title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: As with other UHF radio services, reliable range is considered to be line-of-sight and the distance to the radio horizon can be estimated based on antenna height. Theoretically, the range between two hand-held units would be about one or two miles (about 1.5–3 km); mobile units have higher antennas and a range of around 5 miles (8 km). A GMRS repeater with an antenna that is high above the surrounding terrain can extend the usable range over a wide area – for example, up to a 20–mile (32.2 km) radius around the repeater station. Obstructions such as hills and buildings can reduce range. Higher power does not necessarily give a proportional increase in range, although it may improve the reliability of communication at the limits of line-of-sight distance.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: GMRS is allotted 30 frequency channels in the vicinity of 462 MHz and 467 MHz. They are divided into 16 main channels and 14 interstitial channels.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: The eight main 467 MHz channels may only be used as repeater inputs, in conjunction with the 462 MHz channels as outputs. The repeater input frequencies are exclusive to GMRS, and may be used only by licensed GMRS operators.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: GMRS operators are permitted to transmit at up to 50 watts transmitter power output, on the 16 main channels, but transmitting 1 to 5 watts is more common in practice.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: The interstitial frequencies are in-between the main channels, and the 462 MHz interstitial frequencies may be used for simplex as long as the effective radiated power does not exceed 5 watts. The 467 MHz interstitial frequencies have a power limit of 500 milliwatts ERP, and only hand-held portable units may transmit on these channels.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: All 22 Family Radio Service (FRS) frequencies are shared with GMRS, and users of the two services may communicate with each other. With the exception of FRS channels 8 through 14, GMRS licensees may use higher power radios with detachable or external antennas.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: Note: Some inexpensive GMRS mobiles and portables do not fully comply with FCC permissible modulation bandwidth for GMRS and thus have weak transmitter audio and reduced range.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: Conditions: Effective February 16, 1999, the GMRS rules have been amended and one may operate on any of the primary or interstitial channels shown in section 95.1763. Exception: Licensees who operate North of Line A and East of Line C may not operate on channels 462.650 MHz, 467.650 MHz, 462.700 MHz and 467.700 MHz (ch. 19 and 21), unless one's previous license authorized such operations.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: The FCC stipulates a specific channel bandwidth for FRS and GMRS. The bandwidth is constrained by the modulation which is FM deviation (GMRS = +/- 5.0 kHz, FRS = +/- 2.5 kHz) plus the uncertainties of the filtering of the transmitter and receiver. Additionally receivers and transmitters may drift over time or temperature so the bandwidth is further constrained to prevent interference to the adjacent channel. Channel spacing is 25 kHz for GMRS and so a 20 kHz bandwidth fits into that channel with protection on each side. FRS channels are spaced within a 12.5 kHz space directly between two GMRS channels. FRS radios generally utilize an 11 kHz transmitter bandwidth and a power lower than GMRS so the interference to an adjacent GMRS channel is minimized.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: The predecessor to GMRS was named Class A Citizens Radio Service when it was commissioned in the 1960s. Tube-type transceivers were used, and transmitter power was limited to 60 watts (plate input power to the final amplifier tube). The original service ran wideband FM with ±15 kHz transmitter deviation and 50 kHz channel spacing. At the time, this was the norm for all U.S. land mobile services. There was also a Class B Citizens Radio Service which used a different set of 461 MHz channels and was limited to 5 watts output. Business users were permitted to license in this radio service. Radios were built by consumer electronics firms and commercial two-way radio vendors.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: In the 1960s, the UHF 450–470 MHz band was re-allocated to 25 kHz channels. This meant transmitter deviation was reduced to ±5 kHz. This doubled the number of channels available across the entire 450–470 MHz band. Class B Citizens Radio Service channels were re-allocated to other radio services.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: In the 1970s, allowed power was again changed to 50 watts across the output terminals of the transmitter. In 1987, licensing of business users was discontinued and businesses were allowed to continue operating until their licenses expired. There was congestion on all channels in larger metropolitan statistical areas and moving businesses to Business Radio Service channels would provide some relief. The radio service was changed to its present name; General Mobile Radio Service or GMRS.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: In 2010 the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) proposed removing the individual licensing requirement. In 2015, the FCC ruled to keep the license requirement, but to remove the regulator fee for licensing. Adopted on May 20, 2015, the ruling would be in effect after a 90–day notification period to Congress; the fee will not be eliminated before August 18, 2015. The fee for a 5–year license was $90, with the regulatory fee portion of the license at $5 per year (or $25 for the 5–year life of the license). After the notification period, the fee for a 5–year license was to become $65. The change became effective on September 3, 2015.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: Effective September 28, 2017, FCC revised the definition of the FRS service. FRS operation is now permitted with up to 2 watts on the shared FRS/GMRS channels. The FCC will not grant certification for hybrid radios that would exceed the limits for the FRS service on the FRS channels. Current "hybrid" FRS/GMRS radios will not require a GMRS license for power up to 2 watts, but FRS radios will still not be permitted to use the input frequencies of GMRS repeaters. Any radio exceeding the limits of the new FRS service will be classified as a GMRS radio.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: On September 30, 2019, it became unlawful in the USA to import, manufacture, sell, or offer to sell radio equipment capable of operating under both GMRS and FRS.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: The use of radio transmitters is regulated by national laws and international agreements. Often radio equipment accepted for use in one part of the world may not be operated in other parts due to conflicts with frequency assignments and technical standards. Some of the roles that the licensed GMRS service fills in the United States are, in other countries, filled by unlicensed or class-licensed services. Generally these services have strict technical standards for equipment to prevent interference with licensed transmitters and systems.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: In Canada, hand-held GMRS radios up to 2 watts have been approved for use without a license since September 2004. Typically these are dual FRS and GMRS units, with fixed antennas, and operating at 2 watts on some GMRS channels and 0.5 watts on the FRS-only channels. Mobile units (permanently mounted in vehicles), base stations and repeaters are not currently permitted on the GMRS channels in Canada.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: Other countries have licensed and unlicensed personal radio services with somewhat similar characteristics, but technical details and operating conditions vary according to national rules. Many European countries use a similar 16–channel system near 446 MHz known as PMR446, as well as a 69–channel low-power LPD433 which is shared with the 433.92 MHz ISM band. GMRS equipment that is approved for use in the United States will not communicate with PMR446 radios due to using different frequency ranges.


title: General Mobile Radio Service

text: Currently, the application fee for a GMRS license is $35. An FCC Report and Order released December 23, 2020, and in a subsequent notice issued by the FCC on March 23, 2022, the fee dropped from $70 to $35 starting on April 19, 2022. The license is still valid for 10 years and covers an entire family.


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: Anne-Marie Martin (born Edmonda Benton; November 11, 1957) is a Canadian retired actress, screenwriter and equestrian who is perhaps best known for playing Sgt. Dori Doreau in the American television comedy series "Sledge Hammer!" from 1986 to 1988, as well as her roles in several horror films, such as "Prom Night" (1980) and "The Boogens" (1981).


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: Martin was born Edmonda Benton in Toronto, Ontario on November 11, 1957. Prior to embarking on a screen acting career, she worked for theater director Hrant Alianak in Toronto, performing at the Theatre Passe Muraille.


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: In her early career, Martin was credited under the name Eddie Benton, most notably in the unsuccessful series pilot/telefilm "Dr. Strange" (1978), for which she was paid $2,000 a week. She subsequently appeared in the slasher film "Prom Night" (1980), "Savage Harvest" (1981), "The Boogens" (1981), and had a cameo in "Halloween II" (1981); as well as numerous TV series guest roles. Among these were Stella Breed, a woman with psychokinetic powers in the "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" episode "Twiki is Missing", and an officer who faces an amputation after injury in the line of duty on "T. J. Hooker".


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: Prior to this she appeared in "The Shape of Things to Come" (1979), a low-budget Canadian science fiction film that attempted to capitalize on the popularity of "Star Wars" and "Battlestar Galactica". She was also a regular on the short-lived 1977 series "Rafferty" opposite Patrick McGoohan and appeared in the equally short-lived "Time Express" in 1979.


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: In the early 1980s, she appeared in a "Highway to Heaven" episode in which she and Victor French traded bodies. From 1982 to 1985, she appeared as attorney Gwen Davies on the soap opera "Days of Our Lives". Alan Spencer subsequently cast her in "Sledge Hammer!", as Dori Doreau; he also wrote an episode of the series that allowed her to, if not exactly change bodies with Sledge Hammer, at least impersonate him. Martin appeared as Doreau on the series from 1986 until 1988.


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: Martin married author Michael Crichton in 1987 (she had a small role in Crichton's film "Runaway" three years earlier), and following the cancellation of "Sledge Hammer!", retired from TV and film acting. In 1989, they had a daughter, Taylor-Anne. Martin co-wrote, with Crichton, the screenplay to the 1996 film "Twister". The couple separated in 2001 and divorced in 2003.


title: Anne-Marie Martin

text: Martin went on to pursue her love of horses and ride competitively. She rode for Team USA in the World Championship competition for Icelandic horses.


title: Pnau

text: Pnau ( ) is an Australian dance music trio originating from Sydney. The trio, a duo before 2016, consists of the musicians Nick Littlemore (vocals, production), Peter Mayes (guitar, production) and Sam Littlemore (production), with the latter joining in 2016. Pnau has achieved multiple successes with their award-winning 1999 first album "Sambanova" and the widely acclaimed 2007 release "Pnau". Pnau is also recognised for a heavily publicised apprenticeship under the musician Elton John, who signed the duo after listening to the "Pnau" album. Several of Pnau's later projects have had John's involvement, such as the album "Soft Universe" and an album of Pnau recreations of Elton John's hits called "Good Morning to the Night".


title: Pnau

text: Apart from being a member of Pnau, Nick Littlemore also appears as one half of the project Empire of the Sun, which has had multiple chart-topping singles. In November 2016, the new line-up released "Chameleon", the first single from their album "Changa".


title: Pnau

text: Pnau formed in Sydney, New South Wales by Nick Littlemore and Peter Mayes. The two met at secondary school at the age of 12 years old and began performing together in the mid-1990s, initially playing acid, house music, and trance music. Littlemore recalled meeting Mayes when he was 10; "He tripped me over. We hated each other for a couple years and then we started sneaking out and going to raves when we were about 13 and we formed a bond over intense music." Littlemore and Mayes created their first album when they were in their mid-teens. "It was called Fractal Geometric Spaces Made of Light," Littlemore remembers, "Which is probably why it was never picked up."


title: Pnau

text: The duo's first commercially available tracks were a pair of nine-minute tracks, "Frisk" and "Anthropophagi", that led off "doof@cybersonic.aust.com" – an underground acid trance compilation album distributed by cult electronic label Creative Vibes in 1996. Pnau would then feature on another Creative Vibes project, 1998's compilation record "Evolutionary Vibes III: The Evolution Will Not Be Televised", with the song "Discone".


title: Pnau

text: In July 1999, Pnau officially released their debut album "Sambanova" under the independent label Peking Duck. It was recorded in a bedroom studio and they state they only expected it to sell "a few thousand copies". The album was pulled from record stores for using uncleared samples, but re-released in June 2000 and peaked inside the ARIA top 40. In October 2000, at the ARIA Music Awards of 2000, the album won Best Dance Release. In a 2003 interview with "The Age", Mayes said that they had no understanding of sample clearances due to their naïveté in the music business. Mayes claimed that the album's recall did seriously affect their commercial sales. Littlemore later contested "They screwed us over for $300,000. Warners didn't; another third party did. But that happens. We're still here, we're still doing it."


title: Pnau

text: Pnau went on to make many live appearances at music festivals like Big Day Out in 2001 and Homebake in 2002. During this time, they garnered a reputation for their lively performances.


title: Pnau

text: In October 2003, Pnau released their second studio album, "Again". The album was not a commercial success and Littlemore was later quoted as "Again" being "the worst record I've ever done". Littlemore has since retracted the statement. When asked if he still considered "Again" to be his worst record, Littlemore responded, "Well next to "Soft Universe". They're sort of on par." Littlemore further explained that his opinions are influenced by the albums' commercial success, which is an easy headspace for him to get into since "everyone loves Empire of the Sun, it's sold 1.1 million records." Despite the seemingly unfavorable album response, several tracks received considerable acclaim - the most noteworthy being "We Love The Fresh Kills" which was a significantly popular single for the duo at the time. However, because of "Again"'s lackluster success the pair parted ways for some time to work with other artists such as Robbie Williams, Van She, and Lost Valentinos.


title: Pnau

text: In 2007, the duo reunited and wrote over two-hundred songs together and started to lay down an entire album with Nick Littlemore's brother Sam Littlemore as producer. They sent a work-in-progress track to long-time friend and collaborator Luke Steele, who sent back the track with his own vocals. After receiving the track, the Littlemore brothers and Mayes agreed to scrap almost everything they had laid down to focus on a more vocally centered album. The track became known as "With You Forever" and the finalised album was released under the self-titled name "Pnau". The album not only featured vocal work from Luke Steele and Nick Littlemore himself, but also had many guest appearances such as Ladyhawke, Feadz, Nik Yannika from Lost Valentinos and Michael DeFrancesco from Van She. The album was released to high critical acclaim and gained unexpected favorable attention from Elton John, declaring it to be the greatest record he'd heard in ten years.


title: Pnau

text: Inspired by their track "With You Forever", Pnau began work on a collaboration with Luke Steele, which would call themselves Empire of the Sun. Originally titled Steelemore, Empire of the Sun released it debut single in August 2008 titled "Walking on a Dream" and its debut album in October 2008 with "Walking on a Dream". Nick Littlemore and Luke Steele took the roles of bandmates, while Peter Mayes assumed the role of producer. Some critics were quick to note that the band sounded more like a work of Pnau than Luke Steele's band The Sleepy Jackson. Empire of the Sun has achieved international success having been certified 2× Platinum in Australia and gold in the United Kingdom, as well as winning eleven ARIA awards. Pnau makes it clear on their Myspace numerous times that not only is Empire of the Sun a side project of theirs, but that they are also the producers. Regarding Empire of the Sun, in early 2009 news began appearing that Nick Littlemore had disappeared. The reality had been that Nick Littlemore had left Empire of the Sun to begin work on the fourth Pnau album along with Elton John.


title: Pnau

text: In 2010, Pnau's track "Baby" (Remixed by Breakbot) appeared in the release of Sony Computer Entertainment's "Gran Turismo 5", in the Background Music (BGM) playlist.


title: Pnau

text: In February 2011, Pnau released "The Truth", the lead single from their forthcoming fourth studio album, "Soft Universe". "Soft Universe" was released in June 2011 and peaked at number 13 on the ARIA Charts. Littlemore has described it as a very "emotional" album, inspired by the breakup with his long-time girlfriend. With input from Elton John, the album features Littlemore singing all the vocals on the album along with tracks co-written with fellow Aussie artist Martin Craft and producer Mark Saunders. The album was positively received, although mainly critics expressed discontent with the lack of the "endearing weirdness of previous Pnau and Empire releases." The "Soft Universe" album received the Australian Independent Record (AIR) Award for Best Independent Dance/Electronica Album.


title: Pnau

text: On 10 March 2012, the first remix track from the anticipated, upcoming Elton John rework album commissioned for Pnau was leaked, initially airing on Pete Tong's BBC Radio 1 broadcast. In July 2012 two singles were released from the album, "Good Morning to the Night" and "Sad", while the album "Good Morning to the Night" was released and reaching number 1 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Pnau

text: In November 2013 French duo Faul & Wad Ad released "Changes" credited to vs. Pnau. The song samples Pnau's "Baby" and reached the top ten in numerous countries across Europe.


title: Pnau

text: In November 2016, Pnau released "Chameleon" as the lead single from the upcoming fifth studio album. The song peaked at number 4 on the ARIA Charts and was certified 4× platinum. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2017, the song won the groups their second ARIA Award for Best Dance Release. "Changa" was released in November 2017 and peaked at number 11 on the ARIA Charts. The album spawned two more singles "Go Bang" and "Changa". At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018, "Go Bang" won the group's third ARIA Award for Best Dance Release.


title: Pnau

text: The band released the single "Solid Gold" on 2 May 2019. The song continues Pnau's collaboration with Kira Divine on vocals, and also features additional vocals by Marques Toliver. The band hosted a live chat on their Facebook page to support the release. In August 2019, the band released the single "All of Us". In December 2020, the band worked with Ladyhawke again and released the single "River".


title: Pnau

text: In August 2021, Pnau produced a remix medley of several Elton John songs along with Dua Lipa, titled "Cold Heart (Pnau remix)". The single charted in many countries worldwide, becoming their 3rd top 10 in Australia and their second in the UK, as well as their first song to chart in the US.


title: Pnau

text: On June 24, 2022, the band released the remix of “Don’t Fly Away” by Elvis Presley on the soundtrack to the movie Elvis.


title: Pnau

text: One accepted pronunciation of "Pnau" is "pah-now". The name is commonly accented to simulate the sound of a gunshot. Nick Littlemore explained the name was the result of an instance when he was speaking in tongues. After shouting gibberish for half an hour, Littlemore decided "Pnau" would be an appropriate band name.


title: Pnau

text: Another theory on the pronunciation, according to one interview with the pair, is "pah-nyeow". The group has on other occasions explained that the name "rhymes with meow".


title: Pnau

text: The Australian Independent Record Awards (commonly known informally as AIR Awards) is an annual awards night to recognise, promote and celebrate the success of Australia's Independent Music sector.


title: Pnau

text: The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Pnau have won 3 awards from 17 nominations.


title: Pnau

text: The APRA Awards are held in Australia and New Zealand by the Australasian Performing Right Association to recognise songwriting skills, sales and airplay performance by its members annually.


title: Pnau

text: The J Awards are an annual series of Australian music awards that were established by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's youth-focused radio station Triple J. They commenced in 2005.


title: Pnau

text: The MTV Europe Music Awards is an award presented by Viacom International Media Networks to honour artists and music in pop culture.


title: Pnau

text: The National Live Music Awards (NLMAs) are a broad recognition of Australia's diverse live industry, celebrating the success of the Australian live scene. The awards commenced in 2016.


title: Pnau

text: The Rolling Stone Australia Awards are awarded annually in January or February by the Australian edition of "Rolling Stone" magazine for outstanding contributions to popular culture in the previous year.


title: Ice giant

text: An ice giant is a giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. There are two ice giants in the Solar System: Uranus and Neptune.


title: Ice giant

text: In astrophysics and planetary science the term "ices" refers to volatile chemical compounds with freezing points above about 100 K, such as water, ammonia, or methane, with freezing points of 273 K (0°C), 195 K (−78°C), and 91 K (−182°C), respectively (see Volatiles). In the 1990s, it was determined that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet, separate from the other giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, which are gas giants predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium.


title: Ice giant

text: As such, Neptune and Uranus are now referred to as "ice giants". Lacking well defined solid surfaces, they are primarily composed of gases and liquids. Their constituent compounds were solids when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation, either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice. Today, very little of the water in Uranus and Neptune remains in the form of ice. Instead, water primarily exists as supercritical fluid at the temperatures and pressures within them. Uranus and Neptune consist of only about 20% hydrogen and helium by mass, compared to the Solar System's gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, which are more than 90% hydrogen and helium by mass.


title: Ice giant

text: In 1952, science fiction writer James Blish coined the term "gas giant" and it was used to refer to the large non-terrestrial planets of the Solar System. However, since the late 1940s the compositions of Uranus and Neptune have been understood to be significantly different from those of Jupiter and Saturn. They are primarily composed of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, constituting a separate type of giant planet altogether. Because during their formation Uranus and Neptune incorporated their material as either ices or gas trapped in water ice, the term "ice giant" came into use. In the early 1970s, the terminology became popular in the science fiction community, e.g., Bova (1971), but the earliest scientific usage of the terminology was likely by Dunne & Burgess (1978) in a NASA report.


title: Ice giant

text: Modelling the formation of the terrestrial and gas giants is relatively straightforward and uncontroversial. The terrestrial planets of the Solar System are widely understood to have formed through collisional accumulation of planetesimals within the protoplanetary disc. The gas giants—Jupiter, Saturn, and their extrasolar counterpart planets—are thought to have formed solid cores of around 10 Earth masses () through the same process, while accreting gaseous envelopes from the surrounding solar nebula over the course of a few to several million years (Ma), although alternative models of core formation based on pebble accretion have recently been proposed. Some extrasolar giant planets may instead have formed via gravitational disk instabilities.


title: Ice giant

text: The formation of Uranus and Neptune through a similar process of core accretion is far more problematic. The escape velocity for the small protoplanets about 20 astronomical units (AU) from the center of the Solar System would have been comparable to their relative velocities. Such bodies crossing the orbits of Saturn or Jupiter would have been liable to be sent on hyperbolic trajectories ejecting them from the system. Such bodies, being swept up by the gas giants, would also have been likely to just be accreted into the larger planets or thrown into cometary orbits.


title: Ice giant

text: In spite of the trouble modelling their formation, many ice giant candidates have been observed orbiting other stars since 2004. This indicates that they may be common in the Milky Way.


title: Ice giant

text: Considering the orbital challenges of protoplanets 20 AU or more from the centre of the Solar System would experience, a simple solution is that the ice giants formed between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn before being gravitationally scattered outward to their now more distant orbits.


title: Ice giant

text: Gravitational instability of the protoplanetary disk could also produce several gas giant protoplanets out to distances of up to 30 AU. Regions of slightly higher density in the disk could lead to the formation of clumps that eventually collapse to planetary densities. A disk with even marginal gravitational instability could yield protoplanets between 10 and 30 AU in over one thousand years (ka). This is much shorter than the 100,000 to 1,000,000 years required to produce protoplanets through core accretion of the cloud and could make it viable in even the shortest-lived disks, which exist for only a few million years.


title: Ice giant

text: A problem with this model is determining what kept the disk stable before the instability. There are several possible mechanisms allowing gravitational instability to occur during disk evolution. A close encounter with another protostar could provide a gravitational kick to an otherwise stable disk. A disk evolving magnetically is likely to have magnetic dead zones, due to varying degrees of ionization, where mass moved by magnetic forces could pile up, eventually becoming marginally gravitationally unstable. A protoplanetary disk may simply accrete matter slowly, causing relatively short periods of marginal gravitational instability and bursts of mass collection, followed by periods where the surface density drops below what is required to sustain the instability.


title: Ice giant

text: Observations of photoevaporation of protoplanetary disks in the Orion Trapezium Cluster by extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation emitted by θ Orionis C suggests another possible mechanism for the formation of ice giants. Multiple-Jupiter-mass gas-giant protoplanets could have rapidly formed due to disk instability before having the majority of their hydrogen envelopes stripped off by intense EUV radiation from a nearby massive star.


title: Ice giant

text: In the Carina Nebula, EUV fluxes are approximately 100 times higher than in Trapezium's Orion Nebula. Protoplanetary disks are present in both nebulae. Higher EUV fluxes make this an even more likely possibility for ice-giant formation. The stronger EUV would increase the removal of the gas envelopes from the protoplanets before they could collapse sufficiently to resist further loss.


title: Ice giant

text: The ice giants represent one of two fundamentally different categories of giant planets present in the Solar System, the other group being the more-familiar gas giants, which are composed of more than 90% hydrogen and helium (by mass). Their hydrogen is thought to extend all the way down to their small rocky cores, where hydrogen molecular ion transitions to metallic hydrogen under the extreme pressures of hundreds of gigapascals (GPa).


title: Ice giant

text: The ice giants are primarily composed of heavier elements. Based on the abundance of elements in the universe, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur are most likely. Although the ice giants also have hydrogen envelopes, these are much smaller. They account for less than 20% of their mass. Their hydrogen also never reaches the depths necessary for the pressure to create metallic hydrogen. These envelopes nevertheless limit observation of the ice giants' interiors, and thereby the information on their composition and evolution.


title: Ice giant

text: Although Uranus and Neptune are referred to as ice giant planets, it is thought that there is a supercritical water ocean beneath their clouds, which accounts for about two-thirds of their total mass.


title: Ice giant

text: The gaseous outer layers of the ice giants have several similarities to those of the gas giants. These include long-lived, high-speed equatorial winds, polar vortices, large-scale circulation patterns, and complex chemical processes driven by ultraviolet radiation from above and mixing with the lower atmosphere.


title: Ice giant

text: Studying the ice giants' atmospheric pattern also gives insights into atmospheric physics. Their compositions promote different chemical processes and they receive far less sunlight in their distant orbits than any other planets in the Solar System (increasing the relevance of internal heating on weather patterns).


title: Ice giant

text: The largest visible feature on Neptune is the recurring Great Dark Spot. It forms and dissipates every few years, as opposed to the similarly sized Great Red Spot of Jupiter, which has persisted for centuries. Of all known giant planets in the Solar System, Neptune emits the most internal heat per unit of absorbed sunlight, a ratio of approximately 2.6. Saturn, the next-highest emitter, only has a ratio of about 1.8. Uranus emits the least heat, one-tenth as much as Neptune. It is suspected that this may be related to its extreme 98˚ axial tilt. This causes its seasonal patterns to be very different from those of any other planet in the Solar System.


title: Ice giant

text: There are still no complete models explaining the atmospheric features observed in the ice giants. Understanding these features will help elucidate how the atmospheres of giant planets in general function. Consequently, such insights could help scientists better predict the atmospheric structure and behaviour of giant exoplanets discovered to be very close to their host stars (pegasean planets) and exoplanets with masses and radii between that of the giant and terrestrial planets found in the Solar System.


title: Ice giant

text: Because of their large sizes and low thermal conductivities, the planetary interior pressures range up to several hundred GPa and temperatures of several thousand kelvins (K).


title: Ice giant

text: In March 2012, it was found that the compressibility of water used in ice-giant models could be off by one third. This value is important for modeling ice giants, and has a ripple effect on understanding them.


title: Ice giant

text: The magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune are both unusually displaced and tilted. Their field strengths are intermediate between those of the gas giants and those of the terrestrial planets, being 50 and 25 times that of Earth's, respectively. The equatorial magnetic field strengths of Uranus and Neptune are respectively 75 percent and 45 percent of Earth's 0.305 gauss. Their magnetic fields are believed to originate in an ionized convecting fluid-ice mantle.


title: Shaun Johnston

text: Shaun Johnston is a Canadian movie and theatre actor best known for his role as Jack Bartlett on the CBC drama "Heartland", which debuted in October 2007. He co-founded the Shadow Theatre in Edmonton and made his first professional forays in Alberta's thriving theatre scene.


title: Shaun Johnston

text: Johnston grew up in Ponoka, Alberta. He earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts from the University of Alberta's drama program.


title: Shaun Johnston

text: Johnston is well-known for playing the role of Jack Bartlett (also known as "Grandpa Jack") on "Heartland", a CBC drama that debuted in October 2007. By 2019, he had played a role on the show for 13 seasons. In 2019, and again in 2020, Johnston was nominated for a Rosie award for "Best Alberta Actor" for his role in "Heartland". In 2016, Johnston described his experience on the cast of "Heartland", saying "it's the best job I’ve ever had, it's the best job I'm ever going to have."


title: Shaun Johnston

text: In 2020, Global News reported that Johnston was in the process of "recording and releasing" "The Book of Shaun: A Story Behind His Heartland Music". "The Book of Shaun" is a multi-episode music project that tells "the story behind songs that he has written for the Canadian TV show" that was created in order to raise funds for a 20-home building project led by the Okanagan affiliate of Habitat for Humanity.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: There are currently about 46 providers of over-the-top media services (OTT) in India, which distribute streaming media over the Internet. In fiscal year 2018, the OTT market in India was worth crore. The streaming market in India is predicted to be worth $15 billion by 2030, with $12.5 billion coming from the video market and $2.5 billion from audio. The OTT market in fiscal year 2020 was estimated to be worth $1.7 billion.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Before 2022, There was no regulation body for over-the-top media services (OTT) in India. Last year in February, the Indian Government Introduce intermediate guidelines for social media and digital ethics code 2021 to regulate OTT platforms.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Note- After releasing the new rules and ethics code, if any OTT platform "portraying" sexual relations between family (like- fathers in law, brother in law, sister in law etc.) and showing family values in a obscene way, is highly restricted and will be punishable offense under section 293, IT Act 67-B and Code of ethics 2021.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Several websites and over-the-top media services (OTT) in India have been closed down by Cyber Crime Branch, which contains nudity and soft pornographic themes and objectified women as a sex object in it's shows. Their OTT platform owners have been arrested for streaming adult content on their platform.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: In 2010 Digivive launched India's first OTT mobile app called nexGTv, which provides access to both live TV and on–demand content. nexGTV is the first app to live–stream Indian Premier League matches on smart phones and did so during 2013 and 2014. The livestream of the IPL since 2015, when rights were won, played an important role in the growth of another OTT platform, Hotstar (now Disney+ Hotstar) in India.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: OTT gained significant momentum in India when both DittoTV (Zee) and Sony Liv were launched in the Indian market around 2013. Ditto TV was an aggregator platform containing shows across all media channels including Star, Sony, Viacom, Zee, etc.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Hotstar, (now Disney+ Hotstar), is the most subscribed–to OTT platform in India, owned by Star India as of July 2020, with around 300 million active users and over 350 million downloads. According to Hotstar's India Watch Report 2018, 96% of watch time on Hotstar comes from videos longer than 20 minutes, while one–third of Hotstar subscribers watch television shows. In 2019, Hotstar began investing crore in generating original content such as "Hotstar Specials." 80% of the viewership on Hotstar comes from drama, movies and sports programs. Hotstar has the exclusive streaming rights of IPL in India, which is one of the biggest sporting event in India.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: American streaming service Netflix entered India in January 2016. In April 2017, it was registered as a limited liability partnership (LLP) and started commissioning content. It earned a net profit of ₹2020,000 (₹2.02 million) for fiscal year 2017. In fiscal year 2018, Netflix earned revenues of ₹580 million. According to Morgan Stanley Research, Netflix had the highest average watch time of more than 120 minutes but viewer counts of around 20 million in July 2018. As of 2018, Netflix has six million subscribers, of which 5–6% are paid members.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: India was not affected by Netflix's July 2018 increase in subscription rates for the US and Latin America. Netflix has stated its intent to invest ₹600 crore in the production of Indian original programming. In late 2018, Netflix bought of office space in Bandra–Kurla Complex (BKC) in Mumbai as their head office. As of December 2018, Netflix has more than 40 employees in India.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Netflix faces tough competition with other OTT platforms in India such as Amazon Prime Video and Disney+ Hotstar, each of which charge lower subscription rates than Netflix.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: AAO NXT, the first independent OTT platform that originated from Odisha, is a flagship product of Kaustav Dreamworks. Apart from the website, they also have application for Android mobiles and TVs. The content library of AAO NXT is unique in terms of originality of the content irrespective of the language. Short films, movies, and web series can be viewed in their original language along with English subtitles.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: nexGTv is the flagship product of Digivive Services Pvt Ltd. Its app offers users entertainment across multiple devices. It streams over 200 live TV channels and on-demand content, including movies, TV Shows and videos. In 2015, nexGTv launched India's first mobile talent discovery platform, called SPOTLight, with director Imtiaz Ali. In 2016 nexGTV, launched its first original series "In My City" with Priyanka Chopra making her mobile series debut.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Sun NXT is an Indian video on demand service run by Sun TV Network. It was launched in June 2017, streaming in Tamil Language and six other Launguages. The platform has more than 4,000 Tamil movies and 200 Tamil shows, as well as regional movies and shows. Sun NXT also streams a large library of its own Sun TV shows and movies. In India Sun NXT launched its TV shows and movies also in Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Bengali and Marathi.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Amazon Prime Video was launched in 2016. The platform has 2,300 titles available including 2,000 movies and about 400 shows. It has announced that it will invest ₹20 billion in creating original content in India. Besides English, Prime Video is available in six Indian languages as of December 2018. Amazon India launched Amazon Prime Music in February 2018.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Neestream is a streaming media service owned by NeST Technologies Corp., which is part of the US-based JKH Holdings. It is the first OTT platform targeting the global Malayalee diaspora. In the aftermath of the COVID pandemic and the subsequent lockdown, OTT platforms had become the only avenue for film releases, redefining the movie watching experience for several viewers.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Single-language OTT sites, like Aha Video in Telugu is the first time that the platform is diversifying into another language, while CityShor.tv in Gujarati, Neestream in Malayalam, Hoichoi in Bengali and Planet Marathi in Marathi are streaming movies and shows for people in those languages.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Eros Now, an OTT platform launched by Eros International, has the most content among the OTT providers in India, including over 12,000 films, 100,000 music tracks and albums, and 100 TV shows. Eros Now was named the Best OTT Platform of the Year 2019 at the British Asian Media Awards. It has 211.5 million registered users and 36.2 million paying subscribers as of September 2020.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Apart from these, Balaji Telefilms–owned ALTBalaji and Viacom 18–owned Voot are popular because of the unique content they provide. Reliance Jio–owned JioCinema and JioTV, Times Group–owned MX Player, and Asianet Satellite Communications- owned Asianet Mobile TV are other OTT service providers in India.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: Hoichoi is the first dedicated regional–language OTT service in India. It has launched 30 new shows and 12 original films in Bengali and has acquired about 200 Bengali films and dubbed content from English, Hindi and Arabic. In 2018 it entered Bangladesh as well as the United Arab Emirates, adding a prospective customer base of 180 million.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: In June 2017, Sun TV Network launched their Sun NXT regional OTT service in Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Bengali and Kannada.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: In 2021, Planet Marathi OTT became the first OTT platform dedicated to Marathi content in India, including web-series, films, music, theater, fiction and non-fiction reality shows. It is available for both Android


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: and iOS mobile devices along with Android TV and Amazon Fire TV devices. Bollywood actress Madhuri Dixit helped launch the platform.


title: Over-the-top media services in India

text: With rising interest for Korean dramas, Rakuten Viki saw its biggest jump of web traffic from India in 2020 due to COVID-19 lockdown, which lead to ad localization on the platform.


title: Avatar Flight of Passage

text: "Avatar" Flight of Passage is a 3D flying simulator attraction within Pandora – The World of "Avatar" at Disney's Animal Kingdom. Set in the "Avatar" universe, the attraction allows guests to take flight on a native mountain Banshee and soar across the landscape of Pandora.


title: Avatar Flight of Passage

text: Work on "Avatar" Flight of Passage began in 2012 and involved staff from Walt Disney Imagineering, James Cameron's Lightstorm Entertainment, and Weta Digital. All of the footage in the ride is original, with Executive Producer Amy Jupiter revealing, "Everything you see in the attraction’s main show was original to this production. We were fortunate to be able to use the model and texture assets from the first film during our templating/visualization process. We were also able to use animation cycles for our [background] characters." Weta Digital provided the main ride film footage.


title: Avatar Flight of Passage

text: In the attraction's storyline, the humans and Na'vi are attempting to restore the banshee population to natural levels, after the mining tactics caused by the Resources Development Administration generations prior. Alpha Centauri Expeditions (ACE) has reactivated the avatar program through the Pandora Conservation Initiative as a method of conducting research, and allows guests to link with an avatar to fly on an "Ikran" (known as a "Banshee" by humans) to partake in the Na'vi's tribal coming-of-age tradition.


title: Avatar Flight of Passage

text: Set within the remains of a former Resources Development Administration facility, the attraction invites guests into the ACE lab where guests are linked to an "avatar" and fly aboard a banshee across the Valley of Mo'ara.


title: Avatar Flight of Passage

text: On February 27, 2018, after four incidents had occurred, Disney added warning cards for riders before entering the ride. The cards were similar to those on and warned riders about fear of heights, motion sickness, and the seating restraints. These cards were removed in late 2018 and have been replaced with a pre-recorded message which communicates similar information to guests. The message plays only in the queue room immediately before the ride experience.


title: Avatar Flight of Passage

text: Avatar Flight of Passage was ranked in the "Amusement Today"'s Golden Ticket Awards for best new ride of 2017 with 15% of the vote, to come in second place. The ride won the 2018 Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Visual Effects in a Special Venue Project.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: Disney Platform Distribution, Inc. is a business unit within Disney Media and Entertainment Distribution (DMED) that manages all third-party media sales efforts for distribution, affiliate marketing and affiliate-related business operations for all of the company's direct-to-consumer services and linear media networks; content sales agreements for General Entertainment, Studios and Sports; as well as global theatrical film distribution; management of the El Capitan Theatre and the Disney Music Group.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: The company was originally established in 1987 under the Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises, Inc. name and later renamed ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group, Inc., Disney–ABC International Television, Inc. and Disney Media Distribution. On October 12, 2020, the company took its current name.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: Buena Vista International Television (BVIT) was the international television distribution arm of the original Walt Disney Television, and the international television arm of Buena Vista Television themselves. BVIT was established in 1985 to produce non-American series and distribute all Disney-owned libraries around the world.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: In 1987, Buena Vista International Television had inked a three-year deal to provide five hours a week for Disney-related material, such as feature films, television movies and series. In 1988, at the MIPCOM, Buena Vista International Television said that they were planning on to develop up to five pay international cable channels on its own, none of them were materialized.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: The company made its origins as early as 1978 when American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. formed ABC Pictures International to handle sales in the international television market. It was incorporated on January 3, 1978. Erwin H. Ezzes, former CEO of United Artists Television was signed on as a consultant to the company.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: In 1979, ABC Pictures International has launched its instructional arm ABC Learning Resources, Inc., and Donna B. Sessa would run ABC Learning Resources, Inc. Later that year, it was merged into ABC Video Enterprises, Inc.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: On July 2, 1979, ABC had formed ABC Video Enterprises, Inc. to develop and market programing domestically for cable, pay cable, videodisks, cassettes and other new communications forms, and it was headed up by Herbert A. Granath, who was vice president of the ABC television network. Later that year, ABC Pictures International was merged into the company.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises (CAVE) was incorporated on January 27, 1987. as an ancillary production, video and distribution company owned by Capital Cities/ABC. In 1992, CAVE launched Capital Cities/ABC Video Publishing as its subsidiary to release videotapes under the ABC Video label. In December 1992, CAVE realigned its upper management by adding a president position to Capital Cities/ABC Video Productions for overseas control of its production units Ultra Entertainment, the Hemisphere Group and Capital Cities/ABC Video Productions and bringing in Archie C. Purvis to fill the position. Joseph Y. Abrams was promoted to replace Purvis as president of ABC Distribution Co. Both have reported to president of CAVE International, John T. Healy.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: On July 25, 1993, CAVE and DIC Animation City formed a production joint venture called DIC Entertainment L.P., to provide material for CAVE to distribute in the international market.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: In early October 1993, CAVE became part of the newly formed ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group (ACIBG), moving out of the broadcasting group to directly report to the CEO of CC/ABC, with Herb Granath continuing as president. The group continued oversiting its stakes in cable companies ESPN, A&E and Lifetime, international program sales, co-production and interests in foreign program services Eurosport, Germany's RTL-2, Japan Sport Network and animation company DIC. On October 12, Ambroco Media Group, Inc. was formed under Purvis to work with foreign partners for the development and production of programs. On October 21, Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises changed its legal name to Capital Cities/ABC Cable and International Broadcasting, Inc., then on December 15, it changed once again to ABC Cable and International Broadcast, Inc. In January 1994, ABC Network announced Purvis' retirement and the closure of Ambroco's operations.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: When the Disney-CC/ABC merger led Disney Television and Telecommunications to be split up in April 1996, Walt Disney Television International was transferred to Capital Cities/ABC. CC/ABC combined the international units, Walt Disney Television International and ACIBG, into Disney–ABC International Television (DAIT) in July 1996. On October 19, 1999, ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group was renamed Disney–ABC International Television, Inc. By February 1999, DAIT began operating under the Buena Vista International Television name.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: On , Buena Vista International Television was renamed Disney–ABC International Television, due to Disney semi-retired the Buena Vista name. In April 2008, the Asia Pacific office renewed its multi-year movie agreement with Zee Studio, an Indian basic-cable movie channel. In October 2015, at Mipcom in Cannes, Disney Media Distribution France extended its film and TV agreement with Canal Plus Group, adding first-run rights to films including those from Lucasfilm and SVOD rights for CanalPlay, which is effective in January 2016.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: With the March 14, 2018 strategic reorganization in anticipation of integrating 21st Century Fox's assets, Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer & International was formed with distribution units being moved over from Disney-ABC Television Group. In July 2019, Marinelli announced her resignation, ending a 34-year long tenure with the company. Janice Marinelli, president of global content sales and distribution, would report to Mayer. Disney announced it would combine all the company's media sales and channel distribution into one organization. ESPN's executive vice president Justin Connolly was promoted to the newly created role of president of media distribution, reporting to Mayer. With a leadership change in this new segment in May 2020, the media distribution group was moved to Disney Media Networks.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: On October 12, 2020, Disney CEO Bob Chapek announced a strategic reorganization that created a new division of the company, Media and Entertainment Distribution, that is being led by Kareem Daniel. Under the new structure, Disney created a group responsible for both the dissemination and ad sales for all of its content, including across streaming services including Disney+. Effectively, that makes Disney Platform Distribution responsible for Disney–ABC Domestic Television, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, and Disney Music Group.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: Ultra Entertainment was a TV production division of Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises for cable, network home video and foreign outlets. Ultra was expected to development and produce for cable channels Arts & Entertainment and Lifetime, both of which has a stake owned by CAVE, but also for other cable channels.


title: Disney Platform Distribution

text: On May 8, 1989, the formation of Ultra Entertainment was announced CC/ABC Video Enterprises (CAVE) to produce programs for cable, home video and foreign markets. A staff of three employees was assembled to get the unit off the ground, with Bob Rubin as executive director. It first work was the telefilm "Death Dream", produced for Lifetime with Dick Clark Film Group and Roni Weisberg Productions, which premiered on June 25, 1991.


title: El Cid (film)

text: El Cid is a 1961 epic historical drama film directed by Anthony Mann and produced by Samuel Bronston. The film is loosely based on the life of the 11th century Castilian warlord Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, called "El Cid" (from the Arabic as-sidi, meaning "The Lord"). The film stars Charlton Heston in the title role and Sophia Loren as Doña Ximena. The screenplay is credited to Fredric M. Frank, Philip Yordan, and Ben Barzman with uncredited contributions by Bernard Gordon.


title: El Cid (film)

text: "El Cid" premiered on December 6, 1961 at the Metropole Theatre in London, and was released on December 14 in the United States. The film received largely positive reviews praising the performances of Heston and Loren, the cinematography, and the musical score. It went on to gross $26.6 million during its initial theatrical run. It was nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Art Direction, Best Music Score of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture, and Best Original Song.


title: El Cid (film)

text: General Ben Yusuf of the Almoravid dynasty has summoned all the emirs of Al-Andalus to North Africa. He chastises them for co-existing peacefully with their Christian neighbors, which goes against his dream of Islamic world domination. The emirs return to Spain with orders to resume hostilities with the Christians while Ben Yusuf readies his army for a full-scale invasion.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Don Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, on the way to his wedding with Doña Ximena, rescues a Spanish town from an invading Moorish army. Two of the Emirs, Al-Mu'tamin of Zaragoza and Al-Kadir of Valencia, are captured. More interested in peace than in wreaking vengeance, Rodrigo escorts his prisoners to Vivar and releases them on condition that they never again attack lands belonging to King Ferdinand of Castile. The Emirs proclaim him "El Cid" (Castilian Spanish for the Arabic for milord: "Al Sidi") and swear allegiance to him.


title: El Cid (film)

text: For his act of mercy, Don Rodrigo is accused of treason by Count Ordóñez. In court, the charge is supported by Ximena's father, Count Gormaz, the king's champion. Rodrigo's aged father, Don Diego, angrily calls Gormaz a liar. Gormaz strikes Don Diego, challenging him to a duel. At a private meeting Rodrigo begs Gormaz to ask the aged but proud Diego for forgiveness (for accusing Rodrigo of treason). Gormaz refuses, so Rodrigo fights the duel on Diego’s behalf and kills his opponent. Ximena witnesses the death of Gormaz and swears to avenge him, renouncing her affection for Rodrigo.


title: El Cid (film)

text: When the King of Aragon demands the city of Calahorra, Rodrigo becomes Ferdinand's champion, winning the city in single combat. In his new capacity he is sent on a mission to collect tribute from Moorish vassals to the Castilian crown. He asks that Ximena be given to him as his wife upon his return, so that he can provide for her. Ximena promises Count Ordóñez she will marry him instead if he kills Rodrigo. Ordóñez lays an ambush for Rodrigo and his men but is captured by Al-Mu'tamin, to whom Rodrigo had earlier showed mercy. Rodrigo forgives the Count and returns home to marry Ximena. The marriage is not consummated: Rodrigo will not touch her if she does not give herself to him out of love. Ximena instead goes to a convent.


title: El Cid (film)

text: King Ferdinand dies and his younger son, Prince Alfonso tells the elder son Prince Sancho that their father wanted his kingdom divided between his heirs: Castile to Sancho, Asturias and León to Alfonso, and Calahorra to their sister, Princess Urraca. Sancho refuses to accept anything but an undivided kingdom as his birthright. After Alfonso instigates a knife fight, Sancho overpowers his brother and sends him to be imprisoned in Zamora. Rodrigo, who swore to protect all the king’s children, single-handedly defeats Alfonso's guards and brings the Prince to Calahorra. Sancho arrives to demand Alfonso, but Urraca refuses to hand him over. Rodrigo cannot take a side in the conflict, because his oath was to serve them all equally.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Ben Yusuf arrives at Valencia, the fortified city guarding the beach where he plans to land his armada. To weaken his Spanish opponents he hires Dolfos, a warrior formerly trusted by Ferdinand, to assassinate Sancho and throw suspicion for the crime on Alfonso, who becomes the sole king. At Alfonso's coronation, El Cid has him swear upon the Bible that he had no part in the death of his brother. Alfonso, genuinely innocent (although his ally Urraca was aware of the plot), is offended by the demand and banishes Rodrigo from Spain. Ximena discovers she still loves Rodrigo and voluntarily joins him in exile. Rodrigo makes his career as a soldier elsewhere in Spain, and he and Ximena have twin girls.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Years later, Rodrigo, now known widely as "El Cid", is called back into the service of the king to protect Castile from Yusuf's North African army. However, Alfonso rejects an alliance with El Cid's Muslim friends, and rather than work directly with the king, El Cid allies himself with the emirs to besiege Valencia, where the cowardly Al-Kadir has violated his oath of allegiance to Rodrigo and come out in support of Ben Yusuf.


title: El Cid (film)

text: After being defeated by the Moors at the Battle of Sagrajas, Alfonso seizes Ximena and her children and puts them in prison. Count Ordóñez rescues the three and brings them to Rodrigo, wanting to end his rivalry with El Cid and join him in the defense of Spain. Knowing that the citizens of Valencia are starving after the long siege, Rodrigo wins them over by throwing bread into the city with his catapults. Al-Kadir tries to intercede, but the Valencians kill him and open the gates to the besiegers. Emir Al-Mu'tamin, Rodrigo's army, and the Valencians offer the city's crown to El Cid, but he refuses and instead sends the crown to King Alfonso.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Ben Yusuf arrives with his immense invasion army, and Valencia is the only barrier between him and Spain. Ordóñez is tortured and killed after being captured on a reconnaissance mission. The ensuing battle goes well for the defenders until El Cid is struck in the chest by an arrow and has to return to the city in plain sight of the Moorish army. Doctors inform him that they can probably remove the arrow and save his life, but he will be incapacitated for a long time after the surgery. Unwilling to abandon his army at this critical moment, Rodrigo obtains a promise from Ximena to leave the arrow and let him ride back into battle, dying or dead. A guilt-ridden King Alfonso comes to his bedside and asks for his forgiveness. Rodrigo grants it, and Alfonso promises to look after Rodrigo's children.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Rodrigo dies, and a rumor of his death spreads. His allies honor Rodrigo's final wish. With help of an iron frame they prop up his body, its eyes staring straight ahead. Dressed in full armor and holding an unfurled banner, he is strapped to the back of his horse, Babieca. Guided by King Alfonso and Emir Al-Mu'tamin riding on either side, the horse leads a mounted charge against Yusuf's now terrified soldiers, who believe that El Cid has risen from the dead. In the panic that ensues, Ben Yusuf is thrown from his horse and is crushed beneath Babieca's hooves, leaving his scattered army to be annihilated. King Alfonso leads Christians and Moors alike in a prayer for God to receive the soul "of the purest knight of all".


title: El Cid (film)

text: In 1958, producer Samuel Bronston first considered filming "El Cid" prior to his work on "King of Kings" (1961), but the production proved to be so troublesome that it would be set aside until "King of Kings" reached completion. In April 1960, "Variety" announced that Bronston was independently producing three films in Spain, one of which included "El Cid". It was also reported that Bronston had purchased the rights to Fredric M. Frank's 140-page treatment for the film. In July 1960, Anthony Mann had signed on to direct the film.


title: El Cid (film)

text: However, principal photography was nearly delayed when Cesáreo González's Aspa Films filed an infringement claim against Bronston over the project's title and theme. Previously, in July 1956, it was reported that two biopics of El Cid were in development: an American-Spanish co-production with Anthony Quinn set to star, and a collaboration between RKO, Milton Sperling, and Marvin Gosch. By August 1960, Bronston reached a deal to have Aspa Films and Robert Haggiag's Dear Film involved in the production making the project an American-Italian-Spanish co-production.


title: El Cid (film)

text: The first writer assigned was Fredric M. Frank. He was flown into Spain to begin finalizing the screenplay for the initial start of shooting by July 1960. On that same month, Philip Yordan had been hired to co-write the screenplay. Yordan remarked he had found Frank's treatment to be a "terrible script" and rewrote it. By their mid-November start date, the script had been rewritten, with Heston describing it to be an improvement over the first draft.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Two days prior to filming, Sophia Loren had read the latest draft and was displeased with her dialogue. She then recommended hiring blacklisted screenwriter Ben Barzman to revise it. Mann subsequently got Barzman onto a plane to Rome, after which he gave him the current screenplay draft. Barzman read the draft and found it to be unusable. With filming set to begin, Barzman received a copy of the tragicomedy play "Le Cid" by Pierre Corneille from the library of the French embassy in Madrid and used it as the basis for a new screenplay. Years later, in 1967, Mann told Bertrand Tavernier that "not one line" in the shooting script was written by Yordan. However, Barzman's screen credit would not be added to the film until 1999.


title: El Cid (film)

text: However, Barzman's script lacked powerful romantic scenes, which again displeased Loren. Screenwriter Bernard Gordon, who was also blacklisted, was hired to rewrite these scenes. He stated, "So [Philip] Yordan yanked me from what I was doing in Paris and said, 'Write me three or four love scenes for Loren and Heston.' Well, what the hell – he was paying me $1500 a week, which was a lot more than I made any other way, and I just took orders and I sat down and I wrote four scenes, about three or four pages each. Whatever love scenes there are in the picture I wrote. And they sent them to Loren and said, OK, she'll do the picture, so I was a little bit of a hero at that point". Loren had also hired screenwriter Basilio Franchina to translate the dialogue into Italian and then back into simpler English, with which she felt comfortable.


title: El Cid (film)

text: For script advice and historical truth, Spanish historian Ramón Menéndez Pidal served as the historical consultant to the screenwriters and the director of the film. The naturalist Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente also helped to use raptors and other birds.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Charlton Heston and Sophia Loren were Bronston's first choices for the two leads. Writing in his autobiography, in the summer of 1960, Heston had received Frank's draft which he described as not "good, ranging from minimally OK to crappy", but he was intrigued with the role. He then flew out to Madrid, Spain to meet with Bronston, Yordan, and Mann who all discussed the role with him. On July 26, 1960, his casting was announced. As he conducted research into his role, Heston read "El Cantar de mio Cid" and arranged a meeting with historian Ramón Menéndez Pidal.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Initially, Loren was unavailable to portray Ximena, and Jeanne Moreau was briefly considered as a replacement. Another account states Ava Gardner was approached for the role, but she backed out feeling Heston's part was bigger than hers. Mann then suggested his wife Sara Montiel, but Heston and Bronston refused. Ultimately, Loren became available but only for ten to twelve weeks, in which she was paid $1 million. At the time, Loren became the second actress, after Elizabeth Taylor, to earn $1 million for a film. Furthermore, Bronston also agreed to pay $200 a week for her hairdresser.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Orson Welles was initially approached to play Ben Yusuf, but he insisted a double do his on-set performance while he would dub in his lines during post-production. Bronston refused. British actors were primarily sought for the other male roles, for which most of the principal casting was completed by early November 1960. That same month, on November 30, Hurd Hatfield had joined the cast. At least four actresses screen-tested for the role of Doña Urraca. Geneviève Page won the part, and her casting was announced on December 16, 1960.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Principal photography began November 14, 1960 at Sevilla Studios in Madrid, Spain. Filming was reported to spend at least four months of exterior shooting in Spain which would be followed by a final month of interior shooting at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Loren's scenes were shot first as her availability was initially for twelve weeks. Shooting lasted for eight hours a day as the production employed French hours. By January 1961, her part was considerably expanded in response to the early dailies. Simultaneously, second-unit filming for the battle sequences were directed by Yakima Canutt. As filming had progressed, by December 1960, location shooting for action sequences were shot along the Guadarrama Pass. Specifically for the film's second half, Heston suggested growing a gray-flecked beard and wearing a facial scar to showcase Don Rodrigo's battle scarring within the ten-year gap.


title: El Cid (film)

text: With the film's first half nearly complete, shooting for the battle of Valencia was filmed on location in Peñíscola as the actual city had become modernized. For three months, hundreds of production design personnel constructed city walls to block off modern buildings. 1,700 trained infantrymen were leased from the Spanish Army as well as 500 mounted riders from Madrid's Municipal Honor Guard. 15 war machines and siege towers were constructed from historical artwork, and 35 boats were decorated with battlements to serve as the Moorish fleet. Tensions between Mann and Canutt rose as Mann sought to shoot the sequence himself. With the sequence nearly finished, Canutt spent three days filming pick-up shots, which would be edited within the longer, master shots that Mann had earlier shot. In his autobiography, Heston expressed his dissatisfaction with Mann's insistence on shooting the battle scenes himself, feeling Canutt was more competent and efficient.


title: El Cid (film)

text: In April 1961, the last sequence to be shot for the film—the duel for Calahorra—was filmed near the Belmonte Castle. The scene was directed by Canutt. Prior to filming, Heston and British actor Christopher Rhodes trained for a month in the use in weaponry under stunt coordinator Enzo Musumeci Greco. The fight took five days to shoot, totaling 31 hours of combat before editing. 70,000 feet of film was shot for the sequence, which was ultimately edited down to 1,080 feet remaining in the film.


title: El Cid (film)

text: The score was written by Miklos Rozsa, based on an extensive study of mediaeval Spanish music. The score has been re-recorded several times on its own and is regarded as one of the finest film scores. 20% of it was cut from the movie during post-production.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Costume designers Veniero Colasanti and John Moore oversaw a staff of 400 wardrobe seamstresses which spent roughly $500,000 on manufacturing medieval-style clothing at a local supply company, Casa Cornejo, near Madrid. The most expensive costume piece was a black-and-gold velvet robe worn by King Alfonso VI during the film, which was tailored in Florence, Italy from materials specially woven in Venice. In total, over 2,000 costumes were used for the film. For the weaponry, Samuel Bronston Productions sought several local Spanish companies. Casa Cornejo provided 3,000 war helmets and hundreds of iron-studded leather jerkins. The Garrido Brothers factory, located in Toledo, Spain, worked under an exclusive contract for eight months producing 7,000 swords, scimitars, and lances. Anthony Luna, a Madrid prop manufacturer, crafted 40,000 arrows, 5,780 shields, 1,253 medieval harnesses, 800 maces and daggers, 650 suits of chain mail (woven from hemp and coated with a metal varnish), and 500 saddles.


title: El Cid (film)

text: "El Cid" had its world premiere at the Metropole Theatre, Victoria, London on December 6, 1961. On December 14, 1961, the film premiered at the Warner Theatre in New York City and premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre in Los Angeles on December 18. For the film's international release, distributors included the Rank Organization releasing the film in Britain, Dear Film in Italy, Astoria Filmes in Portugal, Filmayer in Spain, and Melior in Belgium.


title: El Cid (film)

text: In August 1993, the film was re-released in theaters by Miramax Films having undergone a digital and color restoration supervised by Martin Scorsese. The re-release added 16 minutes of restored footage back to the film's initial 172-minute running time for a total of 188 minutes.


title: El Cid (film)

text: The film was released on January 29, 2008 as a deluxe edition and a collector's edition DVD. Both DVDs included bonus materials including archival cast interviews, as well as 1961 promotional radio interviews with Loren and Heston; an audio commentary from Bill Bronston (son of Samuel Bronston) and historian-author Neal M. Rosendorf; a documentary on the importance of film preservation and restoration; biographical featurettes on Samuel Bronston, Anthony Mann, and Miklos Rozsa; and a "making of" documentary, "Hollywood Conquers Spain." The collector's edition DVD also included a reproduction of the premiere's souvenir program and a comic book, as well as six color production stills.


title: El Cid (film)

text: By January 1963, the film had grossed $8 million in box office rentals in the United States and Canada. The film finished its box office run, earning $26.6 million in the United States and Canada. Overall, it returned $12 million in box office rentals (the distributor's share of the box office gross).


title: El Cid (film)

text: Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote "it is hard to remember a picture--not excluding "Henry V", "Ivanhoe", "Helen of Troy" and, naturally, "Ben-Hur"--in which scenery and regal rites and warfare have been so magnificently assembled and photographed as they are in this dazzler ... The pure graphic structure of the pictures, the imposing arrangement of the scenes, the dynamic flow of the action against strong backgrounds, all photographed with the 70mm color camera and projected on the Super-Technirama screen, give a grandeur and eloquence to this production that are worth seeing for themselves". "Variety" praised the film as "a fast-action color-rich, corpse-strewn, battle picture...The Spanish scenery is magnificent, the costumes are vivid, the chain mail and Toledo steel gear impressive." A review in "Time" magazine felt that "Surprisingly, the picture is good—maybe not as good as "Ben-Hur", but anyway better than any spectacle since "Spartacus"." They also noted that "Bronston's epic has its embarrassments. El Cid himself, too, crudely contemporarized seems less the scourge of the heathen than a champion of civil rights. And there are moments when Hero Heston looks as though he needs a derrick to help him with that broadsword. Nevertheless, Anthony Mann has managed his immense material with firmness, elegance, and a sure sense of burly epic rhythm."


title: El Cid (film)

text: "Harrison's Reports" praised the performances from Heston and Loren and summarized the film as "raw and strong, brooding and challenging, romantic and powerfully dramatic. It is motion picture entertainment ascending new heights of pomp, pageantry, panoply." Philip K. Scheuer of the "Los Angeles Times" opened his review writing, ""El Cid" brings back the excitement of movie-making; it may even bring back the excitement of movie-going. It's as big as "Ben-Hur" if not bigger. If it had put a few more connectives in the narrative, if it had not thrown in an excess of everything else in three hours running time, it might have been great." A review in "Newsweek" described the film as being "crammed with jousts and battles, and its sound track is reminiscent of Idlewild airport on a busy day, but the dramatics in it explode with all the force of a panful of popcorn." It also derided Mann's direction as "slow, stately, and confused, while Miss Loren and Heston spend most of the picture simply glaring at each other."


title: El Cid (film)

text: Sophia Loren had a major issue with Bronston's promotion of the film, an issue important enough to her that Loren sued him for breach of contract in New York Supreme Court. As "Time" magazine described it:


title: El Cid (film)

text: On a 600-sq.-ft. billboard facing south over Manhattan's Times Square, Sophia Loren's name appears in illuminated letters that could be read from an incoming liner, but—Mamma mia!—that name is below Charlton Heston's. In the language of the complaint: "If the defendants are permitted to place deponent's name below that of Charlton Heston, then it will appear that deponent's status is considered to be inferior to that of Charlton Heston... It is impossible to determine or even to estimate the extent of the damages which the plaintiff will suffer".


title: El Cid (film)

text: During its 1993 re-release, Martin Scorsese praised "El Cid" as "one of the greatest epic films ever made". James Berardinelli of "Reel Views" gave the film three stars out of four. In his review, he felt that ""El Cid" turns more often to the ridiculous than the sublime. Perhaps if the movie didn't take itself so seriously, there wouldn't be opportunities for unintentional laughter, but, from the bombastic dialogue to the stentorian score, "El Cid" is about as self-important as a motion picture can be. Regardless, there are still moments of breathtaking, almost transcendant splendor, when the film makers attain the grand aspirations they strive for. Richard Christiansen for the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four. He commented that "...watching the movie today is something of a chore. Much of its celebration of heroic romanticism seems either silly, inflated or crudely flat in this non-heroic age." He also felt Heston and Loren lacked romantic chemistry.


title: El Cid (film)

text: Richard Corliss, reviewing for "Time", wrote that "Like the best action films, "El Cid" is both turbulent and intelligent, with characters who analyze their passions as they eloquently articulate them. The Court scenes, in particular, have the complex intrigue, if not quite the poetry, of a Shakespearean history play. This richness is especially evident in the film's love story." At the film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 79 based on 19 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston is a census-designated place in Fairfax County, Virginia and a principal city of the Washington metropolitan area. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, Reston's population was 63,226.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Founded in 1964, Reston was influenced by the Garden City movement that emphasized planned, self-contained communities that intermingled green space, residential neighborhoods, and commercial development. The intent of Reston's founder, Robert E. Simon, was to build a town that would revolutionize post–World War II concepts of land use and residential/corporate development in suburban America. In 2018, Reston was ranked as the Best Place to Live in Virginia by "Money" magazine for its expanses of parks, lakes, golf courses, and bridle paths as well as the numerous shopping and dining opportunities in Reston Town Center.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: In the early days of Colonial America, the land on which Reston sits was part of the Northern Neck Proprietary, a vast grant by King Charles II to Lord Thomas Fairfax that extended from the Potomac River to the Rappahannock. The property remained in the Fairfax family until they sold it in 1852.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Carl A. Wiehle and William Dunn bought 6,449 acres in northern Fairfax County along the Washington & Old Dominion (W&OD) Railroad line in 1886, later dividing the land between them, with Wiehle retaining the acreage north of the railroad line. Wiehle envisioned founding a town on the property, including a hotel, parks, and community center, but completed only a handful of homes before his death in 1901.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Wiehle's heirs eventually sold the land, which changed hands several times before being purchased by the A. Smith Bowman family, who built a bourbon distillery on the site. By 1947, the Bowmans had acquired the former Dunn tract south of the railroad, for total holdings of over . In 1961, Robert E. Simon used funds from his family's recent sale of Carnegie Hall to buy most of the land, except for 60 acres (240,000 m) on which the Bowman distillery continued to operate until 1987.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Simon officially launched Reston on April 10, 1964 (his 50th birthday) and named the community using his initials. He laid out seven "guiding principles" that would stress quality of life and serve as the foundation for its future development. His goal was for Restonians to live, work, and play in their own community, with common grounds and scenic beauty shared equally regardless of income level, thereby building a stronger sense of community ties. The initial motto of the community, as articulated by Simon, was "Work, Play, Live" (or, as more often was memorialized onto Reston merchandise, "Live, Work, Play.")


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Simon envisioned Reston as a model for clustered residential development, also known as conservation development, which puts a premium on the preservation of open space, landscapes, and wildlife habitats. Indeed, Reston was the first 20th-century private community in the U.S. to explicitly incorporate natural preservation in its planning (Greenbelt, Maryland, was a publicly supported community).


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Simon hired the architectural firm of Whittlesey, Conklin, & Rossant to design his new community. The plans for Reston were designed by architect James Rossant, who studied under Walter Gropius at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and his partner William J Conklin. From the outset, Rossant and Conklin's planning conceptualized the new community as a unified, cohesive, and balanced whole, including landscapes, recreational, cultural, and commercial facilities, and housing for what was envisioned to be a town of 75,000. For Lake Anne Plaza, the first of Reston's village centers, the architects combined a small shopping area with a mix of single-family houses, townhouses, and apartments next to a manmade lake featuring a large jet fountain. Close by were the cubist townhouses at Hickory Cluster, designed by noted modernist architect Charles M. Goodman in the International Style. Lake Anne also included an elementary school, a gasoline station, and two churches as well as an art gallery and several restaurants. The first section of a senior citizens' residence facility, the Lake Anne Fellowship House, was completed several years later.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston welcomed its first residents in late 1964. During the community's first year, its continued development was covered in such major media publications as "Newsweek", "Time", "Life", and the "New York Times", which featured the new town in a front-page article extolling it as "one of the most striking communities" in the United States. Nikki Hornsby performed an hour paid concert singing with her guitar outside for this new Reston Community.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: From early in Reston's conception and development, Robert Simon ran into financial difficulties as sales in the new community flagged. To keep his project going, he accepted a loan of $15 million from Gulf Oil that allowed him to pay off his creditors. Even so, sales were sluggish as Simon's reluctance to compromise on his high standards for building designs and materials meant that a townhouse in Reston could cost as much as a single-family house elsewhere in Fairfax County.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: By 1967, Gulf Oil forced Simon out and formed Gulf Reston, Inc., to manage the community. Gulf retained many of Simon's employees and continued to adhere largely to the spirit of the original Reston master plan as envisioned by Simon. During the 1970s, Gulf built the Reston International Center near the intersection of Sunrise Valley and Reston Parkway, and added low- to moderate-income housing to the community's residential mix, including the Cedar Ridge, Laurel Glade, and Fox Mill apartment developments. Gulf also constructed housing for employees of the U.S. Geological Survey headquarters, located on Sunrise Valley Drive.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Most notably, Gulf Reston put a premium on protecting Reston's open spaces and pedestrian-friendly landscape throughout its ownership. The corporation also transferred title for many Reston recreational facilities, including land, parks, lakes, and facilities, to the Reston Homeowners Association, thereby preserving them from overdevelopment.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Within 10 years of buying Simon out, Gulf opted to begin pulling out of the real estate business and instead to focus exclusively on energy. It sold Reston's developed portions, including the three completed village centers (Lake Anne, Tall Oaks, and Hunters Woods), the Reston International Center, and Isaac Newton Square, to an investment firm. In 1978, the company finalized the sale of Reston's remaining 3,700 undeveloped acres to Mobil Oil, which pledged to continue respecting the ideals of Robert Simon. Mobil formed the Reston Land Corporation as a subsidiary to manage its holdings and began developing the remaining residential areas in what would become the South Lakes and North Point villages. Reston Land introduced a wider mix of housing choices, including more townhouses and smaller “starter” homes, and completed the North County Government Center, which houses the Reston District police station and Fairfax County government offices, as well as a regional library and homeless shelter.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston Land also broke ground on the 460-acre Reston Town Center which formed part of Simon's original master plan for Reston. The first four-block development of this multi-phase mixed-use project were opened in 1996 and included a hotel, several restaurants, a cinema, and office buildings.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: By 1996, Mobil had decided to follow Gulf Oil's steps and pull out of the land management business. It sold its entire Mobil Land Development subsidiary, including its Reston holdings, to Westbrook Partners, LLC, for $324 million. As Reston Town Center continued to develop, Boston Properties emerged as a leading player. The company became the sole owner of the core mixed-use tracts in Reston Town Center when it completed the purchase of the Fountain Square office/retail complex in 2012.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston is divided into three separate planning areas: the original Planned Residential Community (PRC) area that governs the majority of residential areas in the community; the Reston Town Center (RTC) District, which includes all of the high-density, high-rise portions of Town Center; and the Transit Station Area (TSA) on either side of the Dulles Toll Road.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: From Reston's inception, planning and zoning in the PRC area has emphasized the inclusion and integration of common grounds, parks, large swaths of wooded areas with picturesque runs (streams), wildflower meadows, golf courses, public swimming pools, bridle paths, a bike path, four lakes, tennis courts, and extensive foot pathways. Reston was built in wooded areas of oak, maple, sycamore, and Virginia pine, and remains heavily wooded. Extensive canopy guidance protects tree cover throughout the PRC, and homeowners are prohibited from removing trees larger than 4 inches in diameter without written permission from Reston's Design Review Board. Total zoning density throughout the overall PRC area is currently capped at 13 persons per acre. This figure, however, does not include residents in Fairfax County workforce and affordable units (WDUs/ADUs), as well as the "bonus" units developers are allowed to add to their projects in compensation for having included ADUs in their proposals,


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston's five village centers are included in the PRC area. Simon envisioned a total of seven village centers, but only five were developed. The village centers and the town center are an important part of Reston. Each village center, all of which (save North Point) predate the Reston Town Center, was intended to be a short walk from most homes and incorporate the daily retail and community service needs of residents. Moderately denser developments, such as apartments and townhouse clusters, as well as some single-family homes, encircle each center. The first to be built was the critically acclaimed Lake Anne, followed by (in chronological order) Hunters Woods, Tall Oaks, South Lakes, and North Point. By 2015, however, Tall Oaks had become defunct as a village center and was purchased by a local development firm, Tall Oaks Development Company, with the intent of rezoning the 7.6-acre parcel and converting it to residential housing.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: During Mobil's ownership period, the corporation worked with Fairfax County to create a new Town Center District to govern planning and design for existing and new development in the core Town Center area and to remove it from the oversight of Reston Association's Design Review Board. Review and comment of all RTCD development proposals is limited to members of the RTC District Association, which is overseen by the 9-member Board of Directors, 7 of whom represent commercial property owners.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The core portion of the Transit Station Area (TSA)—consisting of the 12-lane Dulles Toll Road, Metro's heavy rail line, and the office parks on either side—cuts a half-mile wide swath through the community, with four north–south connections. A fifth crossover at Soapstone Drive has been proposed by Fairfax County transportation planners, though funding has not yet been identified. Zoning and planning for TSA development is governed by Fairfax County; as with the RTC District, no direct oversight from Reston Association is included, while input from and notification to PRC residents is limited. TSA zoning guidance explicits calls for this area to be designed as an urban center, with 30 million square feet of new and existing office development and 44,000 residential units.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The growth and development of Reston has been monitored by newspaper articles, national magazines, and scholarly journals on architecture and land use. In 1967 the First Lady of the United States, Lady Bird Johnson, visited Reston to take a walking tour along its pathways as part of her interest in beautification projects. Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin visited Reston elementary schools named for them. "The Washington Post" featured a road trip to Reston in January 2006, and the website "Beyond DC" has a page devoted to Reston with almost 150 photos.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston and Robert Simon were recognized by the American Institute of Certified Planners for their significant contributions to town planning. The AICP further recognized Reston as a National Planning Landmark, praising Simon's vision for ensuring that fields and trees would be threaded throughout the residential and commercial portions of the community, and recognized it as "one of the finest examples of American 20th century conceptual new town planning."


title: Reston, Virginia

text: In 2017, the Lake Anne Village Center's historic district was named to the U.S. Park Service's National Register of Historic Places, which serves as the official list of historic places worthy of preservation and protection.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston is one of just a handful of communities in the U.S. that has been designated a Backyard Wildlife Habitat community.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston generally follows "new urbanism" guidelines. The residential portion of the town was built with an extensive path system, and Fairfax County has constructed many sidewalks over the past decades. The downtown and original areas also incorporate mixed-use development, with more mixed-use development planned near Washington Metro stations.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: However, Reston differs from New Urbanism principles in several important ways. Many buildings in the PRC area are oriented away from main streets, and several major arteries lack complete sidewalk networks as a result of Fairfax County's control over Reston's transportation planning: until recently, the Fairfax County zoning code only required developers to build sidewalks in certain limited cases. The original inward orientation of the village centers was an intentional design element by Reston's early planners, who wished to avoid the commercial strip look that dominates many suburban developments.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: A special tax district within Fairfax County was created to fund various recreational, educational, and cultural activities in Reston. The Reston Community Center (RCC) is a core element, with its main building in south Reston at Hunters Woods Plaza and featuring a theater, indoor heated swimming pool with Jacuzzi, ballroom, meeting rooms, and classroom space. A smaller RCC branch is at Lake Anne Plaza.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Building on Robert Simon's emphasis on preserving green space and providing recreational opportunities, Reston features over 55 miles of walking and hiking paths for residents, with currently about 250 acres of woodlands and open space. Reston is noted for its tree canopy, which currently covers about half of Reston's total area. It is one of only 8 American localities to be a member of the worldwide Biophilic Cities Organization, which promotes the importance of protecting and promoting nature within urban areas.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The centerpiece of Reston's focus on nature is the Vernon J. Walker Nature Education Center. The Nature Center's of hardwood forest include a picnic pavilion, campfire ring, and other facilities that support its outreach programs. Its LEED gold-certified Nature House offers exhibits, an on-site naturalist, and various programs for children; it may also be rented for community or private meetings.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Two golf courses are located in Reston. The 166-acre Reston National Golf Course in south Reston is certified by Audubon International as a Cooperative Cooperative Sanctuary on the Chesapeake Bay watershed. The Hidden Creek Country Club was purchased in 2017 by Wheelock Communities, a real estate development company.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The Washington and Old Dominion (W&OD) trail, which runs through Reston, is a pathway built solely for pedestrian and bicycle traffic along the former W&OD train line.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston contains four manmade lakes: Lake Anne, Lake Audubon, Lake Newport, and Lake Thoreau. Also within Reston's area is the Lake Fairfax Park, operated by Fairfax County and which features boat rentals, a large outdoor pool complex called "The Water Mine", overnight campground facilities, and picnic areas.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The 30-acre (120,000 m2) Roer's Zoofari is located on the northeast edge of the community. It is dedicated to family-friendly animal interaction with bus rides and feeding stations. Animals include lambs, camels, zebras, antelope, bison, cheetah, emu, camels, goats, reptiles, horses, buffalo, and waterfowl. On 8 March 2021, Roer's Zoofari suffered a fire in the barn area, killing Waffles the giraffe and his unnamed giraffe companion.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston has an assortment of pools, including a year-round indoor pool at the Reston Community Center. Ice skating is available year-round at SkateQuest, a privately run indoor rink, and during the winter on an outdoor rink at Reston Town Center's Pavilion.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston is home to several performing arts groups. The Reston Community Players (originally known as Reston Players) has been in operation since 1966 and performs at Reston Community Center's Center Stage in Hunters Woods Plaza. The Reston Chorale was founded in the late 1960s as a mixed-voice chorus comprising both professional and amateur singers. The Reston Community Orchestra, launched in 1988, also offers regular performances throughout the year, generally at the Reston Community Center. In the summer, free public concerts are offered at both Reston Town Center and at Lake Anne Plaza.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The Greater Reston Arts Center (GRACE), founded by local artists, is home-based at Reston Town Center and sponsors the annual Northern Virginia Fine Arts Festival. The privately owned Reston Art Gallery at Lake Anne Plaza includes both regular art exhibits and artist studio spaces.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston's sole museum, the Reston Historic Trust & Museum, is also located in Lake Anne Plaza. It has maps, photos, and books that provide a detailed look at Reston from the 1960s on.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The Washington West Film Festival is an autumn event in Reston center. The festival, co-founded by Mark Maxey and Brad Russell, offers a juried array of feature films, shorts and documentaries.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, "professional, scientific, and technical services" are by far the largest economic activity in Reston, consisting of 757 different companies employing 21,575 people in 2007. The Information sector follows second with 9,876 employees working at 150 companies in Reston. Reston is part of the Dulles Technology Corridor and is home to Caliburn International, Carahsoft, Comscore, Leidos, Maximus, Rolls-Royce North America, Science Applications International Corporation, NII, NVR, Noblis, Revature, Verisign, and Learning Tree International. In addition, the United States Geological Survey, National Wildlife Federation, American College of Radiology, and CNRI are homebased in Reston. Google Federal Services and Gate Group's North American division offices also are in Reston. In 2019, General Dynamics moved its corporate headquarters to Reston.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Of the 20 largest venture capital firms in the D.C. area, five are in Reston. The amount of capital under management of the Reston firms, $6.9 billion, represents 53% of those top 20 regional venture capital firms.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston also serves as the headquarters for the North American command of the German armed forces which oversees upwards up 1,500 troops deployed in the United States at any given time.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: Reston sits astride the Dulles Toll Road, from Tysons and the Capital Beltway to the east, and from Washington Dulles International Airport to the west. Four roads cross the community from north to south: Fairfax County Parkway on the western side, Reston Parkway through the center of town, Wiehle Avenue through the northeastern residential section, and Hunter Mill Road on the eastern border.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The Metro's Silver Line, which runs along the Dulles Toll Road, opened its first Reston station, Wiehle-Reston East, on July 26, 2014. Two additional stations, Reston Town Center and Herndon, opened on November 15, 2022 and serve the western half of Reston as part of an expansion towards Dulles International Airport.


title: Reston, Virginia

text: The Reston Internal Bus System (RIBS) provides five regularly circulating routes connecting Reston's village centers, using Reston Town Center as a hub. Fairfax County's Fairfax Connector and Metrobus service both link commuters in Reston to Metro stations as well as points throughout Fairfax County.