text: A 2013 genetic study suggested the possibility of contact between Ecuador and East Asia, that would have happened no earlier than 6,000 years ago (4000 BC) via either a trans-oceanic or a late-stage coastal migration that did not leave genetic imprints in North America. Further research did not support this but was rather "a case of a rare founding lineage that has been lost elsewhere by drift."


title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories

text: Some researchers have argued that the Olmec civilization came into existence with the help of Chinese refugees, particularly at the end of the Shang dynasty. In 1975, Betty Meggers of the Smithsonian Institution argued that the Olmec civilization originated around 1200 BCE due to Shang Chinese influences. In a 1996 book, Mike Xu, with the aid of Chen Hanping, claimed that celts from La Venta bear Chinese characters. These claims are unsupported by mainstream Mesoamerican researchers.


text: Other claims of early Chinese contact with North America have been made. In 1882, approximately 30 brass coins, perhaps strung together, were reportedly found in the area of the Cassiar Gold Rush, apparently near Dease Creek, an area which was dominated by Chinese gold miners. A contemporary account states:In the summer of 1882 a miner found on De Foe (Deorse?) creek, Cassiar district, Br. Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand, twenty-five feet below the surface. They appeared to have been strung, but on taking them up the miner let them drop apart. The earth above and around them was as compact as any in the neighborhood. One of these coins I examined at the store of Chu Chong in Victoria. Neither in metal nor markings did it resemble the modern coins, but in its figures looked more like an Aztec calendar. So far as I can make out the markings, this is a Chinese chronological cycle of sixty years, invented by Emperor Huungti, 2637 BCE, and circulated in this form to make his people remember it.


text: Grant Keddie, Curator of Archeology at the Royal B.C. Museum identified these as good luck temple tokens minted in the 19th century. He believed that claims that these were very old made them notorious and that "The temple coins were shown to many people and different versions of stories pertaining to their discovery and age spread around the province to be put into print and changed frequently by many authors in the last 100 years."


text: A group of Chinese Buddhist missionaries led by Hui Shen before 500 CE claimed to have visited a location called Fusang. Although Chinese mapmakers placed this territory on the Asian coast, others have suggested as early as the 1800s that Fusang might have been in North America, due to perceived similarities between portions of the California coast and Fusang as depicted by Asian sources.


text: In his book "1421: The Year China Discovered the World", British author Gavin Menzies made the claim that the treasure fleets of Ming admiral Zheng He arrived in America in 1421. Professional historians contend that Zheng He reached the eastern coast of Africa, and dismiss Menzies's hypothesis as entirely without proof.


text: In 1973 and 1975, doughnut-shaped stones that resembled stone anchors which were used by Chinese fishermen were discovered off the coast of California. These stones (sometimes called the "Palos Verdes stones") were initially thought to be up to 1,500 years old and therefore proof of pre-Columbian contact by Chinese sailors. Later geological investigations showed them to be made of a local rock which is known as Monterey shale, and they are thought to have been used by Chinese settlers who fished off the coast during the 19th century.


text: Archaeologist Emilio Estrada and co-workers wrote that pottery which was associated with the Valdivia culture of coastal Ecuador and dated to 3000–1500 BCE exhibited similarities to pottery which was produced during the Jōmon period in Japan, arguing that contact between the two cultures might explain the similarities. Chronological and other problems have led most archaeologists to dismiss this idea as implausible. The suggestion has been made that the resemblances (which are not complete) are simply due to the limited number of designs possible when incising clay.


text: Alaskan anthropologist Nancy Yaw Davis claims that the Zuni people of New Mexico exhibit linguistic and cultural similarities to the Japanese. The Zuni language is a linguistic isolate, and Davis contends that the culture appears to differ from that of the surrounding natives in terms of blood type, endemic disease, and religion. Davis speculates that Buddhist priests or restless peasants from Japan may have crossed the Pacific in the 13th century, traveled to the American Southwest, and influenced Zuni society.


text: In the 1890s, lawyer and politician James Wickersham argued that pre-Columbian contact between Japanese sailors and Native Americans was highly probable, given that from the early 17th century to the mid-19th century several dozen Japanese ships are known to have been carried from Asia to North America along the powerful Kuroshio Currents. Japanese ships landed at places between the Aleutian Islands in the north and Mexico in the south, carrying a total of 293 people in the 23 cases where head-counts were given in historical records. In most cases, the Japanese sailors gradually made their way home on merchant vessels. In 1834, a dismasted, rudderless Japanese ship was wrecked near Cape Flattery in the Pacific Northwest. Three survivors of the ship were enslaved by Makahs for a period before being rescued by members of the Hudson's Bay Company. Another Japanese ship went ashore in about 1850 near the mouth of the Columbia River, Wickersham writes, and the sailors were assimilated into the local Native American population. While admitting there is no definitive proof of pre-Columbian contact between Japanese and North Americans, Wickersham thought it implausible that such contacts as outlined above would have started only after Europeans arrived in North America and began documenting them.


text: In 1879, Alexander Cunningham wrote a description of the carvings on the Stupa of Bharhut in central India, dating from c. 200 BCE, among which he noted what appeared to be a depiction of a custard-apple ("Annona squamosa"). Cunningham was not initially aware that this plant, indigenous to the New World tropics, was introduced to India after Vasco da Gama's discovery of the sea route in 1498, and the problem was pointed out to him. A 2009 study claimed to have found carbonized remains that date to 2000 BCE and appear to be those of custard-apple seeds.


text: Grafton Elliot Smith claimed that certain motifs present in the carvings on the Mayan stelae at Copán represented the Asian elephant, and wrote a book on the topic entitled "Elephants and Ethnologists" in 1924. Contemporary archaeologists suggested that the depictions were almost certainly based on the (indigenous) tapir, with the result that Smith's suggestions have generally been dismissed by subsequent research.


text: Some objects depicted in carvings from Karnataka, dating from the 12th century, that resemble ears of maize ("Zea mays"—a crop native to the New World), were interpreted by Carl Johannessen in 1989 as evidence of pre-Columbian contact. These suggestions were dismissed by multiple Indian researchers based on several lines of evidence. The object has been claimed by some to instead represent a "Muktaphala", an imaginary fruit bedecked with pearls.


text: Proposed claims for an African presence in Mesoamerica stem from attributes of the Olmec culture, the claimed transfer of African plants to the Americas, and interpretations of European and Arabic historical accounts.


text: The Olmec culture existed in what is now southern Mexico from roughly 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. The idea that the Olmecs are related to Africans was first suggested by José Melgar, who discovered the first colossal head at Hueyapan (now Tres Zapotes) in 1862. More recently, Ivan Van Sertima speculated an African influence on Mesoamerican culture in his book "They Came Before Columbus" (1976). His claims included the attribution of Mesoamerican pyramids, calendar technology, mummification, and mythology to the arrival of Africans by boat on currents running from Western Africa to the Americas. Heavily inspired by Leo Wiener (see below), Van Sertima suggested that the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl represented an African visitor. His conclusions have been severely criticized by mainstream academics and considered pseudoarchaeology.


text: Leo Wiener's "Africa and the Discovery of America" suggests similarities between the Mandinka people of West Africa and native Mesoamerican religious symbols such as the winged serpent and the sun disk, or Quetzalcoatl, and words that have Mandé roots and share similar meanings across both cultures, such as "kore", "gadwal", and "qubila" (in Arabic) or "kofila" (in Mandinka).


text: Malian sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a fleet from the Mali Empire in 1311, led by Abu Bakr II. According to the only known primary-source-based copy of Christopher Columbus's journal (transcribed by Bartolomé de las Casas), the purpose of Columbus's third voyage was to test both (1) the claims of King John II of Portugal that "canoes had been found which set out from the coast of Guinea [West Africa] and sailed to the west with merchandise" and (2) the claims of the native inhabitants of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola that "there had come to Española from the south and south-east, a black people who have the tops of their spears made of a metal which they call "guanin", of which he had sent samples to the Sovereigns to have them assayed, when it was found that of 32 parts, 18 were of gold, 6 of silver and 8 of copper".


text: Brazilian researcher Niede Guidon, who led the excavations of the Pedra Furada sites, "said she believed that humans...might have come not overland from Asia but by boat from Africa", with the journey taking place 100,000 years ago, well before the accepted dates for the earliest human migrations that led to the prehistoric settlement of the Americas. Michael R. Waters, a geoarchaeologist at Texas A&M University, noted the absence of genetic evidence in modern populations to support Guidon's claim.


text: Early Chinese accounts of Muslim expeditions state that Muslim sailors reached a region called Mulan Pi ("magnolia skin") (). Mulan Pi is mentioned in "Lingwai Daida" (1178) by Zhou Qufei and "Zhufan Zhi" (1225) by Chao Jukua, together referred to as the "Sung Document". Mulan Pi is normally identified as Spain and Morocco of the Almoravid dynasty (Al-Murabitun), though some fringe theories hold that it is instead some part of the Americas.


text: One supporter of the interpretation of Mulan Pi as part of the Americas was historian Hui-lin Li in 1961, and while Joseph Needham was also open to the possibility, he doubted that Arab ships at the time would have been able to withstand a return journey over such a long distance across the Atlantic Ocean, pointing out that a return journey would have been impossible without knowledge of prevailing winds and currents.


text: According to Muslim historian Abu al-Hasan Ali al-Mas'udi (871–957), Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad sailed over the Atlantic Ocean and discovered a previously unknown land ("", ) in 889 and returned with a shipload of valuable treasures. The passage has been alternatively interpreted to imply that Ali al-Masudi regarded the story of Khashkhash to be a fanciful tale.


text: In 1996, Mark McMenamin proposed that Phoenician sailors discovered the New World c. 350 BC. The Phoenician state of Carthage minted gold staters in 350 BC bearing a pattern in the reverse exergue of the coins, which McMenamin initially interpreted as a map of the Mediterranean with the Americas shown to the west across the Atlantic. McMenamin later demonstrated that these coins found in America were modern forgeries.


text: The Bat Creek inscription and Los Lunas Decalogue Stone have led some to suggest the possibility that Jewish seafarers may have traveled to America after they fled from the Roman Empire at the time of the Jewish–Roman Wars in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.


text: However, American archaeologists Robert C. Mainfort Jr. and Mary L. Kwas argued in "American Antiquity" (2004) that the Bat Creek inscription was copied from an illustration in an 1870 Masonic reference book and introduced by the Smithsonian field assistant who found it during excavation activities.


text: As for the Decalogue Stone, there are mistakes which suggest that it was carved by one or more novices who either overlooked or misunderstood some details on a source Decalogue from which they copied it. Since there is no other evidence or archaeological context in the vicinity, it is most likely that the legend at the nearby university is true—that the stone was carved by two anthropology students whose signatures can be seen inscribed in the rock below the Decalogue, "Eva and Hobe 3-13-30."


text: Scholar Cyrus H. Gordon believed that Phoenicians and other Semitic groups had crossed the Atlantic in antiquity, ultimately arriving in both North and South America. This opinion was based on his own work on the Bat Creek inscription. Similar ideas were also held by John Philip Cohane; Cohane even claimed that many geographical placenames in the United States have a Semitic origin.


text: The Solutrean hypothesis argues that Europeans migrated to the New World during the Paleolithic era, circa 16,000 to 13,000 BCE. This hypothesis proposes contact partly on the basis of perceived similarities between the flint tools of the Solutrean culture in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal (which thrived circa 20,000 to 15,000 BCE), and the Clovis culture of North America, which developed circa 9000 BCE.


text: The Solutrean hypothesis was proposed in the mid-1990s. It has little support amongst the scientific community, and genetic markers are inconsistent with the idea.


text: Evidence of contacts with the civilizations of Classical Antiquity—primarily with the Roman Empire, but sometimes also with other contemporaneous cultures—have been based on isolated archaeological finds in American sites that originated in the Old World. For example, the Bay of Jars in Brazil has been yielding ancient clay storage jars that resemble Roman amphorae for over 150 years. It has been proposed that the origin of these jars is a Roman shipwreck, although it has also been suggested that they could be 15th- or 16th-century Spanish olive oil jars.


text: Archaeologist Romeo Hristov argues that a Roman ship, or the drifting of such a shipwreck to American shores, is a possible explanation for the alleged discovery of artifacts that are apparently ancient Roman in origin (such as the Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca bearded head) in America. Hristov claims that the possibility of such an event has been made more likely by the discovery of evidence of travels by Romans to Tenerife and Lanzarote in the Canary Islands, and of a Roman settlement (from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE) on Lanzarote.


text: In 1950, an Italian botanist, Domenico Casella, suggested that a depiction of a pineapple (a fruit native to the New World tropics) was represented among wall paintings of Mediterranean fruits at Pompeii. According to Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski, this interpretation has been challenged by other botanists, who identify it as a pine cone from the umbrella pine tree, which is native to the Mediterranean area.


text: A small terracotta sculpture of a head, with a beard and European-like features, was found in 1933 in the Toluca Valley, southwest of Mexico City, in a burial offering under three intact floors of a pre-colonial building dated to between 1476 and 1510. The artifact has been studied by Roman art authority Bernard Andreae, director emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology in Rome, Italy, and Austrian anthropologist Robert von Heine-Geldern, both of whom stated that the style of the artifact was compatible with small Roman sculptures of the 2nd century. If genuine and if not placed there after 1492 (the pottery found with it dates to between 1476 and 1510), the find provides evidence for at least a one-time contact between the Old and New Worlds.


text: According to Arizona State University's Michael E. Smith, a leading Mesoamerican scholar named John Paddock used to tell his classes in the years before he died that the artifact was planted as a joke by Hugo Moedano, a student who originally worked on the site. Despite speaking with individuals who knew the original discoverer (García Payón), and Moedano, Smith says he has been unable to confirm or reject this claim. Though he remains skeptical, Smith concedes he cannot rule out the possibility that the head was a genuinely buried post-Classic offering at Calixtlahuaca.


text: Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney and feudal baron of Roslin (c. 1345 – c. 1400), was a Scottish nobleman who is best known today from a modern legend which claims that he took part in explorations of Greenland and North America almost 100 years before Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas. In 1784, he was identified by Johann Reinhold Forster as possibly being the Prince Zichmni who is described in letters which were allegedly written around 1400 by the Zeno brothers of Venice, in which they describe a voyage which they made throughout the North Atlantic under the command of Zichmni. According to "The Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online", "the Zeno affair remains one of the most preposterous and at the same time one of the most successful fabrications in the history of exploration."


text: Henry was the grandfather of William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness, the builder of Rosslyn Chapel near Edinburgh, Scotland. The authors Robert Lomas and Christopher Knight believe some carvings in the chapel were intended to represent ears of New World corn or maize, a crop unknown in Europe at the time of the chapel's construction. Knight and Lomas view these carvings as evidence supporting the idea that Henry Sinclair traveled to the Americas well before Columbus. In their book they discuss meeting with the wife of the botanist Adrian Dyer and explain that Dyer's wife told them that Dyer agreed that the image thought to be maize was accurate. In fact Dyer found only one identifiable plant among the botanical carvings and instead suggested that the "maize" and "aloe" were stylized wooden patterns, only coincidentally looking like real plants. Specialists in medieval architecture have variously interpreted the carvings as stylised depictions of wheat, strawberries, or lilies.


text: Henry Yule Oldham suggested that the Bianco world map depicted part of the coast of Brazil before 1448. This was immediately opposed by members of the Royal Geographical Society but later repeated by American and European historians. This was later refuted by Abel Fontoura da Costa, who proved that it actually depicted Santiago, the largest island of the Cape Verde archipelago.


text: Some have conjectured that Columbus was able to persuade the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon to support his planned voyage only because they were aware of some recent earlier voyage across the Atlantic. Some suggest that Columbus himself visited Canada or Greenland before 1492, because according to Bartolomé de las Casas he wrote he had sailed 100 leagues past an island he called Thule in 1477. Whether Columbus actually did this and what island he visited, if any, is uncertain. Columbus is thought to have visited Bristol in 1476. Bristol was also the port from which John Cabot sailed in 1497, crewed mostly by Bristol sailors. In a letter of late 1497 or early 1498, the English merchant John Day wrote to Columbus about Cabot's discoveries, saying that land found by Cabot was "discovered in the past by the men from Bristol who found 'Brasil' as your lordship knows". There may be records of expeditions from Bristol to find the "isle of Brazil" in 1480 and 1481. Trade between Bristol and Iceland is well documented from the mid-15th century.


text: Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records several such legends in his "Historia general de las Indias" of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. He discusses the then-current story of a Spanish caravel that was swept off its course while on its way to England, and wound up in a foreign land populated by naked tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took several months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land. The caravel's ship pilot, a man called Alonso Sánchez, and a few others made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to be treated in his own house, and the pilot described the land they had seen and marked it on a map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this story in several versions, though Oviedo himself regarded it as a myth.


text: In 1925, Soren Larsen wrote a book claiming that a joint Danish-Portuguese expedition landed in Newfoundland or Labrador in 1473 and again in 1476. Larsen claimed that Didrik Pining and Hans Pothorst served as captains, while João Vaz Corte-Real and the possibly mythical John Scolvus served as navigators, accompanied by Álvaro Martins. Nothing beyond circumstantial evidence has been found to support Larsen's claims.


text: The historical record shows that Basque fishermen were present in Newfoundland and Labrador from at least 1517 onward (therefore predating all recorded European settlements in the region except those of the Norse). The Basques' fishing expeditions led to significant trade and cultural exchanges with Native Americans. A fringe theory suggests that Basque sailors first arrived in North America prior to Columbus' voyages to the New World (some sources suggest the late 14th century as a tentative date) but kept the destination a secret in order to avoid competition over the fishing resources of the North American coasts. There is no historical or archaeological evidence to support this claim.


text: The legend of Saint Brendan, an Irish monk from what is now County Kerry, involves a fantastical journey into the Atlantic Ocean in search of Paradise in the 6th century. Since the discovery of the New World, various authors have tried to link the Brendan legend with an early discovery of America. In 1977, the voyage was successfully recreated by Tim Severin using a replica of an ancient Irish currach.


text: According to a British myth, Madoc was a prince from Wales who explored the Americas as early as 1170. While most scholars consider this legend to be untrue, it was used to bolster British claims in the Americas vis-à-vis those of Spain.


text: The "Madoc story" remained popular in later centuries, and a later development asserted that Madoc's voyagers had intermarried with local Native Americans, and that their Welsh-speaking descendants still live somewhere in the United States. These "Welsh Indians" were credited with the construction of a number of landmarks throughout the Midwestern United States, and a number of white travelers were inspired to go look for them. The "Madoc story" has been the subject of much speculation in the context of possible pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. No conclusive archaeological proof of such a man or his voyages has been found in the New or Old World; however, speculation abounds connecting him with certain sites, such as Devil's Backbone, located on the Ohio River at Fourteen Mile Creek near Louisville, Kentucky.


text: A plaque at Fort Mountain State Park in Georgia recounts a nineteenth-century interpretation of the ancient stone wall that gives the site its name. The plaque repeats Tennessee governor John Sevier's statement that the Cherokees believed "a people called Welsh" had built a fort on the mountain long ago to repel Indian attacks. The plaque has been changed, leaving no reference to Madoc or the Welsh.


text: Biologist and controversial amateur epigrapher Barry Fell claims that Irish Ogham writing has been found carved into stones in the Virginias. Linguist David H. Kelley has criticized some of Fell's work but nonetheless argued that genuine Celtic Ogham inscriptions have in fact been discovered in America. However, others have raised serious doubts about these claims.


text: Traces of coca and nicotine which are found in some Egyptian mummies have led to speculation that Ancient Egyptians may have had contact with the New World. The initial discovery was made by a German toxicologist, Svetlana Balabanova, after examining the mummy of a priestess who was named Henut Taui. Follow-up tests on the hair shaft, which were performed in order to rule out the possibility of contamination, revealed the same results.


text: A television show reported that examinations of numerous Sudanese mummies which were also undertaken by Balabanova mirrored what was found in the mummy of Henut Taui. Balabanova suggested that the tobacco may be accounted for since it may have also been known in China and Europe, as indicated by analyses run on human remains from those respective regions. Balabanova proposed that such plants native to the general area may have developed independently, but have since gone extinct. Other explanations include fraud, though curator Alfred Grimm of the Egyptian Museum in Munich disputes this. Skeptical of Balabanova's findings, Rosalie David, Keeper of Egyptology at the Manchester Museum, had similar tests performed on samples which were taken from the Manchester mummy collection and she reported that two of the tissue samples and one hair sample tested positive for the presence of nicotine. Sources of nicotine other than tobacco and sources of cocaine in the Old World are discussed by the British biologist Duncan Edlin.


text: Mainstream scholars remain skeptical, and they do not see the results of these tests as proof of ancient contact between Africa and the Americas, especially because there may be possible Old World sources of cocaine and nicotine. Two attempts to replicate Balabanova's findings of cocaine failed, suggesting "that either Balabanova and her associates are misinterpreting their results or that the samples of mummies tested by them have been mysteriously exposed to cocaine."


text: A re-examination of the mummy of Ramesses II in the 1970s revealed the presence of fragments of tobacco leaves in its abdomen. This finding became a popular topic in fringe literature and the media and it was seen as proof of contact between Ancient Egypt and the New World. The investigator Maurice Bucaille noted that when the mummy was unwrapped in 1886 the abdomen was left open and "it was no longer possible to attach any importance to the presence inside the abdominal cavity of whatever material was found there, since the material could have come from the surrounding environment." Following the renewed discussion of tobacco sparked by Balabanova's research and its mention in a 2000 publication by Rosalie David, a study in the journal "Antiquity" suggested that reports of both tobacco and cocaine in mummies "ignored their post-excavation histories" and pointed out that the mummy of Ramesses II had been moved five times between 1883 and 1975.


text: Pomponius Mela writes, and is copied by Pliny the Elder, that Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (died 59 BCE), proconsul in Gaul, received "several Indians" ("Indi") who had been driven by a storm to the coasts of Germania as a present from a Germanic king:


text: "Metellum Celerem adjicit, eumque ita retulisse commemorat: Cum Galliae proconsule praeesset, Indos quosdam a rege [Suevorum] dono sibi datos; unde in eas terras devenissent requirendo, cognôsse, vi tempestatum ex Indicis aequoribus abreptos, emensosque quae intererant, tandem in Germaniae litora exiise. Restat ergo pelagus; sed reliqua lateris ejusdem assiduo gelu durantur, et ideo deserta sunt."


text: Metellus Celer recalls the following: when he was proconsul in Gaul, he was given people from India by the king of the Sueves; upon requesting why they were in this land, he learnt that they were caught in a storm away from India, that they became castaways, and finally landed on the coast of Germania. They thus resisted the sea, but suffered from the cold for the rest of their travel, and that is the reason why they left.


text: Frederick J. Pohl suggested that these castaways were possibly American Indians. This account is open to question, since Metellus Celer died just after his consulship, before he ever got to Gaul.


text: In 2010, Sigríður Sunna Ebenesersdóttir published a genetic study showing that over 350 living Icelanders carried mitochondrial DNA of a new type, C1e, belonging to the C1 clade which was until then known only from Native American and East Asian populations. Using the deCODE genetics database, Sigríður Sunna determined that the DNA entered the Icelandic population not later than 1700, and likely several centuries earlier. However Sigríður Sunna also states that "while a Native American origin seems most likely for [this new haplogroup], an Asian or European origin cannot be ruled out".


text: In 2014, a study discovered a new mtDNA subclade C1f from the remains of three people found in north-western Russia and dated to 7,500 years ago. It has not been detected in modern populations. The study proposed the hypothesis that the sister C1e and C1f subclades had split early from the most recent common ancestor of the C1 clade and had evolved independently, and that subclade C1e had a northern European origin. Iceland was settled by the Vikings 1,130 years ago and they had raided heavily into western Russia, where the sister subclade C1f is now known to have resided. They proposed that both subclades were brought to Iceland through the Vikings, and that C1e went extinct on mainland northern Europe due to population turnover and its small representation, and subclade C1f went extinct completely.


text: In 1009, legends report that Norse explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni abducted two children from Markland, an area on the North American mainland where Norse explorers visited but did not settle. The two children were then taken to Greenland, where they were baptized and taught to speak Norse.


text: In 1420, Danish geographer Claudius Clavus Swart wrote that he personally had seen "pygmies" from Greenland who were caught by Norsemen in a small skin boat. Their boat was hung in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim along with another, longer boat also taken from "pygmies". Clavus Swart's description fits the Inuit and two of their types of boats, the kayak and the umiak. Similarly, the Swedish clergyman Olaus Magnus wrote in 1505 that he saw in Oslo Cathedral two leather boats taken decades earlier. According to Olaus, the boats were captured from Greenland pirates by one of the Haakons, which would place the event in the 14th century.


text: In Ferdinand Columbus's biography of his father Christopher, he says that in 1477 his father saw in Galway, Ireland, two dead bodies which had washed ashore in their boat. The bodies and boat were of exotic appearance, and have been suggested to have been Inuit who had drifted off course.


text: It has been suggested that the Norse took other indigenous peoples to Europe as slaves over the following centuries, because they are known to have taken Scottish and Irish slaves.


text: There is also evidence of Inuit coming to Europe under their own power or as captives after 1492. In Scotland, they were known as the Finn-men. A substantial body of Greenland Inuit folklore first collected in the 19th century told of journeys by boat to Akilineq, here depicted as a rich country across the ocean.


text: Peruvian historian José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu popularized the theory that Inca ruler Topa Inca Yupanqui may have led a maritime exploration voyage across the Pacific Ocean around 1465, eventually reaching French Polynesia and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Different Spanish chroniclers of the 16th century recount stories told to them by Inca peoples, in which Yupanqui embarked on a sea voyage, eventually reaching two islands referred to as "Nina Chumpi" ("fire belt") and "Hawa Chumpi" ("outer belt", also spelled "Avachumpi, Hahua chumpi"). According to the stories, Yupanqui returned from the expedition bringing back with him black-skinned people, gold, a chair made of brass, and the skin of a horse or an animal similar to a horse. Del Busto speculates the "black-skinned people" may have been Melanesians. As supporting evidence the author points to a 1924 expedition to French Polynesia by linguist Paul Rivet, where he found that natives in the islands of Mangareva and Temoe had a legend about a "king Tupa" who had arrived to those islands travelling by sea from the east. Moreover, the stonework at the Ahu Vinapu site in Rapa Nui has been said by proponents of the theory to bear a striking resemblance to the Inca Chullpa structures in South America. Critics have pointed out that Yupanqui's expedition—assuming it ever took place—could have reached the Galapagos Islands or some other part of the Americas instead of Oceania.


text: During the period of Spanish colonization of the Americas, several indigenous myths and works of art led a number of Spanish chroniclers and authors to suggest that Christian preachers may have visited Mesoamerica well before the Age of Discovery. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, for example, was intrigued by the presence of cross symbols in Mayan hieroglyphs, which according to him suggested that other Christians may have arrived in ancient Mexico before the Spanish conquistadors. Fray Diego Durán, for his part, linked the legend of the Pre-Columbian god Quetzalcoatl (whom he describes as being chaste, penitent, and a miracle-worker) to the Biblical accounts of Christian apostles. Bartolomé de las Casas describes Quetzalcoatl as being fair-skinned, tall, and bearded (therefore suggesting an Old World origin), while Fray Juan de Torquemada credits him with bringing agriculture to the Americas. Modern scholarship has cast serious doubts on several of these claims, since agriculture was practiced in the Americas well before the emergence of Christianity in the Old World, and Mayan crosses have been found to have a very different symbolism from that present in Christian religious traditions.


text: According to Pre-Columbian myth, Quetzalcoatl departed Mexico in ancient times by travelling east across the ocean, promising he would return. Some scholars have argued that Aztec emperor Moctezuma Xocoyotzin believed Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés (who arrived in what today is Mexico from the east) to be Quetzalcoatl, and his arrival to be a fulfilling of the myth's prophecy, though others have disputed this claim. Fringe theories suggest that Quetzalcoatl may have been a Christian preacher from the Old World who lived among indigenous peoples of ancient Mexico, and eventually attempted to return home by sailing eastwards. Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, for example, speculated that the Quetzalcoatl myth might have originated from a visit to the Americas by Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE. Later on, Fray Servando Teresa de Mier argued that the cloak with the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which the Catholic Church claims was worn by Juan Diego, was instead brought to the Americas much earlier by Thomas, who used it as an instrument for evangelization.


text: Mexican historian Manuel Orozco y Berra conjectured that both the cross hieroglyphs and the Quetzalcoatl myth might have originated on a visit to Mesoamerica by a Catholic Norse missionary in medieval times. However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to suggest that the Norse explorations ever made it as far as ancient Mexico or Central America. Other proposed identities for Quetzalcoatl (attributed to their proponents pursuing religious agendas) include St. Brendan or even Jesus Christ.


text: According to one historian, a fleet of Knights Templar departed from La Rochelle in 1307, fleeing persecution from king Philip IV of France. What destination, if any, was reached by this fleet is uncertain. A fringe theory suggests the fleet may have made its way to the Americas, where the Knights Templar interacted with the aboriginal population. It is speculated this hypothetical visit may have influenced the cross symbols made by Mesoamerican peoples, as well as their legends about a fair-skinned deity. Helen Nicholson of Cardiff University has cast doubt on the existence of this voyage, arguing that the Knights Templar did not have ships capable of navigating the Atlantic Ocean.


text: Since the first centuries of European colonization of the Americas and up until the 19th century, several European intellectuals and theologians tried to account for the presence of the Amerindian aboriginal peoples by connecting them to the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, who according to Biblical tradition, were deported following the conquest of the Israelite kingdom by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the past as well as in the present, these efforts were and still are being used to further the interests of religious groups, both Jewish and Christian, and they have also been used to justify European settlement of the Americas.


text: One of the first people to claim that the indigenous peoples of the Americas were descendants of the Lost Tribes was the Portuguese rabbi and writer Menasseh Ben Israel, who in his book "The Hope of Israel" argued that the discovery of the alleged long-lost Jews heralded the imminent coming of the Biblical Messiah. In 1650, a Norfolk preacher, Thomas Thorowgood, published "Jewes in America or Probabilities that the Americans are of that Race", for the New England missionary society. Tudor Parfitt writes:The society was active in trying to convert the Indians but suspected that they might be Jews and realized they better be prepared for an arduous task. Thorowgood's tract argued that the native population of North America were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes.


text: In 1652 Sir Hamon L'Estrange, an English author writing on history and theology, published "Americans no Jews, or improbabilities that the Americans are of that Race" in response to the tract by Thorowgood. In response to L'Estrange, Thorowgood published a second edition of his book in 1660 with a revised title and included a foreword written by John Eliot, a Puritan missionary who had translated the Bible into an Indian language.


text: The Book of Mormon, a sacred text of the Latter Day Saint movement, which its founder and leader, Joseph Smith Jr, published in 1830 when he was 24 years old, states that some ancient inhabitants of the New World are descendants of Semitic peoples who sailed from the Old World. Mormon groups such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies attempt to study and expand on these ideas.


text: In a 1998 letter to the Institute for Religious Research, the National Geographic Society stated that "Archaeologists and other scholars have long probed the hemisphere's past and the society does not know of anything found so far that has substantiated the Book of Mormon."


text: Some LDS scholars hold the view that archaeological studies of the Book of Mormon's claims are not meant to vindicate the literary narrative. For example, Terryl Givens, professor of English at the University of Richmond, points out that there is a lack of historical accuracy in the Book of Mormon in relation to modern archaeological knowledge.


text: In the 1950s, Professor M. Wells Jakeman popularized the belief that the Izapa Stela 5 represents the Book of Mormon prophets Lehi and Nephi's tree of life vision and was a validation of the historicity of the claims of pre-Columbian settlement in the Americas. His interpretations of the carving and its connection to pre-Columbian contact have been disputed. Since that time, scholarship on the Book of Mormon has concentrated on cultural parallels rather than "smoking gun" sources.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Robert Louis-Dreyfus ( – ) was a French businessman who was chief executive officer (CEO) of Adidas (then, "Adidas Salomon") and Saatchi & Saatchi. He was a majority shareholder of the French football team Olympique de Marseille, and during his tenure they re-emerged as a major European football club.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Robert Louis-Dreyfus was born in Paris, the son of Jean and Jeanne Madeline (née Depierre) Louis-Dreyfus. His father was Jewish and his mother Roman Catholic. He was a great-grandson of Léopold Louis-Dreyfus, founder of the Louis-Dreyfus Group, which had begun buying and selling wheat in the Alsace region a century earlier, and rapidly diversified into shipping, oil and other commodities. His grandfather was Louis Louis-Dreyfus, who served in the French Parliament during the French Third Republic. He has two sisters: Marie-Jeanne and Monique.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Robert Louis-Dreyfus was initially a bad student who failed his Baccalauréat, but he excelled at poker, winning considerable amounts of money from his friends at the Lycée Janson de Sailly in Paris. In 1967, he spent time at a kibbutz and was involved in the Six-Day War. He later secured a place at Harvard Business School with a presentation about his experiences during the war. He spent the early years of his working life mentored by Siegmund Warburg, in the family business of the Louis-Dreyfus Group.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: In 1982 Louis-Dreyfus joined IMS, the US pharmaceutical research company enjoying spectacular monetary success. His original grew twentyfold by the time the company was sold in 1988. He served as CEO at Saatchi & Saatchi, the United Kingdom-based advertising agency from 1989 to 1993. Louis-Dreyfus invested his own money in Saatchi and Saatchi and during his tenure the agency grew considerably.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: He proved equally successful when in 1994 he took the top job at Adidas, the German-based sporting goods maker. Louis-Dreyfus added to the brand by streamlining the product line and adding new companies to the group, including the Salomon ski-wear and golf company in 1997. He remained CEO of Adidas until 2001, combining this position with chairmanship of Neuf Telecom with whom he served until 2004. He also served as a director of Neuf Cegetel.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Robert Louis-Dreyfus re-joined the family company, Louis-Dreyfus Group, in May 2000, and restructured this major commodities trading and merchandising firm.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: In 2005, he decided to relaunch the Le Coq Sportif sports company through a Swiss investment company, Airesis.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: In 1996 Louis-Dreyfus became the largest shareholder of Olympique de Marseille, a French football team who had recently been rocked by a major match fixing scandal and subsequently relegated to the French second division as part of their punishment. Louis-Dreyfus, with Adidas and the telecommunications company Neuf, sponsored the team; Louis-Dreyfus invested heavily in rebuilding the Marseille squad, marketing the team to the new immigrant populations in Marseille. The financial fortunes of the club improved, with shirt sales rocketing. However, success, if judged purely on trophies won, still eluded the club despite reaching the final of the UEFA Cup on two occasions and twice losing in the final of the Coupe de France. Olympique de Marseille also missed out on the Ligue 1 title during Louis-Dreyfus's tenure, though shortly before his death they finished second to FC Girondins de Bordeaux and qualified for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Louis-Dreyfus was also a shareholder in the Belgium football club Standard Liège, and was involved in the creation of Infront Sports & Media in 2002 (transition from the former KirchSport completed in February 2003) acting as the company's chairman of the board. The Swiss-based sports marketing agency was handling the media rights distribution of the FIFA World Cup in 2002 and 2006. Today it is the marketing partner of 130 sports federations and clubs.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: In October 2015 the German news magazine "Der Spiegel" reported that the bidding committee for the FIFA World Cup 2006 had set up a slush fund that Louis-Dreyfus, at the time CEO of Adidas, filled with 10.3 million Swiss francs in 2000. Allegedly these funds were used to bribe numerous FIFA officials and secure Germany's bid to host the 2006 World Cup, whilst a FIFA report had strongly criticised England's supposedly 'unprofessional' rival bid presentation. According to internal FIFA documents, Louis-Dreyfus had demanded a repayment of the funds in 2004, which were transferred as €6.7 million via a FIFA account in Geneva to an account held by Louis-Dreyfus.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Louis-Dreyfus was married twice. Before divorcing his first wife, Sarah Oberholzer, in 1989, he met his second wife Margarita Bogdanova in 1988, whom he married in 1992 and with whom he had three sons: Eric, Maurice, and Kyril Louis-Dreyfus, the latter of whom became the chairman and minority shareholder of English football club Sunderland A.F.C. in February 2021, aged only 24.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Louis-Dreyfus identified as an agnostic. The American actress Julia Louis-Dreyfus, famed for her role in the television comedy series "Seinfeld", is his second cousin once removed.


title: Robert Louis-Dreyfus

text: Following his death, his enterprises were inherited and supervised by Margarita Louis-Dreyfus, she is considered to be the richest Russian woman today. Margarita inherited 60% of the organization (increased to 65% in 2012). Robert's two sisters, Monique Louis-Dreyfus Roosmale Nepveu and Marie-Jeanne Louis-Dreyfus Meyer, each own 12% and are now both billionaires.


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy generally refers to the thoughts or feelings of insecurity, fear, and concern over a relative lack of possessions or safety.


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy can consist of one or more emotions such as anger, resentment, inadequacy, helplessness or disgust. In its original meaning, "jealousy" is distinct from envy, though the two terms have popularly become synonymous in the English language, with "jealousy" now also taking on the definition originally used for envy alone. These two emotions are often confused with each other, since they tend to appear in the same situation.


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy is a typical experience in human relationships, and it has been observed in infants as young as five months. Some researchers claim that jealousy is seen in all cultures and is a universal trait. However, others claim jealousy is a culture-specific emotion.


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy can either be suspicious or reactive, and it is often reinforced as a series of particularly strong emotions and constructed as a universal human experience. Psychologists have proposed several models to study the processes underlying jealousy and have identified factors that result in jealousy. Sociologists have demonstrated that cultural beliefs and values play an important role in determining what triggers jealousy and what constitutes socially acceptable expressions of jealousy. Biologists have identified factors that may unconsciously influence the expression of jealousy.


title: Jealousy

text: Throughout history, artists have also explored the theme of jealousy in paintings, films, songs, plays, poems, and books, and theologians have offered religious views of jealousy based on the scriptures of their respective faiths.


title: Jealousy

text: The word stems from the French "jalousie", formed from "jaloux" (jealous), and further from Low Latin "zelosus" (full of zeal), in turn from the Greek word ("zēlos"), sometimes "jealousy", but more often in a positive sense "emulation, ardour, zeal" (with a root connoting "to boil, ferment"; or "yeast"). The "biblical language" zeal would be known as "tolerating no unfaithfulness" while in middle English zealous is good. One origin word "gelus" meant "Possessive and suspicious" the word then turned into "jelus."


title: Jealousy

text: Since William Shakespeare's use of terms like "green-eyed monster", the color green has been associated with jealousy and envy, from which the expression "green with envy", is derived.


title: Jealousy

text: They instead express jealousy through diverse emotions and behaviors, which makes it difficult to form a scientific definition of jealousy. Scientists instead define it in their own words, as illustrated by the following examples:


title: Jealousy

text: These definitions of jealousy share two basic themes. First, all the definitions imply a triad composed of a jealous individual, a partner, and a perception of a third party or rival. Second, all the definitions describe jealousy as a reaction to a perceived threat to the relationship between two people, or a dyad. Jealous reactions typically involve aversive emotions and/or behaviors that are assumed to be protective for their attachment relationships. These themes form the essential meaning of jealousy in most scientific studies.


title: Jealousy

text: Popular culture uses the word jealousy as a synonym for envy. Many dictionary definitions include a reference to envy or envious feelings. In fact, the overlapping use of jealousy and envy has a long history.


title: Jealousy

text: The terms are used indiscriminately in such popular 'feelgood' books as Nancy Friday's "Jealousy", where the expression 'jealousy' applies to a broad range of passions, from envy to lust and greed. While this kind of usage blurs the boundaries between categories that are intellectually valuable and psychologically justifiable, such confusion is understandable in that historical explorations of the term indicate that these boundaries have long posed problems. Margot Grzywacz's fascinating etymological survey of the word in Romance and Germanic languages asserts, indeed, that the concept was one of those that proved to be the most difficult to express in language and was therefore among the last to find an unambiguous term. Classical Latin used "invidia", without strictly differentiating between envy and jealousy. It was not until the postclassical era that Latin borrowed the late and poetic Greek word "zelotypia" and the associated adjective "zelosus". It is from this adjective that are derived French "jaloux", Provençal "gelos", Italian "geloso", and Spanish "celoso".


title: Jealousy

text: Perhaps the overlapping use of jealousy and envy occurs because people can experience both at the same time. A person may envy the characteristics or possessions of someone who also happens to be a romantic rival. In fact, one may even interpret romantic jealousy as a form of envy. A jealous person may envy the affection that their partner gives to a rival – affection the jealous person feels entitled to himself or herself. People often use the word jealousy as a broad label that applies to both experiences of jealousy and experiences of envy.


title: Jealousy

text: Although popular culture often uses jealousy and envy as synonyms, modern philosophers and psychologists have argued for conceptual distinctions between jealousy and envy. For example, philosopher John Rawls distinguishes between jealousy and envy on the ground that jealousy involves the wish to keep what one has, and envy the wish to get what one does not have. Thus, a child is jealous of her parents' attention to a sibling, but envious of her friend's new bicycle. Psychologists Laura Guerrero and Peter Andersen have proposed the same distinction. They claim the jealous person "perceives that he or she possesses a valued relationship, but is in danger of losing it or at least of having it altered in an undesirable manner," whereas the envious person "does not possess a valued commodity, but wishes to possess it." Gerrod Parrott draws attention to the distinct thoughts and feelings that occur in jealousy and envy.


title: Jealousy

text: Parrott acknowledges that people can experience envy and jealousy at the same time. Feelings of envy about a rival can even intensify the experience of jealousy. Still, the differences between envy and jealousy in terms of thoughts and feelings justify their distinction in philosophy and science.


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy involves an entire "emotional episode," including a complex "narrative", which are the circumstances that lead up to jealousy, jealousy itself as emotion, any attempt at self regulation, subsequent actions and events and the resolution of the episode.  The narrative can originate from experienced facts, thoughts, perceptions, memories, but also imagination, guesses and assumptions. The more society and culture matter in the formation of these factors, the more jealousy can have a social and cultural origin. By contrast, jealousy can be a "cognitively impenetrable state", where education and rational belief matter very little.


title: Jealousy

text: One possible explanation of the origin of jealousy in evolutionary psychology is that the emotion evolved in order to maximize the success of our genes: it is a biologically based emotion selected to foster the certainty about the paternity of one's own offspring. A jealous behavior, in men, is directed into avoiding sexual betrayal and a consequent waste of resources and effort in taking care of someone else's offspring. There are, additionally, cultural or social explanations of the origin of jealousy. According to one, the narrative from which jealousy arises can be in great part made by the imagination. Imagination is strongly affected by a person's cultural milieu. The pattern of reasoning, the way one perceives situations, depends strongly on cultural context. It has elsewhere been suggested that jealousy is in fact a secondary emotion in reaction to one's needs not being met, be those needs for attachment, attention, reassurance or any other form of care that would be otherwise expected to arise from that primary romantic relationship.


title: Jealousy

text: While mainstream psychology considers sexual arousal through jealousy a paraphilia, some authors on sexuality have argued that jealousy in manageable dimensions can have a definite positive effect on sexual function and sexual satisfaction. Studies have also shown that jealousy sometimes heightens passion towards partners and increases the intensity of passionate sex.


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy in children and teenagers has been observed more often in those with low self-esteem and can evoke aggressive reactions. One such study suggested that developing intimate friends can be followed by emotional insecurity and loneliness in some children when those intimate friends interact with others. Jealousy is linked to aggression and low self-esteem. Research by Sybil Hart, PhD, at Texas Tech University indicates that children are capable of feeling and displaying jealousy at as young as six months. Infants showed signs of distress when their mothers focused their attention on a lifelike doll. This research could explain why children and infants show distress when a sibling is born, creating the foundation for sibling rivalry.


title: Jealousy

text: In addition to traditional jealousy comes Obsessive Jealousy, which can be a form of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. This jealousy is characterized by obsessional jealousy and thoughts of the partner.


title: Jealousy

text: Anthropologists have claimed that jealousy varies across cultures. Cultural learning can influence the situations that trigger jealousy and the manner in which jealousy is expressed. Attitudes toward jealousy can also change within a culture over time. For example, attitudes toward jealousy changed substantially during the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. People in the United States adopted much more negative views about jealousy. As men and women became more equal it became less appropriate or acceptable to express jealousy.


title: Jealousy

text: It is defined as “"a complex of thoughts, feelings, and actions that follow threats to self-esteem and/or threats to the existence or quality of the relationship when those threats are generated by the perception of a real or potential romantic attraction between one's partner and a (perhaps imaginary) rival."” Different from sexual jealousy, romantic jealousy is triggered by threats to self and relationship (rather than sexual interest in another person). Factors, such as feelings of inadequacy as a partner, sexual exclusivity, and having put relatively more effort into the relationship, are positively correlated to relationship jealousy in both genders.


title: Jealousy

text: As romantic jealousy is a complicated reaction that has multiple components, i.e., thoughts, feelings, and actions, one aspect of romantic jealousy that is under study is communicative responses. Communicative responses serve three critical functions in a romantic relationship, i.e., reducing uncertainty, maintaining or repairing relationship, and restoring self-esteem. If done properly, communicative responses can lead to more satisfying relationships after experiencing romantic jealousy.


title: Jealousy

text: There are two subsets of communicative responses: interactive responses and general behavior responses. Interactive responses is face-to-face and partner-directed while general behavior responses may not occur interactively. Guerrero and colleagues further categorize multiple types of communicative responses of romantic jealousy. Interactive responses can be broken down to six types falling in different places on continua of threat and directness:


title: Jealousy

text: Guerrero and colleagues have also proposed five general behavior responses. The five sub-types differ in whether a response is 1) directed at partner or rival(s), 2) directed at discovery or repair, and 3) positively or negatively valenced:


title: Jealousy

text: While some of these communicative responses are destructive and aggressive, e.g., distributive communication and active distancing, some individuals respond to jealousy in a more constructive way. Integrative communication, compensatory restoration, and negative affect expression have been shown to lead to positive relation outcomes. One factor that affects the type of communicative responses elicited in an individual is emotions. Jealousy anger is associated with more aggressive communicative response while irritation tends to lead to more constructive communicative behaviors.


title: Jealousy

text: Researchers also believe that when jealousy is experienced it can be caused by differences in understanding the commitment level of the couple, rather than directly being caused by biology alone. The research identified that if a person valued long-term relationships more than being sexually exclusive, those individuals were more likely to demonstrate jealousy over emotional rather than physical infidelity.


title: Jealousy

text: Through a study conducted in three Spanish-Speaking countries, it was determined that Facebook jealousy also exists. This Facebook jealousy ultimately leads to increased relationship jealousy and study participants also displayed decreased self esteem as a result of the Facebook jealousy.


title: Jealousy

text: Sexual jealousy may be triggered when a person's partner displays sexual interest in another person. The feeling of jealousy may be just as powerful if one partner suspects the other is guilty of infidelity. Fearing that their partner will experience sexual jealousy the person who has been unfaithful may lie about their actions in order to protect their partner. Experts often believe that sexual jealousy is in fact a biological imperative. It may be part of a mechanism by which humans and other animals ensure access to the best reproductive partners.


title: Jealousy

text: It seems that male jealousy in heterosexual relationships may be influenced by their female partner's phase in her menstrual cycle. In the period around and shortly before ovulation, males are found to display more mate-retention tactics, which are linked to jealousy. Furthermore, a male is more likely to employ mate-retention tactics if their partner shows more interest in other males, which is more likely to occur in the pre-ovulation phase.


title: Jealousy

text: According to Rebecca L. Ammon in "The Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry at UNF Digital Commons" (2004), the Parental Investment Model based on parental investment theory posits that more men than women ratify sex differences in jealousy. In addition, more women over men consider emotional infidelity (fear of abandonment) as more distressing than sexual infidelity. According to the attachment theory, sex and attachment style makes significant and unique interactive contributions to the distress experienced. Security within the relationship also heavily contributes to one's level of distress. These findings imply that psychological and cultural mechanisms regarding sex differences may play a larger role than expected. The attachment theory also claims to reveal how infants' attachment patterns are the basis for self-report measures of adult attachment. Although there are no sex differences in childhood attachment, individuals with dismissing behavior were more concerned with the sexual aspect of relationships. As a coping mechanism these individuals would report sexual infidelity as more harmful. Moreover, research shows that audit attachment styles strongly conclude with the type of infidelity that occurred. Thus psychological and cultural mechanisms are implied as unvarying differences in jealousy that play a role in sexual attachment.


title: Jealousy

text: In 1906, "The American Journal of Psychology" had reported that "the weight of quotable (male) authority is to the effect that women are more susceptible to jealousy". This claim was accompanied in the journal by a quote from Confucius: "The five worst maladies that afflict the female mind are indocility, discontent, slander, jealousy and silliness."


title: Jealousy

text: Emotional jealousy was predicted to be nine times more responsive in females than in males. The emotional jealousy predicted in females also held turn to state that females experiencing emotional jealousy are more violent than men experiencing emotional jealousy.


title: Jealousy

text: There are distinct emotional responses to gender differences in romantic relationships. For example, due to paternity uncertainty in males, jealousy increases in males over sexual infidelity rather than emotional. According to research more women are likely to be upset by signs of resource withdraw (i.e. another female) than by sexual infidelity. A large amount of data supports this notion. However, one must consider for jealousy the life stage or experience one encounters in reference to the diverse responses to infidelity available. Research states that a componential view of jealousy consist of specific set of emotions that serve the reproductive role. However, research shows that both men and women would be equally angry and point the blame for sexual infidelity, but women would be more hurt by emotional infidelity. Despite this fact, anger surfaces when both parties involved are responsible for some type of uncontrollable behavior, sexual conduct is not exempt. Some behavior and actions are controllable such as sexual behavior. However hurt feelings are activated by relationship deviation. No evidence is known to be sexually dimorphic in both college and adult convenience samples. The Jealousy Specific Innate Model (JSIM) proved to not be innate, but may be sensitive to situational factors. As a result, it may only activate at stages. One study discovered serious relationships are reserved for older adults rather than undergraduates. For example, it was predicted that male jealousy decreases as females reproductive values decreases.


title: Jealousy

text: A second possibility that the JSIM effect is not innate but is cultural. Differences have been highlighted in socio-economic status specific such as the divide between high school and collegiate individuals. Moreover, individuals of both genders were angrier and blamed their partners more for sexual infidelities but were more hurt by emotional infidelity. Jealousy is composed of lower-level emotional states (e.g., anger and hurt) which may be triggered by a variety of events, not by differences in individuals' life stage. Although research has recognized the importance of early childhood experiences for the development of competence in intimate relationships, early family environment is recently being examined as we age). Research on self-esteem and attachment theory suggest that individuals internalize early experiences within the family which subconsciously translates into their personal view of worth of themselves and the value of being close to other individuals, especially in an interpersonal relationship.


title: Jealousy

text: A study by researchers at the University of California, San Diego, replicated jealousy studies done on humans on canines. They reported, in a paper published in PLOS ONE in 2014, that a significant number of dogs exhibited jealous behaviors when their human companions paid attention to dog-like toys, compared to when their human companions paid attention to non-social objects.


title: Jealousy

text: In addition, Jealousy has been speculated to be a potential factor in incidences of aggression or emotional tension in dogs. Mellissa Starling, an animal behavior consultant of the University of Sydney, noted that "dogs are social animals and they obey a group hierarchy. Changes in the home, like the arrival of a baby, can prompt a family pet to behave differently to what one might expect."


title: Jealousy

text: Artistic depictions of jealousy occur in fiction, films, and other art forms such as painting and sculpture. Jealousy is a common theme in literature, art, theatre, and film. Often, it is presented as a demonstration of particularly deep feelings of love, rather than a destructive obsession.


title: Jealousy

text: A study done by Ferris, Smith, Greenberg, and Smith looked into the way people saw dating and romantic relationships based on how many reality dating shows they watched. People who spent a large amount of time watching these reality dating shows "endorsed" or supported the "dating attitudes" that would be shown on the show. While the other people who do not spend time watching reality dating shows did not mirror the same ideas. This means if someone watches a reality dating show that displays men and women reacting violently or aggressively towards their partner due to jealousy they can mirror that. This is reflected in romantic movies as well. Jessica R. Frampton conducted a study looking into romantic jealousy in movies. The study found that there were "230 instances of romantic jealousy were identified in the 51 top-grossing romantic comedies from 2002–2014" Some of the films did not display romantic jealousy however, some featured many examples of romantic jealousy. This was due to the fact that some of the top-grossing movies did not contain a rival or romantic competition. While others such as "Forgetting Sarah Marshall" was said to contain "19 instances of romantic jealousy." Out of the 230 instances 58% were reactive jealousy while 31% showed possessive jealousy. The last 11% displayed anxious jealousy it was seen the least in all 230 cases. Out of the 361 reactions to the jealousy found 53% were found to be "Destructive responses." Only 19% of responses were constructive while 10% showed avoidant responses. The last 18% were considered "rival focused responses" which lead to the finding that "there was a higher than expected number of rival-focused responses to possessive jealousy."


title: Jealousy

text: Jealousy in religion examines how the scriptures and teachings of various religions deal with the topic of jealousy. Religions may be compared and contrasted on how they deal with two issues: concepts of divine jealousy, and rules about the provocation and expression of human jealousy.


title: Jealousy

text: A study was done in order to cross examine jealousy among four different cultures, Ireland, Thailand, India and the United States. These cultures were chosen to demonstrate differences in expression across cultures. The study posits that male-dominant cultures are more likely to express and reveal jealousy. The survey found that Thais are less likely to express jealousy than the other three cultures. This is because the men in these cultures are rewarded in a way for showing jealousy due to the fact that some women interpret it as love. This can also be seen when watching romantic comedies when males show they are jealous of a rival or emotionally jealous women perceive it as men caring more.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The knockout stage of the 2022 FIFA World Cup was the second and final stage of the competition, following the group stage. Played from 3 to 18 December, the knockout stage ended with the final, held at Lusail Stadium in Lusail. The top two teams from each group advanced to the knockout stage to compete in a single-elimination tournament. There were sixteen matches in the knockout stage, including a third-place play-off played between the two losing teams of the semi-finals.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The knockout stage of the 2022 FIFA World Cup was contested between 16 teams that qualified from the group stage. Matches in the knockout stage were played to a finish. If the score of a match was level at the end of 90 minutes of playing time, extra time was played. If, after two periods of 15 minutes, the scores were still tied, the match was decided by a penalty shoot-out. All times listed are local in Arabia Standard Time ().


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The Netherlands had met the United States five times, with the former winning the first four meetings. They most recently met in June 2015, with the United States winning 4–3.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: In the 10th minute, the Netherlands went in front when Memphis Depay finished to the left corner of the net after a pass from the right by Denzel Dumfries after a sequence of passes. In added time in the first half, Daley Blind scored to make it 2–0 with another low finish after a pass from the right from Dumfries. In the 76th minute, the United States pulled a goal back when Haji Wright finished with a deflection from Christian Pulisic's looped cross at the far post. Dumfries sealed the win with a third goal for the Netherlands in the 81st minute when he finished with a side-footed volley at the far post from Blind's cross from the left.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Argentina had met Australia seven times, winning five, drawing one, and losing one. They met in the 1994 FIFA World Cup inter-confederation play-off, which Argentina won 2–1 on aggregate. The teams also met in Argentina's 4–2 win in the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup. They most recently met in September 2007, with Argentina winning 1–0.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: On his 1,000th career appearance, Lionel Messi scored his 789th career goal, giving Argentina the lead in the 35th minute with a low left foot finish to the left corner. Julián Álvarez made it 2–0 in the 57th minute when he pounced on an error by Australian goalkeeper Mathew Ryan to finish low to the net past the stranded goalkeeper. Australia pulled a goal back in the 77th minute when Craig Goodwin's strike took a huge deflection off Enzo Fernández before finishing in the right corner of the net. Australia had chances to level the match, first when Aziz Behich dribbled past four players before his shot was blocked by Lisandro Martínez, then in added time when Garang Kuol had a shot saved at close range by Argentine goalkeeper Emiliano Martínez.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Prior to this match, France had met Poland 16 times, winning eight, drawing five, and losing three. The three defeats included the 1982 World Cup third-place play-off which Poland won 3–2. They most recently met in a friendly won by France 1–0 in June 2011.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: In the 44th minute, Olivier Giroud received a pass from Kylian Mbappé before firing low to the right corner of the net to put France into the lead and also break the French goal-scoring record with his 52nd goal. Mbappé made it 2–0 in the 74th minute when he received the ball on the left just inside the penalty area before firing powerfully with his right foot to the top left corner of the net. Mbappé got his second of the game in the first minute of the added time with a right foot curling finish to the right corner of the net. In the final minute Robert Lewandowski pulled a goal back to make it 3–1 with a penalty low to the left corner, awarded after a handball by Dayot Upamecano.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: This was the first ever meeting between the sides. It was also the first time England faced an African opposition in the World Cup knockout stage since the 1990 quarter-final win over Cameroon.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: England went front in the 38th minute when Jordan Henderson scored low to the net from 12 yards out after a pass from Jude Bellingham on the left. In the added time in the first half, reigning World Cup Golden Boot winner Harry Kane made it 2–0 with his first goal in the tournament, firing into the net from the right after a pass from Phil Foden. In the 57th minute Foden crossed from the left for Bukayo Saka to make it 3–0 with a clipped left-foot finish over Senegal goalkeeper Édouard Mendy.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Japan had met Croatia three times, winning one, drawing one, and losing one. From the three, two happened in the World Cup group stages: Croatia won 1–0 in 1998 and drew 0–0 in 2006. The latter was their most recent encounter.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: In the 43rd minute Daizen Maeda scored for Japan with a low finish in the penalty area after the ball was knocked back from the left. Ten minutes into the second half Ivan Perišić equalised when he headed powerfully to the right corner of the net after a cross from Dejan Lovren on the right. The match went to extra time with no further goals scored and so went to the penalty shoot-out. Japan missed three of their four penalties – all saved by goalkeeper Dominik Livaković – with Mario Pašalić scored the winning penalty with a low shot to the left as Croatia won 3–1 in the shoot-out. Livaković became the third goalkeeper to make three saves in a World Cup shoot-out, after Ricardo in 2006 and his fellow countryman Danijel Subašić in 2018.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Brazil had met South Korea seven times, winning six and losing one. They most recently met in June 2022, which Brazil won 5–1.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Vinícius Júnior opened the scoring for Brazil in the 7th minute when he scored with a side footed shot to the right of the net past three Korean defenders on the line. Brazil were awarded a penalty six minutes later when Richarlison was fouled just inside the penalty area, Neymar scored the penalty with a low shot to the right corner with the goalkeeper not moving. Richarlison made it 3–0 in the 29th minute when he controlled the ball with his head before receiving the ball back from Thiago Silva and passing into the left corner of the net. Lucas Paquetá got a fourth goal in the 36th minute when he volleyed low into the left corner of the net with his right foot after a cross from Vinícius Júnior on the left. South Korea pulled a goal back in the second half when Paik Seung-ho finished to the right of the net from 30 yards out. With ten minutes left and leading by three goals, goalkeeper Alisson was substituted for third-choice Weverton, making Brazil the first team to ever use 26 different players in one World Cup.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Morocco had met Spain in three full international matches, drawing one and losing two. Spain won both the 1962 World Cup inter-continental play-off legs, while the most recent meeting ended in a 2–2 draw in the 2018 World Cup group stage.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: After a goalless 120 minutes, the match went into penalty shoot-out, which Morocco won to reach the quarter-finals for the first time ever. Achraf Hakimi scored the winning penalty with a Panenka kick in the middle of the goal. They became the first Arab country to have reached this phase, and just the fourth African country – after Cameroon in 1990, Senegal in 2002, and Ghana in 2010 – to have qualified for the last eight. Their manager Walid Regragui became the first African and first Arab to reach thus far.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Portugal had met Switzerland 25 times, winning 9, drawing 5, and losing 11. They met in several World Cup qualifications, in 1938, 1970, 1990, 1994, and 2018. Both teams most recently met in June 2022, with Switzerland winning 1–0 in the 2022–23 UEFA Nations League A.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Cristiano Ronaldo was left out of the starting line-up for Portugal – a first in major tournaments since the UEFA Euro 2008 group stage defeat against Switzerland – with Gonçalo Ramos named instead to make his first start. This time, the Portuguese got their revenge as Ramos became the first hat-trick scorer of this World Cup, the first player to score hat-trick in his first World Cup start since Miroslav Klose in 2002, and the youngest World Cup hat-trick scorer since Flórián Albert in 1962 on course of beating the Swiss 6–1 to reach the quarter-finals, a first since 2006. In addition, he also assisted for Portugal's fourth goal scored by Raphaël Guerreiro. By scoring the second goal, Pepe became the oldest player to have scored at a World Cup knockout stage and the second-oldest to have scored at a World Cup, putting him only behind Roger Milla, who scored the consolation goal in Cameroon's thumping by the opposite scoreline in the 1994 group stage by Russia. Manuel Akanji scored the consolation goal before Portuguese substitute Rafael Leão replied.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Croatia had met Brazil four times, losing three and drawing one. Two of these took place in World Cup group stages with Brazil winning both times: 1–0 in 2006 and 3–1 in 2014.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Neymar opened the scoring just before the half time of extra time when he played he received the ball back from Lucas Paquetá before rounding the goalkeeper and shooting high to the net form the right. A defensive lapse cost Brazil their lead as Bruno Petković equalised three minutes from the end with a deflected left foot shot to the left corner, it was Croatia's only shot on target of the game. In the shoot-out, Croatia scored all four of their penalties, while Brazil's first kicker Rodrygo had his saved by Dominik Livaković diving to his left and Marquinhos hitting his penalty low against the left post sealing their elimination. Croatia qualified for their second successive World Cup semi-finals and the third time ever, while Brazil exited the tournament at the hands of European teams for the fifth consecutive time, all happened after their 2002 World Cup final triumph against Germany, which remains their last knockout stage win against European opposition. In the same period, Brazil was eliminated in all four quarter-finals they played away from home, thus excluding the fourth place finish at the 2014 tournament which they hosted.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The Netherlands had met Argentina nine times, winning four, losing one, and drawing four. Five of those happened in the World Cup: a 4–0 win for the Dutch at the second group stage in 1974 was replied with a 3–1 win for the Argentines in the 1978 final. The Dutch won 2–1 in the 1998 quarter-finals prior to two goalless draws in the 2006 group stage and in their most recent encounter in the 2014 semi-finals, only for the Argentines to win 4–2 on penalties this time.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Nahuel Molina scored for Argentina after 35 minutes after he received a pass from Lionel Messi, flicking the ball low past the advancing goalkeeper. Messi made it 2–0 in the 73rd minute with a penalty, kicking to the right of the net after Marcos Acuña had been fouled in the penalty area. Netherlands substitute Wout Weghorst pulled a goal back in the 83rd minute with a downward header to the left after a cross from the right. He then got a second in the eleventh minute of added time when a free-kick on the edge of the box was played in low for him to get his shot in which went into the right of the net forcing the match to enter extra time, and ultimately a penalty shoot-out. Just like in the 2014 encounter, two Dutch players missed from the spot, and four Argentines scored.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The match had a total of 18 yellow cards, breaking the record of 16 that was set in another Dutch knockout defeat in the 2006 round of 16 against Portugal. The decisions by the referee Antonio Mateu Lahoz received criticism, as fans and media considered a yellow card to be too lenient for some incidents, while a potential handball by Messi was overlooked. The amount of yellow cards issued by Mateu Lahoz was also criticised.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The match was also marred by the death of American sportswriter Grant Wahl after he collapsed near the end of the match while watching in the press box.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Morocco had met Portugal twice, having won and lost once each. Both took place in World Cup group stages with Morocco winning 3–1 in 1986 and Portugal prevailing 1–0 in 2018.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Youssef En-Nesyri put Morocco in the lead in the 42nd minute when he jumped high to head past the advancing goalkeeper and into the empty net, prompting Portugal to sub on Cristiano Ronaldo, thus equalling the record for most international caps set by Bader Al-Mutawa. However, Morocco clung on, becoming the first African and first Arab country to reach the World Cup semi-finals, as well as the second Muslim-majority country to qualify for the last four; the other was Turkey in 2002.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: England had met France 31 times, winning 17, drawing 5 and losing 9. Two of these took place during the World Cup with England winning both times: 2–0 in the 1966 group stage and 3–1 during the 1982 first group stage. They most recently met in a friendly in June 2017, with France winning 3–2.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: In the 17th minute Aurélien Tchouaméni opened the scoring with a shot from outside the penalty area to the left corner in the first half which beat England goalkeeper Jordan Pickford diving down to his right. Some pundits questioned the goal because England player Bukayo Saka had been brought to the ground allowing France to win possession in the build-up to the goal. Some thought it was a clear foul, while others, including British journalists, thought the contact was not clear enough for VAR to overturn the on-pitch decision. Early in the second half, Tchouaméni fouled Saka in the penalty box. Harry Kane scored the penalty against his club team-mate Hugo Lloris shooting to the left, bringing Kane level with Wayne Rooney as England's all-time top scorer at 53 goals. Olivier Giroud, who entered the match as France's all-time top scorer, also scored his 53rd international goal twelve minutes from time with a header to the left of the net after a cross from Antoine Griezmann on the left. In the 84th minute, England were awarded a second penalty when substitute Mason Mount was pushed over in the penalty area by Théo Hernandez. Kane again took a penalty but shot over the bar with France going on to win 2–1. France became the first reigning world champions to reach the World Cup semi-finals since Brazil in 1998, whom France would beat in that final. France's cruise to the semi-finals, along with Croatia's – whom they defeated in the 2018 final, marked the first time that both teams from a World Cup final reached the last four of the subsequent tournament since Argentina and West Germany in 1990.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Argentina and Croatia had met five times, each winning twice, and drawing once. Two of these matches took place in the World Cup group stages, a 1–0 win for Argentina in 1998 was followed by Croatia's 3–0 win in 2018.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Both teams approached each other carefully in the first 30 minutes, until Dejan Lovren and Joško Gvardiol mistakenly let Julián Álvarez pass through the defense, causing Dominik Livaković to collide with Álvarez in the 34th minute. Match referee Daniele Orsato booked Livaković and awarded a penalty kick to Argentina, which Lionel Messi converted high to the right side of the goal. The collision also sparked a feud between Orsato and some Croatia players, causing Orsato to book Mateo Kovačić and send off assistant coach Mario Mandžukić. In the 39th minute, Álvarez passed through the defence and scored Argentina's second goal. In the second half of the match, Croatian coach Zlatko Dalić substituted off five players, including team captain Luka Modrić, in order to boost the attacking ability of the team, but this didn't stop Messi and Álvarez from providing another goal for the Argentinians. In the 69th minute, Messi dribbled through Gvardiol and passed the ball to Álvarez from the right, enabling Álvarez to score a second goal. The match ended with the scoreline of 3–0 to Argentina. Messi's penalty goal took him ahead of fellow countryman Gabriel Batistuta as Argentina's most prolific goal-scorer at the World Cup, with 11 goals scored, and this match put him level with former German player Lothar Matthäus's record for the most matches played, with the final set to be his record-breaking 26th match.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: France had met Morocco seven times, winning five and drawing two. They most recently met in a friendly in 2007, with the match ending in a 2–2 draw. This was their first World Cup meeting. This match marked the first ever World Cup semi-final featuring an African team, and also the first involving an Arab country. This was the third time that a team from a confederation other than Europe and South America has made it to the World Cup semi-finals, after the United States in 1930 and South Korea in 2002.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: In the fifth minute Théo Hernandez scored with an acrobatic volley from a very tight angle on the left after Kylian Mbappé's shot was diverted into his path, giving France the early lead. Hernandez's goal, timed at four minutes and 39 seconds, was the fastest in a World Cup semi-final since Vavá netted in the second minute of Brazil's 5–2 win against France in 1958. Despite being in possession of the ball for most of the game, Morocco were not rewarded for this pressure and in the 79th minute, with his first touch of the game having come on as a substitute 44 seconds before, Randal Kolo Muani doubled the advantage with a close-range shot, after Mbappé had dribbled into the penalty area. France won 2–0 and set up a final against Argentina, also continuing to make progress toward becoming the first nation to successfully defend the World Cup in 60 years after Brazil's victories in 1958 and 1962.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The two teams had previously faced each other twice, including their opening game in Group F at this World Cup, which ended 0–0. This marked the second consecutive World Cup where the teams playing in the third place match also played each other in the group stage, following Belgium vs England in 2018.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The match started with an early goal, after Joško Gvardiol scored a diving header to the top left corner in the seventh minute following a headed pass from Ivan Perišić. Croatia's joy lasted only two minutes; in the ninth minute Achraf Dari received a deflection from a free kick and levelled the score with a close-range header, having been left unmarked in front of the net. However, the managed to regain the lead in the 42nd minute through Mislav Oršić, who bent a brilliant strike from just inside the penalty area on the left, hitting the inside of the right post before the ball nestled in the back of the net. The second half held no goals, giving Croatia their second-ever third place finish, following the one achieved in 1998. This was the 11th consecutive World Cup in which European teams finished third, stretching back to 1982.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: The two sides had met twelve times, with Argentina having won six of them, France three, and the other three matches ending in draws. They had met three times in the World Cup, with two of these in group stages: Argentina winning 1–0 in 1930 (their World Cup debut) and 2–1 in 1978. Their most recent World Cup meeting resulted in France defeating Argentina 4–3 in the 2018 FIFA World Cup round of 16, France's first win over Argentina since 1986.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Both teams were seeking to win their third World Cup title. France were the first title holders to play in the final since Brazil, whom they defeated in 1998, and were seeking to become the first nation to retain the World Cup in 60 years, after Brazil's victories in 1958 and 1962. Their coach Didier Deschamps was attempting to become the first manager to win multiple World Cup titles since Vittorio Pozzo in 1934 and 1938 with Italy. Argentina were seeking to win the title for the first time in 36 years, having won in 1978 and 1986.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup knockout stage

text: Leading 2–0 at half time from Lionel Messi and Ángel Di María, Argentina conceded two goals in two minutes from Kylian Mbappé. In the extra time, Messi scored again only for Mbappé to equalise, thus making him the first player since Geoff Hurst in 1966 to score a hat-trick in a World Cup final. Having scored one in 2018, he became the first player to score four goals in multiple World Cup finals as well as the first player to score eight goals in one World Cup since Ronaldo in 2002 en route to the title. Unfortunately for Mbappé, he failed to emulate Hurst's and Ronaldo's successes: despite his scoring the first penalty, France lost 2–4 in the penalty shoot-out. Argentina achieved its third world title, surpassing France and Uruguay. They also became the first non-European side to win the title since Brazil in 2002, when the World Cup was also held in Asia. France's loss was their second in a World Cup final, having been defeated by Italy in 2006 in a match which was also decided by penalties. Some reporters regarded the match as one of the best FIFA World Cup finals of all time.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: The 10th millennium BC spanned the years 10,000 BC to 9001 BC (c. 12 ka to c. 11 ka). It marks the beginning of the transition from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic via the interim Mesolithic (Northern Europe and Western Europe) and Epipaleolithic (Levant and Near East) periods, which together form the first part of the Holocene epoch that is generally believed to have begun c. 9700 BC (c. 11.7 ka) and is the current geological epoch. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium, and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological, anthropological analysis, and radiometric dating.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: The main characteristic of the Holocene has been the worldwide abundance of "Homo sapiens sapiens" (humankind). The epoch began in the wake of the Würm glaciation, generally known as the Last Ice Age, which began 109 ka and ended 14 ka when "Homo sapiens sapiens" was in the Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age. Following the Late Glacial Interstadial from 14 ka to 12.9 ka, during which global temperatures rose significantly, the Younger Dryas began. This was a temporary reversal of climatic warming to glacial conditions in the Northern Hemisphere and coincided with the end of the Upper Palaeolithic. The Younger Dryas ceased c. 9700 BC, marking the cutover from Pleistocene to Holocene.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: In the geologic time scale, there are three (tentatively four) stratigraphic stages of the Holocene beginning c. 9700 BC with the "Greenlandian" (to c. 6236 BC). The starting point for the Greenlandian is the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) sample from the North Greenland Ice Core Project, which has been correlated with the Younger Dryas. The Greenlandian was succeeded by the "Northgrippian" (to c. 2250 BC) and the "Meghalayan". All three stages were officially ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in July 2018. It has been proposed that the Meghalayan should be terminated c. 1950 and succeeded by a new stage provisionally called "Anthropocene".


title: 10th millennium BC

text: In the Holocene's first millennium, the Palaeolithic began to be superseded by the Neolithic (New Stone) Age which lasted about 6,000 years, depending on location. The gradual transition period is sometimes termed Mesolithic (northern and western Europe) or Epipalaeolithic (Levant and Near East). The glaciers retreated as the world climate became warmer and that inspired an agricultural revolution, though at first, the dog was probably the only domesticated animal. This was accompanied by a social revolution in that humans gained from agriculture the impetus to settle. Settlement is the key precursor to civilisation, which cannot be achieved by a nomadic lifestyle.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: The world population, c. 10,000 BC, is believed to have been more or less stable. It has been estimated that there were some five million people at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum, growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC, which is an average growth rate of 0.027% p.a. from the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age. Around 10,000 BC, most people lived in hunter-gatherer communities scattered across all continents except Antarctica and Zealandia. As the Würm/Wisconsin ended, settlement of northern regions was again possible.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: Agriculture developed in different parts of the world at different times. In many places, people learned how to cultivate without outside help; elsewhere, as in western Europe, the skills were imported.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: The Natufian culture prevailed in the Levant through the 10th millennium and was unusual in that it supported a sedentary or semi-sedentary population even before the introduction of agriculture. An early example is 'Ain Mallaha, which may have been the first village in which people were wholly sedentary. The Natufian people are believed to have founded another early settlement on the site of Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) where there is evidence of building between 9600 BC and 8200 BC. Dates for the Natufian are indeterminate and range broadly from c. 13,050 BC to c. 7550 BC. It is possible that the early cultivation of figs began in the Jordan River valley sometime after the middle of the 10th millennium. Besides the fig trees, the people may have begun cultivation of wild plants such as barley and pistachio; and they possibly began herding goats, pigs and cattle.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: Agriculture began to be developed by the various communities of the Fertile Crescent, which included the Levant, but it would not be widely practised for another 2,000 years by which time Neolithic culture was becoming well established in many parts of the Near East. Among the earliest cultivated plants were forms of millet and rice grown in the Middle East, possibly in this millennium but more likely after 9000 BC. By about 9500 BC, people in south-eastern Anatolia were harvesting wild grasses and grains. The earliest evidence of sheep herding has been found in northern Iraq, dated before 9000 BC.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: Prehistoric chronology is almost entirely reliant upon the dating of material objects of which pottery is by far the most widespread and the most resistant to decay. All locations and generations developed their own shapes, sizes and styles of pottery, including methods and styles of decoration, but there was consistency among stratified deposits and even shards can be classified by time and place. Pottery is believed to have been discovered independently in various places, beginning with China c. 18,000 BC, and was probably created accidentally by fires lit on clay soil. The main discovery of pottery dated to the 10th millennium has been at Bosumpra Cave (early tenth-millennium cal. BC) on the Kwahu Plateau in southeastern Ghana and Ounjougou (c.9400 BC) in Central Mali, providing evidence of an independent invention of pottery in Sub-Saharan Africa in different climatic zones.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: The first chronological pottery system was the Early, Middle and Late Minoan framework devised in the early 20th century by Sir Arthur Evans for his findings at Knossos. This covered the Bronze Age in twelve phases from c. 2800 BC to c. 1050 BC and the principle was later extended to mainland Greece (Helladic) and the Aegean islands (Cycladic). Dame Kathleen Kenyon was the principal archaeologist at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) and she discovered that there was no pottery there. The potter's wheel had not yet been invented and, where pottery as such was made, it was still hand-built, often by means of coiling, and pit fired.


title: 10th millennium BC

text: Kenyon discovered vessels such as bowls, cups, and plates at Jericho which were made from stone. She reasonably surmised that others made from wood or vegetable fibres would have long since decayed. Using Evans' system as a benchmark, Kenyon divided the Near East Neolithic into phases called Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), from c. 10,000 BC to c. 8800 BC; Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), from c. 8800 BC to c. 6500 BC; and then Pottery Neolithic (PN), which had varied start-points from c. 6500 BC until the beginnings of the Bronze Age towards the end of the 4th millennium. In the 10th millennium, the Natufian culture co-existed with the PPNA which prevailed in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian areas of the Fertile Crescent.