title: Shawn Colvin

text: In 1996, Colvin released her album "A Few Small Repairs" and in 1997 the success of her single "Sunny Came Home" catapulted her into the mainstream after spending four weeks at the number one spot on the Adult Contemporary chart. The song won the 1998 Grammy Awards for both Song and Record of the Year. Colvin released the album "Holiday Songs and Lullabies" in 1998 and in 2001 released another album called "Whole New You". In 2004, she released a compilation of past songs called, "Polaroids: A Greatest Hits Collection".


title: Shawn Colvin

text: In 2006, Colvin left Columbia Records and released a 15-song album called "These Four Walls" on her new label, Nonesuch Records, which featured contributions by Patty Griffin and Teddy Thompson. In 2009 she released "Live", which was recorded at the jazz club Yoshi's in Oakland, California.


title: Shawn Colvin

text: Colvin's eighth studio album, "All Fall Down", was released in 2012 and was produced by Buddy Miller at his home studio in Nashville, Tennessee. The album featured guest appearances by Emmylou Harris, Alison Krauss and Jakob Dylan. Colvin published her memoir "Diamond in the Rough" in 2012. In 2016 she recorded an album with Steve Earle called "Colvin and Earle". "A Few Small Repairs" was reissued in 2017, including its first pressing on vinyl, for its 20th anniversary.


title: Shawn Colvin

text: Colvin has made vocal contributions to songs by James Taylor, Béla Fleck, Edwin McCain, Shawn Mullins, Elliott Murphy, Bruce Hornsby and collaborated with Sting on the song "One Day She'll Love Me". She recorded as a duet the title track to Curtis Stigers 1995 album "Time Was". Colvin voiced Rachel Jordan, Ned Flanders' love interest after Maude is killed, in the Simpsons episode "Alone Again, Natura-Diddily" on February 13, 2000. and lent her vocals to Mary Chapin Carpenter's 1992 recordings, "The Hard Way" and "Come On Come On".


title: Shawn Colvin

text: Colvin has been married twice, first to Simon Tassano in 1993 whom she divorced in 1995, and to photographer Mario Erwin, whom she married in 1997 and divorced in 2002. She gave birth to daughter Caledonia in July 1998.


title: Shawn Colvin

text: Colvin says she has struggled on and off with depression, alcoholism, and anxiety. She has written about these struggles in her 2012 memoir "Diamond in the Rough", published by HarperCollins.


title: Centerfold

text: The centerfold or centrefold of a magazine is the inner pages of the middle sheet, usually containing a portrait, such as a pin-up or a nude. The term can also refer to the model featured in the portrait. In saddle-stitched magazines (as opposed to those that are perfect-bound), the centerfold does not have any blank space cutting through the image.


title: Centerfold

text: The term was coined by Hugh Hefner, founder of "Playboy" magazine. The success of the 1953 first issue of "Playboy" has been attributed in large part to its centerfold: a nude of Marilyn Monroe. The advent of monthly centerfolds gave the pin-up a new respectability, and helped to sanitize the notion of "sexiness". Being featured as a centerfold could lead to film roles for models, and still occasionally does today.


title: Centerfold

text: Early on, Hefner required "Playboy" centerfolds to be portrayed in a very specific way, telling photographers in a 1956 memo that the "model must be in a natural setting engaged in some activity 'like reading, writing, mixing a drink'...[and]... should have a 'healthy, intelligent, American look—a young lady that looks like she might be a very efficient secretary or an undergrad at Vassar.'" Hefner later said that the ideal centerfold is one in which "a situation is suggested, the presence of someone not in the picture"; the goal was to transform "a straight pinup into an intimate interlude, something personal and special."


title: Centerfold

text: Some magazines later adopted the practice of having a trifold or quatrefold centerfold, using a longer sheet of paper at that spot and folding the extra length into the magazine. Racier adult magazines used this space to showcase more explicit imagery: "In order to represent breasts, genitals, anus, and face all within the tri-fold frame of the centerfold, models were propped up, legs spread, raised, and then jack- knifed against their bodies, arms plunged between them to spread the labia."


title: Centerfold

text: Though the term has become linked in the public consciousness with erotic material or models, many other magazines such as "Life", "Time" and "National Geographic" have published fold-out spreads on other subjects.


title: Centerfold

text: Some magazines will refer to their centerfold models with a specific name, which may be connected to the magazine's brand or theme.


title: Centerfold

text: When obtained from one of the more prestigious publications in the field, it can become a semi-formal personal title used in news articles and introductions long after the model's centerfold appearance.


title: Centerfold

text: Some online-only media outlets maintain a monthly designation reminiscent of a print magazine centerfold; for example, the "Twistys" Treat.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Giovanni Gentile (; 30 May 1875 – 15 April 1944) was an Italian neo-Hegelian idealist philosopher, educator, and fascist politician. The self-styled "philosopher of Fascism", he was influential in providing an intellectual foundation for Italian Fascism, and ghostwrote part of "The Doctrine of Fascism" (1932) with Benito Mussolini. He was involved in the resurgence of Hegelian idealism in Italian philosophy and also devised his own system of thought, which he called "actual idealism" or "actualism", which has been described as "the subjective extreme of the idealist tradition".


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Giovanni Gentile was born in Castelvetrano, Italy. He was inspired by Risorgimento-era Italian intellectuals such as Mazzini, Rosmini, Gioberti, and Spaventa from whom he borrowed the idea of "autoctisi", "self-construction", but also strongly influenced and mentored by the German idealist and materialist schools of thought – namely Karl Marx, Hegel, and Fichte, with whom he shared the ideal of creating a "Wissenschaftslehre" (Epistemology), a theory for a structure of knowledge that makes no assumptions. Friedrich Nietzsche, too, influenced him, as seen in an analogy between Nietzsche's "Übermensch" and Gentile's "Uomo Fascista". In religion he presented himself as a Catholic (of sorts), and emphasised actual idealism's Christian heritage; Antonio G. Pesce insists that 'there is in fact no doubt that Gentile was a Catholic', but he occasionally identified himself as an atheist, albeit one who was still "culturally" a Catholic.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: He won a fierce competition to become one of four exceptional students of the prestigious Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, where he enrolled in the Faculty of Humanities.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: In 1898 he graduated in Letters and Philosophy with a dissertation titled "Rosmini e Gioberti", that he realized


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: In 1922, Gentile was named Minister of Public Education for the government of Benito Mussolini. In this capacity he instituted the "Riforma Gentile" – a reformation of the secondary school system that had a long-lasting impact on Italian education. His philosophical works included "The Theory of Mind as Pure Act" (1916) and "Logic as Theory of Knowledge" (1917), with which he defined actual idealism, a unified metaphysical system reinforcing his sentiments that philosophy isolated from life, and life isolated from philosophy, are but two identical modes of backward cultural bankruptcy. For Gentile, this theory indicated how philosophy could directly influence, mould, and penetrate life; or, how philosophy could govern life.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: In 1925, Gentile headed two constitutional reform commissions that helped establish the corporate state of Fascism. He would go on to serve as president of the Fascist state's Grand Council of Public Education (1926–28), and even gained membership on the powerful Fascist Grand Council (1925–29).


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile's philosophical system – the foundation of all Fascist philosophy – viewed thought as all-embracing: no-one could actually leave his or her sphere of thought, nor exceed his or her thought. Reality was unthinkable, except in relation to the activity by means of which it becomes thinkable, positing that as a unity — held in the active subject and the discrete abstract phenomena that reality comprehends – wherein each phenomenon, when truly realised, was centered within that unity; therefore, it was innately spiritual, transcendent, and immanent, to all possible things in contact with the unity. Gentile used that philosophic frame to systematize every item of interest that now was subject to the rule of absolute self-identification – thus rendering as correct every consequence of the hypothesis. The resultant philosophy can be interpreted as an idealist foundation for Legal Naturalism.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Giovanni Gentile was described by Mussolini, and by himself, as "the philosopher of Fascism"; moreover, he was the ghostwriter of the first part of the essay "The Doctrine of Fascism" (1932), attributed to Mussolini. It was first published in 1932, in the "Italian Encyclopedia", wherein he described the traits characteristic of Italian Fascism at the time: compulsory state corporatism, Philosopher Kings, the abolition of the parliamentary system, and autarky. He also wrote the "Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals" which was signed by a number of writers and intellectuals, including Luigi Pirandello, Gabriele D'Annunzio, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Giuseppe Ungaretti.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile became a member of the Fascist Grand Council in 1925, and remained loyal to Mussolini even after the fall of the Fascist government in 1943. He supported Mussolini's establishment of the "Republic of Salò", a puppet state of Nazi Germany, despite having criticized its anti-Jewish laws, and accepted an appointment in its government. Gentile was the last president of the Royal Academy of Italy (1943–1944).


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: In 1944 a group of communist Patriotic Action Groups (GAP) partisans led by assassinated Gentile as he returned from the prefecture in Florence. His assassination divided the anti-fascist front. It was disapproved of by the Tuscan branch of the CLN with the sole exception of the Italian Communist Party, which approved the assassination and claimed responsibility for it.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Benedetto Croce wrote that Gentile "... holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo-Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy." His philosophical basis for fascism was rooted in his understanding of ontology and epistemology, in which he found vindication for the rejection of individualism, and acceptance of collectivism, with the state as the ultimate location of authority and loyalty outside of which individuality had no meaning (and which in turn helped justify the totalitarian dimension of fascism).


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: The conceptual relationship between Gentile's actual idealism and his conception of fascism is not self-evident. The supposed relationship does not appear to be based on logical deducibility. That is, actual idealism does not entail a fascist ideology in any rigorous sense. Gentile enjoyed fruitful intellectual relations with Croce from 1899 – and particularly during their joint editorship of "La Critica" from 1903 to 1922 – but broke philosophically and politically from Croce in the early 1920s over Gentile's embrace of fascism. (Croce assesses their philosophical disagreement in "Una discussione tra filosofi amici" in "Conversazioni Critiche", II.)


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Ultimately, Gentile foresaw a social order wherein opposites of all kinds weren't to be considered as existing independently from each other; that 'publicness' and 'privateness' as broad interpretations were currently false as imposed by all former kinds of government, including capitalism and communism; and that only the reciprocal totalitarian state of Corporatism, a fascist state, could defeat these problems which are made from reifying as an external reality that which is in fact, to Gentile, only a reality in thinking. Whereas it was common in the philosophy of the time to see the conditional subject as abstract and the object as concrete, Gentile postulated (after Hegel) the opposite, that the subject is concrete and the object a mere abstraction (or rather, that what was conventionally dubbed "subject" is in fact only conditional object, and that the true subject is the "act of" being or essence of the object).


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile was, because of his "actualist" system, a notable philosophical presence across Europe during his time. At its base, Gentile's brand of idealism asserted the primacy of the "pure act" of thinking. This act is foundational to all human experience – it "creates" the phenomenal world – and involves a process of "reflective awareness" (in Italian, "l'atto del pensiero, pensiero pensante") that is constitutive of the Absolute and revealed in education. Gentile's emphasis on seeing Mind as the Absolute signaled his "revival of the idealist doctrine of the autonomy of the mind." It also connected his philosophical work to his vocation as a teacher. In actual idealism, then, pedagogy is transcendental and provides the process by which the Absolute is revealed. His idea of a transcending truth above positivism garnered particular attention by emphasizing that all modes of sensation only take the form of ideas within one's mind; in other words, they are mental constructs. To Gentile, for example, even the correlation of the function and location of the physical brain with the functions of the physical body was merely a consistent creation of the mind, and not of the brain (itself a creation of the mind). Observations like this have led some commentators to view Gentile's philosophy as a kind of "absolute solipsism," expressing the idea "that only the spirit or mind is real".


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Actual idealism also touches on ideas of concern to theology. An example of actual idealism in theology is the idea that although man may have invented the concept of God, it does not make God any less real in any possible sense, so long as God is not presupposed to exist as abstraction"," and except in case qualities about what existence actually entails (i.e. being invented apart from the thinking that makes it) are presupposed. Benedetto Croce objected that Gentile's "pure act" is nothing other than Schopenhauer's will.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Therefore, Gentile proposed a form of what he called "absolute Immanentism" in which the divine was the present conception of reality in the totality of one's individual thinking as an evolving, growing and dynamic process. Many times accused of solipsism, Gentile maintained his philosophy to be a Humanism that sensed the possibility of nothing beyond what was colligate in perception; the self's human thinking, in order to communicate as immanence is to be human like oneself, made a cohesive empathy of the self-same, without an external division, and therefore not modeled as objects to one's own thinking. Whereas solipsism would feel trapped in realization of its solitude, actualism rejects such a privation and is an expression of the only freedom which is possible within objective contingencies, where the transcendental Self does not even exist as an object, and the dialectical co-substantiation of others necessary to understand the empirical self are felt as true others when found to be the unrelativistic subjectivity of that whole self and essentially unified with the spirit of such higher self "in actu", where others can be truly known, rather than thought as windowless monads.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile considered Fascism the fulfillment of the Risorgimento ideals, particularly those represented by Giuseppe Mazzini and the Historical Right party.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile sought to make his philosophy the basis for Fascism. However, with Gentile and with Fascism, the "problem of the party" existed by virtue of the fact that the Fascist "party", as such, arose organically rather than from a tract or pre-established socio-political doctrine. This complicated the matter for Gentile as it left no consensus to any way of thinking among Fascists, but ironically this aspect was to Gentile's view of how a state or party doctrine should live out its existence: with natural organic growth and dialectical opposition intact. The fact that Mussolini gave credence to Gentile's view points via Gentile's authorship helped with an official consideration, even though the "problem of the party" continued to exist for Mussolini as well.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile placed himself within the Hegelian tradition, but also sought to distance himself from those views he considered erroneous. He criticized Hegel's dialectic (of Idea-Nature-Spirit), and instead proposed that everything is Spirit, with the dialectic residing in the "pure act" of thinking. Gentile believed Marx's conception of the dialectic to be the fundamental flaw of his application to system making. To the neo-Hegelian Gentile, Marx had made the dialectic into an external object, and therefore had abstracted it by making it part of a material process of historical development. The dialectic to Gentile could only be something of human precepts, something that is an active part of human thinking. It was, to Gentile, concrete subject and not abstract object. This Gentile expounded by how humans think in forms wherein one side of a dual opposite could not be thought of without its complement.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: "Upward" wouldn't be known without "downward" and "heat" couldn't be known without "cold", while each are opposites they are co-dependent for either one's realization: these were creations that existed as dialectic only in human thinking and couldn't be confirmed outside of which, and especially could not be said to exist in a condition external to human thought like independent matter and a world outside of personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality when not conceived in unity and from the standpoint of the human mind.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: To Gentile, Marx's externalizing of the dialectic was essentially a fetishistic mysticism. Though when viewed externally thus, it followed that Marx could then make claims to the effect of what state or condition the dialectic objectively existed in history, "a posteriori" of where any individual's opinion was while comporting oneself to the totalized whole of society. i.e. people themselves could by such a view be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind from the current state of the dialectic and not themselves be part of what is actively creating the dialectic as-it-is.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: Gentile thought this was absurd, and that there was no 'positive' independently existing dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic was natural to the state, as-it-is. Meaning that the interests composing the state are composing the dialectic by their living organic process of holding oppositional views within that state, and unified therein. It being the mean condition of those interests as ever they exist. Even criminality is unified as a necessarily dialectic to be subsumed into the state and a creation and natural outlet of the dialectic of the positive state as ever it is.


title: Giovanni Gentile

text: This view (influenced by the Hegelian theory of the state) justified the corporative system, where in the individualized and particular interests of all divergent groups were to be personably incorporated into the state ("Stato etico") each to be considered a bureaucratic branch of the state itself and given official leverage. Gentile, rather than believing the private to be swallowed synthetically within the public as Marx would have it in his objective dialectic, believed that public and private were "a priori" identified with each other in an active and subjective dialectic: one could not be subsumed fully into the other as they already are beforehand the same. In such a manner each is the other after their own fashion and from their respective, relative, and reciprocal, position. Yet both constitute the state itself and neither are free from it, nothing ever being truly free from it, the state (as in Hegel) existing as an eternal condition and not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic values and facts of the particulars about what is positively governing the people at any given time.


title: Breech birth

text: A breech birth is when a baby is born bottom first instead of head first, as is normal. Around 3–5% of pregnant women at term (37–40 weeks pregnant) have a breech baby. Due to their higher than average rate of possible complications for the baby, breech births are generally considered higher risk. Breech births also occur in many other mammals such as dogs and horses, see veterinary obstetrics.


title: Breech birth

text: Most babies in the breech position are delivered via caesarean section because it is seen as safer than being born vaginally. Doctors and midwives in the developing world often lack many of the skills required to safely assist women giving birth to a breech baby vaginally. Also, delivering all breech babies by caesarean section in developing countries is difficult to implement as there are not always resources available to provide this service. OB-GYNs do not recommend home births if a breech birth is expected, even when attended by a medical professional.


title: Breech birth

text: During the first period, which lasts until the 24th gestational week, the incidence of a longitudinal lie increases, with equal proportions of breech or cephalic presentations from this lie. This period is characterized by frequent changes of presentations. The fetuses in breech presentation during this period have the same probability for breech and cephalic presentation at delivery.


title: Breech birth

text: During the second period, lasting from the 25th to the 35th gestational week, the incidence of cephalic presentation increases, with a proportional decrease of breech presentation. The second period is characterized by a higher than random probability that the fetal presentation during this period will also be present at the time of delivery. The increase of this probability is gradual and identical for breech and cephalic presentations during this period.


title: Breech birth

text: In the third period, from the 36th gestational week onward, the incidence of cephalic and breech presentations remain stable, i.e. breech presentation around 3–4% and cephalic presentation approximately 95%. In the general population, incidence of breech presentation at preterm corresponds to the incidence of breech presentation when birth occurs.


title: Breech birth

text: A breech presentation at delivery occurs when the fetus does not turn to a cephalic presentation. This failure to change presentation can result from endogenous and exogenous factors. Endogenous factors involve fetal inability to adequately move, whereas exogenous factors refer to insufficient intrauterine space available for fetal movements.


title: Breech birth

text: The incidence of breech presentation is affected by both maternal and fetal diseases and medical conditions. When these factors are present, the probability of breech presentation is between 4% and 50%.


title: Breech birth

text: Also, women with previous Caesarean deliveries have a risk of breech presentation at term twice that of women with previous vaginal deliveries.


title: Breech birth

text: The highest possible probability of breech presentation of 50% indicates that breech presentation is a consequence of random filling of the intrauterine space, with the same probability of breech and cephalic presentation in a longitudinally elongated uterus.


title: Breech birth

text: In addition to the above, breech births in which the sacrum is the fetal denominator can be classified by the position of a fetus. Thus sacro-anterior, sacro-transverse and sacro-posterior positions all exist, but left sacro-anterior is the most common presentation. Sacro-anterior indicates an easier delivery compared to other forms.


title: Breech birth

text: Umbilical cord prolapse may occur, particularly in the complete, footling, or kneeling breech. This is caused by the lowermost parts of the baby not completely filling the space of the dilated cervix. When the waters break the amniotic sac, it is possible for the umbilical cord to drop down and become compressed. This complication severely diminishes oxygen flow to the baby, so the baby must be delivered immediately (usually by Caesarean section) so that he or she can breathe. If there is a delay in delivery, the brain can be damaged. Among full-term, head-down babies, cord prolapse is quite rare, occurring in 0.4 percent. Among frank breech babies the incidence is 0.5 percent, among complete breeches 5 percent, and among footling breeches 15 percent.


title: Breech birth

text: Head entrapment is caused by the failure of the fetal head to negotiate the maternal midpelvis. At full term, the fetal bitrochanteric diameter (the distance between the outer points of the hips) is about the same as the biparietal diameter (the transverse diameter of the skull)—in simplest terms, the size of the hips is the same as the size of the head. The relatively larger buttocks dilate the cervix as effectively as the head does in the typical head-down presentation. In contrast, the relative head size of a preterm baby is greater than the fetal buttocks. If the baby is preterm, it may be possible for the baby's body to emerge while the cervix has not dilated enough for the head to emerge.


title: Breech birth

text: Because the umbilical cord—the baby's oxygen supply—is significantly compressed while the head is in the pelvis during a breech birth, it is important that the delivery of the aftercoming fetal head not be delayed. If the arm is extended alongside the head, delivery will not occur. If this occurs, the "Løvset manoeuvre" may be employed, or the arm may be manually brought to a position in front of the chest. The Løvset manoeuvre involves rotating the fetal body by holding the fetal pelvis. Twisting the body such that an arm trails behind the shoulder, it will tend to cross down over the face to a position where it can be reached by the obstetrician's finger, and brought to a position below the head. A similar rotation in the opposite direction is made to deliver the other arm. In order to present the smallest diameter (9.5 cm) to the pelvis, the baby's head must be flexed (chin to chest). If the head is in a deflexed position, the risk of entrapment is increased. Uterine contractions and maternal muscle tone encourage the head to flex.


title: Breech birth

text: Oxygen deprivation may occur from either cord prolapse or prolonged compression of the cord during birth, as in head entrapment. If oxygen deprivation is prolonged, it may cause permanent neurological damage (for instance, cerebral palsy) or death. It has been suggested that a fast vaginal delivery would mean the risk of stopping baby's oxygen supply is reduced. However, there is not enough research to show this and a quick delivery might cause more harm to the baby than a conservative approach to the birth.


title: Breech birth

text: Injury to the brain and skull may occur due to the rapid passage of the baby's head through the mother's pelvis. This causes rapid decompression of the baby's head. In contrast, a baby going through labor in the head-down position usually experiences gradual molding (temporary reshaping of the skull) over the course of a few hours. This sudden compression and decompression in breech birth may cause no problems at all, but it can injure the brain. This injury is more likely in preterm babies. The fetal head may be controlled by a special two-handed grip call the Mauriceau–Smellie–Veit maneuver or the elective application of forceps. This will be of value in controlling the rate of delivery of the head and reduce decompression. Related to potential head trauma, researchers have identified a relationship between breech birth and autism.


title: Breech birth

text: Squeezing the baby's abdomen can damage internal organs. Positioning the baby incorrectly while using forceps to deliver the after coming head can damage the spine or spinal cord. It is important for the birth attendant to be knowledgeable, skilled, and experienced with all variations of breech birth.


title: Breech birth

text: As in labour with a baby in a normal head-down position, uterine contractions typically occur at regular intervals and gradually the cervix begins to thin and open. In the more common breech presentations, the baby's bottom (rather than feet or knees) is what is first to descend through the maternal pelvis and emerge from the vagina.


title: Breech birth

text: At the beginning of labour, the baby is generally in an oblique position, facing either the right or left side. The baby's bottom is the same size in the term baby as the baby's head. Descent is thus as for the presenting fetal head and delay in descent is a cardinal sign of possible problems with the delivery of the head.


title: Breech birth

text: In order to begin the birth, descent of podalic pole along with compaction and internal rotation needs to occur. This happens when the mother's pelvic floor muscles cause the baby to turn so that it can be born with one hip directly in front of the other. At this point the baby is facing one of the mother's inner thighs. Then, the shoulders follow the same path as the hips did. At this time the baby usually turns to face the mother's back. Next occurs external rotation, which is when the shoulders emerge as the baby's head enters the maternal pelvis. The combination of maternal muscle tone and uterine contractions cause the baby's head to flex, chin to chest. Then the back of the baby's head emerges and finally the face.


title: Breech birth

text: Due to the increased pressure during labour and birth, it is normal for the baby's leading hip to be bruised and genitalia to be swollen. Babies who assumed the frank breech position in utero may continue to hold their legs in this position for some days after birth.


title: Breech birth

text: When a baby is born bottom first there is more risk that the birth will not be straight forward and that the baby could be harmed. For example, when the baby's head passes through the mother's pelvis the umbilical cord can be compressed which prevents delivery of oxygenated blood to the baby. Due to this and other risks, babies in breech position are often born by a planned caesarean section in developed countries.


title: Breech birth

text: Caesarean section reduces the risk of harm or death for the baby but does increase risk of harm to the mother compared with a vaginal delivery. It is best if the baby is in a head down position so that they can be born vaginally with less risk of harm to both mother and baby. The next section is looking at External cephalic version or ECV which is a method that can help the baby turn from a breech position to a head down position.


title: Breech birth

text: Vaginal birth of a breech baby has its risks but caesarean sections are not always available or possible, a mother might arrive in hospital at a late stage of her labour or may choose not to have a caesarean section. In these cases, it is important that the clinical skills needed to deliver breech babies are not lost so that mothers and babies are as safe as possible. Compared with developed countries, planned caesarean sections have not produced as good results in developing countries – it is suggested that this is due to more breech vaginal deliveries being performed by experienced, skilled practitioners in these settings.


title: Breech birth

text: In twin pregnancies, it is very common for one or both babies to be in the breech position. Most often twin babies do not have the chance to turn around because they are born prematurely. If both babies are in the breech position and the mother has gone into labour early, a cesarean section may be the best option. About 30–40% of twin pregnancies result in only one baby being in the breech position. If this is the case, the babies can be born vaginally. After the first baby who is not in the breech position is delivered, the baby who is presented in the breech position may turn itself around, if this does not happen another procedure may performed called the breech extraction. The breech extraction is the procedure that involves the obstetrician grabbing the second twin's feet and pulling him/her into the birth canal. This will help with delivering the second twin vaginally. However, if the second twin is larger than the first, complications with delivering the second twin vaginally may arise and a cesarean section should be performed. At times, the first twin (the twin closest to the birth canal) can be in the breech position with the second twin being in the cephalic position (vertical). When this occurs, risks of complications are higher than normal. In particular, a serious complication known as Locked twins. This is when both babies interlock their chins during labour. When this happens a cesarean section should be performed immediately.


title: Breech birth

text: Turning the baby, technically known as external cephalic version (ECV), is when the baby is turned by gently pressing the mother's abdomen to push the baby from a bottom first position, to a head first position. ECV does not always work, but it does improve the mother's chances of giving birth to her baby vaginally and avoiding a cesarean section. The World Health Organisation recommends that women should have a planned cesarean section only if an ECV has been tried and did not work.


title: Breech birth

text: Women who have an ECV when they are 36–40 weeks pregnant are more likely to have a vaginal delivery and less likely to have a cesarean section than those who do not have an ECV. Turning the baby before this time makes a head first birth more likely but ECV before the due date can increase the risk of early or premature birth which can cause problems to the baby.


title: Breech birth

text: There are treatments that can be used which might affect the success of an ECV. Drugs called beta-stimulant tocolytics help the woman's muscles to relax so that the pressure during the ECV does not have to be so great. Giving the woman these drugs before the ECV improves the chances of her having a vaginal delivery because the baby is more likely to turn and stay head down. Other treatments such as using sound, pain relief drugs such as epidural, increasing the fluid around the baby and increasing the amount of fluids to the woman before the ECV could all effect its success but there is not enough research to make this clear.


title: Breech birth

text: Turning techniques mothers can do at home are referred to as "spontaneous cephalic version" (SCV), this is when the baby can turn without any medical assistance. Some of these techniques include: a knee-to-chest position, the breech tilt, and moxibustion, these can be performed after the mother is 34 weeks pregnant. There is limited evidence that these techniques have any effect.


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: Carmine Dominick Giovinazzo ( ; born August 24, 1973) is an American actor, writer, painter and musician, known for his role as Detective Danny Messer in "".


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: Giovinazzo was born and raised in the Port Richmond neighborhood of Staten Island, New York, the son of Nancy and Dominick Giovinazzo. Growing up, Giovinazzo was an avid athlete. He graduated from Port Richmond High School in 1991 and attended Wagner College on a baseball scholarship. He had hoped to become a professional baseball player, but a serious back injury dashed his career plans; with the support of his family, he turned to acting. He studied acting at Wagner College and HB Studios, and spent four years working mostly non-paying roles in the New York area.


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: In 1997, Giovinazzo moved to Los Angeles. Not long afterward, he successfully landed his first Hollywood role in the pilot of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", in which his character was the show's first on-screen victim. Afterwards, he appeared in numerous guest-starring roles on television and in film, including "Billy's Hollywood Screen Kiss", "For Love of the Game", "The Big Brass Ring", and "Black Hawk Down". He was also cast as one of the stars of the short-lived UPN sitcom "Shasta McNasty", which was nominated for a Peoples Choice Award. Other films in which he had starring roles include "In Enemy Hands" with William H. Macy, and "Players" with Freddy Rodriguez and Peter Dobson. He played Tony Galper, the victim in the final episode of the TV series "Columbo".


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: Giovinazzo was cast as forensic scientist Danny Messer on the hit TV series "" and is the first actor to appear in all three "CSI" series; his character was introduced in the "" episode "MIA/NYC NonStop" (along with the other "CSI: NY" cast members), and he guest-starred in season three of the Las Vegas-based as street racer Thumpy G in the episode "Revenge is Best Served Cold" (though it is never specified that this guest spot was in any way related to his character on "CSI: NY"). Giovinazzo penned season six's vampire-themed episode "", joining series leads Melina Kanakaredes and Gary Sinise who have also written episodes for the series.


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: In 2014, Giovinazzo portrayed the recurring role of Sid Markham in season two of the USA television series "Graceland". In this series, he reunited with his former "CSI: NY" co-star Vanessa Ferlito.


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: Giovinazzo plays the guitar, and writes songs and poetry. He is also a painter, mostly in oils, and one of his paintings appeared in the "" episode of "CSI: NY". He is currently a lead vocalist in the band Ceesau, which released one album, "Era of the Exposed" (2008). The song "Tear To Spare", from this album, was played in the "CSI: NY" sixth-season episode "Sanguine Love", which Giovinazzo wrote.


title: Carmine Giovinazzo

text: Giovinazzo married actress Vanessa Marcil on July 11, 2010, in a private ceremony in New York City. Marcil filed for divorce in August 2012 on the basis of irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized in March 2013.


title: International League

text: The International League (IL) is a Minor League Baseball league that operates in the United States. Along with the Pacific Coast League, it is one of two leagues playing at the Triple-A level, which is one grade below Major League Baseball (MLB).


title: International League

text: The league traces its roots to 1884, while the modern IL began in 1912. Following MLB's reorganization of the minor leagues in 2021, it operated as the Triple-A East for one season before switching back to its previous moniker in 2022. It is so named because throughout its history the International League had teams in Canada and Cuba as well as those in the United States. Since 2008, however, all of its teams have been based in the US. The IL's 20 teams are located in 14 states stretching from Papillion, Nebraska, to Worcester, Massachusetts, and from St. Paul, Minnesota, to Jacksonville, Florida.


title: International League

text: A league champion is determined at the end of each season. The Rochester Red Wings have won 19 International League titles, the most in the league's history, followed by the Columbus Clippers (11) and the Baltimore Orioles, original Buffalo Bisons, and Toronto Maple Leafs (10). During the era of the Governors' Cup playoffs from 1933 to 2020, the most cup titles were won by Columbus (11), followed by Rochester (10) and the Syracuse Mets (8).


title: International League

text: The International League was created from the mergers of member teams from three precursor leagues: the Eastern League of 1884, which was itself a re-organization of the Interstate Association of 1883; the New York State League, formed in 1885; and the Ontario League, also organized in 1885. The New York State League and Ontario League merged in 1886 to form the International League, and in 1887 the Eastern League was absorbed to create a ten-club league. Also in 1887, the International League passed a resolution barring African Americans from playing in the league. The league collapsed soon afterwards, when the northern teams claimed that it was too onerous to travel to the south and formed the International Association.


title: International League

text: The "International League" name was first used in 1886, but did not become the longterm name of the league until 1912. The league ultimately cited 1884 as the year of its foundation, through the following lineage:


title: International League

text: The International League was also affected by the effort to establish the Federal League as a new third major league from 1914 to 1915, with franchises being added and dropped and new ballparks built. In 1954, a franchise was awarded to Havana, Cuba, but due to political upheaval in that country it had to be moved—to Jersey City, New Jersey—in the middle of the 1960 season. Another foray into the Caribbean failed when the newly created team in San Juan, Puerto Rico, added in 1961, had to be moved to Charleston, West Virginia, in mid-season.


title: International League

text: In June 1971, an IL all-star team beat the New York Yankees, 15–13, in an exhibition game at Silver Stadium in Rochester, New York, before a crowd of 11,001—notable players on the all-star squad included Don Baylor, Carlton Fisk, and Bobby Grich. In August 1983, another team of IL all-stars were defeated by the Cleveland Indians, 8–6, in 11 innings before 11,032 fans at Franklin County Stadium in Columbus, Ohio.


title: International League

text: The International League and the American Association, another Triple-A league that operated in the Midwest, voted in 1988 to play interleague games as part of the Triple-A Alliance. The league also split into two divisions that year. The interleague concept ended in 1992, but the two league divisions remained.


title: International League

text: In 1998, the International League reorganized into three divisions with the addition of four new teams—the Buffalo Bisons, Indianapolis Indians, and Louisville Redbirds joined from the disbanded American Association, while the Durham Bulls joined from the Class A Carolina League.


title: International League

text: The start of the 2020 season was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic before ultimately being cancelled on June 30. Prior to the 2021 season, Major League Baseball (MLB) assumed control of Minor League Baseball in a move to increase player salaries, modernize facility standards, and reduce travel through better geographical alignment. As part of this reorganization, the International League was expanded to 20 teams and temporarily renamed the "Triple-A East" for the 2021 season. Of these 20 teams, 14 were existing members of the International League, four were the easternmost teams from the Pacific Coast League, one was promoted from the Double-A Southern League, and one moved from the independent American Association of Professional Baseball. Following MLB's acquisition of the rights to the names of the historical minor leagues, the Triple-A East was renamed the International League effective with the 2022 season.


title: International League

text: The International League is divided into the East Division and the West Division, each consisting of 10 teams. As of the 2022 season, all teams play a 150-game schedule, beginning in early April and concluding in late September.


title: International League

text: After the completion of the season, the two division champions meet in a single game to determine a league champion. From 1933 to 2019, the three division champions and a wild card team squared off in series playoffs to determine a champion, with the winner awarded the Governors' Cup, the league's championship trophy. Following the cancelled 2020 season, rather than hold playoffs for its championship, the 2021 title was awarded to the team with the best regular-season record.


title: International League

text: In further postseason play, the IL champion meets the Pacific Coast League's champion in the Triple-A National Championship Game, a single game to determine an overall champion of Triple-A baseball, which has been held annually since 2006, excluding 2020 and 2021. Previously, the IL champion also competed in the Triple-A World Series (1983, 1998–2000), Junior World Series (1919), and other sporadic postseason competitions throughout the league's history.


title: International League

text: Other interleague play occurred during the Triple-A All-Star Game. Traditionally, the game had taken place on the day after the mid-summer Major League Baseball All-Star Game. The game was meant to mark a symbolic halfway-point in the season (though not the mathematical halfway-point which, for most seasons, is usually one month prior). During the All-Star break, no regular-season games were scheduled for two days before the All-Star Game itself.


title: International League

text: These teams were either charter members of the IL in 1912 or were added as expansion teams thereafter.


title: International League

text: Three current teams joined the IL in 1998 from the American Association, which disbanded after the 1997 season. Indianapolis had previously played in the IL in 1963.


title: International League

text: One current team was placed in the IL from the independent American Association of Professional Baseball in 2021.


title: International League

text: The International League has crowned a league champion each season since 1884. Through 1932, champions were the regular-season pennant winners—the team with the best win–loss record at the conclusion of the regular season. From 1933 to 2020, postseason playoffs were held to determine champions. Participants from 1933 to 1987 were usually the four teams with the highest winning percentage. From 1988 to 2020, the four qualifiers were the division winners and one or two wild card teams. The winner of each season's championship playoffs was awarded the Governors' Cup. These playoffs and the Governors' Cup trophy were discontinued in 2021. The 2021 winner was the team with the best regular-season record, and the 2022 championship was decided via a single game between the winners of the East and West Divisions.


title: International League

text: The Most Valuable Player Award, first awarded in 1932, is given to honor the best player in the league.


title: International League

text: The Pitcher of the Year Award, first awarded in 1953 and known as the Most Valuable Pitcher Award, serves to recognize the league's best pitcher. Pitchers were eligible to win the award from 1932 to 1952 as no award was designated solely for pitchers.


title: International League

text: The Top MLB Prospect Award, created in 1950 as the Rookie of the Year Award, is given to the best player with no prior IL experience.


title: International League

text: The Executive of the Year Award, first awarded in 1964, honored team executives who contributed to the success of the league.


title: International League

text: The Spirit of the International League Award, first awarded in 2010, honored team executives who exhibited dedication to creating and maintaining positive fan experiences when visiting IL games.


title: International League

text: The International League Hall of Fame was established in 1947 to honor league players, managers, and executives who have made significant contributions to the league. The Hall of Fame inducted its first class of nine men in 1947. A plaque was unveiled at the IL's New York City offices located in the Ruppert Building at 535 Fifth Avenue. Today, the plaque has no permanent home, but exists as a traveling display that visits a number of the league's ballparks each season. The Hall became dormant after 1963, but was revived in 2007. New members are elected before the start of each season.


title: Particulates

text: Particulates – also known as atmospheric aerosol particles, atmospheric particulate matter, particulate matter (PM) or suspended particulate matter (SPM) – are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The term "aerosol" commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone. Sources of particulate matter can be natural or anthropogenic. They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health, in ways additional to direct inhalation.


title: Particulates

text: Types of atmospheric particles include suspended particulate matter; thoracic and respirable particles; inhalable coarse particles, designated PM, which are coarse particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers (μm) or less; fine particles, designated PM, with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less; ultrafine particles, with a diameter of 100 nm or less; and soot.


title: Particulates

text: The IARC and WHO designate airborne particulates as a Group 1 carcinogen. Particulates are the most harmful form (other than ultra-fines) of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and brain from the blood streams, causing health problems including heart attacks, respiratory disease, and premature death. In 2013, a study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg/m in PM, the lung cancer rate rose 22% (95% CI [1.03–1.45]). The smaller PM, which can penetrate deeper into the lungs, were associated with an 18% increase in lung cancer per 5 μg/m; however, this study did not show statistical significance for this association (95% CI [0.96–1.46]) Worldwide exposure to PM contributed to 4.1 million deaths from heart disease and stroke, lung cancer, chronic lung disease, and respiratory infections in 2016. Overall, ambient particulate matter ranks as the sixth leading risk factor for premature death globally.


title: Particulates

text: Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, and biomass including wood and stubble, power plants, road dust from tyre and road wear, wet cooling towers in cooling systems and various industrial processes, also generate significant amounts of particulates. Coal combustion in developing countries is the primary method for heating homes and supplying energy. Because salt spray over the oceans is the overwhelmingly most common form of particulate in the atmosphere, "anthropogenic" aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total mass of aerosols in our atmosphere.


title: Particulates

text: In the United Kingdom domestic combustion is the largest single source of PM2.5 and PM10 annually. In some towns and cities in New South Wales wood smoke may be responsible for 60% of fine particle air pollution in the winter.


title: Particulates

text: The composition and toxicity of aerosols, including particles, depends on their source and atmospheric chemistry and varies widely.


title: Particulates

text: Wind-blown mineral dust tends to be made of mineral oxides and other material blown from the Earth's crust; this particulate is light-absorbing. Sea salt is considered the second-largest contributor in the global aerosol budget, and consists mainly of sodium chloride originated from sea spray; other constituents of atmospheric sea salt reflect the composition of sea water, and thus include magnesium, sulfate, calcium, potassium, etc. In addition, sea spray aerosols may contain organic compounds, which influence their chemistry.


title: Particulates

text: Some secondary particles derive from the oxidation of primary gases such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides into sulfuric acid (liquid) and nitric acid (gaseous) or from biogenic emissions. The precursors for these aerosols—i.e. the gases from which they originate—may have an anthropogenic origin (from any fossil fuel combustion) and a natural biogenic origin. In the presence of ammonia, secondary aerosols often take the form of ammonium salts; i.e. ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate (both can be dry or in aqueous solution); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take an acidic form as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas), all of which probably contribute to the health effects of particulates.


title: Particulates

text: Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are strong light-scatterers. This is mainly because the presence of sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a size that scatters light effectively.


title: Particulates

text: Organic matter (OM) found in aerosols can be either primary or secondary, the latter part deriving from the oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs); organic material in the atmosphere may either be biogenic or anthropogenic. Organic matter influences the atmospheric radiation field by both scattering and absorption. Some aerosols are predicted to include strongly light-absorbing material and are thought to yield large positive radiative forcing. Some secondary organic aerosols (SOAs) resulting from combustion products of internal combustion engines, have been identified as a danger to health. Particulate toxicity has been found to vary by region and source contribution which affects the particles chemical composition.


title: Particulates

text: The chemical composition of the aerosol directly affects how it interacts with solar radiation. The chemical constituents within the aerosol change the overall refractive index. The refractive index will determine how much light is scattered and absorbed.


title: Particulates

text: The composition of particulate matter that generally causes visual effects, haze, consists of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, mineral dust, and organic matter. The particles are hygroscopic due to the presence of sulfur, and SO is converted to sulfate when high humidity and low temperatures are present. This causes reduced visibility and yellow color.


title: Particulates

text: The false-color maps in the map of distribution of aerosol particles on this page show where there are natural aerosols, human pollution, or a mixture of both, monthly.


title: Particulates

text: Among the most obvious patterns that the size distribution time series shows is that in the planet's most southerly latitudes, nearly all the aerosols are large, but in the high northern latitudes, smaller aerosols are very abundant. Most of the Southern Hemisphere is covered by the ocean, where the largest source of aerosols is natural sea salt from dried sea spray. Because the land is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, the amount of small aerosols from fires and human activities is greater there than in the Southern Hemisphere. Overland, patches of large-radius aerosols appear over deserts and arid regions, most prominently, the Sahara Desert in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, where dust storms are common. Places where human-triggered or natural fire activity is common (land-clearing fires in the Amazon from August–October, for example, or lightning-triggered fires in the forests of northern Canada in Northern Hemisphere summer) are dominated by smaller aerosols. Human-produced (fossil fuel) pollution is largely responsible for the areas of small aerosols overdeveloped areas such as the eastern United States and Europe, especially in their summer.


title: Particulates

text: Satellite measurements of aerosols, called aerosol optical thickness, are based on the fact that the particles change the way the atmosphere reflects and absorbs visible and infrared light. As shown in the seventh image on this page, an optical thickness of less than 0.1 (palest yellow) indicates a crystal clear sky with maximum visibility, whereas a value of 1 (reddish-brown) indicates very hazy conditions.


title: Particulates

text: In general, the smaller and lighter a particle is, the longer it will stay in the air. Larger particles (greater than 10 micrometers in diameter) tend to settle to the ground by gravity in a matter of hours whereas the smallest particles (less than 1 micrometer) can stay in the atmosphere for weeks and are mostly removed by precipitation. Diesel particulate matter is highest near the source of emission. Any information regarding DPM and the atmosphere, flora, height, and distance from major sources is useful to determine health effects.


title: Particulates

text: A complicated blend of solid and liquid particles result in particulate matter and these particulate matter emissions are highly regulated in most industrialized countries. Due to environmental concerns, most industries are required to operate some kind of dust collection system to control particulate emissions. These systems include inertial collectors (cyclonic separators), fabric filter collectors (baghouses), electrostatic filters used in facemasks, wet scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators.


title: Particulates

text: Cyclonic separators are useful for removing large, coarse particles and are often employed as a first step or "pre-cleaner" to other more efficient collectors. Well-designed cyclonic separators can be very efficient in removing even fine particulates, and may be operated continuously without requiring frequent shutdowns for maintenance.


title: Particulates

text: Fabric filters or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry. They work by forcing dust-laden air through a bag-shaped fabric filter leaving the particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester and fiberglass and common fabric coatings include PTFE (commonly known as Teflon). The excess dust buildup is then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector.


title: Particulates

text: Wet scrubbers pass the dirty air through a scrubbing solution (usually a mixture of water and other compounds) allowing the particulate to attach to the liquid molecules. Electrostatic precipitators electrically charge the dirty air as it passes through. The now charged air then passes through large electrostatic plates which attract the charged particle in the airstream collecting them and leaving the now clean air to be exhausted or recirculated.


title: Particulates

text: Atmospheric aerosols affect the climate of the earth by changing the amount of incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial longwave radiation retained in the earth's system. This occurs through several distinct mechanisms which are split into direct, indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects. The aerosol climate effects are the biggest source of uncertainty in future climate predictions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Third Assessment Report, says: "While the radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases may be determined to a reasonably high degree of accuracy... the uncertainties relating to aerosol radiative forcings remain large, and rely to a large extent on the estimates from global modeling studies that are difficult to verify at the present time".


title: Particulates

text: The direct aerosol effect consists of any direct interaction of radiation with atmospheric aerosols, such as absorption or scattering. It affects both short and longwave radiation to produce a net negative radiative forcing. The magnitude of the resultant radiative forcing due to the direct effect of an aerosol is dependent on the albedo of the underlying surface, as this affects the net amount of radiation absorbed or scattered to space. For example, if a highly scattering aerosol is above a surface of low albedo it has a greater radiative forcing than if it was above a surface of high albedo. The converse is true of absorbing aerosol, with the greatest radiative forcing arising from a highly absorbing aerosol over a surface of high albedo. The direct aerosol effect is a first-order effect and is therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the IPCC. The interaction of an aerosol with radiation is quantified by the single-scattering albedo (SSA), the ratio of scattering alone to scattering plus absorption ("extinction") of radiation by a particle. The SSA tends to unity if scattering dominates, with relatively little absorption, and decreases as absorption increases, becoming zero for infinite absorption. For example, the sea-salt aerosol has an SSA of 1, as a sea-salt particle only scatters, whereas soot has an SSA of 0.23, showing that it is a major atmospheric aerosol absorber.


title: Particulates

text: The Indirect aerosol effect consists of any change to the earth's radiative budget due to the modification of clouds by atmospheric aerosols and consists of several distinct effects. Cloud droplets form onto pre-existing aerosol particles, known as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Droplets condensing around human-produced aerosols such as found in particulate pollution tend to be smaller and more numerous than those forming around aerosol particles of natural origin (such as windblown dust).


title: Particulates

text: For any given meteorological conditions, an increase in CCN leads to an increase in the number of cloud droplets. This leads to more scattering of shortwave radiation i.e. an increase in the albedo of the cloud, known as the Cloud albedo effect, First indirect effect or Twomey effect. Evidence supporting the cloud albedo effect has been observed from the effects of ship exhaust plumes and biomass burning on cloud albedo compared to ambient clouds. The Cloud albedo aerosol effect is a first order effect and therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the IPCC.


title: Particulates

text: An increase in cloud droplet number due to the introduction of aerosol acts to reduce the cloud droplet size, as the same amount of water is divided into more droplets. This has the effect of suppressing precipitation, increasing the cloud lifetime, known as the cloud lifetime aerosol effect, second indirect effect or Albrecht effect. This has been observed as the suppression of drizzle in ship exhaust plume compared to ambient clouds, and inhibited precipitation in biomass burning plumes. This cloud lifetime effect is classified as a climate feedback (rather than a radiative forcing) by the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and the hydrological cycle. However, it has previously been classified as a negative radiative forcing.


title: Particulates

text: The Semi-direct effect concerns any radiative effect caused by absorbing atmospheric aerosol such as soot, apart from direct scattering and absorption, which is classified as the direct effect. It encompasses many individual mechanisms, and in general is more poorly defined and understood than the direct and indirect aerosol effects. For instance, if absorbing aerosols are present in a layer aloft in the atmosphere, they can heat surrounding air which inhibits the condensation of water vapour, resulting in less cloud formation. Additionally, heating a layer of the atmosphere relative to the surface results in a more stable atmosphere due to the inhibition of atmospheric convection. This inhibits the convective uplift of moisture, which in turn reduces cloud formation. The heating of the atmosphere aloft also leads to a cooling of the surface, resulting in less evaporation of surface water. The effects described here all lead to a reduction in cloud cover i.e. an increase in planetary albedo. The semi-direct effect classified as a climate feedback) by the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and the hydrological cycle. However, it has previously been classified as a negative radiative forcing.


title: Particulates

text: Sulfate aerosol has two main effects, direct and indirect. The direct effect, via albedo, is a cooling effect that slows the overall rate of global warming: the IPCC's best estimate of the radiative forcing is −0.4 watts per square meter with a range of −0.2 to −0.8 W/m. However there are substantial uncertainties. The effect varies strongly geographically, with most cooling believed to be at and downwind of major industrial centers. Modern climate models addressing the attribution of recent climate change take into account sulfate forcing, which appears to account (at least partly) for the slight drop in global temperature in the middle of the 20th century. The indirect effect via the aerosol acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and thereby modifying the cloud properties (albedo and lifetime) is more uncertain but is believed to be cooling.


title: Particulates

text: Black carbon (BC), or carbon black, or elemental carbon (EC), often called soot, is composed of pure carbon clusters, skeleton balls and fullerenes, and is one of the most important absorbing aerosol species in the atmosphere. It should be distinguished from organic carbon (OC): clustered or aggregated organic molecules on their own or permeating an EC buckyball. Black carbon from fossil fuels is estimated by the IPCC in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, 4AR, to contribute a global mean radiative forcing of +0.2 W/m (was +0.1 W/m in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, SAR), with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W/m. A study published in 2013 however, states that "the best estimate for the industrial-era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W/m with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W/m" with "total direct forcing by all-black carbon sources, without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W/m".


title: Particulates

text: Volcanoes are a large natural source of aerosol and have been linked to changes in the earth's climate often with consequences for the human population. Eruptions linked to changes in climate include the 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina which was linked to the Russian famine of 1601 - 1603, leading to the deaths of two million, and the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo which caused a global cooling of approximately 0.5 °C lasting several years. Research tracking the effect of light-scattering aerosols in the stratosphere during 2000 and 2010 and comparing its pattern to volcanic activity show a close correlation. Simulations of the effect of anthropogenic particles showed little influence at present levels.


title: Particulates

text: Aerosols are also thought to affect weather and climate on a regional scale. The failure of the Indian monsoon has been linked to the suppression of evaporation of water from the Indian Ocean due to the semi-direct effect of anthropogenic aerosol.


title: Particulates

text: Recent studies of the Sahel drought and major increases since 1967 in rainfall in Australia over the Northern Territory, Kimberley, Pilbara and around the Nullarbor Plain have led some scientists to conclude that the aerosol haze over South and East Asia has been steadily shifting tropical rainfall in both hemispheres southward.


title: Particulates

text: The size of the particle is the main determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest when inhaled. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. The 10-micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles but has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most regulatory agencies. Because of their small size, particles on the order of 10 micrometers or less (coarse particulate matter, PM) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the bronchioles or alveoli. When asthmatics are exposed to these conditions it can trigger bronchoconstriction.


title: Particulates

text: Similarly fine particulate matter (PM), tends to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung (alveoli), and very small particles (ultrafine particulate matter, PM) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Penetration of particles is not wholly dependent on their size; shape and chemical composition also play a part. To avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to indicate the different degrees of relative penetration of a PM particle into the cardiovascular system. "Inhalable particles" penetrate no further than the bronchi as they are filtered out by the cilia. "Thoracic particles" can penetrate right into terminal bronchioles whereas PM, which can penetrate to alveoli, the gas exchange area, and hence the circulatory system are termed "respirable particles".


title: Particulates

text: In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust entering the nose and mouth which may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).


title: Particulates

text: The smallest particles, less than 100 nanometers (nanoparticles), may be even more damaging to the cardiovascular system. Nanoparticles can pass through cell membranes and migrate into other organs, including the brain. Particles emitted from modern diesel engines (commonly referred to as Diesel Particulate Matter, or DPM) are typically in the size range of 100 nanometers (0.1 micrometers). These soot particles also carry carcinogens like benzopyrenes adsorbed on their surface. Particulate mass is not a proper measure of the health hazard, because one particle of 10 μm diameter has approximately the same mass as 1 million particles of 100  nm diameter, but is much less hazardous, as it is unlikely to enter the alveoli. Legislative limits for engine emissions based on mass are therefore not protective. Proposals for new regulations exist in some countries, with suggestions to limit the particle "surface area" or the "particle count" (numerical quantity) instead.


title: Particulates

text: The site and extent of absorption of inhaled gases and vapors are determined by their solubility in water. Absorption is also dependent upon air flow rates and the partial pressure of the gases in the inspired air. The fate of a specific contaminant is dependent upon the form in which it exists (aerosol or particulate). Inhalation also depends upon the breathing rate of the subject.


title: Particulates

text: Another complexity not entirely documented is how the shape of PM can affect health, except for the needle-like shape of asbestos fibres which can lodge in the lungs. Geometrically angular shapes have more surface area than rounder shapes, which in turn affects the binding capacity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous substances.


title: Particulates

text: The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely studied in humans and animals include asthma, lung cancer, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease, premature delivery, birth defects, low birth weight, developmental disorders, neurodegenerative disorders mental disorders, and premature death. Outdoor fine particulates with diameter less than 2.5 microns accounts for 4.2 million annual deaths worldwide, and more than 103 million disability-adjusted life-years lost, making it the fifth leading risk factor for death. Air pollution has also been linked to a range of other psychosocial problems. Particulates may cause tissue damage by entering organs directly, or indirectly by systemic inflammation. Adverse impacts may obtain even at exposure levels lower than published air quality standards deemed safe.


title: Particulates

text: Increased levels of fine particles in the air as a result of anthropogenic particulate air pollution "is consistently and independently related to the most serious effects, including lung cancer and other cardiopulmonary mortality." The association between a large number of deaths and other health problems and particulate pollution was first demonstrated in the early 1970s and has been reproduced many times since. PM pollution is estimated to cause 22,000–52,000 deaths per year in the United States (from 2000) contributed to ~370,000 premature deaths in Europe during 2005. and 3.22 million deaths globally in 2010 per the global burden of disease collaboration. A study by the European Environment Agency estimates that 307,000 people have died prematurely in 2019 due to fine particle pollution in the 27 EU member states.


title: Particulates

text: A study in 2000 conducted in the U.S. explored how fine particulate matter may be more harmful than coarse particulate matter. The study was based on six different cities. They found that deaths and hospital visits that were caused by particulate matter in the air were primarily due to fine particulate matter. Similarly, a 1987 study of American air pollution data found that fine particles and sulfates, as opposed to coarser particles, most consistently and significantly correlated to total annual mortality rates in standard metropolitan statistical areas.


title: Particulates

text: A study published in 2022 in "GeoHealth" concluded that eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $537–$678 billion in benefits from avoided PM2.5-related illness and death.


title: Particulates

text: In addition, inhalation of PM – PM is associated with elevated risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as low birth weight. Maternal PM exposure during pregnancy is also associated with high blood pressure in children. Exposure to PM has been associated with greater reductions in birth weight than exposure to PM. PM exposure can cause inflammation, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and impaired oxygen transport access to the placenta, all of which are mechanisms for heightening the risk of low birth weight. Overall epidemiologic and toxicological evidence suggests that a causal relationship exists between long-term exposures to PM and developmental outcomes (i.e. low birth weight). However, studies investigating the significance of trimester-specific exposure have proven to be inconclusive, and results of international studies have been inconsistent in drawing associations of prenatal particulate matter exposure and low birth weight.  As perinatal outcomes have been associated with lifelong health and exposure to particulate matter is widespread, this issue is of critical public health importance and additional research will be essential to inform public policy on the matter.


title: Particulates

text: A 2002 study indicated that PM leads to high plaque deposits in arteries, causing vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis – a hardening of the arteries that reduces elasticity, which can lead to heart attacks and other cardiovascular problems. A 2014 meta analysis reported that long term exposure to particulate matter is linked to coronary events. The study included 11 cohorts participating in the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE) with 100,166 participants, followed for an average of 11.5 years. An increase in estimated annual exposure to PM 2.5 of just 5 μg/m was linked with a 13% increased risk of heart attacks. In 2017 a study revealed that PM not only affects human cells and tissues, but also impacts bacteria which cause disease in humans. This study concluded that biofilm formation, antibiotic tolerance, and colonisation of both "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Streptococcus pneumoniae" was altered by black carbon exposure.


title: Particulates

text: The largest US study on acute health effects of coarse particle pollution between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter was published 2008 and found an association with hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases. After taking into account fine particle levels (PM and less), the association with coarse particles remained but was no longer statistically significant, which means the effect is due to the subsection of fine particles.


title: Particulates

text: The Mongolian government agency recorded a 45% increase in the rate of respiratory illness in the past five years (reported in September 2014). Bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and interstitial pneumonia were the most common ailments treated by area hospitals. Levels of premature death, chronic bronchitis, and cardiovascular disease are increasing at a rapid rate.


title: Particulates

text: The effects of air pollution and particulate matter on cognitive performance has become an active area of research. A recent longitudinal study in China comparing air pollution and particulate exposure with verbal and mathematics test scores found that accumulative exposure impeded verbal test scores of men and women significantly more than the math scores. The negative impact in verbal reasoning as a result of particulate exposure was more pronounced as people aged and affected men more than women. The level of cognitive decline in verbal reasoning scores was more pronounced in less educated (middle school diploma or lower) subjects. Short term exposure to particulate matter has been linked to short term cognitive decline in otherwise healthy adults.


title: Particulates

text: Air pollution, particulate matter and wood smoke may also cause brain damage and increase the risk of developmental disorders, neurodegenerative disorders mental disorders, and suicide, although studies on the link between depression and some air pollutants are not consistent. At least one study has identified "the abundant presence in the human brain of magnetite nanoparticles that match precisely the high-temperature magnetite nanospheres, formed by combustion and/or friction-derived heating, which are prolific in urban, airborne particulate matter (PM)."


title: Particulates

text: Particulates also appear to have a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and premature brain aging


title: Particulates

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated in 2005 that "... fine particulate air pollution (PM(2.5)), causes about 3% of mortality from cardiopulmonary disease, about 5% of mortality from cancer of the trachea, bronchus, and lung, and about 1% of mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years, worldwide." A 2011 study concluded that traffic exhaust is the single most serious preventable cause of heart attack in the general public, the cause of 7.4% of all attacks.


title: Particulates

text: Particulate matter studies in Bangkok, Thailand from 2008 indicated a 1.9% increased risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, and 1.0% risk of all disease for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter. Levels averaged 65 in 1996, 68 in 2002, and 52 in 2004. Decreasing levels may be attributed to conversions of diesel to natural gas combustion as well as improved regulations.


title: Particulates

text: There have been many studies linking race to increased proximity to particulate matter, and thus susceptibility to adverse health effects that go in tandem with long term exposure.  In a study analyzing the effects of air pollution on racially segregated neighborhoods in the United States, results show that "the proportions of Black residents in a tract was linked to higher asthma rates". Many scholars link this disproportionality to racial housing segregation and their respective inequalities in "toxic exposures". This reality is made worse by the finding that "health care occurs in the context of broader historic and contemporary social and economic inequality and persistent racial and ethnic discrimination in many sectors of American life". Residential proximity to particulate emitting facilities increases exposure to PM 2.5 which is linked to increased morbidity and mortality rates. Multiple studies confirm the burden of PM emissions is higher among non-White and poverty ridden populations, though some say that income does not drive these differences. This correlation between race and housing related health repercussions stems from a longstanding environmental justice problem linked to the practice of historic redlining. An example of these factors contextualized is an area of Southeastern Louisiana, colloquially dubbed 'Cancer Alley' for its high concentration of cancer related deaths due to neighboring chemical plants. Cancer Alley being a majority African American community, with the neighborhood nearest to the plant being 90% Black, perpetuates the scientific narrative that Black populations are located disproportionately closer to areas of high PM output than White populations. A 2020 article relates the long term health effects of living in high PM concentrations to increased risk, spread, and mortality rates from the SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19, and faults a history of racism for this outcome.


title: Particulates

text: There is an increased risk of particulate exposure in regions where wildfires are persistent. Smoke from wildfires may impact sensitive groups such as the elderly, children, pregnant women, and people with lung, and cardiovascular disease. A study found that in the 2008 wildfire season in California, the particulate matter was much more toxic to human lungs, as increased neutrophil infiltrate, cell influx and edema was observed versus particulate matter from ambient air. Furthermore, particulate matter from wildfires have been linked to be a triggering factor of acute coronary events such as ischemic heart disease. Wildfires also have been associated with increased emergency department visits due to particulate matter exposure, as well as an increased risk of asthma related events. Furthermore, a link between PM2.5 from wildfires and increased risk of hospitalizations for cardiopulmonary diseases has been discovered.


title: Particulates

text: Major energy companies understood at least since the 1960s that use of their products causes widespread adverse health effects and death but continued aggressive political lobbying in the United States and elsewhere against clean air regulation and launched major corporate propaganda campaigns to sow doubt regarding the causative link between the burning of fossil fuels and major risks to human life. Internal company memoranda reveal that energy industry scientists and executives knew that air pollutants created by fossil fuels lodge deep in human lung tissue, and cause birth defects in children of oil industry workers. The industry memos acknowledge that automobiles “are by far the greatest sources of air pollution” and also that air pollution causes adverse health effects and lodges toxins, including carcinogens, “deep into the lungs which would otherwise be removed in the throat.”


title: Particulates

text: In response to mounting public concern, the industry eventually created the Global Climate Coalition, an industry lobby group, to derail governments' attempts to regulate air pollution and to create confusion in the public mind about the necessity of such regulation. Similar lobbying and corporate public relations efforts were undertaken by the American Petroleum Institute, a trade association of the oil and gas industry, and the climate change denier private think tank, The Heartland Institute. “The response from fossil-fuel interests has been from the same playbook – first they know, then they scheme, then they deny and then they delay. They’ve fallen back on delay, subtle forms of propaganda and the undermining of regulation,” said Geoffrey Supran, a Harvard University researcher of the history of fossil-fuel companies and climate change. These efforts have been compared, by policy analysts such as Carroll Muffett of the Center for International Environmental Law, to the tobacco industry strategy of lobbying and corporate propaganda campaigns to create doubt regarding the causal connection between cigarette smoking and cancer and to forestall its regulation. In addition, industry-funded advocates, when appointed to senior government positions in the United States, have revised scientific findings showing the deadly effects of air pollution and have rolled back its regulation.


title: Particulates

text: Particulate matter can clog stomatal openings of plants and interfere with photosynthesis functions. In this manner, high particulate matter concentrations in the atmosphere can lead to growth stunting or mortality in some plant species.


title: Particulates

text: Due to the highly toxic health effects of particulate matter, most governments have created regulations both for the emissions allowed from certain types of pollution sources (motor vehicles, industrial emissions etc.) and for the ambient concentration of particulates. The IARC and WHO designate particulates a Group 1 carcinogen. Particulates are the deadliest form of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood streams unfiltered, causing respiratory diseases, heart attacks, and premature death. In 2013, the ESCAPE study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg/m in PM, the lung cancer rate rose 22%. For PM there was a 36% increase in lung cancer per 10 μg/m. In a 2014 meta-analysis of 18 studies globally including the ESCAPE data, for every increase of 10 μg/m in PM, the lung cancer rate rose 9%.


title: Particulates

text: In Canada the standard for particulate matter is set nationally by the federal-provincial Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). Jurisdictions (provinces and territories) may set more stringent standards. The CCME standard for particulate matter 2.5 (PM) as of 2015 is 28 μg/m (calculated using the 3-year average of the annual 98th percentile of the daily 24-hr average concentrations) and 10 μg/m (3-year average of annual mean). PM standards will increase in stringency in 2020.


title: Particulates

text: The European Union has established the European emission standards, which include limits for particulates in the air:


title: Particulates

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set standards for PM and PM concentrations. (See National Ambient Air Quality Standards.)


title: Particulates

text: In October 2008, the Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), within the California Environmental Protection Agency, announced its intent to request information regarding analytical test methods, fate and transport in the environment, and other relevant information from manufacturers of carbon nanotubes. DTSC is exercising its authority under the California Health and Safety Code, Chapter 699, sections 57018-57020. These sections were added as a result of the adoption of Assembly Bill AB 289 (2006). They are intended to make information on the fate and transport, detection and analysis, and other information on chemicals more available. The law places the responsibility to provide this information to the Department on those who manufacture or import the chemicals.


title: Particulates

text: On 22 January 2009, a formal information request letter was sent to manufacturers who produce or import carbon nanotubes in California, or who may export carbon nanotubes into the State. This letter constitutes the first formal implementation of the authorities placed into statute by AB 289 and is directed to manufacturers of carbon nanotubes, both industry, and academia within the State, and to manufacturers outside California who export carbon nanotubes to California. This request for information must be met by the manufacturers within one year. DTSC is waiting for the upcoming 22 January 2010 deadline for responses to the data call-in.


title: Particulates

text: The California Nano Industry Network and DTSC hosted a full-day symposium on 16 November 2009 in Sacramento, CA. This symposium provided an opportunity to hear from nanotechnology industry experts and discuss future regulatory considerations in California.


title: Particulates

text: DTSC is expanding the Specific Chemical Information Call-in to members of the nanometal oxides, the latest information can be found on their website.


title: Particulates

text: Key points in the Colorado Plan include reducing emission levels and solutions by sector. Agriculture, transportation, green electricity, and renewable energy research are the main concepts and goals in this plan. Political programs such as mandatory vehicle emissions testing and the prohibition of smoking indoors are actions taken by local government to create public awareness and participation in cleaner air. The location of Denver next to the Rocky Mountains and wide expanse of plains makes the metro area of Colorado's capital city a likely place for smog and visible air pollution.


title: Particulates

text: The most concentrated particulate matter pollution resulting from the burning of fossil fuels by transportation and industrial sources tends to be in densely populated metropolitan areas in developing countries, such as Delhi and Beijing.


title: Particulates

text: PM10 pollution in coal mining areas in Australia such as the Latrobe Valley in Victoria and the Hunter Region in New South Wales significantly increased during 2004 to 2014. Although the increase did not significantly add to non-attainment statistics the rate of increase has risen each year during 2010 to 2014.


title: Particulates

text: Some cities in Northern China and South Asia have had concentrations above 200 μg/m up to a few years ago. The PM levels in Chinese cities have been extreme in recent years, reaching an all-time high in Beijing on 12 January 2013, of 993 μg/m.


title: Particulates

text: To monitor the air quality of south China, the U.S. Consulate Guangzhou set a PM 2.5 and PM 10 monitor on Shamian Island in Guangzhou and displays readings on its official website and social platforms.


title: Particulates

text: Mongolia's capital city Ulaanbaatar has an annual average mean temperature of about 0 °C, making it the world's coldest capital city. About 40% of the population lives in apartments, 80% of which are supplied with central heating systems from 3 combined heat and power plants. In 2007, the power plants consumed almost 3.4 million tons of coal. The pollution control technology is in poor condition.


title: Particulates

text: The other 60% of the population reside in shantytowns (Ger districts), which have developed due to the country's new market economy and the very cold winter seasons. The poor in these districts cook and heat their wood houses with indoor stoves fueled by wood or coal. The resulting air pollution is characterized by raised sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide levels and very high concentrations of airborne particles and particulate matter (PM).


title: Particulates

text: Annual seasonal average particulate matter concentrations have been recorded as high as 279 μg/m (micrograms per cubic meter). The World Health Organization's recommended annual mean PM level is 20 μg/m, which means that Ulaanbaatar's PM annual mean levels are 14 times higher than recommended.


title: Particulates

text: During the winter months, in particular, the air pollution obscures the air, affecting the visibility in the city to such an extent that airplanes on some occasions are prevented from landing at the airport.


title: Particulates

text: In addition to stack emissions, another source unaccounted for in the emission inventory is fly ash from ash ponds, the final disposal place for fly ash that has been collected in settling tanks. Ash ponds are continually eroded by wind during the winter.


title: Wire-guided missile

text: A wire-guided missile is a missile that is guided by signals sent to it via thin wires connected between the missile and its guidance mechanism, which is located somewhere near the launch site. As the missile flies, the wires are reeled out behind it (command guidance). This guidance system is most commonly used in anti-tank missiles, where its ability to be used in areas of limited line-of-sight make it useful, while the range limit imposed by the length of the wire is not a serious concern.


title: Wire-guided missile

text: Electrical wire guidance dates back to the early 20th century with an early example being the Lay Torpedo. A prototype ground-based electrical wire-guided torpedo was built by the Germans during World War II.


title: Wire-guided missile

text: The pair of deployed German guided air-delivered ordnance designs, the Fritz X and Henschel Hs 293, both used the "Kehl-Straßburg" radio guidance system for control. However, because the British proved to be able to develop countermeasures to interfere with the Germans' use of the "Kehl-Straßburg" ordnance guidance system, rushed projects were started in 1944 in order to develop alternatives. The first system to be modified in this fashion was the Henschel Hs 293B anti-ship missile. Other examples included the X-4 air-to-air missile, and the X-7 anti-tank version of the X-4.


title: Wire-guided missile

text: The X-7 influenced other military thinkers after the war. By the early 1950s a number of experimental systems had been developed (for example, Malkara missile), leading to their widespread deployment in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Large numbers of Israeli tanks were destroyed using wire-guided AT-3 Sagger missiles during the Yom Kippur War of 1973. Wire guidance has remained the main system for most smaller weapons although newer systems such as laser beam riding have come into use in anti-aircraft and some anti-tank use roles (such as the US Hellfire missile and the Russian 9M133 Kornet).


title: Wire-guided missile

text: Some torpedoes can be wire-guided, such as the U.S. Mk 48 Advanced Capability (ADCAP) torpedo, Russian UGST torpedo, or the Swedish Torped 613, which is guided by an insulated wire.


title: Molise

text: Molise (, , ; ) is a region of Southern Italy. Until 1963, it formed part of the region of Abruzzi e Molise, alongside the region of Abruzzo. The split, which did not become effective until 1970, makes Molise the newest region in Italy. Covering , it is the second smallest region in the country after the Aosta Valley, and has a population of 313,348 (as of 1 January 2015).


title: Molise

text: The region is split into two provinces, named after their respective capitals Campobasso and Isernia. Campobasso also serves as the regional capital.


title: Molise

text: Molise is bordered by Abruzzo to the north, Apulia to the east, Lazio to the west, and Campania to the south. It has of sandy coastline to the northeast, lying on the Adriatic Sea looking out towards the Tremiti islands.


title: Molise

text: The countryside of Molise is mostly mountainous, with 55% covered by mountains and most of the rest by hills that go down to the sea.


title: Molise

text: Agriculture, involving small and micro holdings, is currently offering high-quality products. The agricultural holdings produce wine, cereals, olive oil, vegetables, fruits and dairy products. Traditional products are Grass Pea (cicerchia) and Farro. Molise's autochthonous grape is Tintilia which has been rediscovered during the last ten years, and many other PDO (DOP) wines, both red and white.


title: Molise

text: Though there is a large Fiat plant (Termoli), the industrial sector is dominated by the farming industry with small and medium-sized farms spread widely throughout the region. Another important industry is food processing: pasta, meat, milk products, oil and wine are the traditional products of the region. In the services sector the most important industries are distribution, hotels and catering, followed by transport and communications, banking and insurance. With few exceptions, in all sectors firms are small, and this explains the difficulties encountered when marketing products on a national scale.


title: Molise

text: International tourism is growing largely as a result of the recent opening of international flights from other European countries to Pescara Airport, which is not far to the north in Abruzzo and connected to Molise by the A14 highway (the only highway passing through Molise, by Termoli).


title: Molise

text: The density of the population in Molise is well below the national average. In 2008, Molise registered 72.3 inhabitants per km, compared to a national figure of 198.8. The region is subdivided into two provinces: Campobasso and Isernia, which together cover 1.5% of Italy's territory and less than 1% of its population. The larger province in terms of area is Campobasso at 2,909 km, while the smaller is Isernia at 1,529 km. The province of Campobasso is the more densely populated of the two provinces, with 79.4 inhabitants per km, whereas Isernia registers 58.9 inhabitants per km. At the end of 2008 the most populous towns were Campobasso (51,247 inhabitants), Termoli (32,420) and Isernia (21,811).


title: Molise

text: In the period 1951–71, large-scale emigration to other countries of the European Union, to other parts of Italy and overseas led to a significant decline in the population of Molise. Negative net migration persisted until 1981. Large-scale emigration has caused many of the smaller towns and villages to lose over 60% of their population, while only a small number of larger towns have recorded significant gains. From 1982 to 1994, net migration has been positive, then followed by a negative trend until 2001. Between 1991 (330,900 inhabitants) and 2001 (320,601 inhabitants), the population of the region decreased by 3.1%; since 2001 the population remained stable.


title: Molise

text: The region is home to two main ethnic minorities: the Molisan Croats (20,000 people who speak an old Dalmatian dialect of Croatian alongside Italian), and those who speak the "arbereshe" dialect of Albanian in five towns of "basso Molise" in the province of Campobasso.


title: Molise

text: Molise has much tradition from the religious to the pagans, many museum, archeological sites, musical and food events.