title: Prem Nazir

text: Prem Nazir was married to Habeeba Beevi and they have one son and three daughters. Laila (settled at Calicut), Rasiya (married to Mr. Hashim, Businessman from Kannur & settled at Chennai) – both elder to Shanavas. The youngest daughter is Rita (married to Doctor Sharafuddin of Punalur & settled at Muscat). Shanavas's wife Ayisha Beevi is the daughter of the eldest sister of Prem Nazir, Suleikha Beevi. Prem Nazir's son Shanavas acted in few films as well but could not succeed like his father. Third generation of Prem Nazir, Shanavas's son Shameer Khan, acted in a Malayalam film, "Uppukandam Brothers Back in Action".


title: Prem Nazir

text: Prem Nazir's younger brother Prem Nawas (Abdul Wahab) also acted in a few films. Although he was the first in the family to begin acting in movies, he later began producing films – "Agniputhri, Thulaavarsham, Poojakku Edukatha Pookkal, Neethi" and "Keni", to name a few. Prem Nawas's only son, Prem Kishore has also had a stint with the industry by acting in two Malayalam films – "Vacation" and "Thaskaraputran". Prem Nawas has the distinction of acting in the first ever colour film made in Malayalam – "Kandam Vechu Kottu".


title: Prem Nazir

text: Nazir is said to be a humanitarian and its still an ongoing debate as to whether he was greater as an actor or as a humanitarian though majority are of the opinion that he was a greater person as a humanitarian. This fact can be established by the phrase many of the old film veterans exclaimed that there will never be another Prem Nazir. He was arguably the only actor who treated his colleagues, well wishers and family with the same manner. Nazir had helped thousands of people in his life time. It is said that he never cared about the gratitude or ingratitude factor but just was happy that he could help some one. In fact it was not until after his death that his relatives, friends and well wishers realised his generosity when they met its beneficiaries. He was one of the very few who strove to make his close friend, Jayan a superstar. When Jayan succumbed to his injuries from his famed helicopter flight in Kolilakkam, it was Nazir who singlehandedly financed a flight from Chennai to bring his mortal remains back to Trivandrum. He also was responsible for recommending and giving chances to his film colleagues. Its reputed that he had a sharp memory and could immediately recognize someone instantly. He along with veteran director Sasikumar had helped many bankrupt producers who had pledged their assets to make films, regain their limelight. If any film he had acted failed to perform well he would immediately ask the producer to start the next film and that he would give his dates. Such was the generosity of Prem Nazir that his age had been truly termed as the golden age of Malayalam film where he elevated the film industry to another level by helping not only himself but everyone else in film industry attain growth. He donated an elephant in the Sarkara Devi Temple, Chirayinkil. Nazir also wrote a book on the film characters he played, "Enne Thediyethiya Kathapatrangal". And his autobiographical book is "Anubhvangal Oarmakal".Famous director and lyrist Sreekumarn Thambi wrote a book about his soulmate in the title "Prem Nazir Enna Prema Ganam".


title: Prem Nazir

text: It was during the late 1980s that Nazir, despite being a person with no political affiliations, campaigned rigorously for a running candidate in politics who happened to be a close friend of his. Due to his sincerity, dedication and tireless nature to help people in need, Nazir, who was a diabetic, failed to have proper food at times as he placed his mission much above his health. However all this took a toll on this and he became admitted to Vijaya hospital due to peptic ulcer which happens due to irregularity of having food. During that stint many of his fans had come to see him and since it was impossible in those days to contain a large following people just poured in to check the well being of their favorite actor. In that crowd it is said that there was a person who had measles and had freshly bathed which would increase the germs to spread. Nazir in his weak physique contracted it and this led his feeble condition to deteriorate further. Even though valiant attempts were made like trying to bring medicines from abroad to treat him, it all ended up in fiasco and the "Nithya Haritha Nayakan" died in the early hours of 16 January 1989, aged 62. His dead body was transported via aeroplane to Thiruvananthapuram, and via a special bus to his native land, where he was buried with full state honours.


title: Prem Nazir

text: Prem Nazir won his only Kerala State Film Award in 1981; He won Filmfare Special Award - South for numerous films in 1976 and he won a Special Jury Award for the supporting role he played in the film "Vida Parayum Munbe". He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1983 by the President of India in recognition of distinguished services of a high order to the nation in his field (acting). The Prem Nazir Award was initiated in his memory, in 1992, for excellence in contributions to the Malayalam cinema Industry. He has also held the position of National Film Award jury in 1985.


title: Prem Nazir

text: Prem Nazir is known to be the most influential and trendsetting lead actor in Malayalam. He is known for his amazing longevity in that he was active during the peak years of other iconic Malayalam superstars like Sathyan and Jayan acting alongside them in 1960s and 1970s respectively. Nazir who began his movie career in the early 1950s, later acted alongside popular future stars like Shankar, Mammootty and Mohanlal by the 1980s. He was a mainstream superstar in Malayalam cinema for over 30 years from the late 1950s to late 1980s. He also has an unofficial recognition of playing a campus character while in his late fifties. Prem Nazir has the distinction of acting with the same heroine; Sheela, in over 100 films.


title: Prem Nazir

text: Nazir is generally considered the ultimate romantic hero in Malayalam cinema due to his handsomeness and ease of acting in romantic roles particularly in romantic song sequences. His song sequences combined with the lyrics of Vayalar, tunes of Devarajan and voice of K.J. Yesudas produced what is called the golden era of Malayalam film songs. Prem Nazir has also appeared in the highest number of dual roles (more than 40) in Indian films and perhaps in world cinema.


title: Prem Nazir

text: Prem Nazir holds the record of playing double roles in more than 40 films of his career. The first movie in which he had played a double role was the historical film, Kunjali Marakkar, directed by SS Rajan. The film won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The Glenfinnan Viaduct is a railway viaduct on the West Highland Line in Glenfinnan, Inverness-shire, Scotland, built from 1897 to 1901. Located at the top of Loch Shiel in the West Scottish Highlands, the viaduct overlooks the Glenfinnan Monument and the waters of Loch Shiel.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The Glenfinnan Viaduct, however, was complete enough by October 1898 to be used to transport materials across the valley. It was built at a cost of £18,904.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: A long-established legend attached to the Glenfinnan Viaduct was that a horse had fallen into one of the piers during construction in 1898 or 1899. In 1987, Professor Roland Paxton failed to find evidence of a horse at Glenfinnan using a fisheye camera inserted into boreholes in the only two piers large enough to accommodate a horse. In 1997, on the basis of local hearsay, he investigated the Loch nan Uamh Viaduct by the same method but found the piers to be full of rubble. Using scanning technology in 2001, the remains of the horse and cart were found at Loch nan Uamh, within the large central pylon.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The viaduct is built from mass concrete, and has 21 semicircular spans of . It is the longest concrete railway bridge in Scotland at , and crosses the River Finnan at a height of . The West Highland Line it carries is single track, and the viaduct is wide between the parapets. The viaduct is built on a curve of .


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The concrete used in the Glenfinnan Viaduct is mass concrete, which unlike reinforced concrete does not contain any metal reinforcement. It is formed by pouring concrete, typically using fine aggregate, into formwork, resulting in a material very strong in compression but weak in tension.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The West Highland Line connects Fort William and Mallaig, and was a crucial artery for the local fishing industry and the highlands economy in general, which suffered enormously after the Highland Clearances of the 1800s.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The line is used by passenger trains operated by ScotRail between Glasgow Queen Street and Mallaig, with Class 153 and Class 156 diesel multiple units. In the summer, West Coast Railways operates "The Jacobite" steam train along the line. It is a popular tourist event in the area, and the viaduct is one of the major attractions of the line. The "Royal Scotsman" also operates on the line.


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: Glenfinnan Viaduct has been used as a location in several films and television series, including "Ring of Bright Water", "Charlotte Gray", "Monarch of the Glen", "Stone of Destiny", "The Crown," and four of the "Harry Potter" films. After its appearance in "Harry Potter", British Transport Police had to warn fans not to walk on the viaduct after a handful of near misses with trains had occurred. It is also featured in the 2018 videogame "Forza Horizon 4".


title: Glenfinnan Viaduct

text: The Glenfinnan Viaduct features on some Scottish banknotes. The 2007 series of notes issued by the Bank of Scotland depicts different bridges in Scotland as examples of Scottish engineering, and the £10 note features the Glenfinnan Viaduct.


title: IndyCar

text: INDYCAR, LLC, is an American-based auto racing sanctioning body for Indy car racing and other disciplines of open wheel car racing. The organization sanctions five racing series: the premier IndyCar Series with its centerpiece the Indianapolis 500, developmental series Indy Lights, the Indy Pro 2000 Championship and the U.S. F2000 National Championship, which are all a part of the Road to Indy and the Global Mazda MX-5 Cup. IndyCar is recognized as a member organization of the FIA through ACCUS.


title: IndyCar

text: The sanctioning body was formed in 1994 under the name Indy Racing League by Hulman & Company, which also owned the Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex, and began competition in 1996. The trademark name INDYCAR was officially adopted on January 1, 2011. The sport of open-wheel car racing itself, also historically referred to as Championship Car racing or Indy racing, traces its roots to as early as 1905. It is the fifth major sanctioning body to govern the sport of Indy car racing, following AAA, USAC, CART, and Champ Car.


title: IndyCar

text: Today, IndyCar is owned by Roger Penske via Penske Entertainment Corp., a subsidiary of Penske Corporation. Penske purchased IndyCar and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway from Hulman & Co. in November 2019.


title: IndyCar

text: The League's premier series debuted in 1996 under the name Indy Racing League (IRL). From 1992 through 1996, the competing Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) organization called themselves "IndyCar". The IRL adopted the name Indy Racing League IndyCar Series in 2003. With Verizon as corporate sponsor from 2014 through 2018, the series was known as the Verizon IndyCar Series. On January 15, 2019, it was announced that NTT Corporation (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) would become the title sponsor and the series will become the NTT IndyCar Series.


title: IndyCar

text: The series initially raced exclusively on oval tracks because the series was founded partly in response to the increasing prominence of road and street courses on the CART schedule. In 2005, the series abandoned its unofficial ovals-only stance, and added three road–street course events. By 2009, the series had a roughly 50/50 split of ovals and road/street courses. Presently, the series currently runs one-third of its schedule on ovals and the rest on road and street circuits.


title: IndyCar

text: Indy Lights is the development series for the IndyCar series. The CART ARS/Indy Lights series began in 1986, but the Indy Lights concept traces its roots back the USAC Mini Indy Series of the late 1970s. The current Indy Lights series debuted in 2002 under the name Infiniti Pro Series. After the 2008 open wheel unification, the Indy Lights name returned. The Indy Lights typically run as support races to IndyCar Series races, but occasionally has run stand-alone races, or as a support race of other events. The series was promoted and managed by Andersen Promotions from 2014 to 2021 and is now managed directly under Penske Entertainment as the feeder series directly below IndyCar.


title: IndyCar

text: The Indy Pro 2000 Championship presented is an open-wheel racecar driver development series in North America. Competitors use spec cars built by Tatuus. The original series, using first-generation tube-frame cars started in the early 1990s. The second-gen, high-tech, carbon-fiber car was released in 2004. From 2017, the series has used spec Tatuus PM-18s. The series has historically included road courses, street courses, and ovals. The series' primary sponsors is Cooper Tire and the cars, while purpose built for the track with carbon fiber monocoques, are powered by 275 horsepower Mazda-prepared 2 liter MZR-PM18A engines. The series' stated goal is "to develop new race driving talent." In 2010, the series became a part of The Road to Indy. In 2013, the series' promotion was taken over by Andersen Promotions. In 2019, following the departure of Mazda as an official sponsor, the series was rebranded as Indy Pro 2000 from its previous Pro Mazda name.


title: IndyCar

text: USF2000 is a series the organisation started sanctioning in 2010. Originally started in 1991 and folded in 2006, it was restarted in 2010 as part of the "Road to Indy" ladder series promoted by Andersen Promotions. The series utilizes tube frame Formula Ford chassis fitted with larger Mazda MZR four cylinder engines and wings and slicks and was originally based on the Formula Continental rules formula.


title: IndyCar

text: The term "Indy Car" began as a nickname for the cars that competed in USAC's "Championship" division of open-wheel auto racing in the United States, deriving from the sport's most popular competition, the Indianapolis 500. The division's link with Indianapolis soon resulted in the term supplanting the official descriptor, "champ car," in common use and promotions.


title: IndyCar

text: The term continued to be used by USAC's replacement as the dominant governing body for open-wheel racing, Championship Auto Racing Teams, which called its main series the "CART PPG Indy Car World Series" despite the body not sanctioning the 500. In 1992, during an attempt by CART to broaden their board membership, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway registered the camel case trademark "IndyCar" with the United States Patent and Trademark Office and licensed it to CART as their new tradename.


title: IndyCar

text: In 1996, Indianapolis Motor Speedway President Tony George launched a new national championship racing series, the USAC sanctioned Indy Racing League. This resulted in a legal battle over the "IndyCar" trademark: In March 1996, CART filed a lawsuit against the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in an effort to protect their license to the "IndyCar" mark after the Indianapolis Motor Speedway had attempted to terminate it. In April, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway filed a separate lawsuit against CART to prevent them from further use of the mark.


title: IndyCar

text: Eventually a settlement was reached in which CART agreed to give up the use of the "IndyCar" mark following the 1996 season and the IRL agreeing not to use the name before the end of the 2002 season. CART returned to branding as simply CART for 1997, and resurrected the term "champ car" to describe their vehicles.


title: IndyCar

text: Following a six-year hiatus, the Indy Racing League announced it would rename their premier series the IndyCar Series for the 2003 racing season; CART followed suit by renaming their main series the Champ Car World Series.


title: IndyCar

text: Post-unification, a heavy emphasis has been placed on deemphasizing the legal entity name and its initials and replacing it with the IndyCar name. This became official on January 1, 2011, as Indy Racing League LLC adopted as its trade name INDYCAR. On November 1, 2013, the company's legal name was changed to INDYCAR LLC.


title: IndyCar

text: The dispute between CART and IRL centered on the Indianapolis 500, long considered the flagship race of the sport. From 1980 until 1995, the Indy 500 continued to be sanctioned by USAC while being run predominantly with drivers from CART and counting toward CART's standings. George felt that his opinions regarding increasing costs, and revenue sharing were being ignored, while CART teams owners felt George used his influence over USAC to have a disproportionate impact on the general operation of the sport.


title: IndyCar

text: After a number of attempts at a compromise board failed, IMS formed the Indy Racing League in 1994, with the series being slated to begin racing in 1996. CART had primarily sanctioned Indy car racing since 1979, when the organization broke away from USAC. George blueprinted the IRL as a lower-cost open-wheel alternative to CART, which he viewed had become technology-driven and dominated by a few wealthy multi-car teams. The IRL was designed only to run on oval tracks to promote American drivers from the midget and sprint car ranks to graduate to Indycars the way that of Indy racing A.J. Foyt, Mario Andretti, Johnny Rutherford, and the Unsers had in the 1960s.


title: IndyCar

text: Starting with the first IRL season, the league proclaimed that 25 of the 33 spots in the Indy 500 starting grid for cars from full-time IRL teams. In 1996, CART retaliated by scheduling what was supposed to become its new showcase event, the U.S. 500, at Michigan International Speedway on Memorial Day, the traditional date for the Indy 500.


title: IndyCar

text: The new 1997 technical rules featured less expensive chassis and "production-based" engines that were purchased rather than leased, but most importantly, were technically incompatible with CART specifications. The IRL's early seasons consisted of sparse schedules and inexperienced teams, with the degradation in quality especially apparent during the Indianapolis 500, which saw a dramatic decline in prestige.


title: IndyCar

text: The IRL began to draw top teams from CART starting in 2002, contributing to the latter's bankruptcy, re-branding as Champ Car in 2003, and ultimate demise and absorption by the IRL in 2008.


title: IndyCar

text: After absorbing Champ Car, the IndyCar Series became what the CART series from which it separated was and its related European open-wheel formula counterparts: former prominent CART teams such as Chip Ganassi Racing and Team Penske are frequent race winners, there is a strong contingent of foreign-born drivers, the cars are increasingly electronic and aero dependent and the schedule includes more road and street courses than oval tracks.


title: IndyCar

text: On January 23, 2008, Tony George offered Champ Car management a proposal that included free cars and engine leases to Champ Car teams willing to run the entire 2008 IndyCar Series schedule in exchange for adding Champ Car's dates at Long Beach, Toronto, Edmonton, and Australia to the IndyCar Series schedule, effectively reuniting American open-wheel car racing. The offer was initially made in November 2007. On February 10, 2008, Tony George, along with IRL representatives Terry Angstadt and Brian Barnhart, plus former Honda executive Robert Clarke, traveled to Japan to discuss moving the Indy Japan 300 at Twin Ring Motegi. Moving that race, or postponing it, would be required in order to accommodate the Long Beach Grand Prix, which was scheduled for the same weekend. Optimism following the meeting was high.


title: IndyCar

text: In February 2008, Indy Racing League founder and CEO Tony George and owners of the Champ Car World Series completed an agreement to unify the sport for 2008. The result was that the Champ Car World Series was suspended except for the Long Beach Grand Prix. Many of the former Champ Car teams moved to the IndyCar Series using equipment provided by the League.


title: IndyCar

text: Randy Bernard was announced as the new IRL CEO in February 2010. In 2011, the sanctioning body dropped the Indy Racing League name, becoming IndyCar to reflect the merged series. The new Dallara DW12 racecar was introduced for the 2012 season. IndyCar collaborated with DreamWorks Animation to launch comedy film Turbo in 2013. Bernard was fired in October 2012, and replaced by Mark Miles.


title: IndyCar

text: Driver safety has also been a major point of concern, with a number of drivers seriously injured, particularly in the early years of the series. There have been five fatal crashes in the history of the series. Compared to road racing venues, the lack of run-offs on oval tracks, coupled with higher speeds due to the long straights and banked turns, means that there is far less margin for error. Car design was attributed as a leading cause of early injuries, and the series made improvements to chassis design to address those safety concerns. Following a series of spectacular high-profile accidents in 2003, including American racing legend Mario Andretti and former champion Kenny Bräck, as well as the death of Tony Renna in testing at Indianapolis, the IRL made additional changes to reduce speeds and increase safety.


title: IndyCar

text: IndyCar was the first racing series to adopt the SAFER soft wall safety system, which debuted at the Indianapolis 500 and has now been installed at almost all major oval racing circuits. The SAFER system research and design was supported and funded in large part by the Hulman-George family and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: Yanbian (; Chosŏn'gŭl: , "Yeonbyeon"), officially known as the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the east of Jilin Province, China. Yanbian is bordered to the north by Heilongjiang Province, on the west by Jilin's Baishan City and Jilin City, on the south by North Korea's North Hamgyong Province and on the east by Primorsky Krai in Russia. Yanbian is designated as a Korean autonomous prefecture due to the large number of ethnic Koreans living in the region. The prefectural capital is Yanji and the total area is .


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: The prefecture has an important Balhae archaeological site: the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, which includes the Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: In the Ming dynasty, Yanbian was governed by the Jianzhou Guard () and in the late Qing dynasty the area was divided into the Yanji () and Hunchun () subprefectures. From 1644 to the 1800s the Manchurian administrators of the Qing state attempted to separate Northeast China, politically and ethnographically, into a "Manchuria" to which they could retreat in case an ethnically Han Chinese dynasty regained control over China. However, this effort failed because of the trading and agricultural opportunities available to Han Chinese migrants in the northeast region which made it profitable to evade the rules, as well as later Qing relaxation of the same rules to discourage Russian encroachment.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: In the late 19th century, Korean immigrants migrated en masse from the Korean Peninsula to China. After the foundation of the Republic of China, a second wave arrived. Of the 2 million ethnic Koreans in Manchuria at the time of the communist takeover, 1.2 million remained in the region after the end of World War II. Many participated in the Chinese Civil War, most on the side of the Chinese communists. When the civil war was over, the new Chinese government gave these Koreans their own autonomous region () in 1952. Yanbian was upgraded to an ethnic autonomous prefecture in 1955.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: Korean (Joseon) migration into Northeast China began in significant numbers in the last quarter of the 19th century and was mainly motivated by economic hardship on the Korean side of the border. After the Japanese annexed Korea in 1910, a small but significant number of migrants also came to Manchuria for political reasons.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: In 1952, the Korean migrants comprised some 60% of the local population, but by 2000 that was down to 32%. The Chinese authorities subsidize Korean language schools and publications, but also take measures to prevent an emergence of Korean irredentism in the area. From the late 1990s, the Koreans have assimilated into mainstream Chinese culture with increasing speed, often switching to daily use of Chinese and choosing to attend Chinese-language schools.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: There have been over 40 types of minerals and 50 kinds of metals – including gold, lead, zinc, copper, silver, manganese and mercury – discovered near or in the mountains.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: The rivers sustain 28 running water processing facilities. They created basins, which are suitable for agricultural uses, like rice paddies and bean farms.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: The prefecture is subdivided into eight county-level divisions: six county-level cities and two counties:


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: As on the Korean peninsula, the most common surname among Yanbian Koreans is "Kim" ("Jin" [] in Chinese). Many emigrated from Korea during the 19th century and again during the Japanese occupation.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: Between 1952 and 2002, the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture had among the highest rates of urbanization () at 55.6%, 20 percentage points greater than the provincial average (31.3%) and 25 more than the national average (26.5%).


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: The Museum of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture was planned in 1960, and constructed in 1982. It contains over 10,000 exhibits, including 11 first-level artifacts. The exhibits' labels and explanations are bilingual in Korean and Chinese and tour guides are also available in both languages.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture is an important region for Chinese football. Over 50 years, more than 40 footballers have been selected by the Chinese national football team.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: The first professional football team in this prefecture is Jilin Three Stars Football Club. From 1994 to 2000, this club had played each year in the top Chinese football league. In 2000, they were relegated from the top league. Because of poor economic conditions the club was sold to Lucheng Group in Zhejiang Province.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: The Yanbian Football Club plays in the 32,000-seater Hailanjiang Stadium in the Chinese Super League, the top tier of the Chinese football league system.


title: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture

text: In 2016, Yanbian Football Club was sponsored by Shenzhen Funde Group () when they got the permission of Chinese Super League, since they acquired the 1st place in the Chinese Second League in 2015.


title: National symbol

text: A national symbol is a symbol of any entity considering and manifesting itself to the world as a national community: the sovereign states but also nations and countries in a state of colonial or other dependence, federal integration, or even an ethnocultural community considered a 'nationality' despite having no political autonomy.


title: National symbol

text: National symbols intend to unite people by creating visual, verbal, or iconic representations of the national people, values, goals, or history. These symbols are often rallied around as part of celebrations of patriotism or aspiring nationalism (such as independence, autonomy or separation movements) and are designed to be inclusive and representative of all the people of the national community.


title: National symbol

text: In many ways, well-known sights in a country can also be seen as national symbols, as can traditional items of handicraft, folk costumes, natural monuments, national epics and national myths, as well as symbols used by national sports teams and their supporters.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: Little Forest is a 2018 South Korean drama film directed by Yim Soon-rye and based on a manga series of the same name by Daisuke Igarashi which was first published in 2002.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: After failing to pass the national qualification exam to become a teacher, Hye-won (Kim Tae-ri) abandons her part-time job in Seoul to return to the small village where she was raised.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: The story of a young woman who returns to her childhood home, in a traditional Korean village, after leaving for the big city in pursuit of what turned out to be an elusive dream. When she returns home, her mother isn't there - but her mother's "Little Forest", the many ways in which a single mother successfully made a home for her much loved child, unfurl with a long succession of lovingly sketched details involving mostly food preparation.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: The unfurling moments are lightly but lovingly shared with two childhood friends, one of whom also abandoned their elusive dream of success in the big city (Seoul) and the other who is still pursuing the small town equivalent of that elusive dream—without ever leaving home.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: Principal photography began on January 21, 2017. It took place in a small village in South Gyeongsang Province.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: The film came in second place at the Korean box office on the opening day by attracting 131,337 audiences. During the first weekend since the film was released at 832 screens, "Little Forest" drew 372,394 moviegoers accounting for 22.3 percent of the weekend's ticket sales. This accumulated to a total of 686,000 ticket sales at the end of first five days.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: By March 10, 2018, within 11 days since its premiere the film was watched by more than 1 million moviegoers, with in takings.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: During the second weekend the film was viewed by 262,953 audiences and fell to third place at the Korean box office.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: "Little Forest" remained in the third place at the Korean box office after three weekends, attracting 127,456 moviegoers during the weekend and increasing the total ticket sales to 1.35 million at the end of three weeks.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: Throughout the fourth weekend, the film attracted 60,162 moviegoers and dropped to fourth place at the weekend box office.


title: Little Forest (film)

text: "The Korea Herald" reviewed "Little Forest" as "a small film with no villain, no real tension, and no real conflict", stating that the director tries to "shows us that maybe letting go can give us exactly what we’ve wanted."


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod (LCMS), also known as the Missouri Synod, is a traditional, confessional Lutheran denomination in the United States. With 1.8 million members, it is the second-largest Lutheran body in the United States. The LCMS was organized in 1847 at a meeting in Chicago, Illinois, as the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other States (), a name which partially reflected the geographic locations of the founding congregations.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS has congregations in all 50 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, but over half of its members are located in the Midwest. It is a member of the International Lutheran Council and is in altar and pulpit fellowship with most of that group's members. The LCMS is headquartered in Kirkwood, Missouri, and is divided into 35 districts—33 of which are geographic and two (the English and the SELC) non-geographic. The current president is Matthew C. Harrison, who took office on September 1, 2010.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The Missouri Synod emerged from several communities of German Lutheran immigrants during the 1830s and 1840s. In Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan, isolated Germans in the dense forests of the American frontier were brought together and ministered to by missionary F. C. D. Wyneken. A communal emigration from Saxony under Bishop Martin Stephan created a community in Perry County, Missouri, and St. Louis, Missouri. In Michigan and Ohio, missionaries sent by Wilhelm Löhe ministered to scattered congregations and founded German Lutheran communities in Frankenmuth, Michigan, and the Saginaw Valley of Michigan.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In the 19th-century German Kingdom of Saxony, Lutheran pastor Martin Stephan and many of his followers found themselves increasingly at odds with Rationalism, Christian ecumenism, and the prospect of a forced unionism of the Lutheran church with the Reformed church. In the neighboring Kingdom of Prussia, the Prussian Union of 1817 put in place what they considered non-Lutheran communion and baptismal doctrine and practice. In order to freely practice their Christian faith in accordance with the Lutheran confessions outlined in the Book of Concord, Stephan and between 600 and 700 other Saxon Lutherans left for the United States in November 1838.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Their ships arrived between December 31, 1838, and January 20, 1839, in New Orleans, with one ship lost at sea. Most of the remaining immigrants left almost immediately, with the first group arriving in St. Louis on January 19, 1839. The final group, led by Stephan, remained in New Orleans for ten days, possibly to wait for the passengers of the lost ship "Amalia". The immigrants ultimately settled in Perry County, Missouri, and in and around St. Louis. Stephan was initially the bishop of the new settlement, but he soon became embroiled in charges of corruption and sexual misconduct with members of the congregation and was expelled from the settlement, leaving C. F. W. Walther as the leader of the colony.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: During this period, there was considerable debate within the settlement over the proper status of the church in the New World: whether it was a new church or whether it remained within the Lutheran hierarchy in Germany. Walther's view that they could consider themselves a new church prevailed.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Beginning in 1841, the parish pastor in Neuendettelsau, Bavaria—Wilhelm Löhe—inspired by appeals for aid to the German immigrants in North America, began to solicit funds for missionary work among them. He also began training men to become pastors and teachers, sending his first two students—Adam Ernst and Georg Burger—to America on August 5, 1842. Löhe ultimately sent over 80 pastors and students of theology to America; these pastors founded and served congregations throughout Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Löhe also led an early and largely abortive effort to send missionaries to convert the Native Americans. In 1844 and 1845, he solicited colonists to form a German Lutheran settlement in Michigan, with the thought that this settlement would also serve as the base for missionary activity among the Native Americans. The colonists left Germany on April 20, 1845, under the leadership of Pastor August Crämer, and arrived in Saginaw County, Michigan, in August of that year. They founded several villages—Frankenmuth, Frankenlust, Frankentrost, and Frankenhilf (now known as Richville)—and worked to convert the Native Americans. They had limited success, however, and the villages became nearly exclusively German settlements within a few years.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In addition to sending pastors, theological students, and colonists to America, Löhe also played an instrumental role in the formation of Concordia Theological Seminary in Fort Wayne, Indiana, raising funds for the new institution and sending eleven theological students and a professor from Germany to help found it. The seminary's first president, Wilhelm Sihler, had also been sent by Löhe to America several years before.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: It was due to Löhe's great zeal and indefatigable labors that the LCMS' first president, C. F. W. Walther, once said of him, "Next to God, it is Pastor Loehe to whom our Synod is indebted for its happy beginning and rapid growth in which it rejoices; it may well honor him as its spiritual father. It would fill the pages of an entire book to recount even briefly what for many years this man, with tireless zeal in the noblest unselfish spirit, has done for our Lutheran Church and our Synod in particular."


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1844 and 1845, the three groups listed above (the Saxons, the Löhe men, and Wyneken and one of his assistants) began to discuss the possibility of forming a new, confessional Lutheran church body. As a result of these discussions, the Löhe missionaries and Wyneken and his assistant (F. W. Husmann) decided to leave the synods they currently belonged to. Two planning meetings were held in St. Louis, Missouri, and Fort Wayne, Indiana, in May and July 1846. Then, on April 26, 1847, twelve pastors representing fourteen German Lutheran congregations met in Chicago, Illinois, and officially founded the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and Other States. Walther became the fledgling denomination's first president.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The synod was quickly noted for its conservatism and self-professed orthodoxy. The synod's constitution required all members (both pastors and congregations) to pledge fealty to the entire Book of Concord, to reject unionism and syncretism of every kind, to use only doctrinally pure books in both church and school, and to provide for the Christian education of their children. Among other things, these requirements meant that altar and pulpit fellowship was usually restricted to those Lutheran congregations and synods who were in complete doctrinal agreement with the Missouri Synod.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS' conservatism soon drew it into conflict with other Lutheran synods, the majority of which were then experimenting with so-called "American Lutheranism". In addition, the LCMS also quickly became embroiled in a dispute with the Buffalo Synod and its leader, Johannes Andreas August Grabau, over the proper understanding of the church and the ministry. Within a few years, this conflict led to a separation between the Missouri Synod and Löhe, as Löhe's views were close to those of Grabau.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Despite these conflicts, the Missouri Synod experienced fairly rapid growth in its early years, leading to the subdivision of the synod into four district synods (Central, Eastern, Northern, and Western) in 1854. This growth was due largely to the synod's efforts, under the leadership of its second president, F. C. D. Wyneken, to care for German immigrants, help them find a home among other Germans, build churches and parochial schools, and train pastors and teachers. The synod continued these outreach efforts throughout the 19th century, becoming the largest Lutheran church body in the United States by 1888. By the synod's fiftieth anniversary in 1897, it had grown to 687,000 members.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Between 1856 and 1859, the Missouri Synod hosted a series of four free conferences in order to explore the possibility of entering into fellowship agreements with other conservative Lutheran synods. As a result of these conferences, the LCMS entered into fellowship with the Norwegian Synod in 1857. In 1872, these two synods joined the Wisconsin, Ohio, Minnesota, and Illinois Synods, other conservative Lutheran bodies, in forming the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1876, the constituent synods of the Synodical Conference considered a plan to reorganize into a single unified church body with a single seminary. Some preliminary moves were made in this direction (including the 1880 absorption of the Illinois Synod into the LCMS' Illinois District), but opposition from some synods postponed the complete implementation of this plan, and the Predestinarian Controversy of the 1880s scuttled the plan entirely. As a result of the controversy, several pastors and congregations withdrew from the Ohio Synod to form the Concordia Synod; this synod merged with the LCMS in 1886.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Efforts were made in the 1920s to establish fellowship with the Ohio, Iowa, and Buffalo synods. Representatives from the synods formulated the "Chicago Theses" as a for agreement, but the 1929 LCMS synodical convention did not accept them and instead created a committee that, in 1932, produced the "Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod". After the Ohio, Iowa, and Buffalo synods merged in 1930 to form the first American Lutheran Church (ALC), representatives from the ALC and the LCMS came to agreement on the "Brief Statement" and the ALC's "Declaration" in 1938, but again no further action was taken.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: For the first thirty years of its existence, the Missouri Synod focused almost exclusively on meeting the spiritual needs of German-speaking Lutherans, leaving work among English-speaking Lutherans to other synods, particularly the Tennessee and Ohio synods. In 1872, members of the Tennessee Synod invited representatives from the Missouri, Holston, and Norwegian synods to discuss the promotion of English work among the more "Americanized" Lutherans, resulting in the organization of the "English Evangelical Lutheran Conference of Missouri." This conference was reorganized in 1888 as an independent church body, the English Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri and Other States, which subsequently merged into the LCMS as the English District in 1911. In its first twenty years, the English Synod founded two colleges, organized dozens of congregations and parochial schools, took over the publication of "The" "Lutheran Witness" (an English-language newspaper published by LCMS pastors in Cleveland, Ohio), and published several hymnals and other books.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: English work became more widespread in the LCMS during the first two decades of the twentieth century, with older members of the synod continuing to speak primarily German and younger members increasingly switching to English. As one scholar has explained, "The overwhelming evidence from internal documents of these [Missouri Synod] churches, and particularly their schools ... indicates that the German-American school was a bilingual one much (perhaps a whole generation or more) earlier than 1917, and that the majority of the pupils may have been English-dominant bilinguals from the early 1880s on." The anti-German sentiment during the wars hastened the "Americanization" of the church and caused many churches to add English services and in some cases, drop German services entirely. During the years of language transition, the synod's membership continued to grow, until by 1947, the synod had grown to over 1.5 million members.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: During this time, the LCMS expanded its missionary efforts through the creation of its own radio station—KFUO (AM) (1923)—and its own international radio program—"The Lutheran Hour" (1930). Several years later, the synod began broadcasting its own TV drama—"This Is the Life" (1952).


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1945, a group of 44 leaders and theologians in the synod issued a statement criticizing the synod's approach toward other Lutheran bodies. The document, known as 'A Statement of the Forty-four". was signed by Theodore Graebner and four other professors at Concordia Seminary and by H. B. Hemmeter, who had recently retired as president of Concordia Theological Seminary, among others. The statement provoked immediate response from others in the synod.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1947, its centennial year, the church body shortened its name from "The Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States" to its present one, "The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod".


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The 1947 convention also directed the Committee on Doctrinal Unity to meet with the Fellowship Commission of the ALC to develop a set of doctrinal theses. The first meeting was on May 17, 1948, and, after additional meetings, the "Common Confession", Part I, was approved by the two committees on December 5–6, 1949. Both the ALC and the LCMS accepted the document in 1950. The two committees continued meeting to develop Part II of the "Common Confession" covering additional topics. The ALC accepted Part II in 1954. The 1956 convention of the LCMS recognized the "Common Confession" as one document in two parts that is a statement "in harmony with the Sacred Scriptures and the Lutheran Confessions"; however, it also declared that the document should not be "regarded or employed as a functioning basic document toward the establishment of altar and pulpit fellowship with other church bodies".


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The renewed interest in the ALC led a number of parties to fear that the synod was losing its doctrinal basis. In 1951, a small group of pastors and congregations left the synod to form the Orthodox Lutheran Conference, but the main impetus for the move was not church fellowship, but the question of whether breaking an engagement (in the modern sense) is the same as the breaking of a betrothal (historically) and therefore a sin, as those leaving the synod contended.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Concerns about the LCMS becoming more open to less conservative Lutheran bodies cause problems in the Synodical Conference. In 1955, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod (ELS) broke fellowship with the LCMS, and in 1957, the WELS publicly admonished the LCMS, and, in 1961, it finally broke fellowship with the LCMS. Both the ELS and the WELS withdrew from the Synodical Conference in 1963, leaving only the LCMS and the Synod of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (SELC), an historically Slovak-American church, as members. In 1971, the SELC merged with the LCMS, forming the SELC District. The National Evangelical Lutheran Church, an historically Finnish-American Lutheran church, had already merged with the LCMS on January 1, 1964.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: When the 1959 synodical convention did not take any action against the liberal movement, a number of pastors and laymen met in a State of the Church Conference at Trinity Lutheran Church in New Haven, Missouri, in which that church's pastor, Herman Otten, presented a book of documentation of the various controversies that had arisen in the LCMS since 1950 and before. Several additional conferences were held, with the one in Milwaukee on May 15–16, 1961, attracting over 400 people. Plans were made at that conference for actions they wanted the 1962 synodical convention to take. The failure of the convention to do so led a dozen or so congregations and pastors to form the Lutheran Churches of the Reformation on April 28–29, 1964, at Emmaus Lutheran Church in Chicago. However, many of those opposed to the direction of the LCMS decided to remain in the synod, hoping to influence its direction.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1967, the LCMS agreed with the second American Lutheran Church (the successor to the first ALC) and the Lutheran Church in America (LCA) to form the Lutheran Council in the United States of America (LCUSA), but only on the assurance that a program of theological discussion would be implemented.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: With the election of J. A. O. Preus II as its president over the incumbent, Oliver Harms, in 1969, the LCMS began a sharp turn towards a more conservative direction. A dispute over the use of the historical-critical method for Biblical interpretation led to the suspension of John Tietjen as president of Concordia Seminary. In response, many of the faculty and students left the seminary and formed Seminex (Concordia Seminary in Exile), which took up residence at the nearby Eden Theological Seminary in suburban St. Louis.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The same convention that elected Preus as president also established altar and pulpit fellowship with the ALC. This was seen by many as a gesture toward Harms, who had supported the declaration of fellowship. Eight years later, the 1977 convention declared a state of "fellowship in protest" as the ALC exhibited closer ties to the more liberal LCA. The 1981 convention terminated the fellowship agreement.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: A number of pastors and others did not think that Preus's method of dealing with false doctrine would be successful. On November 1–2, 1971, members of he Conference for Authentic Lutheranism in California and the Free Association for Authentic Lutheranism in the Midwest met in Libertyville, Illinois, to form a new church body, the Federation for Authentic Lutheranism (FAL). They expected 50 to 60 congregations to join, but in the end, only six did as the conservative wing continued to gain strength in the LCMS. FAL declared fellowship with the WELS in 1973, but did not survive very long thereafter.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1976, about 250 of the congregations supporting Seminex left the LCMS to form the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (AELC). The LCMS restricted its participation with LCUSA shortly after the AELC schism and announced that it would not participate in any merger discussions. In 1988, the AELC, ALC, and LCA merged to form the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, and LCUSA was dissolved.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In 1900, the LCMS began sending missionaries to Brazil to minister to German-speaking immigrants in that country, and in 1904 created the Brazil District for the administration of the resulting congregations. Work was begun in Argentina in 1905 as part of the Brazil District. A separate Argentina District was established in 1926/1927. Both districts became independent church bodies that retain close relationships with the LCMS: the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil in 1980, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Argentina in 1988.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS oversaw an extensive roster of congregations in Canada until 1988, when the Canadian component became a separate and autonomous organization, Lutheran Church-Canada. However, this was an administrative and not theological division and the two groups still share close ties. A small number of Ontario and Quebec churches remain within the LCMS.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: One of the signature teachings of the Lutheran Reformation is "Sola scriptura"—"Scripture alone." The LCMS believes that the Bible is the only standard by which church teachings can be judged, and holds that Scripture is best explained and interpreted by the "Book of Concord"—a series of confessions of faith adopted by Lutherans in the 16th century. LCMS pastors and congregations agree to teach in harmony with the Book of Concord "because" they believe that it teaches and faithfully explains the Word of God, not based on its own authority alone. Since the LCMS is a confessional church body, its ordained and commissioned ministers of religion are sworn by their oaths of ordination or installation, or both, to interpret the Sacred Scriptures according to the "Book of Concord". Its ordained and commissioned ministers of religion are asked to honor and uphold other official teachings of the synod, meaning "to abide by, act, and teach in accordance with," but are not sworn to believe, confess and teach them as correct interpretations of the Sacred Scriptures. The Missouri Synod also teaches biblical inerrancy, the teaching that the Bible is inspired by God and is without error. For this reason, they reject much—if not all—of modern liberal scholarship. The Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod, written by Franz August Otto Pieper, was adopted by the synodical convention in 1932 as a summary of the major beliefs of the LCMS.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS believes that justification comes from God "by divine grace alone, through faith alone, on account of Christ alone." It teaches that Jesus is the focus of the entire Bible and that faith in him alone is the way to eternal salvation. The synod rejects any attempt to attribute salvation to anything other than Christ's death and resurrection.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The synod teaches that the Word of God, both written and preached, and the Sacraments are means of grace through which the Holy Spirit gives the gift of God's grace, creates faith in the hearts of individuals, forgives sins for the sake of Christ's death on the cross, and grants eternal life and salvation. Many Missouri Synod Lutherans define a sacrament as an action instituted by Jesus that combines a promise in God's Word with a physical element, although the synod holds no official definition for sacrament. This means that some may disagree on the number of sacraments. All agree that Baptism and Communion are sacraments. Confession and absolution is called a sacrament in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession and so is also considered by many Lutherans to be a sacrament, because it was instituted by Christ and has His promise of grace, even though it is not tied to a physical element.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Unlike Calvinists, Lutherans agree that the means of grace are resistible; this belief is based on numerous biblical references as discussed in the "Book of Concord".


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Regarding the Eucharist, the LCMS rejects both the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the Reformed teaching that the true body and blood of Christ are not consumed with the consecrated bread and wine in the Eucharist. Rather, it believes in the doctrine of the sacramental union, Real Presence, that the Body and Blood of Christ are truly present "in, with, and under" the elements of bread and wine. Or, as the Smalcald Articles express this mystery: "Of the Sacrament of the Altar, we hold that the bread and wine in the Supper are Christ's true body and blood." It is occasionally reported that the LCMS and other Lutherans teach the doctrine of consubstantiation. Consubstantiation is generally rejected by Lutherans and is explicitly rejected by the LCMS as an attempt to define the holy mystery of Christ's presence.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The Missouri Synod flatly rejects millennialism and considers itself amillennialist. This means that it believes there will be no literal 1000-year visible earthly kingdom of Jesus, a view termed as "realized millennialism" in which the "thousand years" of Rev 20:1–10 is taken figuratively as a reference to the time of Christ's reign as king from the day of his ascension. Hence, the millennium is a present reality (Christ's heavenly reign), not a future hope for a rule of Christ on earth after his return (the parousia) (cf. Mt 13:41–42; Mt 28:18; Eph 2:6; Col 3:1–3).


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS believes that the Holy Scriptures contain two crucial teachings—Law and Gospel. The Law is all those demands in the Bible which must be obeyed in order to gain salvation. However, because all people are sinners, it is impossible for people to completely obey the Law. Therefore, the Law implies an inevitable consequence of God's wrath, judgment, and damnation. The Gospel, on the other hand, is the promise of free salvation from God to sinners. The Law condemns; the Gospel saves. Both the Law and the Gospel are gifts from God; both are necessary. The function of the law is to show people their sinful nature and drive them to


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS holds that the Old Testament and the New Testament both contain both Law and Gospel. The Old Testament, therefore, is valuable to Christians. Its teachings point forward in time to the Cross of Christ in the same way that the New Testament points backward in time to the Cross. This Lutheran doctrine was summarized by C. F. W. Walther in "The Proper Distinction Between Law and Gospel".


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS holds that all "false teachers who teach contrary to Christ's Word are opponents of Christ" and, insofar as they do so, are anti-Christ. The LCMS does not teach, nor has it ever taught, that any individual pope as a person is to be identified with the Antichrist. However, to the extent that the papacy continues to claim as official dogma the canons and decrees of the Council of Trent, the LCMS position is that the office of the papacy is the Antichrist.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS officially supports literal creationism but does not have an official position on the precise age of the earth. An official publication of the synod, the "Brief Statement" of 1932, states under the heading "Of Creation": "We teach that God has created heaven and earth, and that in the manner and in the space of time recorded in the Holy Scriptures, especially Gen. 1 and 2, namely, by His almighty creative word, and in six days." According to the recent 2004 LCMS synodical resolution 2-08A "To commend preaching and teaching Creation", all LCMS churches and educational institutions—including preschool through 12th grade, universities, and seminaries—are "to teach creation from the Biblical perspective." The LCMS website states that an individual's personal views regarding creation do not disqualify a person from being a member of the LCMS.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS believes that the teachings of Freemasonry are in direct conflict with the Gospel and instructs its pastors and laypeople to avoid membership or participation in it.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS practices infant baptism, based on Acts 2:38–39 and other passages of Scripture. It also subscribes to the statement of faith found in the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer to be applicable to daily life. These doctrines are emphasized in "Luther's Small Catechism".


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The original constitution of the LCMS stated that one of its purposes is to strive toward uniformity in practice, while more recent changes to those documents also encourage responsible and doctrinally sound diversity. The synod requires that hymns, songs, liturgies, and practices be in harmony with the Bible and "Book of Concord". Worship in LCMS congregations is generally thought of as orthodox and liturgical, utilizing a printed order of service and hymnal, and is typically accompanied by a pipe organ or piano. The contents of LCMS hymnals from the past, such as "The Lutheran Hymnal" and "Lutheran Worship", and those of its newest hymnal, "Lutheran Service Book", highlight the synod's unwavering stance towards more traditional styles of hymnody and liturgy. More traditional LCMS Lutherans point to the Lutheran Confessions in their defense of liturgical worship.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Towards the later parts of the twentieth century and up until present day, many congregations have adopted a more progressive style of worship, employing different styles such as contemporary Christian music with guitars and praise bands and often project song lyrics onto screens instead of using hymnals. While this shift in style challenges the traditionalism of hymnody that the LCMS holds strongly, the LCMS has released a statement on worship stating that, "The best of musical traditions, both ancient and modern, are embraced by the Lutheran church in its worship, with an emphasis on congregational singing, reinforced by the choir."


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS endorses the doctrine of close or closed communion—the policy of sharing the Eucharist ordinarily only with those who are baptized and confirmed members of one of the congregations of the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod or of a congregation of one of its sister churches with which it has formally declared altar and pulpit fellowship (i.e., agreement in all articles of doctrine). Missouri Synod congregations implement closed communion in various ways, requiring conformity to official doctrine in various degrees. Usually, visitors are asked to speak with the pastor before coming to that congregation's altar for the first time. Most congregations invite those uneducated on the subject of the Eucharist to join in the fellowship and receive a blessing instead of the body and blood of Christ.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Ordination is seen as a public ceremony of recognition that a man has received and accepted a divine call, and hence is considered to be in the office of the public ministry. The Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope agrees that "ordination was nothing else than such a ratification" of local elections by the people. The LCMS does not believe ordination is divinely instituted or an extension of an episcopal form of apostolic succession but sees the office grounded in the Word and Sacrament ministry of the Gospel, arguing that Scripture makes no distinction between a presbyter (priest) and a bishop (see Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope, paragraphs 63,64, citing St. Jerome). The Augsburg Confession (Article XIV) holds that no one is to preach, teach, or administer the sacraments without a regular call.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: LCMS pastors are generally required to have a four-year bachelor's degree (in any discipline), as well as a four-year Master of Divinity degree, which is usually obtained from one of these institutions: Concordia Seminary in St. Louis or the Concordia Theological Seminary in Fort Wayne, Indiana or at the two seminaries run by the Lutheran Church–Canada. Candidates may earn their Master of Divinity degree at other seminaries but may then be required to take colloquy classes at either St. Louis or Ft. Wayne. Seminary training includes classwork in historical theology, Biblical languages (Biblical Greek and Hebrew), practical application (education, preaching, and mission), and doctrine (the basic teachings and beliefs of the synod).


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The Missouri Synod teaches that the ordination of women as clergy is contrary to scripture. The issue of women's roles in the church body has continued to be a subject of debate within the synod. During the Cooperative Clergy Study Project in 2000, 10% out of 652 LCMS pastors surveyed stated that all clergy positions should be open to women, while 82% disagreed. Congregations were permitted to enact female suffrage within Missouri Synod congregations in 1969, and it was affirmed at the synod's 2004 convention that women may also "serve in humanly established offices" as long as those offices do not include any of the "distinctive functions of the pastoral office". Thus in many congregations of the LCMS, women now serve as congregation president or chairperson, etc. This is the cause of contention within the LCMS, with some congregations utilizing women in public worship to read lessons and assist in the distribution of holy communion. Other traditional Lutherans reject such practices as unbiblical, with a minority of congregations continuing the historic practice of male suffrage, similar to the Wisconsin Synod.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS bars its clergy from worshiping with other faiths, holding "that church fellowship or merger between church bodies in doctrinal disagreement with one another is not in keeping with what the Bible teaches about church fellowship." In practice of this, a Connecticut LCMS pastor was asked to apologize by the president of the denomination, and did so, for participating in an interfaith prayer vigil for the 26 children and adults killed at a Newtown elementary school, and an LCMS pastor in New York was suspended for praying at an interfaith vigil in 2001, 12 days after the September 11 attacks.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The National Youth Gathering is held every three years. The most recent gathering took place from July 9-13, 2022, in Houston, Texas with a theme of "In All Things." The 2019 gathering was held in Minneapolis, Minnesota, with a theme of "Real. Present. God." The theme for the 2016 gathering in New Orleans, Louisiana was "In Christ Alone." The previous gathering took place in 2013 in San Antonio, Texas from July 1–5, 2013. It was based on the theme, "Live Love(d)." The 2010 gathering in New Orleans was based on the theme "We Believe". In both 2007 and 2004, The LCMS National Youth Gatherings were held at the Orange County Convention Center in Orlando, Florida. The gathering's theme in 2007 was "Chosen." The gathering in 2007 was originally planned to be held in New Orleans, Louisiana, but due to Hurricane Katrina, the location was changed to Orlando, Florida. Around 25,000 youth attend each gathering. Many Christian bands and artists perform at gatherings.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS has a modified form of congregational polity. This is different from some other Lutheran bodies which have maintained episcopal polity; however, this is not considered to be a point of doctrine, as the synod is in fellowship with some Lutheran church bodies in Europe that have an episcopal structure.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The corporate LCMS is formally constituted of two types of members: self-governing local congregations that qualify for membership by mutual agreement to adhere to stated principles, and clergymen who qualify by similar means. Congregations hold legal title to their church buildings and other property, and call (hire) and dismiss their own clergy. Much of the practical work of the LCMS structure is as a free employment brokerage to bring the two together; it also allows the congregations to work together on projects too large for even a local consortium of congregations to accomplish, such as foreign mission work.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS as a whole is led by an ordained synodical president, currently Reverend Matthew C. Harrison. The president is chosen at a synodical convention, a gathering of the two membership groups (professional clergymen and lay representatives from the member congregations). The convention is held every three years; discussions of doctrine and policy take place at these events, and elections are held to fill various synod positions. The next LCMS convention is currently scheduled to take place in 2023 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Local conventions within each circuit and district are held in the intervening years.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The entire synod is divided into 35 districts. Of these, 33 have jurisdiction over specific geographic areas. The other two, the English and the SELC, are non-geographic and were formed when the English Missouri Synod and the Slovak Synod, respectively, merged with the formerly German-speaking Missouri Synod. Each district is led by an elected district president, who must be an ordained clergyman. Most district presidencies are full-time positions, but there are a few exceptions in which the district president also serves as a parish pastor. The districts are subdivided into circuits, each of which is led by a circuit visitor, who is an ordained pastor from one of the member congregations. Districts are roughly analogous to dioceses in other Christian communities.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Most congregations are served by full-time professional clergy. Some congregations, usually in rural areas, are served by ordained bi-vocational ministers (worker-priests) who maintain secular employment for sustenance and receive a small stipend or none at all. The LCMS is quasi-congregationalist with regard to polity.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: In addition to its two seminaries, the LCMS operates seven universities, known as the Concordia University System.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Among the LCMS's other auxiliary organizations are the Lutheran Laymen's League (now known as Lutheran Hour Ministries), which conducts outreach ministries including "The Lutheran Hour" radio program; and the Lutheran Women's Missionary League. The synod also operates Concordia Publishing House, through which it publishes its official magazine, "The Lutheran Witness," and newspaper, "Reporter".


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Maintaining its position as a confessional church body emphasizing the importance of full agreement in the teachings of the Bible, the LCMS is not associated with ecumenical organizations such as the National Council of Churches, the National Association of Evangelicals, the World Council of Churches or the Lutheran World Federation. It is, however, a member of the International Lutheran Council, made up of over 50 Lutheran churches worldwide that support the confessional doctrines of the Bible and the Book of Concord. At the 2007 convention, the delegates voted to establish altar and pulpit fellowship with the American Association of Lutheran Churches (AALC).


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Although its strongly conservative views on theology and ethics might seem to make the LCMS politically compatible with Protestant evangelicals and fundamentalists in the U.S., the LCMS largely eschews political activity, partly out of concerns to keep the denomination untainted with potential heresies and also because of its strict understanding of the Lutheran distinction between the Two Kingdoms (see above), which repudiates the primarily Calvinist presuppositions about the totalizing rule of God that informs much, if not most, of U.S. evangelical understanding of politics and Christianity. However, both LCMS and Evangelicals share the common belief that life begins and should be protected by law since conception.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The LCMS is distinguished from the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) by three main theological beliefs:


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Respondents to the Pew Research Center's U.S. Religious Landscape Survey of 2008 included members of LCMS and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA)


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: Membership growth was substantial in the first half of the 20th century. According to the "Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches", the LCMS had 628,695 members in 1925. By 1950 the number of members had grown to over 1.6 million. Membership peaked in 1970 at just under 2.8 million. In 2020,the LCMS reported 1,861,129 members and 5,976 churches, with 5,938 active clergy. LCMS membership continues to be concentrated in the Upper Midwest. The five states with the highest rates of adherence are Nebraska, Wisconsin, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa.


title: Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod

text: The Pew Research Center's U.S. Religious Landscape Survey in 2014 found that the LCMS was the third-least racially diverse major religious group in the country. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America was second and the National Baptist Convention was the least diverse. The 2008 figures were::


title: Kyle Hamilton (American football)

text: Kyle Hamilton (born March 16, 2001) is an American football safety for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He was born in Greece while his father, Derrick Hamilton, played European league basketball.


title: Kyle Hamilton (American football)

text: Hamilton played college football at Notre Dame, where he was named a consensus All-American in 2021 before being drafted by the Ravens in the first round of the 2022 NFL Draft.


title: Kyle Hamilton (American football)

text: The son of professional basketball player Derrick Hamilton, Kyle was born in Heraklion, capital of the Greek island of Crete, on March 16, 2001. He briefly lived in Russia before moving to the Atlanta area after his father retired from the sport. Hamilton attended the Marist School in Brookhaven, Georgia, where he played safety and wide receiver for their football team. He played in the 2019 All-American Bowl. He committed to the University of Notre Dame to play college football.


title: Kyle Hamilton (American football)

text: Hamilton played in 13 games as a freshman with one start and recorded 41 tackles, four interceptions and a touchdown. He was named a Freshman All-American by the Football Writers Association of America. Hamilton took over as a starter as a sophomore in 2020 and was named first-team All-ACC after recording 63 tackles, six pass breakups, and an interception.


title: Kyle Hamilton (American football)

text: Hamilton declared for the 2022 NFL Draft following the 2021 season, where he was considered by some to be its best prospect. He was selected by the Baltimore Ravens in the first round (14th overall) of the 2022 NFL Draft. He signed his rookie contract on June 7, 2022.


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: The Lamborghini Reventón () is a mid-engine limited production sports car that debuted at the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show. The official press release stated that only 20 vehicles would be sold to the public, with one additional car (marked as 00/20) produced for the Lamborghini museum. Each car is stamped with its number in the sequence of 20 between the driver and passenger seats.


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: While the exterior is new, almost all the mechanical elements, including the engine, are sourced directly from the Murciélago LP 640. According to the official press release, the Reventón's exterior styling was inspired by "the fastest airplanes".


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: The car is named after a fighting bull, in line with Lamborghini tradition. The bull, raised by Don Heriberto Rodriguez, was best known for killing famed Mexican bullfighter Felix Guzman in 1943. "Reventón" means "small explosion" or "burst" in Spanish, when used as a noun. In the vernacular, it is also used to define a very large party or a night in town. In automotive terms, it means "blowout or flat tire" when used as a noun. When it was used as the name of a bull, however, it was intended to be interpreted as an adjective, a quality or property of that bull in particular. In this last sense, "reventón" means "he who seems to be about to burst". Or, in the case of a flower (a carnation, "un clavel reventón") in its maximum point, of luxuriance or a mouth ("una boca reventona"), for its beauty and fullness.


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: The instrument panel in the Reventón consists of three TFT liquid crystal displays (LCDs) with two different display modes. The instruments are housed in a structure milled from a solid aluminum block, protected by a carbon-fiber casing. The car's instrumentation includes a "g-force-meter" which displays the magnitude and direction of the g-forces acting upon the car. The seats of the Reventón are made from black leather and brown Alcantara.


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: The Reventón features an all-new carbon-fiber exterior. All cars have the same exterior color, described as "mid opaque grey without the usual shine."


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: It is the first Lamborghini automobile to incorporate daytime running lamps into the headlamps. Seven light-emitting diodes (LED) at each headlamp flank the bi-xenon main beam and stay lit whenever the car is in motion. Due to the high temperatures in the rear lower part of the car, special heatproof LEDs are used for the indicator and hazard lights, stoplights, and rear lights with a triple arrow optical effect. The Reventon's exterior design created the basis for the company's current flagship, the Aventador. The active rear wing and the active air intakes integrated into the car's shoulders are electronically controlled, deploying automatically only at high speeds in an effort to maximize both aerodynamic and cooling efficiency.


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: The engine is the same unit used in the Murciélago LP 640, a V12, now upgraded to at 8,000 rpm and of torque at 6,000 rpm. The car accelerates from 0- in 3.4 seconds and can attain a maximum speed of over .


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: Of the original 20 coupes, 10 were delivered to the United States, seven to Europe, one to Canada, and two to Asia. One of them is in the possession of the Head of Chechen Republic, Ramzan Kadyrov.


title: Lamborghini Reventón

text: The roadster uses the engine used in the Murciélago LP 670–4 Super Veloce. In June 2009, "Autocar" published a report saying that potential buyers have been shown the car, although a Lamborghini spokesman told the publication that reports of the car were "just speculation". Production was set for a run of 15 units, with a MSRP of €1,100,000. The actual price, however, increased twofold to around US$2,100,000, due to high demand. The Reventón Roadster has more power than its coupe counterpart, at at 8,000 rpm, but the same level of torque and a slightly lower top speed of . This is due to the chassis reinforcing components to compensate for the loss of the roof that add to the weight of the car. 0- acceleration reportedly remains the same at 3.4 seconds. The car also features deployable roll hoops which quickly extend to protect the car's occupants in the event of a rollover.


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Thomas Ligotti (born July 9, 1953) is an American horror writer. His writings are rooted in several literary genres – most prominently weird fiction – and have been described by critics as works of "philosophical" horror, often formed into short stories and novellas in the tradition of gothic fiction. The worldview espoused by Ligotti in his fiction and non-fiction has been described as pessimistic and nihilistic. "The Washington Post" called him "the best kept secret in contemporary horror fiction."


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Ligotti started his professional writing career in the early 1980s with short stories published in American small press magazines. He was contributing editor to "Grimoire" from 1982 to 1985. In 2015, Ligotti's first two collections, "Songs of a Dead Dreamer" and "", were republished in one volume by Penguin Classics as "Songs of a Dead Dreamer and Grimscribe". Michael Calia of "The Wall Street Journal" wrote of the reprint that "Horror writer Thomas Ligotti is about to enter the American literary canon. Penguin Classics published a volume of Mr. Ligotti’s short stories, making him one of 10 living writers, including Thomas Pynchon and Don DeLillo, among the hundreds the imprint has published in the U.S." Ligotti's work received high praise following the publication from the likes of "The New York Times Book Review", the "Los Angeles Review of Books"," The Washington Post", and" The New Yorker". Terrence Rafferty contrasts Ligotti with Stephen King, observing, "King, the great entertainer, needs the story as the comedian needs the joke, and when he can’t quite deliver it he dies (in the comedian’s sense). King is a master of horror, though. When inspiration fails, he has the technique to fake it. Thomas Ligotti is a master of a different order, practically a different species. He probably couldn’t fake it if he tried, and he never tries. He writes like horror incarnate."


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Ligotti collaborated with the musical group Current 93 on the albums "In a Foreign Town, In a Foreign Land" (1997, reissued 2002), "I Have a Special Plan for This World" (2000), "This Degenerate Little Town" (2001) and "The Unholy City "(2003), all released on David Tibet's Durtro label. Tibet has also published several limited editions of Ligotti's books on Durtro Press. Additionally, Ligotti played guitar on Current 93's contribution to the compilation album "Foxtrot", whose proceeds went to the treatment of musician John Balance's alcoholism.


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: He has cited Thomas Bernhard, William S. Burroughs, Emil Cioran, Vladimir Nabokov, Edgar Allan Poe, Giacomo Leopardi, Samuel Beckett, Franz Kafka, and Bruno Schulz as being among his favorite writers. H. P. Lovecraft is also an important touchstone for Ligotti: a few stories, "The Sect of the Idiot" in particular, make explicit reference to Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, and one, "The Last Feast of Harlequin", was dedicated to Lovecraft. Also among his avowed influences are Algernon Blackwood, M.R. James, and Arthur Machen, all "fin de siècle" horror authors known for their subtlety and implications of the cosmic and supernatural in their stories. He has also invoked the influence of philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer and Peter Wessel Zapffe.


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Ligotti has suffered from chronic anxiety and anhedonia for much of his life; these have been prominent themes in his work. Ligotti avoids the explicit violence common in some recent horror fiction, preferring to establish a disquieting, pessimistic atmosphere through the use of subtlety and repetition. Ligotti has stated he prefers short stories to longer forms, both as a reader and as a writer, though he has written a novella, "My Work Is Not Yet Done" (2002)


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Ligotti's ancestry is three-quarters Sicilian, one-quarter Polish, a genetic combination he likes to think "contributed to the bizarre quality of my imagination and to what has been called its 'universality'." He says that his Polish grandmother's stories, though not horrific, "put me in touch with an older and stranger world than I would otherwise have known and that emerged when I started writing stories so many years later".


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Ligotti attended Macomb County Community College between 1971 and 1973 and graduated from Wayne State University in 1978. For 23 years Ligotti worked as an Associate Editor at Gale Research (now the Gale Group), a publishing company that produces compilations of literary (and other) research. In the summer of 2001, Ligotti quit his job at the Gale Group and moved to south Florida. Politically, he identifies as socialist.


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: In 2003, Wildside Press published "", a collection of essays about Ligotti's work edited by Darrell Schweitzer.


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: Author Jeff VanderMeer has penned numerous pieces praising Ligotti's writing, including the introduction to the Penguin Classics edition of "Songs of a Dead Dreamer and Grimscribe".


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: In 2014, the HBO television series "True Detective" attracted attention from some of Ligotti's fans because of the resemblance of the pessimistic, antinatalist philosophy espoused in the first few episodes by the character of Rust Cohle (played by Matthew McConaughey) and Ligotti's own philosophical pessimism and antinatalism, especially as expressed in "The Conspiracy Against the Human Race". After accusations that dialogue from Cohle's character in "True Detective" were lifted from "The Conspiracy Against the Human Race," the series' writer, Nic Pizzolatto, confirmed in "The Wall Street Journal" that Ligotti, along with several other writers and texts in the weird supernatural horror genre, had indeed influenced him. Pizzolatto said he found "The Conspiracy Against the Human Race" to be "incredibly powerful writing". On the topic of hard-boiled detectives, he asked: "What could be more hardboiled than the worldview of Ligotti or [Emil] Cioran?"


title: Thomas Ligotti

text: The writing of Ligotti and Eugene Thacker is cited as an influence on the 2021 album "The Nightmare of Being" by the Gothenburg melodic death metal band At the Gates.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Celestial navigation, also known as astronavigation, is the practice of position fixing using stars and other celestial bodies that enables a navigator to accurately determine their actual current physical position in space (or on the surface of the Earth) without having to rely solely on estimated positional calculations, commonly known as "dead reckoning", made in the absence of satellite navigation or other similar modern electronic or digital positioning means.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Celestial navigation uses "sights", or timed angular measurements, taken typically between a celestial body (e.g. the Sun, the Moon, a planet, or a star) and the visible horizon. Celestial navigation can also take advantage of measurements between celestial bodies without reference to the Earth horizon, such as when the Moon and other selected bodies are used in the practice called "lunars" or lunar distance method, used for determining precise time when time is unknown.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Celestial navigation by taking sights of the Sun and the horizon whilst on the surface of the Earth is commonly used, providing various methods of determining position, one of which is the popular and simple method called "noon sight navigation"—being a single observation of the exact altitude of the Sun and the exact time of that altitude (known as "local noon")—the highest point of the Sun above the horizon from the position of the observer in any single day. This angular observation combined with knowing its simultaneous precise time referred to the time at the prime meridian directly renders a latitude and longitude fix at the time and place of the observation by simple mathematical reduction. The Moon, a planet, Polaris, or one of the 57 other navigational stars whose coordinates are tabulated in any of the published nautical almanac or air almanacs can also accomplish this same goal.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Celestial navigation accomplishes its purpose by use of angular measurements (sights) between celestial bodies and the visible horizon to locate one's position on the Earth, whether on land, in the air or at sea. In addition, observations between stars and other celestial bodies accomplished the same results whilst in spaceand was used extensively in the Apollo space program and is still used on many contemporary satellites. Equally, celestial navigation may be used whilst on other planetary bodies to determine position on their surface, using their local horizon and suitable celestial bodies with matching reduction tables and knowledge of local time.


title: Celestial navigation

text: For navigation by celestial means when on the surface of the Earth for any given instant in time a celestial body is located directly over a single point on the Earth's surface. The latitude and longitude of that point is known as the celestial body's geographic position (GP), the location of which can be determined from tables in the nautical or air almanac for that year. The measured angle between the celestial body and the visible horizon is directly related to the distance between the celestial body's GP and the observer's position. After some computations, referred to as sight reduction, this measurement is used to plot a line of position (LOP) on a navigational chart or plotting worksheet, the observer's position being somewhere on that line. (The LOP is actually a short segment of a very large circle on Earth that surrounds the GP of the observed celestial body. An observer located anywhere on the circumference of this circle on Earth, measuring the angle of the same celestial body above the horizon at that instant of time, would observe that body to be at the same angle above the horizon.) Sights on two celestial bodies give two such lines on the chart, intersecting at the observer's position (actually, the two circles would result in two points of intersection arising from sights on two stars described above, but one can be discarded, since it will be far from the estimated position—see the figure at example below). Most navigators will use sights of three to five stars, if available, since that will result in only one common intersection and minimizes the chance of error. That premise is the basis for the most commonly used method of celestial navigation, referred to as the "altitude-intercept method". At least three points must be plotted. The plot intersection will usually provide a triangle where the exact position is inside of it. Accuracy of the sights is indicated by the size of the triangle.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Joshua Slocum used both noon sight and star sight navigation to determine his current position during his voyage, the first recorded single-handed circumnavigation of the world. In addition he used the lunar distance method (or "lunars") to determine and maintain known time at Greenwich (the prime meridian), thereby keeping his "tin clock" reasonably accurate, and therefore his position fixes accurate.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Celestial navigation can only determine longitude when time at the prime meridian is accurately known. The more accurately time at the prime meridian (0° longitude) is known, the more accurate the fix indeed, every four seconds of time source (commonly a chronometer or, in aircraft, an accurate "hack watch") error can lead to a positional error of one nautical mile. When time is unknown or not trusted, the lunar distance method can be used as a method of determining time at the prime meridian. A functioning time piece with a second hand or digit, an almanac with lunar corrections and a sextant are used. From no knowledge of time at all, a lunar calculation (given an observable Moon of respectable altitude) can provide time accurate to within a second or two with about 15 to 30 minutes of observations and mathematical reduction from the almanac tables. After practice, an observer can regularly derive and prove time using this method to within about one second, or one nautical mile of navigational error due to errors ascribed to the time source.


title: Celestial navigation

text: An example illustrating the concept behind the intercept method for determining one's position is shown to the right. (Two other common methods for determining one's position using celestial navigation are the longitude by chronometer and ex-meridian methods.) In the adjacent image, the two circles on the map represent lines of position for the Sun and Moon at 12:00 GMT on October 29, 2005. At this time, a navigator on a ship at sea measured the Moon to be 56° above the horizon using a sextant. Ten minutes later, the Sun was observed to be 40° above the horizon. Lines of position were then calculated and plotted for each of these observations. Since both the Sun and Moon were observed at their respective angles from the same location, the navigator would have to be located at one of the two locations where the circles cross.


title: Celestial navigation

text: In this case, the navigator is either located on the Atlantic Ocean, about west of Madeira, or in South America, about southwest of Asunción, Paraguay. In most cases, determining which of the two intersections is the correct one is obvious to the observer because they are often thousands of miles apart. As it is unlikely that the ship is sailing across South America, the position in the Atlantic is the correct one. Note that the lines of position in the figure are distorted because of the map's projection; they would be circular if plotted on a globe.


title: Celestial navigation

text: An observer at the Gran Chaco point would see the Moon at the left of the Sun, and an observer in the Madeira point would see the Moon at the right of the Sun.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Accurate angle measurement evolved over the years. One simple method is to hold the hand above the horizon with one's arm stretched out. The angular width of the little finger is just over 1.5 degrees elevation at extended arm's length and can be used to estimate the elevation of the Sun from the horizon plane and therefore estimate the time until sunset. The need for more accurate measurements led to the development of a number of increasingly accurate instruments, including the kamal, astrolabe, octant and sextant. The sextant and octant are most accurate because they measure angles from the horizon, eliminating errors caused by the placement of an instrument's pointers, and because their dual-mirror system cancels relative motions of the instrument, showing a steady view of the object and horizon.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Navigators measure distance on the globe in degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds. A nautical mile is defined as 1,852 meters, but is also (not accidentally) one arcminute of angle along a meridian on the Earth. Sextants can be read accurately to within 0.1 arcminutes, so the observer's position can be determined within (theoretically) , or about 203 yards. Most ocean navigators, measuring from a moving platform under fair conditions, can achieve a practical accuracy of approximately , enough to navigate safely when out of sight of land or other hazards.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Practical celestial navigation usually requires a marine chronometer to measure time, a sextant to measure the angles, an almanac giving schedules of the coordinates of celestial objects, a set of sight reduction tables to help perform the height and azimuth computations, and a chart of the region. With sight reduction tables, the only calculations required are addition and subtraction. Small handheld computers, laptops and even scientific calculators enable modern navigators to "reduce" sextant sights in minutes, by automating all the calculation and/or data lookup steps. Most people can master simpler celestial navigation procedures after a day or two of instruction and practice, even using manual calculation methods.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Modern practical navigators usually use celestial navigation in combination with satellite navigation to correct a dead reckoning track, that is, a course estimated from a vessel's position, course and speed. Using multiple methods helps the navigator detect errors and simplifies procedures. When used this way, a navigator from time to time measures the Sun's altitude with a sextant, then compares that with a precalculated altitude based on the exact time and estimated position of the observation. On the chart, one uses the straight edge of a plotter to mark each position line. If the position line indicates a location more than a few miles from the estimated position, more observations can be taken to restart the dead-reckoning track.


title: Celestial navigation

text: In the event of equipment or electrical failure, taking Sun lines a few times a day and advancing them by dead reckoning allows a vessel to get a crude running fix sufficient to return to port. One can also use the Moon, a planet, Polaris, or one of 57 other navigational stars to track celestial positioning.


title: Celestial navigation

text: Latitude was measured in the past either by measuring the altitude of the Sun at noon (the "noon sight") or by measuring the altitudes of any other celestial body when crossing the meridian (reaching its maximum altitude when due north or south), and frequently by measuring the altitude of Polaris, the north star (assuming it is sufficiently visible above the horizon, which it is not in the Southern Hemisphere). Polaris always stays within 1 degree of the celestial north pole. If a navigator measures the angle to Polaris and finds it to be 10 degrees from the horizon, then he is about 10 degrees north of the equator. This approximate latitude is then corrected using simple tables or almanac corrections to determine a latitude theoretically accurate to within a fraction of a mile. Angles are measured from the horizon because locating the point directly overhead, the zenith, is not normally possible. When haze obscures the horizon, navigators use artificial horizons, which are horizontal mirrors or pans of reflective fluid, especially mercury historically. In the latter case, the angle between the reflected image in the mirror and the actual image of the object in the sky is exactly twice the required altitude.


title: Celestial navigation

text: If the angle to Polaris can be accurately measured, a similar measurement to a star near the eastern or western horizons would provide the longitude. The problem is that the Earth turns 15 degrees per hour, making such measurements dependent on time. A measure a few minutes before or after the same measure the day before creates serious navigation errors. Before good chronometers were available, longitude measurements were based on the transit of the Moon or the positions of the moons of Jupiter. For the most part, these were too difficult to be used by anyone except professional astronomers. The invention of the modern chronometer by John Harrison in 1761 vastly simplified longitudinal calculation.


title: Celestial navigation

text: The longitude problem took centuries to solve and was dependent on the construction of a non-pendulum clock (as pendulum clocks cannot function accurately on a tilting ship, or indeed a moving vehicle of any kind). Two useful methods evolved during the 18th century and are still practiced today: lunar distance, which does not involve the use of a chronometer, and use of an accurate timepiece or chronometer.