivores, herbivores, filter feeders and parasites. The longest teleost is the giant oarfish, reported at and more, but this is dwarfed by the extinct "Leedsichthys", one individual of which has been estimated to have a length of . The heaviest teleost is believed to be the ocean sunfish, with a specimen landed in 2003 having an estimated weight of , while the smallest fully mature adult is the male anglerfish "Photocorynus spiniceps" which can measure just , though the female at is much larger. The stout infantfish is the smallest and lightest adult fish and is in fact the smallest vertebrate in the world; the females measures and the male just .


title: Teleost

text: Open water fish are usually streamlined like torpedoes to minimize turbulence as they move through the water. Reef fish live in a complex, relatively confined underwater landscape and for them, manoeuvrability is more important than speed, and many of them have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction. Many have laterally compressed bodies (flattened from side to side) allowing them to fit into fissures and swim through narrow gaps; some use their pectoral fins for locomotion and others undulate their dorsal and anal fins. Some fish have grown dermal (skin) appendages for camouflage; the prickly leather-jacket is almost invisible among the seaweed it resembles and the tasselled scorpionfish invisibly lurks on the seabed ready to ambush prey. Some like the foureye butterflyfish have eyespots to startle or deceive, while others such as lionfish have aposematic coloration to warn that they are toxic or have venomous spines.


title: Teleost

text: Flatfish are demersal fish (bottom-feeding fish) that show a greater degree of asymmetry than any other vertebrates. The larvae are at first bilaterally symmetrical but they undergo metamorphosis during the course of their development, with one eye migrating to the other side of the head, and they simultaneously start swimming on their side. This has the advantage that, when they lie on the seabed, both eyes are on top, giving them a broad field of view. The upper side is usually speckled and mottled for camouflage, while the underside is pale.


title: Teleost

text: Some teleosts are parasites. Remoras have their front dorsal fins modified into large suckers with which they cling onto a host animal such as a whale, sea turtle, shark or ray, but this is probably a commensal rather than parasitic arrangement because both remora and host benefit from the removal of ectoparasites and loose flakes of skin. More harmful are the catfish that enter the gill chambers of fish and feed on their blood and tissues. The snubnosed eel, though usually a scavenger, sometimes bores into the flesh of a fish, and has been found inside the heart of a shortfin mako shark.


title: Teleost

text: Some species, such as electric eels, can produce powerful electric currents, strong enough to stun prey. Other fish, such as knifefish, generate and sense weak electric fields to detect their prey; they swim with straight backs to avoid distorting their electric fields. These currents are produced by modified muscle or nerve cells.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts are found worldwide and in most aquatic environments, including warm and cold seas, flowing and still freshwater, and even, in the case of the desert pupfish, isolated and sometimes hot and saline bodies of water in deserts. Teleost diversity becomes low at extremely high latitudes; at Franz Josef Land, up to 82°N, ice cover and water temperatures below for a large part of the year limit the number of species; 75 percent of the species found there are endemic to the Arctic.


title: Teleost

text: Of the major groups of teleosts, the Elopomorpha, Clupeomorpha and Percomorpha (perches, tunas and many others) all have a worldwide distribution and are mainly marine; the Ostariophysi and Osteoglossomorpha are worldwide but mainly freshwater, the latter mainly in the tropics; the Atherinomorpha (guppies, etc.) have a worldwide distribution, both fresh and salt, but are surface-dwellers. In contrast, the Esociformes (pikes) are limited to freshwater in the Northern Hemisphere, while the Salmoniformes (salmon, trout) are found in both Northern and Southern temperate zones in freshwater, some species migrating to and from the sea. The Paracanthopterygii (cods, etc.) are Northern Hemisphere fish, with both salt and freshwater species.


title: Teleost

text: Some teleosts are migratory; certain freshwater species move within river systems on an annual basis; other species are anadromous, spending their lives at sea and moving inland to spawn, salmon and striped bass being examples. Others, exemplified by the eel, are catadromous, doing the reverse. The fresh water European eel migrates across the Atlantic Ocean as an adult to breed in floating seaweed in the Sargasso Sea. The adults spawn here and then die, but the developing young are swept by the Gulf Stream towards Europe. By the time they arrive, they are small fish and enter estuaries and ascend rivers, overcoming obstacles in their path to reach the streams and ponds where they spend their adult lives.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts including the brown trout and the scaly osman are found in mountain lakes in Kashmir at altitudes as high as . Teleosts are found at extreme depths in the oceans; the hadal snailfish has been seen at a depth of , and a related (unnamed) species has been seen at .


title: Teleost

text: The major means of respiration in teleosts, as in most other fish, is the transfer of gases over the surface of the gills as water is drawn in through the mouth and pumped out through the gills. Apart from the swim bladder, which contains a small amount of air, the body does not have oxygen reserves, and respiration needs to be continuous over the fish's life. Some teleosts exploit habitats where the oxygen availability is low, such as stagnant water or wet mud; they have developed accessory tissues and organs to support gas exchange in these habitats.


title: Teleost

text: Several genera of teleosts have independently developed air-breathing capabilities, and some have become amphibious. Some combtooth blennies emerge to feed on land, and freshwater eels are able to absorb oxygen through damp skin. Mudskippers can remain out of water for considerable periods, exchanging gases through skin and mucous membranes in the mouth and pharynx. Swamp eels have similar well-vascularised mouth-linings, and can remain out of water for days and go into a resting state (aestivation) in mud. The anabantoids have developed an accessory breathing structure known as the labyrinth organ on the first gill arch and this is used for respiration in air, and airbreathing catfish have a similar suprabranchial organ. Certain other catfish, such as the Loricariidae, are able to respire through air held in their digestive tracts.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts possess highly developed sensory organs. Nearly all daylight fish have colour vision at least as good as a normal human's. Many fish also have chemoreceptors responsible for acute senses of taste and smell. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Fish sense sounds in a variety of ways, using the lateral line, the swim bladder, and in some species the Weberian apparatus. Fish orient themselves using landmarks, and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Experiments with mazes show that fish possess the spatial memory needed to make such a mental map.


title: Teleost

text: The skin of a teleost is largely impermeable to water, and the main interface between the fish's body and its surroundings is the gills. In freshwater, teleost fish gain water across their gills by osmosis, while in seawater they lose it. Similarly, salts diffuse outwards across the gills in freshwater and inwards in salt water. The European flounder spends most of its life in the sea but often migrates into estuaries and rivers. In the sea in one hour, it can gain Na ions equivalent to forty percent of its total free sodium content, with 75 percent of this entering through the gills and the remainder through drinking. By contrast, in rivers there is an exchange of just two percent of the body Na content per hour. As well as being able to selectively limit salt and water exchanged by diffusion, there is an active mechanism across the gills for the elimination of salt in sea water and its uptake in fresh water.


title: Teleost

text: Fish are cold-blooded, and in general their body temperature is the same as that of their surroundings. They gain and lose heat through their skin, and regulate their circulation in response to changes in water temperature by increasing or reducing the blood flow to the gills. Metabolic heat generated in the muscles or gut is quickly dissipated through the gills, with blood being diverted away from the gills during exposure to cold. Because of their relative inability to control their blood temperature, most teleosts can only survive in a small range of water temperatures.


title: Teleost

text: Teleost species that inhabit colder waters have a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in brain cell membranes compared to fish from warmer waters, which allows them to maintain appropriate membrane fluidity in the environments in which they live. When cold acclimated, teleost fish show physiological changes in skeletal muscle that include increased mitochondrial and capillary density. This reduces diffusion distances and aids in the production of aerobic ATP, which helps to compensate for the drop in metabolic rate associated with colder temperatures.


title: Teleost

text: Tuna and other fast-swimming ocean-going fish maintain their muscles at higher temperatures than their environment for efficient locomotion. Tuna achieve muscle temperatures or even higher above the surroundings by having a counterflow system in which the metabolic heat produced by the muscles and present in the venous blood, pre-warms the arterial blood before it reaches the muscles. Other adaptations of tuna for speed include a streamlined, spindle-shaped body, fins designed to reduce drag, and muscles with a raised myoglobin content, which gives these a reddish colour and makes for a more efficient use of oxygen. In polar regions and in the deep ocean, where the temperature is a few degrees above freezing point, some large fish, such as the swordfish, marlin and tuna, have a heating mechanism which raises the temperature of the brain and eye, allowing them significantly better vision than their cold-blooded prey.


title: Teleost

text: The body of a teleost is denser than water, so fish must compensate for the difference, or they will sink. Many teleosts have a swim bladder that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases to allow them to stay at the current water depth, or ascend or descend without having to waste energy in swimming. In the more primitive groups like some minnows, the swim bladder is open to the esophagus and doubles as a lung. It is often absent in fast-swimming fishes such as the tuna and mackerel. In fish where the swim bladder is closed, the gas content is controlled through the rete mirabilis, a network of blood vessels serving as a countercurrent gas exchanger between the swim bladder and the blood. The Chondrostei such as sturgeons also have a swim bladder, but this appears to have evolved separately: other Actinopterygii such as the bowfin and the bichir do not have one, so swim bladders appear to have arisen twice, and the teleost swim bladder is not homologous with the chondrostean one.


title: Teleost

text: A typical teleost fish has a streamlined body for rapid swimming, and locomotion is generally provided by a lateral undulation of the hindmost part of the trunk and the tail, propelling the fish through the water. There are many exceptions to this method of locomotion, especially where speed is not the main objective; among rocks and on coral reefs, slow swimming with great manoeuvrability may be a desirable attribute. Eels locomote by wiggling their entire bodies. Living among seagrasses and algae, the seahorse adopts an upright posture and moves by fluttering its pectoral fins, and the closely related pipefish moves by rippling its elongated dorsal fin. Gobies "hop" along the substrate, propping themselves up and propelling themselves with their pectoral fins. Mudskippers move in much the same way on terrestrial ground. In some species, a pelvic sucker allows them to climb, and the Hawaiian freshwater goby climbs waterfalls while migrating. Gurnards have three pairs of free rays on their pectoral fins which have a sensory function but on which they can walk along the substrate. Flying fish launch themselves into the air and can glide on their enlarged pectoral fins for hundreds of metres.


title: Teleost

text: To attract mates, some teleosts produce sounds, either by stridulation or by vibrating the swim bladder. In the Sciaenidae, the muscles that attach to the swim bladder cause it to oscillate rapidly, creating drumming sounds. Marine catfishes, sea horses and grunts stridulate by rubbing together skeletal parts, teeth or spines. In these fish, the swim bladder may act as a resonator. Stridulation sounds are predominantly from 1000–4000 Hz, though sounds modified by the swim bladder have frequencies lower than 1000 Hz.


title: Teleost

text: Most teleost species are oviparous, having external fertilisation with both eggs and sperm being released into the water for fertilisation. Internal fertilisation occurs in 500 to 600 species of teleosts but is more typical for Chondrichthyes and many tetrapods. This involves the male inseminating the female with an intromittent organ. Fewer than one in a million of externally fertilised eggs survives to develop into a mature fish, but there is a much better chance of survival among the offspring of members of about a dozen families which are viviparous. In these, the eggs are fertilised internally and retained in the female during development. Some of these species, like the live-bearing aquarium fish in the family Poeciliidae, are ovoviviparous; each egg has a yolk sac which nourishes the developing embryo, and when this is exhausted, the egg hatches and the larva is expelled into the water column. Other species, like the splitfins in the family Goodeidae, are fully viviparous, with the developing embryo nurtured from the maternal blood supply via a placenta-like structure that develops in the uterus. Oophagy is practised by a few species, such as "Nomorhamphus ebrardtii"; the mother lays unfertilised eggs on which the developing larvae feed in the uterus, and intrauterine cannibalism has been reported in some halfbeaks.


title: Teleost

text: There are two major reproductive strategies of teleosts; semelparity and iteroparity. In the former, an individual breeds once after reaching maturity and then dies. This is because the physiological changes that come with reproduction eventually lead to death. Salmon of the genus "Oncorhynchus" are well known for this feature; they hatch in fresh water and then migrate to the sea for up to four years before travelling back to their place of birth where they spawn and die. Semelparity is also known to occur in some eels and smelts. The majority of teleost species have iteroparity, where mature individuals can breed multiple times during their lives.


title: Teleost

text: 88 percent of teleost species are gonochoristic, having individuals that remain either male or female throughout their adult lives. The sex of an individual can be determined genetically as in birds and mammals, or environmentally as in reptiles. In some teleosts, both genetics and the environment play a role in determining sex. For species whose sex is determined by genetics, it can come in three forms. In monofactorial sex determination, a single-locus determines sex inheritance. Both the XY sex-determination system and ZW sex-determination system exist in teleost species. Some species, such as the southern platyfish, have both systems and a male can be determined by XY or ZZ depending on the population.


title: Teleost

text: Multifactorial sex determination occurs in numerous Neotropical species and involves both XY and ZW systems. Multifactorial systems involve rearrangements of sex chromosomes and autosomes. For example, the darter characine has a ZW multifactorial system where the female is determined by ZWW and the male by ZZ. The wolf fish has a XY multifactorial system where females are determined by XXXX and the male by XXY. Some teleosts, such as zebrafish, have a polyfactorial system, where there are several genes which play a role in determining sex. Environment-dependent sex determination has been documented in at least 70 species of teleost. Temperature is the main factor, but pH levels, growth rate, density and social environment may also play a role. For the Atlantic silverside, spawning in colder waters creates more females, while warmer waters create more males.


title: Teleost

text: Some teleost species are hermaphroditic, which can come in two forms: simultaneous and sequential. In the former, both spermatozoa and eggs are present in the gonads. Simultaneous hermaphroditism typically occurs in species that live in the ocean depths, where potential mates are sparsely dispersed. Self-fertilisation is rare and has only been recorded in two species, "Kryptolebias marmoratus" and "Kryptolebias hermaphroditus". With sequential hermaphroditism, individuals may function as one sex early in their adult life and switch later in life. Species with this condition include parrotfish, wrasses, sea basses, flatheads, sea breams and lightfishes.


title: Teleost

text: Protandry is when an individual starts out male and becomes female while the reverse condition is known as protogyny, the latter being more common. Changing sex can occur in various contexts. In the bluestreak cleaner wrasse, where males have harems of up to ten females, if the male is removed the largest and most dominant female develops male-like behaviour and eventually testes. If she is removed, the next ranking female takes her place. In the species "Anthias squamipinnis", where individuals gather into large groups and females greatly outnumber males, if a certain number of males are removed from a group, the same number of females change sex and replace them. In clownfish, individuals live in groups and only the two largest in a group breed: the largest female and the largest male. If the female dies, the male switches sexes and the next largest male takes his place.


title: Teleost

text: In deep-sea anglerfish (sub-order Ceratioidei), the much smaller male becomes permanently attached to the female and degenerates into a sperm-producing attachment. The female and their attached male become a "semi-hermaphroditic unit".


title: Teleost

text: There are several different mating systems among teleosts. Some species are promiscuous, where both males and females breed with multiple partners and there are no obvious mate choices. This has been recorded in Baltic herring, guppies, Nassau groupers, humbug damselfish, cichlids and creole wrasses. Polygamy, where one sex has multiple partners can come in many forms. Polyandry consists of one adult female breeding with multiple males, which only breed with that female. This is rare among teleosts, and fish in general, but is found in the clownfish. In addition, it may also exist to an extent among anglerfish, where some females have more than one male attached to them. Polygyny, where one male breeds with multiple females, is much more common. This is recorded in sculpins, sunfish, darters, damselfish and cichlids where multiple females may visit a territorial male that guards and takes care of eggs and young. Polygyny may also involve a male guarding a harem of several females. This occurs in coral reef species, such as damselfishes, wrasses, parrotfishes, surgeonfishes, triggerfishes and tilefishes.


title: Teleost

text: Lek breeding, where males congregate to display to females, has been recorded in at least one species "Cyrtocara eucinostomus". Lek-like breeding systems have also been recorded in several other species. In monogamous species, males and females may form pair bonds and breed exclusively with their partners. This occurs in North American freshwater catfishes, many butterflyfishes, sea horses and several other species. Courtship in teleosts plays a role in species recognition, strengthening pair bonds, spawning site position and gamete release synchronisation. This includes colour changes, sound production and visual displays (fin erection, rapid swimming, breaching), which is often done by the male. Courtship may be done by a female to overcome a territorial male that would otherwise drive her away.


title: Teleost

text: Sexual dimorphism exists in some species. Individuals of one sex, usually males develop secondary sexual characteristics that increase their chances of reproductive success. In dolphinfish, males have larger and blunter heads than females. In several minnow species, males develop swollen heads and small bumps known as breeding tubercles during the breeding season. The male green humphead parrotfish has a more well-developed forehead with an "ossified ridge" which plays a role in ritualised headbutting. Dimorphism can also take the form of differences in coloration. Again, it is usually the males that are brightly coloured; in killifishes, rainbowfishes and wrasses the colours are permanent while in species like minnows, sticklebacks, darters and sunfishes, the colour changes with seasons. Such coloration can be very conspicuous to predators, showing that the drive to reproduce can be stronger than that to avoid predation.


title: Teleost

text: Males that have been unable to court a female successfully may try to achieve reproductive success in other ways. In sunfish species, like the bluegill, larger, older males known as parental males, which have successfully courted a female, construct nests for the eggs they fertilise. Smaller satellite males mimic female behaviour and coloration to access a nest and fertilise the eggs. Other males, known as sneaker males, lurk nearby and then quickly dash to the nest, fertilising on the run. These males are smaller than satellite males. Sneaker males also exist in "Oncorhynchus" salmon, where small males that were unable to establish a position near a female dash in while the large dominant male is spawning with the female.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts may spawn in the water column or, more commonly, on the substrate. Water column spawners are mostly limited to coral reefs; the fish will rush towards the surface and release their gametes. This appears to protect the eggs from some predators and allow them to disperse widely via currents. They receive no parental care. Water column spawners are more likely than substrate spawners to spawn in groups. Substrate spawning commonly occurs in nests, rock crevices or even burrows. Some eggs can stick to various surfaces like rocks, plants, wood or shells.


title: Teleost

text: Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79 percent) do not provide parental care. Male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality "preadapts" a species to evolve male parental care. One unusual example of female parental care is in discuses, which provide nutrients for their developing young in the form of mucus. Some teleost species have their eggs or young attached to or carried in their bodies. For sea catfishes, cardinalfishes, jawfishes and some others, the egg may be incubated or carried in the mouth, a practice known as mouthbrooding. In some African cichlids, the eggs may be fertilised there. In species like the banded acara, young are brooded after they hatch and this may be done by both parents. The timing of the release of young varies between species; some mouthbrooders release new-hatched young while other may keep then until they are juveniles. In addition to mouthbrooding, some teleost have also developed structures to carry young. Male nurseryfish have a bony hook on their foreheads to carry fertilised eggs; they remain on the hook until they hatch. For seahorses, the male has a brooding pouch where the female deposits the fertilised eggs and they remain there until they become free-swimming juveniles. Female banjo catfishes have structures on their belly to which the eggs attach.


title: Teleost

text: In some parenting species, young from a previous spawning batch may stay with their parents and help care for the new young. This is known to occur in around 19 species of cichlids in Lake Tanganyika. These helpers take part in cleaning and fanning eggs and larvae, cleaning the breeding hole and protecting the territory. They have reduced growth rate but gain protection from predators. Brood parasitism also exists among teleosts; minnows may spawn in sunfish nests as well as nests of other minnow species. The cuckoo catfish is known for laying eggs on the substrate as mouthbrooding cichclids collect theirs and the young catfish will eat the cichlid larvae. Filial cannibalism occurs in some teleost families and may have evolved to combat starvation.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts have four major life stages: the egg, the larva, the juvenile and the adult. Species may begin life in a pelagic environment or a demersal environment (near the seabed). Most marine teleosts have pelagic eggs, which are light, transparent and buoyant with thin envelopes. Pelagic eggs rely on the ocean currents to disperse and receive no parental care. When they hatch, the larvae are planktonic and unable to swim. They have a yolk sac attached to them which provides nutrients. Most freshwater species produce demersal eggs which are thick, pigmented, relatively heavy and able to stick to substrates. Parental care is much more common among freshwater fish. Unlike their pelagic counterparts, demersal larvae are able to swim and feed as soon as they hatch. Larval teleosts often look very different from adults, particularly in marine species. Some larvae were even considered different species from the adults. Larvae have high mortality rates, most die from starvation or predation within their first week. As they grow, survival rates increase and there is greater physiological tolerance and sensitivity, ecological and behavioural competence.


title: Teleost

text: At the juvenile stage, a teleost looks more like its adult form. At this stage, its axial skeleton, internal organs, scales, pigmentation and fins are fully developed. The transition from larvae to juvenile can be short and fairly simple, lasting minutes or hours as in some damselfish, while in other species, like salmon, squirrelfish, gobies and flatfishes, the transition is more complex and takes several weeks to complete. At the adult stage, a teleost is able to produce viable gametes for reproduction. Like many fish, teleosts continue to grow throughout their lives. Longevity depends on the species with some gamefish like European perch and largemouth bass living up to 25 years. Rockfish appear to be the longest living teleosts with some species living over 100 years.


title: Teleost

text: Many teleosts form shoals, which serve multiple purposes in different species. Schooling is sometimes an antipredator adaptation, offering improved vigilance against predators. It is often more efficient to gather food by working as a group, and individual fish optimise their strategies by choosing to join or leave a shoal. When a predator has been noticed, prey fish respond defensively, resulting in collective shoal behaviours such as synchronised movements. Responses do not consist only of attempting to hide or flee; antipredator tactics include for example scattering and reassembling. Fish also aggregate in shoals to spawn.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts are economically important in different ways. They are captured for food around the world. A small number of species such as herring, cod, pollock, anchovy, tuna and mackerel provide people with millions of tons of food per year, while many other species are fished in smaller amounts. They provide a large proportion of the fish caught for sport. Commercial and recreational fishing together provide millions of people with employment.


title: Teleost

text: A small number of productive species including carp, salmon, tilapia and catfish are farmed commercially, producing millions of tons of protein-rich food per year. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization expects production to increase sharply so that by 2030, perhaps sixty-two percent of food fish will be farmed.


title: Teleost

text: Fish are consumed fresh, or may be preserved by traditional methods, which include combinations of drying, smoking, and salting, or fermentation. Modern methods of preservation include freezing, freeze-drying, and heat processing (as in canning). Frozen fish products include breaded or battered fillets, fish fingers and fishcakes. Fish meal is used as a food supplement for farmed fish and for livestock. Fish oils are made either from fish liver, especially rich in vitamins A and D, or from the bodies of oily fish such as sardine and herring, and used as food supplements and to treat vitamin deficiencies.


title: Teleost

text: Some smaller and more colourful species serve as aquarium specimens and pets. Sea wolves are used in the leather industry. Isinglass is made from thread fish and drum fish.


title: Teleost

text: Human activities have affected stocks of many species of teleost, through overfishing, pollution and global warming. Among many recorded instances, overfishing caused the complete collapse of the Atlantic cod population off Newfoundland in 1992, leading to Canada's indefinite closure of the fishery. Pollution, especially in rivers and along coasts, has harmed teleosts as sewage, pesticides and herbicides have entered the water. Many pollutants, such as heavy metals, organochlorines, and carbamates interfere with teleost reproduction, often by disrupting their endocrine systems. In the roach, river pollution has caused the intersex condition, in which an individual's gonads contain both cells that can make male gametes (such as spermatogonia) and cells that can make female gametes (such as oogonia). Since endocrine disruption also affects humans, teleosts are used to indicate the presence of such chemicals in water. Water pollution caused local extinction of teleost populations in many northern European lakes in the second half of the twentieth century.


title: Teleost

text: The effects of climate change on teleosts could be powerful but are complex. For example, increased winter precipitation (rain and snow) could harm populations of freshwater fish in Norway, whereas warmer summers could increase growth of adult fish. In the oceans, teleosts may be able to cope with warming, as it is simply an extension of natural variation in climate. It is uncertain how ocean acidification, caused by rising carbon dioxide levels, might affect teleosts.


title: Teleost

text: A few teleosts are dangerous. Some, like eeltail catfish (Plotosidae), scorpionfish (Scorpaenidae) or stonefish (Synanceiidae) have venomous spines that can seriously injure or kill humans. Some, like the electric eel and the electric catfish, can give a severe electric shock. Others, such as the piranha and barracuda, have a powerful bite and have sometimes attacked human bathers. Reports indicate that some of the catfish family can be large enough to prey on human bathers.


title: Teleost

text: Medaka and zebrafish are used as research models for studies in genetics and developmental biology. The zebrafish is the most commonly used laboratory vertebrate, offering the advantages of genetic similarity to mammals, small size, simple environmental needs, transparent larvae permitting non-invasive imaging, plentiful offspring, rapid growth, and the ability to absorb mutagens added to their water.


title: Teleost

text: Teleost fishes have been frequent subjects in art, reflecting their economic importance, for at least 14,000 years. They were commonly worked into patterns in Ancient Egypt, acquiring mythological significance in Ancient Greece and Rome, and from there into Christianity as a religious symbol; artists in China and Japan similarly use fish images symbolically. Teleosts became common in Renaissance art, with still life paintings reaching a peak of popularity in the Netherlands in the 17th century. In the 20th century, different artists such as Klee, Magritte, Matisse and Picasso used representations of teleosts to express radically different themes, from attractive to violent. The zoologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted teleosts and other animals in his 1904 "Kunstformen der Natur". Haeckel had become convinced by Goethe and Alexander von Humboldt that by making accurate depictions of unfamiliar natural forms, such as from the deep oceans, he could not only discover "the laws of their origin and evolution but also to press into the secret parts of their beauty by sketching and painting".


title: Steven Culp

text: Steven Bradford Culp (born December 3, 1955) is an American actor. Culp appeared in films "" (1993), "James and the Giant Peach" (1996), "The Emperor's Club" (2002), and most notably in the 2000 political thriller "Thirteen Days" playing Robert F. Kennedy.


title: Steven Culp

text: On television, Culp had recurring roles as Clayton Webb in the CBS procedural "JAG" (1997–2004), and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Jeff Haffley in the NBC political drama "The West Wing" (2003–2005). He also appeared as Rex Van de Kamp in the ABC comedy-drama series, "Desperate Housewives".


title: Steven Culp

text: Culp was born in La Jolla, California, the son of Mary Ann Joseph (Born. Coshocton, Ohio), and Joseph Franklin Culp (Born. Dallas). Both his father and stepfather were in the United States Navy. He attended First Colonial High School in Virginia Beach, Virginia. He graduated from the College of William and Mary in 1978 with a major in English literature and also studied at the University of Exeter in the United Kingdom. He earned an M.F.A. from Brandeis University in 1981.


title: Steven Culp

text: One of Culp's earliest roles was in "" (1993) as Robert Campbell, a reporter looking into the Jason murders. He also played the father of the titular character in "James and the Giant Peach". In 1995, Culp briefly starred on "The Young and the Restless" as Brian Hamilton. Culp is known for his recurring roles as CIA Agent Clayton Webb on "JAG" (1997–2004) and Major Hayes on "" (2003–2004). His characters in both series were killed in the same week in the shows' season finales, although Culp’s character in "JAG" reappeared in the series’ subsequent season premiere"." In 2003, Culp appeared in a few episodes of the second season of "24" as Secret Service agent Ted Simmons. He had a recurring role in the NBC series "The West Wing" as Republican Speaker of the House of Representatives Jeff Haffley from 2003 to 2005.


title: Steven Culp

text: Culp portrayed Robert F. Kennedy twice, in the HBO movie "Norma Jean & Marilyn" (1996) and the film "Thirteen Days" (2000). He played Commander Martin Madden in "" (2002), a character written to replace William Riker as first officer of the "Enterprise". However, due to the film's length, Culp's scenes were included in several cut from the final film. His scenes as Madden can be seen in the "Nemesis" DVD deleted scenes. In the third season of "", Culp played the recurring character Major Hayes, leader of the M.A.C.O.s. He was in five episodes; "The Xindi", "", "", "" and "", where Hayes was shot saving a fellow crewmember. Other performances include playing the leading role of the photographer Richard Stewart in the English as a Second Language educational video series "Family Album, U.S.A." He also had a role as antagonist Peter Drummond in the television movie "How to Make a Monster", in which computer game programmers accidentally give life to a deadly AI and members of a software company attempt to beat the game to save their lives.


title: Steven Culp

text: From 2004 to 2005, Culp played Rex Van de Kamp on the ABC comedy-drama series "Desperate Housewives" for one season. His character was killed at the end of the season, although Culp reprised his role several times in flashback sequences and as narrator in one season 3 episode. In 2007, he was a regular cast member in the ABC short-lived series "Traveler" as Special Agent in Charge Fred Chambers. The following years, Culp guest-starred on number of shows, including "NCIS", "The Closer", "Criminal Minds", "Body of Proof", "How to Get Away with Murder", "Dynasty", "" and "9-1-1". He starred as Thomas Foran in the 2010 film "The Chicago 8". Culp had a recurring roles as Dr. Darren Parker on "Grey's Anatomy" in 2012, and from 2013 to 2014 in the NBC series "Revolution" as Edward Truman. From 2015 to 2018, he had a recurring role in the Amazon prime crime drama "Bosch".


title: Steven Culp

text: He is married to Barbara Ayers, and they have two children together. He had two half-sisters, Shelly Grabinsky and Kathryn Harvey. On January 1, 2006, Kathryn was murdered in Richmond, Virginia, along with her husband, Bryan, and their two daughters, Stella and Ruby.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Gaudiya Vaishnavism (), also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnava Hindu religious movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gaura or Gauḍa region of Bengal, with Vaishnavism meaning "the worship of Vishnu". Specifically, it is part of Krishnaism—Krishna-centric Vaishnavite traditions.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Its theological basis is primarily that of the "Bhagavad Gita" and "Bhagavata Purana" (known within the tradition as the "Srimad Bhagavatam"), as interpreted by early followers of Chaitanya, such as Sanatana Goswami, Rupa Goswami, Jiva Goswami, Gopala Bhatta Goswami and others.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (known as bhakti yoga) of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God, "Svayam Bhagavan". Most popularly, this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as "Hare", "Krishna" and "Rama", most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna (mantra), also known as kirtan and dancing along with it.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the spiritual and philosophical foundation of the well-known International Society for Krishna Consciousness, "Hare Krishna Movement".


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: According to Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy, consciousness is not a product of matter, but is instead a symptom of the soul. All living beings (jivas), including animals and trees, have a soul. That soul is distinct from their current physical body – the nature of the soul being eternal, immutable, and indestructible without any particular birth or death. The soul does not die when the body dies, but it is transmigrated into another new body and takes new birth in a new body. Souls which are captivated by the illusory nature of the world ("Maya") are repeatedly reborn among the various 8.4 million number of species of life on this planet and in other worlds in accordance to the laws of karma and individual desire. This is consistent with the concept of "samsara" found in Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist beliefs.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Release from the process of "samsara" (known as "moksha") is believed to be achievable through a variety of spiritual practices. However, within Gaudiya Vaishnavism, it is "bhakti" in its purest state (or "pure love of God") which is given as the ultimate aim, rather than liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Gaudiya Vaishnav tradition asserts that in the current yuga, which is Kali Yuga, singing and chanting the various sacred names of God are sufficient for spiritual liberation.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: One of the defining aspects of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is that Shri Krishna is worshiped specifically as the source of all Avataric incarnations of God. This is based on quotations from the Bhagavata Purana, such as ""krsnastu bhagavan svayam"", literally "Krishna is God Himself".


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: A particularly distinct part of the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy espoused by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is the concept of "Achintya Bheda Abheda", which translates to "inconceivable oneness and difference" in the context of the soul's relationship with Krishna, and also Krishna's relationship with his other energies (i.e. the material world).


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: In "quality", the soul ("jiva") is described as being identical to God, but in terms of "quantity," individual "jivas" are said to be infinitesimal in comparison to the unlimited Supreme Being. The exact nature of this relationship (being simultaneously one and different with Krishna) is inconceivable to the human mind but can be experienced through the process of Bhakti yoga.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: This philosophy serves as a meeting of two opposing schools of Hindu philosophy, pure monism (God and the soul as one entity) and pure dualism (God and the soul as absolutely separate). This philosophy largely recapitulates the concepts of qualified nondualism practiced by the older Vedantic school Vishishtadvaita, but emphasizes the figure of Krishna over Narayana and holy sites in and around Bengal over sites in Tamil Nadu. In practice, Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy has much more in common with the dualistic schools especially closely following theological traditions established by Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The practical process of devotional life is described as "bhakti" or "bhakti-yoga". The two main elements of the "bhakti-yoga" process are "vaidhi bhakti", which is devotional service through practice of rules and regulations ("sadhana") and "raganuga bhakti", which is taken as a higher stage of more spontaneous devotional service based on a selfless desire to please one's chosen "Ishta-deva" of Krishna or his associated expansions and avatars. Practicing "vaidhi-bhakti" with a view to cultivate "prema" creates eligibility for "raganuga-sadhana". Both "vaidhi" and "raganuga bhakti" are based on the chanting or singing of Krishna's names. Attainment of the raganuga stage means that rules of lifestyle are no longer important and that emotions or any material activities for Krishna should not be repressed. Vaidhi-bhakti's purpose is to elevate the devotee to raganuga; something which generally takes a long time.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Within his "Siksastaka" prayers, Chaitanya compares the process of "bhakti-yoga" to that of cleansing a dirty place of dust, wherein our consciousness is the object in need of purification. This purification takes place largely through the chanting and singing of Radha and Krishna's names. Specifically, the Hare Krishna (mantra) is chanted and sung by practitioners on a daily basis, sometimes for many hours each day. Famously within the tradition, one of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's close associates, Haridasa Thakur, is reported to have chanted 300,000 holy names of God each day.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Gaudiya Vaishnavas follow a lacto vegetarian diet, abstaining from all types of animal flesh, fish and eggs. Onion and garlic are also avoided as they are believed to promote "tamasic" form of consciousness in the eater. Some Gaudiya Vaishnavas, mainly from ISKCON and Gaudiya Matha, also avoid the intake of caffeine, as they believe it is addictive and an intoxicant.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: A "Guru—shishya tradition" ("lineage") denotes a succession of teachers and disciples within some sampradaya (school, tradition). In accordance with the tradition, Gaudiya Vaishnavism as a subschool belongs to the Brahma Sampradaya, one of the four "orthodox" Vaishnavite schools. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is said to be a disciple of Isvara Puri who was a disciple of Madhavendra Puri who was a disciple of Lakshmipati Tirtha who was a disciple of Vyasatirtha (1469–1539) of the Madhva Sampradaya. The Gaudiya Vaishnavas call their tradition "Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Sampradaya", which originates from Brahma and has Madhvacharya as the original acharya and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as the acharya-successor.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: However, this traditional point is at least debatable. Some modern scholars and confessional authors critically assess and pair the Gaudiya Vaishnavism's affiliation with the Madhva tradition. For example, the famous American Indologist and historian of religion Guy L. Beck, with regard to the Chaitanya Sampradaya, notes the following historical events. The first time the Brahma-Madhva affiliation of Gaudiya Vaishnavism was propounded by Baladeva Vidyabhushana was in the 18th century. And to this day, there is no mention of Chaitanya in the annals of the Madhva Sampradaya. For secular scientists this means, originality and non-affiliation of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with other previous branches. At the same time, there is the consensus of scholars, that Chaitanya was initiated by the two gurus of a Vaishnava-oriented group within Adi Shankara's Dashanami order.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The "Prameya Ratnawali" of the above-mentioned gaudiya-acharya Baladeva Vidyabhushana contains the following canonical list of disciplic succession: Krishna, Brahma, Narada, Vyasa, Madhva, Padmanabha, Nrihari, Madhava, Akshobhya, Jayatirtha, Gyanasindhu, Dayanidhi, Vidyanidhi, Rajendra, Jayadharma, Purushottama, Brahmanya, Vyasatirtha, Lakshmipati Tirtha, Madhavendra Puri, Isvara Puri, and Chaitanya.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: One feature of the Gaudiya succession of spiritual masters should be considered. Chaitanya refused to formally initiate anyone as a disciple, only inspiring and guiding his followers. Chaitanya neither founded the community nor named a successor. That is why, from the very beginning, the sampradaya was divided into several lines of succession that were practically not connected with each other and that still exist today. One of them, namely, the Gaudiya-Sarasvata Sampradaya, belongs to the well known International Society for Krishna Consciousness.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated Caitanya, IAST ""; 1486–1534) was a Bengali spiritual teacher who founded Gaudiya Vaishnavism. He is believed by his devotees to be Krishna himself who appeared in the form of His own devotee in order to teach the people of this world the process of Bhakti and how to attain the perfection of life. This they say with several evidences in scripture. Lord Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is said to be a disciple of Isvara Puri who was a disciple of Madhavendra Puri who was a disciple of Lakshmipati Tirtha who was a disciple of Vyasatirtha(1469–1539) of Madhvacharya's Sampradaya. He is considered as the most merciful manifestation of Krishna. Lord Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was the proponent for the Vaishnava school of Bhakti yoga (meaning loving devotion to God), based on "Bhagavata Purana" and "Bhagavad Gita". Of various incarnations of Vishnu, he is revered as Krishna, popularised the chanting of the "Hare Krishna" mantra and composed the "Siksastakam" (eight devotional prayers) in Sanskrit. His followers, Gaudiya Vaishnavas, revere him as a Krishna with the mood and complexion of his source of inspiration Radha.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Over the three centuries following the disappearance of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition evolved into the form in which we largely find it today in contemporary India. In the early years of the tradition, the followers of Nityananda Prabhu, Advaita Acharya and other companions of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu educated and initiated people, each in their own locales across Bengal.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu requested a select few among his followers, who later came to be known as the Six Gosvamis of Vrindavan, to systematically present his theology of bhakti in their writings. This theology emphasized the devotee's relationship to the Divine Couple, Radha and Krishna, and looked to Chaitanya as the embodiment of both Radha and Krishna. The six were Rupa Goswami, Sanatana Goswami, Gopala Bhatta Goswami, Raghunatha Bhatta Goswami, Raghunatha dasa Goswami and Jiva Goswami. In the second generation of the tradition, Narottama, Srinivasa and Shyamananda, three students of Jiva Goswami, the youngest among the six Goswamis, were instrumental in spreading the theology across Bengal and Orissa.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The festival of Kheturi (approx 1574), presided over by Jahnava Thakurani, the wife of Nityananda Rama, was the first time the leaders of the various branches of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's followers assembled together. Through such festivals, members of the loosely organized tradition became acquainted with other branches along with their respective theological and practical nuances. That notwithstanding, the tradition has maintained its plural nature, having no central authority to preside over its matters. The festival of Kheturi allowed for the systemization of Gaudiya Vaishnava theology as a distinct branch of Vaishnava theology.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: During the 17th–18th centuries, there was a period of general decline in the movement's strength and popularity, its "lethargic state", characterized by decreased public preaching and the rise of persons following and promoting tantric teachings and practices. These groups are called "apasampradayas" by the Chaitanyaits.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: In the 17th century, Vishvanath Chakravarti Thakur held great merit in clarifying core doctrinal issues over the practice of "raganuga-bhakti" through works such as "Raga-vartma-chandrika". His student Baladeva Vidyabhushan wrote a famous commentary on the Vedanta-sutra called Govinda Bhashya.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The 18th century saw a number of luminaries headed by Siddha Jayakrishna Das Babaji of Kamyavan and Siddha Krishnadas Babaji of Govardhan. The latter, a widely renowned teacher of the mode of internal worship ("raga-bhajan") practiced in the tradition, is largely responsible for the current form of devotional practice embraced by some of the traditions based in Vrindavan.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The "Manipuri Vaishnavism" is a regional form of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with a culture-forming role among the Meitei people in the north-eastern Indian state of Manipur. There, after a short period of Ramaism penetration, Gaudiya Vaishnavism spread in the early 18th century, especially from beginning its second quarter. Raja Gharib Nawaz (Pamheiba) was initiated into the Chaitanya tradition. Most devotee ruler and propagandist of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, under the influence of Natottama Thakura's disciples, was raja Bhagyachandra, who has visited the holy for the Chaytanyaits Nabadwip. "Rasa Lila" dance became a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: From the very beginning of Chaitanya's "bhakti" movement in Bengal, Haridasa Thakur and others Muslim by birth were the participants. This openness received a boost from Bhaktivinoda Thakur's broad-minded vision in the late 19th century, Baba Premananda Bharati's mission in the United States in the beginning of 20th century and was institutionalized by Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur in his Gaudiya Math in the 20th century.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: A renaissance began at the start of the 20th century both in India and the West. One pioneer of the Gaudiya Vaishnavite mission in the West was Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), author of "Sree Krishna – the Lord of Love" (1904) – the first full-length trearment of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in English, who, in 1902, founded the short-lived "Krishna Samaj" society in New York City and built a temple in Los Angeles. He belonged to the circle of adherents of the guru Prabhu Jagadbandhu with teachings similar to the later ISKCON mission. His followers formed several organizations including the now defunct Order of Living Service and the AUM Temple of Universal Truth.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The reform change of traditional caste Gaudiya Vaishnavism of 19th century is believed to have happened largely in India due to the efforts of a particularly adept preacher known as Bhaktivinoda Thakur, who also held the position of a deputy magistrate with the British government. Bhaktivinoda Thakur's son grew up to be both an eminent scholar and a highly influential Vaishnava preacher, and was later known as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati. In 1920, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati founded Gaudiya Math in India, and later sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India, Burma and Europe. In 1933, the first European preaching center was established in London (London Glouster House, Cornwall Garden, W7 South Kensington) under the name "Gaudiya Mission Society of London".


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Soon after Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati's death (1 January 1937), a dispute began, which divided the original Gaudiya Math mission into two administrative bodies still in existence today. In a settlement, they divided the sixty-four Gaudiya Math centers into two groups: the Sri Chaitanya Math headed by Bhakti Vilasa Tirtha Maharaj and the Gaudiya Mission headed by Ananta Vasudev (Bhakti Prasad Puri Maharaj).


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Many of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati's disciples disagreed with the spirit of these two factions and/or started their own missions to expand their guru's mission. In the 1960s, the one of his disciples, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada went to the West to spread Gaudiya-Vaishnavism and establish the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), "the most successful of the Gaudiya Math's offspring," an organization that continues today.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: However, despite the active missionary work of the reformed Gaudiya Math and its followers, most of the Gaudiya Vaishnava community in India remained under the influence of hereditary brahmins-"goswamis", who run famous old Gaudiya mandirs, as one example, the Radha Raman Temple in Vrindavan and its prominent scholar-acharya Shrivatsa Goswami.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Although sharing a common set of core beliefs, there are a number of philosophical differences which distinguish Gaudiya Vaishnavism from other Vaishnava schools:


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: "O most munificent incarnation! You are Krishna Himself appearing as Sri Krishna Caitanya Mahaprabhu. You have assumed the golden colour of Srimati Radharani, and You are widely distributing pure love of Krishna. We offer our respectful obeisances unto You."


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Although this viewpoint outside of the Gaudiya tradition was disputed, Chaitanya's followers prove it by pointing at verses throughout the Puranic literatures as evidence to support this claim. Evidences such as the Krishna-varnam verse SB 11.5.32 have many interpretations by scholars, including Sridhara Svami who is accepted as authority by Mahaprabhu himself.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Gaudiya Vaishnava theology is prominently expounded by Jiva Goswami in his "Sat-sandarbhas", six elaborate treatises on various aspects of God. Other prominent Gaudiya Vaishnava theologians are his uncles, Rupa Gosvami author of "Sri Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu" and Sanatana Gosvami, author of "Hari-bhakti-vilasa", Visvanatha Chakravarti author of "Sri Camatkara-candrika" and Baladeva Vidyabhushana, author of "Govinda Bhashya", a famous commentary on Vedanta Sutra.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: The strictly centralized form of church-type organization and the idea that one has to be an unconventional ("uttama") spiritual master introduced by the reformer Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati and his Gaudiya Math was not characteristic of the traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism with its hereditary brahmins-goswamis and family teachers ("kula gurus"). And much of the Gaudiya Vaishnava community in India remained committed to the unreformed and loosely organized tradition. Many modern organisations are independent branches of the tree of the Gaudiya Math.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: Many of branches of the Gaudiya Math (not all) are members of the World Vaisnava Association — Visva Vaisnava Raj Sabha (WVA–VVRS), which had been established in 1994 by some Gaudiya leaders. But and after this establushment, there is little real cooperation among Gaudiya organisations.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: There are adherents of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in all strata of Indian society, but a tendency has been revealed, Bengali Vaishnavas belong to the lower middle castes ("middle class"), while the upper castes as well as lowest castes and tribes in Bengal are Shaktas.


title: Gaudiya Vaishnavism

text: There are Krishnaite gurus and groups who belong to the Chaitanya lineage, but actually separated from Gaudiya Vaishnavism, becoming new independent movements.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (; or ; ) was a nominally autonomous kingdom and constitutionally defined separate political nation within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was created in 1868 by merging the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia following the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868. It was associated with the Kingdom of Hungary within the dual Austro-Hungarian state, being within the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen, also known as "Transleithania". While Croatia had been granted a wide internal autonomy with "national features", in reality, Croatian control over key issues such as tax and military issues was minimal and hampered by Hungary. It was internally officially referred to as the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia, also simply known as the Triune Kingdom, and had claims on Dalmatia, which was administrated separately by the Austrian Cisleithania. The city of Rijeka, following a disputed section in the 1868 Settlement known as the , became a "corpus separatum" and was legally owned by Hungary, but administrated by both Croatia and Hungary.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was ruled by the emperor of Austria, who bore the title "King of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia" and was confirmed by the State Sabor (Parliament of Croatia-Slavonia or Croatian-Slavonian Diet) upon accession. The King's appointed steward was the ban of Croatia and Slavonia. On 21 October 1918, Emperor Karl I, known as King Karlo IV in Croatia, issued a Trialist manifest, which was ratified by the Hungarian side on the next day and which unified all Croatian Crown Lands. One week later, on 29 October 1918, the Croatian State Sabor proclaimed an independent kingdom which entered the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The kingdom used the formal title of the "Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia", thereby pressing its claim on the Kingdom of Dalmatia. But Dalmatia was a "Kronland" within the imperial Austrian part of Austria-Hungary (also known as Cisleithania). The claim was, for most of the time, supported by the Hungarian government, which backed the Croatia–Slavonia in an effort to increase its share of the dual state. The union between the two primarily Croatian lands of Austria-Hungary never took place, however. According to the Article 53 of the Croatian–Hungarian Agreement, governing Croatia's political status in the Hungarian-ruled part of Austria-Hungary, the ban's official title was "Ban of Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia". Not only would different parts of the Monarchy at the same time use different styles of the titles, but even the same institutions would at the same time use different naming standards for the same institution. For instance, when the Imperial and Royal Court in Vienna would list the Croatian Ban as one of the Great Officers of State in the Kingdom of Hungary ("Barones Regni"), the style used would be "Regnorum Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae Banus", but when the Court would list the highest officials of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, the title would be styled as "Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia" (putting Slavonia before Dalmatia and omitting "Kingdom"). The laws passed in Croatia–Slavonia used the phrase "Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia".


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: In Hungarian, Croatia is referred to as "Horvátország" and Slavonia as "Szlavónia". The combined polity was known by the official name of "Horvát-Szlavón Királyság". The short form of the name was "Horvát-Szlavónország" and, less frequently "Horvát-Tótország".


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The order of mentioning Dalmatia was a contentious issue, as it was ordered differently in the Croatian- and Hungarian-language versions of the 1868 Settlement.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was created in 1868, when the former kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were joined into one single kingdom (the full civil administration was introduced in the Kingdom of Slavonia in 1745 and it was, as one of the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen, administratively included into both Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Hungary, but it existed virtually until 1868). The Croatian parliament, elected in a questionable manner, confirmed the subordination of Croatia–Slavonia to Hungary in 1868 with signing of Hungarian–Croatian union constitution called the "Nagodba" (Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, known also as Croatian–Hungarian Agreement or Hungarian–Croatian Compromise of 1868). This kingdom included parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia (eastern part of Syrmia).


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the only remaining open question of the new state was the status of Croatia, which would be solved with the Hungarian–Croatian Compromise of 1868 when agreement was reached between the Parliament of Hungary on one hand and the Parliament of Croatia–Slavonia on the other hand, with regard to the composition by a joint enactment of the constitutional questions at issue between them. Settlement reached between Hungary and Croatia was in Croatian version of the Settlement named "The Settlement between Kingdom of Hungary, united with Erdély on the one side and the Kingdoms of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia". In the Hungarian version neither Hungary, nor Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia are styled kingdoms, and Erdély is not even mentioned, while Settlement is named as the Settlement between Parliament of Hungary and Parliament of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. Both versions received Royal sanction and both as such became fundamental laws of the state with constitutional importance, pursuant to article 69. and 70. of the Settlement.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: With this compromise the parliament of personal union (in which Croatia–Slavonia had only twenty-nine, after 1881 – forty deputies) controlled the military, the financial system, Sea (Maritime) Law, Commercial Law, the law of Bills of Exchange and Mining Law, and generally matters of commerce, customs, telegraphs, Post Office, railways, harbours, shipping, and those roads and rivers which jointly concern Hungary and Croatia–Slavonia.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: Similarly to these affairs, trade matters including hawking, likewise with regard to societies which do not exist for public gain, and also with regard to passports, frontier police, citizenship and naturalization, the legislation was joint, but the executive in respect of these affairs was reserved to Kingdom of Croatia–Slavonia. The citizenship was named "Hungarian–Croatian citizenship" in Croatia–Slavonia.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: In the end, fifty-five per cent of the total income of Croatia–Slavonia were assigned to the Joint Treasury ("Joint Hungarian–Croatian Ministry of Finance").


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The kingdom existed until 1918 when it joined the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which together with the Kingdom of Serbia formed the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The new Serb–Croat–Slovene Kingdom was divided into between 1918 and 1922 and into oblasts between 1922 and 1929. With the formation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, most of the territory of the former Kingdom of Croatia–Slavonia became a part of the Sava Banate and in 1939 autonomous Croatian Banate (Banovina of Croatia).


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Austro–Hungarian Compromise ("Ausgleich") of 1867 created the Dual Monarchy. Under the Compromise, Austria and Hungary each had separate parliaments (the Imperial Council and the Diet of Hungary) that passed and maintained separate laws. Each region had its own government, headed by its own prime minister. The "common monarchy" consisted of the emperor-king and the common ministers of foreign affairs, defense and finance in Vienna. The Compromise confirmed Croatia–Slavonia's historic, eight-centuries-old relationship with Hungary and perpetuated the division of the Croat lands, for both Dalmatia and Istria remained under Austrian administration (as Kingdom of Dalmatia and Margraviate of Istria).


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: At Franz Joseph's insistence, Hungary and Croatia reached the Compromise (or "Nagodba" in Croatian) in 1868, giving the Croats a special status in Hungary. The agreement granted the Croats autonomy over their internal affairs. The Croatian Ban would now be nominated by the joint Croatian–Hungarian government led by the Hungarian Prime Minister, and appointed by the king. Areas of "common" concern to Hungarians and Croats included finance, currency matters, commercial policy, the post office, and the railroad. Croatian became the official language of Croatia's government, and Croatian representatives discussing "common" affairs before the Croatian–Hungarian diet were permitted to speak Croatian. A ministry of Croatian Affairs was created within the Hungarian government.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: Although the "Nagodba" provided a measure of political autonomy to Croatia–Slavonia, it was subordinated politically and economically to Hungary in the Croatian–Hungarian entity of the Monarchy.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Croatian Parliament or the Royal Croatian–Slavonian–Dalmatian Sabor (Croatian: "Kraljevski Hrvatsko–slavonsko–dalmatinski sabor" or "Sabor Kraljevina Hrvatske, Slavonije i Dalmacije") had legislative authority over the autonomous issues according to the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868. A draft law (bill), approved by the Diet, became a statute (an act) after the royal assent (sanction). It also had to be signed by the Ban. The King had the power to veto all legislation passed by the Diet and also to dissolve it and call new elections. If the King dissolved the Diet, he would have to call new elections during the period of three months.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The parliament was summoned annually at Zagreb by the King or by the King especially appointed commissioner (usually the Ban). It was unicameral, but alongside 88 elected deputies (in 1888), 44 "ex officio" members were Croatian and Slavonian high nobility (male princes, counts and barons – similar to hereditary peers – over the age of 24 who paid at least 1,000 florins a year land tax), high dignitaries of the Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches and supreme county prefects ("veliki župani") of all Croatian–Slavonian counties. Legislative term was three years, after 1887 – five years.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Croatian Parliament elected twenty-nine (after reincorporation of Croatian Military Frontier and Slavonian Military Frontier in 1881 – forty) deputies to the House of Representatives and two members (after 1881 – three) to the House of Magnates of the Diet of Hungary. The delegates of Croatia–Slavonia were allowed to use Croatian in the proceedings, but they voted personally.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Kingdom of Croatia–Slavonia held independent elections for the Croatian Parliament in 1865, 1867, 1871, 1872, 1878, 1881, 1883, 1884, 1887, 1892, 1897, 1901, 1906, 1908, 1910, 1911, 1913.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: Main political parties represented in the Parliament were People's Party (People's Liberal Party), Independent People's Party (after 1880), Croatian-Hungarian Party (People's (National) Constitutional Party or


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: Unionist Party) (1868–1873), Party of Rights, Pure Party of Rights (after 1895), Starčević's Party of Rights (after 1908), Serb Independent Party (after 1881), Croatian Peoples' Peasant Party (after 1904), Croat-Serb Coalition (after 1905) etc.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Autonomous Government or Land Government, officially "Royal Croatian–Slavonian–Dalmatian Land Government"( or "Kraljevska hrvatsko–slavonsko–dalmatinska zemaljska vlada") was established in 1869 with its seat in Zagreb (Croatian Parliament Act No. II of 1869). Until 1914 it possessed three departments:


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: At the head of the Autonomous Government in Croatia–Slavonia stood the Ban, who was responsible to the Croatian–Slavonian–Dalmatian Diet.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The Ban was appointed by the King, on the proposal and under the counter-signature of the Joint Hungarian minister-president.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: The supreme court of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia was the Table of Seven in Zagreb ("Table of Septemvirs" or "Court of Seven"; Croatian: "Stol sedmorice", Latin: "Tabula Septemviralis"), while the second-level court (court of appeal) was the Ban's Table or Ban's Court (Croatian: "Banski stol", Latin: "Tabula Banalis") in Zagreb.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: After the judicial reorganization of 1874 – 1886 (complete separation of judicial and administrative power, laws on judges' independence and judicial organization, the Organization of Courts of the First Instance Act of 1874 (with 1886 amendments), the Judicial Power Act of 1874 and the Judges' Disciplinary Responsibility (etc.) Act of 1874, the Croatian Criminal Procedure Act of 1875, the Croatian Criminal Procedure Press Offences Act of 1875)


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: and reincorporation of Croatian Military Frontier and Slavonian Military Frontier in 1881; courts of first instance became 9 royal court tables with collegiate judgeships (Croatian: "kraljevski sudbeni stolovi" in Zagreb, Varaždin, Bjelovar, Petrinja, Gospić, Ogulin, Požega, Osijek and Mitrovica; criminal and major civil jurisdiction; all of which had been former county courts and Land Court/Royal County Court Table in Zagreb), approximately 63 royal district courts with single judges (Croatian: "kraljevski kotarski sudovi"; mainly civil and misdemeanor jurisdiction; former district administrative and judicial offices and city courts) and local courts (Croatian: "mjesni sudovi"), also with single judges, which were established in each municipality and city according to the Local Courts and Local Courts Procedure Act of 1875 as special tribunals for minor civil cases. The Royal Court Table in Zagreb was also a jury court for press offences. Judges were appointed by the king, but their independence was legally guaranteed.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: In 1886, under Croatian ban Dragutin Khuen-Héderváry, Croatia–Slavonia was divided into eight counties ("županije", known as comitatus):


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: Lika-Krbava became a county after the incorporation of the Croatian Military Frontier into Croatia–Slavonia in 1881. The counties were subsequently divided into a total of 77 districts (Croatian: "kotari", similar to Austrian "Bezirke") as governmental units. Cities ("gradovi") and municipalities ("općine") were local authorities.


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: According to the 1868 Agreement and the Decree No. 18.307 of 16 November 1867 of the Department of the Interior of the Royal Country Government:


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: "The red–white–blue tricolor is the civil flag in the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia, which with the united coat of arms of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia with the crown of St. Stephen on top is the official flag for usage in autonomous affairs. The aforementioned civil flag may be used by everyone in an appropriate way."


title: Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

text: It was also stated that the emblem for "joint affairs of the territories of the Hungarian Crown" is formed by the united Coat of Arms of Hungary and Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia.