title: University of Hertfordshire

text: As part of the final year Aerospace Project, students and staffs from the University of Hertfordshire designed, built and tested a full sized rocket powered car under the mentorship of Ray Wilkinson, a senior professor from Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering.With support from BBC - Bang Goes the Theory and Host Dallas Campbell, the Vauxhall VX220 sports car, was fitted with a large hybrid rocket motor that is designed to produce over half a tonne of thrust was tested in the Duxford Aerodrome. The project got lot of attention for its unprecedented success story and was showcased in local places to build interest in STEM.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: In 1992, it established University of Hertfordshire Press, whose first publication was a book celebrating the institution's change in status from polytechnic to university.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: The University of Hertfordshire holds over 450 artworks in its art collection. The ethos of the UH Art Collection is to present modern and contemporary art in places where people study, work and visit. This reflects the University of Hertfordshire's determination to provide not only an attractive education setting but also one which will inform, enlighten and enhance the life of its students, staff and the local community. The UH Art Collection was established in 1952, as part of Hertfordshire Country Council's commitment to the post-war programme. The collection has a diverse portfolio including photography, textile, ceramics, sculpture, mixed media and works by Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Andy Goldsworthy, Alan Davie, and Diane MacLean.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: Hertfordshire operates a regular shuttle bus service, Park and Ride, which connects 800 parking spaces at Angerland Common with its College Lane and de Havilland Campus facilities. The scheme started in 2006, when it is initially provided with the 700-car facility at Angerland Common, off South Way, Hatfield, in a bid to get cars off surrounding roads.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: Since 2006, the university has planned on opening a second venue, with 150 spaces, at the south side car park at Stanborough Lakes in Welwyn Garden City.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: Uno (formerly UniversityBus) is a bus service operated by the University of Hertfordshire, serving members of the general public, and also its own students and staff, at a discounted rate. In 1992, the University of Hertfordshire wanted to create and provide bus service to and from the university. Uno, previously known as "UniversityBus", was created to provide student transport to the university from local areas; improve east-west travel across the county of Hertfordshire; and, to create new links between Hertfordshire and North London.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: The main source of nightlife is the Forum, which houses three entertainment spaces, a restaurant, a café, multiple bars and onsite parking. Hertfordshire Students' Union (HSU) is the Students' Union of the University of Hertfordshire. The Students' Union Social Centre was opened in 1977. The Hatfield Technical College's management encouraged the establishment of a Student Representative Council (SRC) in 1982, to create a sense of unity and expand the social activities of its day students. The SRC was affiliated to the National Union of Students but initially restricted itself largely to social activities. After 1988 it began to campaign on issues such as improvements to the canteen, lifting the ban on religious or political activity within the then Hatfield Polytechnic, and for a formal students' union. The sectarian ban was finally lifted in 1992 and a Union granted in 1995. However, the canteen continued to be an issue throughout the 2000s. The Students' Union at the University of Hertfordshire represents all students in the university by organising campus activities and running different clubs and societies, from sports to entertainment.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: Trident Media Radio (formerly known as Crush Radio, Campus Radio Hatfield, CRUSH and Crush 1278) is the student radio station. TMR is run by students of the university. Crush is run by students of the university along with amateurs from around the surrounding areas.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: Crush was the first campus radio, founded in 1960 under the name of CRH (Campus Radio Hatfield). After starting as a pirate radio station, CRH was turned into a University Society of the University of Hertfordshire and was renamed Crush 1278 for it broadcast on 1278AM frequency. As Crush became more accessible, via the internet, the name was changed again to Crush Radio. In 2009 Crush as a society merged with the other media societies of the Students union and the University of Hertfordshire as one media society, though Crush still uses its own website and broadcasts over 1278AM frequency, however it stopped broadcasting on 1278AM after the move in September 2009, but restarted commencing February 2011. Crush Radio has been broadcasting since 1960. It broadcasts online via the Tunein platform.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: The University of Hertfordshire Rowing Club is affiliated to British Rowing (boat code UHE) and Dave Bell became a British champion after winning the men's double sculls title at the 2010 British Rowing Championships.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: The University of Hertfordshire American Football team, The Hurricanes, is affiliated to British Universities American Football League (BUAFL) Premier League South


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: The university holds a number of formal links with top-ranking institutions from around the world to share teaching and research and facilitate staff and student exchanges.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: Aside from its international partners, the university has also strong regional agenda and a number of partner institutions in the region: Elstree Screen Arts Academy a university technical college located in Borehamwood; The Watford UTC, a University Technical College for the Watford area. The UTC specialises in Event Management and Computer Sciences.


title: University of Hertfordshire

text: The university has notable alumni and staff in a number of disciplines. Hertfordshire has more than 5,200 international students and a global network of more than 160,000 alumni.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigiality is the retention, during the process of evolution, of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of the ancestral function in a given species. Assessment of the vestigiality must generally rely on comparison with homologous features in related species. The emergence of vestigiality occurs by normal evolutionary processes, typically by loss of function of a feature that is no longer subject to positive selection pressures when it loses its value in a changing environment. The feature may be selected against more urgently when its function becomes definitively harmful, but if the lack of the feature provides no advantage, and its presence provides no disadvantage, the feature may not be phased out by natural selection and persist across species.


title: Vestigiality

text: Examples of vestigial structures (also called degenerate, atrophied, or rudimentary organs) are the loss of functional wings in island-dwelling birds; the human vomeronasal organ; and the hindlimbs of the snake and whale.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial features may take various forms; for example, they may be patterns of behavior, anatomical structures, or biochemical processes. Like most other physical features, however functional, vestigial features in a given species may successively appear, develop, and persist or disappear at various stages within the life cycle of the organism, ranging from early embryonic development to late adulthood.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigiality, biologically speaking, refers to organisms retaining organs that have seemingly lost their original function. Vestigial organs are common evolutionary knowledge. In addition, the term "vestigiality" is useful in referring to many genetically determined features, either morphological, behavioral, or physiological; in any such context, however, it need not follow that a vestigial feature must be completely useless. A classic example at the level of gross anatomy is the human vermiform appendix, vestigial in the sense of retaining no significant digestive function.


title: Vestigiality

text: Similar concepts apply at the molecular level—some nucleic acid sequences in eukaryotic genomes have no known biological function; some of them may be "junk DNA", but it is a difficult matter to demonstrate that a particular sequence in a particular region of a given genome is truly nonfunctional. The simple fact that it is noncoding DNA does not establish that it is functionless. Furthermore, even if an extant DNA sequence is functionless, it does not follow that it has descended from an ancestral sequence of functional DNA. Logically such DNA would not be vestigial in the sense of being the vestige of a functional structure. In contrast pseudogenes have lost their protein-coding ability or are otherwise no longer expressed in the cell. Whether they have any extant function or not, they have lost their former function and in that sense, they do fit the definition of vestigiality.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial structures are often called "vestigial organs", although many of them are not actually organs. Such vestigial structures typically are degenerate, atrophied, or rudimentary, and tend to be much more variable than homologous non-vestigial parts. Although structures commonly regarded "vestigial" may have lost some or all of the functional roles that they had played in ancestral organisms, such structures may retain lesser functions or may have become adapted to new roles in extant populations.


title: Vestigiality

text: It is important to avoid confusion of the concept of vestigiality with that of exaptation. Both may occur together in the same example, depending on the relevant point of view. In exaptation, a structure originally used for one purpose is modified for a new one. For example, the wings of penguins would be exaptational in the sense of serving a substantial new purpose (underwater locomotion), but might still be regarded as vestigial in the sense of having lost the function of flight. In contrast Darwin argued that the wings of emus would be definitely vestigial, as they appear to have no major extant function; however, function is a matter of degree, so judgments on what is a "major" function are arbitrary; the emu does seem to use its wings as organs of balance in running. Similarly, the ostrich uses its wings in displays and temperature control, though they are undoubtedly vestigial as structures for flight.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial characters range from detrimental through neutral to favorable in terms of selection. Some may be of some limited utility to an organism but still degenerate over time if they do not confer a significant enough advantage in terms of fitness to avoid the effects of genetic drift or competing selective pressures. Vestigiality in its various forms presents many examples of evidence for biological evolution.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial structures have been noticed since ancient times, and the reason for their existence was long speculated upon before Darwinian evolution provided a widely accepted explanation. In the 4th century BC, Aristotle was one of the earliest writers to comment, in his "History of Animals", on the vestigial eyes of moles, calling them "stunted in development" due to the fact that moles can scarcely see. However, only in recent centuries have anatomical vestiges become a subject of serious study. In 1798, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire noted on vestigial structures:


title: Vestigiality

text: His colleague, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, named a number of vestigial structures in his 1809 book "Philosophie Zoologique". Lamarck noted "Olivier's "Spalax", which lives underground like the mole, and is apparently exposed to daylight even less than the mole, has altogether lost the use of sight: so that it shows nothing more than vestiges of this organ."


title: Vestigiality

text: Charles Darwin was familiar with the concept of vestigial structures, though the term for them did not yet exist. He listed a number of them in "The Descent of Man", including the muscles of the ear, wisdom teeth, the appendix, the tail bone, body hair, and the semilunar fold in the corner of the eye. Darwin also noted, in "On the Origin of Species", that a vestigial structure could be useless for its primary function, but still retain secondary anatomical roles: "An organ serving for two purposes, may become rudimentary or utterly aborted for one, even the more important purpose, and remain perfectly efficient for the other... [A]n organ may become rudimentary for its proper purpose, and be used for a distinct object."


title: Vestigiality

text: In the first edition of "On the Origin of Species", Darwin briefly mentioned inheritance of acquired characters under the heading ""Effects of Use and Disuse"", expressing little doubt that use "strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited". In later editions he expanded his thoughts on this, and in the final chapter of the 6th edition concluded that species have been modified "chiefly through the natural selection of numerous successive, slight, favorable variations; aided in an important manner by the inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts".


title: Vestigiality

text: In 1893, Robert Wiedersheim published " The Structure of Man", a book on human anatomy and its relevance to man's evolutionary history. "The Structure of Man" contained a list of 86 human organs that Wiedersheim described as, "Organs having become wholly or in part functionless, some appearing in the Embryo alone, others present during Life constantly or inconstantly. For the greater part Organs which may be rightly termed Vestigial." Since his time, the function of some of these structures have been discovered, while other anatomical vestiges have been unearthed, making the list primarily of interest as a record of the knowledge of human anatomy at the time. Later versions of Wiedersheim's list were expanded to as many as 180 human "vestigial organs". This is why the zoologist Horatio Newman said in a written statement read into evidence in the Scopes Trial that "There are, according to Wiedersheim, no less than 180 vestigial structures in the human body, sufficient to make of a man a veritable walking museum of antiquities."


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial structures are often homologous to structures that are functioning normally in other species. Therefore, vestigial structures can be considered evidence for evolution, the process by which beneficial heritable traits arise in populations over an extended period of time. The existence of vestigial traits can be attributed to changes in the environment and behavior patterns of the organism in question. Through an examination of these various traits, it is clear that evolution had a hard role in the development of organisms. Every anatomical structure or behavior response has origins in which they were, at one time, useful. As time progressed, the ancient common ancestor organisms did as well. Evolving with time, natural selection played a huge role. More advantageous structures were selected, while others were not. With this expansion, some traits were left to the wayside. As the function of the trait is no longer beneficial for survival, the likelihood that future offspring will inherit the "normal" form of it decreases. In some cases, the structure becomes detrimental to the organism (for example the eyes of a mole can become infected). In many cases the structure is of no direct harm, yet all structures require extra energy in terms of development, maintenance, and weight, and are also a risk in terms of disease (e.g., infection, cancer), providing some selective pressure for the removal of parts that do not contribute to an organism's fitness. A structure that is not harmful will take longer to be 'phased out' than one that is. However, some vestigial structures may persist due to limitations in development, such that complete loss of the structure could not occur without major alterations of the organism's developmental pattern, and such alterations would likely produce numerous negative side-effects. The toes of many animals such as horses, which stand on a single toe, are still evident in a vestigial form and may become evident, although rarely, from time to time in individuals.


title: Vestigiality

text: The vestigial versions of the structure can be compared to the original version of the structure in other species in order to determine the homology of a vestigial structure. Homologous structures indicate common ancestry with those organisms that have a functional version of the structure. Douglas Futuyma has stated that vestigial structures make no sense without evolution, just as spelling and usage of many modern English words can only be explained by their Latin or Old Norse antecedents.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial traits can still be considered adaptations. This is because an adaptation is often defined as a trait that has been favored by natural selection. Adaptations, therefore, need not be "adaptive", as long as they were at some point.


title: Vestigiality

text: Vestigial characters are present throughout the animal kingdom, and an almost endless list could be given. Darwin said that "it would be impossible to name one of the higher animals in which some part or other is not in a rudimentary condition."


title: Vestigiality

text: The wings of ostriches, emus and other flightless birds are vestigial; they are remnants of their flying ancestors' wings. The eyes of certain cavefish and salamanders are vestigial, as they no longer allow the organism to see, and are remnants of their ancestors' functional eyes. Animals that reproduce without sex (via asexual reproduction) generally lose their sexual traits, such as the ability to locate/recognize the opposite sex and copulation behavior.


title: Vestigiality

text: Boas and pythons have vestigial pelvis remnants, which are externally visible as two small pelvic spurs on each side of the cloaca. These spurs are sometimes used in copulation, but are not essential, as no colubrid snake (the vast majority of species) possesses these remnants. Furthermore, in most snakes, the left lung is greatly reduced or absent. Amphisbaenians, which independently evolved limblessness, also retain vestiges of the pelvis as well as the pectoral girdle, and have lost their right lung.


title: Vestigiality

text: A case of vestigial organs was described in polyopisthocotylean Monogeneans (parasitic flatworms). These parasites usually have a posterior attachment organ with several clamps, which are sclerotised organs attaching the worm to the gill of the host fish. These clamps are extremely important for the survival of the parasite. In the family Protomicrocotylidae, species have either normal clamps, simplified clamps, or no clamps at all (in the genus "Lethacotyle"). After a comparative study of the relative surface of clamps in more than 100 Monogeneans, this has been interpreted as an evolutionary sequence leading to the loss of clamps. Coincidentally, other attachment structures (lateral flaps, transverse striations) have evolved in protomicrocotylids. Therefore, clamps in protomicrocotylids were considered vestigial organs.


title: Vestigiality

text: In the foregoing examples the vestigiality is generally the (sometimes incidental) result of adaptive evolution. However, there are many examples of vestigiality as the product of drastic mutation, and such vestigiality is usually harmful or counter-adaptive. One of the earliest documented examples was that of vestigial wings in "Drosophila". Many examples in many other contexts have emerged since.


title: Vestigiality

text: Human vestigiality is related to human evolution, and includes a variety of characters occurring in the human species. Many examples of these are vestigial in other primates and related animals, whereas other examples are still highly developed. The human caecum is vestigial, as often is the case in omnivores, being reduced to a single chamber receiving the content of the ileum into the colon. The ancestral caecum would have been a large, blind diverticulum in which resistant plant material such as cellulose would have been fermented in preparation for absorption in the colon. Analogous organs in other animals similar to humans continue to perform similar functions. The coccyx, or tailbone, though a vestige of the tail of some primate ancestors, is functional as an anchor for certain pelvic muscles including: the levator ani muscle and the largest gluteal muscle, the gluteus maximus.


title: Vestigiality

text: Other structures that are vestigial include the plica semilunaris on the inside corner of the eye (a remnant of the nictitating membrane); and (as seen at right) muscles in the ear. Other organic structures (such as the occipitofrontalis muscle) have lost their original functions (to keep the head from falling) but are still useful for other purposes (facial expression).


title: Vestigiality

text: Humans also bear some vestigial behaviors and reflexes. The formation of goose bumps in humans under stress is a vestigial reflex; its function in human ancestors was to raise the body's hair, making the ancestor appear larger and scaring off predators. The "arrector pili" (muscle that connects the hair follicle to connective tissue) contracts and creates goosebumps on skin.


title: Vestigiality

text: There are also vestigial molecular structures in humans, which are no longer in use but may indicate common ancestry with other species. One example of this is a gene that is functional in most other mammals and which produces L-gulonolactone oxidase, an enzyme that can make vitamin C. A documented mutation deactivated the gene in an ancestor of the modern infraorder of monkeys, and apes, and it now remains in their genomes, including the human genome, as a vestigial sequence called a pseudogene.


title: Vestigiality

text: The shift in human diet towards soft and processed food over time caused a reduction in the number of powerful grinding teeth, especially the third molars or wisdom teeth, which were highly prone to impaction.


title: Vestigiality

text: Plants also have vestigial parts, including functionless stipules and carpels, leaf reduction of Equisetum, paraphyses of Fungi. Well known examples are the reductions in floral display, leading to smaller and/or paler flowers, in plants that reproduce without outcrossing, for example via selfing or obligate clonal reproduction.


title: Tribal chief

text: The concept of tribe is a broadly applied concept, based on tribal concepts of societies of western Afroeurasia.


title: Tribal chief

text: Tribal societies are sometimes categorized as an intermediate stage between the band society of the Paleolithic stage and civilization with centralized, super-regional government based in cities. Anthropologist Elman Service distinguishes two stages of tribal societies: simple societies organized by limited instances of social rank and prestige, and more stratified societies led by chieftains or tribal kings (chiefdoms). Stratified tribal societies led by tribal kings are thought to have flourished from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age, albeit in competition with urban civilisations and empires beginning in the Bronze Age.


title: Tribal chief

text: In the case of tribal societies of indigenous peoples existing within larger colonial and post-colonial states, tribal chiefs may represent their tribe or ethnicity in a form of self-government.


title: Tribal chief

text: The most common types are the chairman of a council (usually of "elders") and/or a broader popular assembly in "parliamentary" cultures, the war chief (may be an alternative or additional post in war time), the hereditary chief, and the politically dominant medicineman.


title: Tribal chief

text: The term is usually distinct from chiefs at lower levels, such as village chief (geographically defined) or clan chief (an essentially genealogical notion). The descriptive "tribal" requires an ethno-cultural identity (racial, linguistic, religious etc.) as well as some political (representative, legislative, executive and/or judicial) expression. In certain situations, and especially in a colonial context, the most powerful member of either a confederation or a federation of such tribal, clan or village chiefs would be referred to as a paramount chief.


title: Tribal chief

text: Classical sources of information about tribal societies are external descriptions such as from Greco-Roman ethnography, which identified societies, surrounding the societies of the ethnographers, as tribal.


title: Tribal chief

text: States and colonialism, particularly in the last centuries, forced their central governments onto many remaining tribal societies.


title: Tribal chief

text: In some instances tribes have retained or regained partial self-government and their lifestyles, with Indigenous peoples rights having been fought for and some being secured on state or international levels.


title: Tribal chief

text: Arabs, in particular peninsular Arabs, nomadic Bedouins and many Iraqis and Syrians, are largely organized in tribes, many of whom have official representatives in governments. Tribal chiefs are known as sheikhs, though this term is also sometimes applied as an honorific title to spiritual leaders of Sufism.


title: Tribal chief

text: In Botswana, the reigning kgosis of the various tribes are legally empowered to serve as advisers to the government as members of the Ntlo ya Dikgosi, the national House of Chiefs. In addition to this, they also serve as the ex officio chairs of the tribal "kgotlas", meetings of all of the members of the tribes, where political and social matters are discussed.


title: Tribal chief

text: The band is the fundamental unit of governance among the First Nations in Canada (formerly called "Indians"). Most bands have elected chiefs, either directly elected by all members of the band, or indirectly by the band council, these chiefs are recognized by the Canadian state under the terms of the Indian Act. As well, there may be traditional hereditary or charismatic chiefs, who are usually not part of the Indian Act-sanctioned formal government. There were 614 bands in Canada in 2012. There is also a national organization, the Assembly of First Nations, which elects a "national chief" to act as spokesperson of all First Nations bands in Canada.


title: Tribal chief

text: The offices and traditional realms of the nanas of Ghana are constitutionally protected by the republican constitution of the country. The chiefs serve as custodians of all traditional lands and the cultures of the traditional areas. They also serve as members of the Ghanaian National House of Chiefs.


title: Tribal chief

text: Although both the Nigerian traditional rulers and the wider chieftaincy aren't mentioned in Nigeria's current constitution, they derive their powers from various so-called "Chiefs laws" and are therefore legally recognized. The traditional rulers and select chiefs usually serve as members of each federating state's State Council of Traditional Rulers and Chiefs.


title: Tribal chief

text: The Solomon Islands have a Local Court Act which empowers chiefs to deal with crimes in their communities, thus assuring them of considerable effective authority.


title: Tribal chief

text: Apo Rodolfo Aguilar (Kudol I) serves as the chieftain of the Tagbanwa tribes people living in Banuang Daan and Cabugao settlements in Coron Island, Palawan, Philippines. His position is recognized by the Filipino government.


title: Tribal chief

text: Such figures as the king of the Zulu Nation and the rain queen are politically recognized in South Africa because they derive their status, not only from tribal custom, but also from the Traditional Leadership Clause of the country's current constitution. Some of them are members of the National House of Traditional Leaders.


title: Tribal chief

text: The pre-colonial states that existed in what is today Uganda were summarily abolished following independence from Great Britain. However, following constitutional reforms in 1993, a number of them were restored as politically neutral constituencies of the state by the government of Yoweri Museveni. Such figures as the kabaka of Buganda and the omukama of Toro typify the Ugandan chieftaincy class.


title: Tribal chief

text: Generally, a tribe or nation is considered to be part of an ethnic group, usually sharing cultural values.


title: Tribal chief

text: For example, the forest-dwelling Chippewa historically built dwellings from the bark of trees. On the Great Plains, where trees were rare, some tribes typically dwelt in skin-covered tipis, usually acquiring the lodgepoles by trade, while other Plains tribes, such as the Pawnee, built their lodges of earth. The Pueblo people of the Southwest built their dwellings of stone and earth.


title: Tribal chief

text: A chief might be considered to hold all political power, say by oratory or by example. But on the North American continent, it was historically possible to evade the political power of another by migration. The Mingos, for example, were Iroquois who migrated further west to the sparsely populated Ohio Country during the 18th century. Two Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois, Hiawatha and the Great Peacemaker, formulated a constitution for the Iroquois Confederation.


title: Tribal chief

text: The tribes were pacified by units of the United States Army in the nineteenth century, and were also subject to forced schooling in the decades afterward. Thus, it is uncommon for today's tribes to have a purely Native American cultural background, and today Native Americans are in many ways simply another ethnicity of the secular American people. Because formal education is now respected, some like Peter MacDonald, a Navajo, left their jobs in the mainstream U.S. economy to become chairpeople of their tribal councils or similar self-government institutions.


title: Tribal chief

text: Not all tribal leaders are or were men. Wilma Mankiller was a well-known chief of the Cherokee Nation. Also, the chief may not free to wield power without the consent of a council of elders of some kind. For example: Cherokee men were not permitted to go to war without the consent of the council of women.


title: Tribal chief

text: Tribal government is an official form of government in the United States, as it is in a number of countries around the world.


title: Tribal chief

text: Historically, the U.S. government treated tribes as seats of political power, and made treaties with the tribes as legal entities. Be that as it may, the territory of these tribes fell under the authority of the Bureau of Indian Affairs as reservations held in trust for the tribes. Citizenship was formerly considered a tribal matter. For example, it was not until 1924 that the Pueblo people were granted U.S. citizenship, and it was not until 1948 that the Puebloans were granted the right to vote in state elections in New Mexico. In Wisconsin, the Menominee has its own county Menominee County, Wisconsin with special car license plates; 87% of the county's population is Native American.


title: Tribal chief

text: Mainstream Americans often find pride and comfort in realizing that at least part of their ethnic ancestry is Native American, although the connection is usually only sentimental and not economic or cultural. Thus, there is some political power in one's ability to claim a Native American connection (as in the Black Seminole).


title: Tribal chief

text: Because the Nations were sovereign, with treaty rights and obligations, the Wisconsin tribes innovated Indian gaming in 1988, that is, on-reservation gambling casinos, which have since become a US$14 billion industry nationwide. This has been imitated in many of the respective states that still have indigenous American tribes. The money that this generates has engendered some political scandal. For example, the Tigua tribe, which fled their ancestral lands in New Mexico during the Pueblo revolt of 1680, and who then settled on land in El Paso County, Texas, has paid for a low probable return to the tribe because of the Jack Abramoff publicity.


title: Tribal chief

text: Many of the tribes use professional management for their money. Thus, the Mescalero Apache renovated their Inn of the Mountain Gods to include gambling as well as the previous tourism, lodging, and skiing in the older Inn.


title: Tribal chief

text: The Navajo nation defeated bids to open casinos in 1994, but by 2004 the Shiprock casino was a "fait accompli".


title: IAI Searcher

text: The IAI Searcher (also known by the Hebrew name מרומית "Meyromit" - "Marsh tern", or officially in Israel as the חוגלה "Hugla" - "Alectoris") is a reconnaissance UAV developed in Israel in the 1980s. In the following decade, it replaced the IMI Mastiff and IAI Scout UAVs then in service with the Israeli Army.


title: IAI Searcher

text: The Searcher looks almost identical to the Scout and Pioneer, but is in fact scaled up and is well over twice the size of the Scout. The Searcher is powered by a piston engine. The new design features updated avionics and sensor systems with greater flight endurance as well as increased redundancy for improved survivability. In addition to Israel, the system had been exported and is or was in use by Singapore and Turkey, as well as Thailand, Russia, India, South Korea, and Sri Lanka.


title: IAI Searcher

text: On March 13, 2022, the Russian Ministry of Defence released video of the use of the updated Russian version in Ukraine.


title: IAI Searcher

text: 10 June 2002 – Searcher Mark-II, operated by Indian Air Force for reconnaissance, was shot down by a Pakistan Air Force F-16B using AIM-9L Sidewinder at an altitude of 13,000 ft, after it was spotted by the mobile observation units.


title: IAI Searcher

text: 11 July 2018 – A Russian ""Forpost"" UAV was found on 12 July in a field close to the village of Barqah, about 12 kilometres from the Israeli side of the Golan Heights (Syria) but none of the belligerents claimed the shot-down nor the loss.


title: IAI Searcher

text: The Forpost-R is the designation for the Russian developed UCAV based on the IAI Searcher. In 2008, Russia had approached Israel to import drones following the Russo-Georgian War, with Israel refusing to provide armed drones, an agreement was made to provide IAI Searchers MKII.


title: IAI Searcher

text: According to a YouTube video and information published by the Russian Ministry of Defense on March 13, 2022, Russian armed forces have used an armed version of the Forpost-R Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) to destroy a multiple launch rocket system from the Ukrainian army from an altitude of 3,000 m using guided missiles.


title: IAI Searcher

text: This article contains material that originally came from the web article "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles" by Greg Goebel, which exists in the Public Domain.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Knute Kenneth Rockne ( ; March 4, 1888 – March 31, 1931) was a Norwegian-American player and coach of American football at the University of Notre Dame. Leading Notre Dame for 13 seasons, Rockne would accumulate over 100 wins and three national championships.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne is regarded as one of the greatest coaches in college football history. His biography at the College Football Hall of Fame, where he was inducted in 1951, identifies him as "without question, American football's most-renowned coach". Rockne helped to popularize the forward pass and made the Notre Dame Fighting Irish a major factor in college football.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Knute Rockne was born Knut Larsen Rokne, in Voss, Norway, to smith and wagonmaker Lars Knutson Rokne (1858–1912) and his wife, Martha Pedersdatter Gjermo (1859–1944). He emigrated to Chicago with his parents when he was five years old. He grew up in the Logan Square area of Chicago, on the northwest side of the city. Rockne learned to play football in his neighborhood and later played end in a local group called the Logan Square Tigers. He attended Lorenz Brentano elementary school, and North West Division High School in Chicago where he played football and ran track.


title: Knute Rockne

text: After Rockne graduated from high school, he took a job as a mail dispatcher with the post office in Chicago for four years. When he was 22, he had saved enough money to continue his education. He headed to Notre Dame in Indiana to finish his schooling. Rockne excelled as a football end there, winning All-American honors in 1913. Rockne worked as a lifeguard at Cedar Point in the summer of 1913.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne helped to transform the college game in a single contest. On November 1, 1913, the Notre Dame squad stunned the highly regarded Army team 35–13 in a game played at West Point. Led by quarterback Charlie "Gus" Dorais and Rockne, the Notre Dame team attacked the Cadets with an offense that featured both the expected powerful running game but also long and accurate downfield forward passes from Dorais to Rockne. This game was not the "invention" of the forward pass, but it was the first major contest in which a team used the forward pass regularly throughout the game.


title: Knute Rockne

text: At Notre Dame, Rockne was educated as a chemist and he graduated in 1914 with a degree in pharmacy. After graduating, he was the laboratory assistant to noted polymer chemist Julius Arthur Nieuwland at Notre Dame and helped out with the football team, but rejected further work in chemistry after receiving an offer to coach football. In 1914, he was recruited by Peggy Parratt to play for the Akron Indians. There Parratt had Rockne playing both end and halfback and teamed with him on several successful forward pass plays during their title drive. Knute wound up in Massillon, Ohio, in 1915 along with former Notre Dame teammate Dorais to play with the professional Massillon Tigers. Rockne and Dorais brought the forward pass to professional football from 1915 to 1917 when they led the Tigers to the championship in 1915. "Pro Football in the Days of Rockne" by Emil Klosinski maintains the worst loss ever suffered by Rockne was in 1917. He coached the "South Bend Jolly Fellows Club" when they lost 40–0 to the Toledo Maroons.


title: Knute Rockne

text: While many trace Knute Rockne's debut as a Notre Dame football coach to the war-torn 1918 season, or in 1914 when he became an assistant coach under Jesse Harper, his first position was actually for the Corby and Sorin Hall football teams as a student-athlete in 1912 and 1913. These teams represented residence halls on the university grounds that competed against one other in various sports, the most popular of which was football. The term for these competitions is colloquially known as "interhall" sports. Ironically, while Rockne holds the highest winning-percentage of any major college football coach, his overall record in the interhall football league was a paltry 2–5–4 across two seasons.


title: Knute Rockne

text: During 13 years as head coach, Rockne led Notre Dame to 105 victories, 12 losses, five ties and three consensus national championships, which included five undefeated and untied seasons. Rockne posted the highest all-time winning percentage (.881) for a major college football coach. His schemes utilized the eponymous Notre Dame Box offense and the 7–2–2 defense. Rockne's box included a shift. The backfield lined up in a T-formation, then quickly shifted into a box to the left or right just as the ball was snapped.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne was also shrewd enough to recognize that intercollegiate sports had a show-business aspect. Thus he worked hard promoting Notre Dame football to make it financially successful. He used his considerable charm to court favor from the media, which then consisted of newspapers, wire services and radio stations and networks, to obtain free advertising for Notre Dame football. He was very successful as an advertising pitchman for South Bend-based Studebaker and other products. He eventually received an annual income of $75,000 from Notre Dame.


title: Knute Rockne

text: During the war-torn season of 1918, Rockne took over from his predecessor Jesse Harper and posted a 3–1–2 record, losing only to the Michigan Aggies. He made his coaching debut on September 28, 1918, against Case Tech in Cleveland, earning a 26–6 victory. In the backfield were Leonard Bahan, George Gipp, and Curly Lambeau. In Gipp, Rockne had an ideal handler of the forward pass.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne handled the line and Gus Dorais handled the backfield of the 1919 team. The team went undefeated and was a national champion, though the championship is not recognized by Notre Dame.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Gipp died on December 14, 1920, just two weeks after being elected Notre Dame's first All-American by Walter Camp. He likely contracted strep throat and pneumonia while giving punting lessons after his final game, on November 20 against Northwestern University. Since antibiotics were not available in the 1920s, treatment options for such infections were limited and they could be fatal even to the young and healthy. It was while on his hospital bed and speaking to Rockne that he is purported to have delivered the line "win just one for the Gipper".


title: Knute Rockne

text: John Mohardt led the 1921 Notre Dame team to a 10–1 record with 781 rushing yards, 995 passing yards, 12 rushing touchdowns, and nine passing touchdowns. Grantland Rice wrote, "Mohardt could throw the ball to within a foot or two of any given space" and noted that the 1921 Notre Dame team "was the first team we know of to build its attack around a forward passing game, rather than use a forward passing game as a mere aid to the running game". Mohardt had both Eddie Anderson and Roger Kiley at end to receive his passes.


title: Knute Rockne

text: The national champion 1924 team included the "Four Horsemen" backfield of Harry Stuhldreher, Don Miller, Jim Crowley, and Elmer Layden. The line was known as the "Seven Mules". The Irish capped an undefeated 10–0 season with a victory over Stanford in the Rose Bowl.


title: Knute Rockne

text: For all his success, Rockne also made what an Associated Press writer called "one of the greatest coaching blunders in history". Instead of coaching his 1926 team against Carnegie Tech, Rockne traveled to Chicago for the Army–Navy Game to "write newspaper articles about it, as well as select an All-America football team". Carnegie Tech used the coach's absence as motivation for a 19–0 win; the upset likely cost the Irish a chance for a national title.


title: Knute Rockne

text: The 1928 team lost to national champion Georgia Tech. "I sat at Grant Field and saw a magnificent Notre Dame team suddenly recoil before the furious pounding of one man–Peter Pund", said Rockne. "Nobody could stop him. I counted 20 scoring plays that this man ruined." Rockne wrote of an attack on his coaching in the "Atlanta Journal", "I am surprised that a paper of such fine, high standing [as yours] would allow a zipper to write in his particular vein ... the article by Fuzzy Woodruff was not called for."


title: Knute Rockne

text: On November 10, 1928, the Fighting Irish were tied with Army 0–0 at the end of the half. Rockne entered the locker room and told the team the words he heard on Gipp's deathbed in 1920: "I've got to go, Rock. It's all right. I'm not afraid. Some time, Rock, when the team is up against it, when things are going wrong and the breaks are beating the boys, tell them to go in there with all they've got and win just one for the Gipper. I don't know where I'll be then, Rock. But I'll know about it, and I'll be happy." This inspired the team, who then won the game 12–6. The phrase "Win one for the Gipper" was later used as a political slogan by Ronald Reagan, who in 1940 portrayed Gipp in "Knute Rockne, All American."


title: Knute Rockne

text: Both the 1929 and the 1930 teams went undefeated and were national champions. According to interviews, Rockne considered his 1929 team his strongest overall. Rockne also said he considered his 1930 team to have been his best offensively before the departure of Jumping Joe Savoldi. Rockne was struck with illness in 1929, and the "de facto" head coach was assistant Tom Lieb. Rockne's all-time All-America backfield was Jim Thorpe, Red Grange, George Gipp, and George Pfann.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne met Bonnie Gwendoline Skiles (1891–1956) of Kenton, Ohio, an avid gardener, while the two were employed at Cedar Point. Bonnie was the daughter of George Skiles and Huldah Dry. The two married at Sts. Peter and Paul Catholic Church in Sandusky, Ohio, on July 14, 1914, with Father William F. Murphy officiating and Gus Dorais as best man. They had four children: Knute Lars Jr., William Dorias, Mary Jeane and John Vincent. Rockne converted from the Lutheran to the Roman Catholic faith on November 20, 1925. The Rev. Vincent Mooney, C.S.C., baptized Rockne in the Log Chapel on Notre Dame's campus.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne died in the crash of a Transcontinental & Western Air airliner in Kansas on March 31, 1931, while en route to participate in the production of the film "The Spirit of Notre Dame" (released October 13, 1931). He had stopped in Kansas City to visit his two sons, Bill and Knute Jr., who were in boarding school there at the Pembroke-Country Day School. A little over an hour after taking off from Kansas City, one of the Fokker Trimotor's wings broke up in flight. The plane crashed into a wheat field near Bazaar, Kansas, killing Rockne and seven others.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Coincidentally, Jess Harper was a friend of Rockne and also the coach whom Rockne had replaced at Notre Dame. Harper lived about from the spot of the crash and he was called to make positive identification of Rockne's body. A memorial dedicated to the victims stands on the spot where the plane crashed. The memorial is surrounded by a wire fence with wooden posts and was maintained for many years by James Heathman, who, at the age of 13 in 1931, was one of the first people to arrive at the site of the crash.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne's unexpected death startled the nation and triggered a national outpouring of grief, comparable to the deaths of presidents. President Herbert Hoover called Rockne's death "a national loss". King Haakon VII of Norway posthumously knighted Rockne and sent a personal envoy, Olaf Bernts, Norwegian consul in Chicago, to Rockne's funeral.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne was buried in Highland Cemetery in South Bend, the city adjacent to the Notre Dame campus.Six of his players from the previous year (Marty Brill, Tom Yarr, Frank Carideo, Marchy Schwartz, Tom Conley and Larry Mullins) carried him to his final resting place. More than 100,000 people lined the route of his funeral procession, and the funeral was broadcast live on network radio across the United States and in Europe as well as parts of South America and Asia.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Driven by the public feeling for Rockne, the crash story played out at length in nearly all the nation's newspapers and public demand for an inquiry into the crash's causes and circumstances ensued. The cause of the damage was determined to be that the plane's plywood outer skin was bonded to the ribs and spars with water-based aliphatic resin glue, and flight in rain had caused the bond to deteriorate to the point that sections of the plywood suddenly separated. The national outcry over the disaster triggered sweeping changes to aircraft design, manufacturing, operation, inspection, maintenance, regulation and crash investigation, igniting a safety revolution that ultimately transformed airline travel worldwide from one of the most dangerous forms of travel to one of the safest.


title: Knute Rockne

text: Rockne was not the first coach to use the forward pass, but he helped popularize it nationally. Most football historians agree that a few schools, notably St. Louis University (under coach Eddie Cochems), Michigan, Carlisle and Minnesota, had passing attacks in place before Rockne arrived at Notre Dame. The great majority of passing attacks, however, consisted solely of short pitches and shovel passes to stationary receivers. Additionally, few of the major Eastern teams that constituted the power center of college football at the time used the pass.


title: Knute Rockne

text: In the summer of 1913, while he was a lifeguard on the beach at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, Rockne and his college teammate and roommate Gus Dorais worked on passing techniques. These were employed in games by the 1913 Notre Dame squad and subsequent Harper- and Rockne-coached teams and included many features common in modern passing, including having the passer throw the ball overhand and having the receiver run under a football and catch the ball in stride.


title: Knute Rockne

text: That fall, Notre Dame upset heavily favored Army 35–13 at West Point thanks to a barrage of Dorais-to-Rockne long downfield passes. The game played an important role in displaying the potency of the forward pass and "open offense" and convinced many coaches to add pass plays to their play books. The game is dramatized in the movies "Knute Rockne, All American" and "The Long Gray Line". In May 1949, Knute Rockne appeared in the Master Man story on Kid Eternity comics, Vol 1, number 15.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas () is a 2019 Indian Hindi-language Romance film written and directed by Sunny Deol and produced by Sunny Sounds Pvt Ltd and Zee Studios. This was Deol's third movie as director after "Dillagi" and Ghayal Once Again. The film was released on 20 September 2019.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Principal photography began on 21 May 2017. Dharmendra's Grandson Karan Deol and Sahher Bambba were cast for the lead roles. Over 400 girls were auditioned for Sahher's role.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: With a box office revenue of 10 crore against a 30 crore budget, the film was commercially unsuccessful.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Saher Sethi, a vlogger from Delhi, goes to Manali to review a solo trekking trip organized by Camp Ujhi Dhaar, run by Karan Sehgal. She thinks that the costly solo trip is a scam, and she would expose the camp's owner. Although they start on a bitter note, things began to improve between them during their journey, leading to Karan falling for her. He doesn't confess his feelings but tells her that he is afraid of attachment. Saher admits that she wanted to become a singer but couldn't follow her passion as Viren, her boyfriend, made fun of her at an open mic. He takes Saher to his childhood spot, where he sees a snow leopard, and remembers his mother, who died in an avalanche when she tried to capture a snow leopard on her camera. The trip finally comes to an end, Karan drops Saher at the airport, and both bid farewell to each other.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: On reaching Delhi, Saher realizes that she has fallen in love with Karan and breaks up with Viren. She informs Karan that she is performing again at an open mic and indirectly asks him to come to Delhi. Karan unexpectedly shows up at the Open Mic, and they both confess their love for each other and share a kiss. The next day, at Saher's house party, Karan is introduced to Saher's family members and meets Viren, who invites Karan to his party the next day. Seeing Saher and Karan close and happy with each other, Viren feels devastated and becomes angry and pledges that he will do anything to be with Saher, whether right or wrong. The next Day, Saher's father talks to Karan in anger, and when Saher asks him, he replies that Viren told him everything. Saher speaks to Viren over the phone for lying to his parents, but he blackmails her about leaking her photos, which he took secretly on the Goa trip. Karan goes to Viren, and when Viren abuses Saher and Karan's mother, he thrashes him. Feeling insulted, Saher posts a video online of being eve-teased by Viren, who gets to know about this, goes to Saher's house and gets involved in a fight with her. The fight leads to Saher falling off the first floor. With Saher now in an unconscious condition, Viren's parents use political power to turn the case against Saher and beat up Karan.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Seeing Saher's condition deteriorate and her family suffering all the disrespect, Karan goes to Viren's house, beats him up, drags him to the hospital, and tells him to apologize to Saher. When he refuses, Karan chokes him, almost killing him, but Viren's mother asks him to leave him, and she apologizes to everyone.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Saher soon recovers from the accident, and in the end credits, Karan and Saher are shown as a happily married couple.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: The film was mostly shot at various locations in the Pir Panjal Mountain Range covering Spiti Valley, Kunzum La, Rohtang La, Tabo, Chandra Taal, Kaza, Lahaul Valley and Manali region in Himachal Pradesh; while a substantial part was shot at locations in New Delhi, including a racing car sequence at Buddh International Circuit in NCR.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: The music of the film is composed by Sachet–Parampara and Tanishk Bagchi (noted) while lyrics are by Siddharth-Garima.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Monika Rawal Kukreja writing for "Hindustan Times" noted that the film had done justice to its genre and praised Karan Deol and Sahher Bambba for their onscreen freshness. Also praising cinematography and music, she criticised the writing for lacking punch dialogues and effective humour. Concluding she opined, ""Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas" is definitely one of your run-of-the-mill love stories, but it makes you smile, cry, laugh and brings a sense of freshness."


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Gaurang Chauhan of "Times Now" rated it 2.5 stars out of 5, stated that ""Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas" is a visually stunning film with some good tunes but the movie somehow misses the mark due to its overlong length and a mediocre screenplay. Sahher Bambba impresses".


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Parina Taneja of "India TV" gave 2 stars out of 5 and opined, that it was a love story that failed to leave the audience with lingering moments. Agreeing with Chauhan, Taneja


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: praised the performance of Bambba, direction and cinematography. Criticising screenplay and pace of the film she noted that music though melodious didn't add value to the film. Concluding, she wrote, ""Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas" is a one time watch only if you really want to enjoy the breathtaking visuals of Himachal Pradesh.


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: Further "NDTV" rated the movie 1 out of 5 and wrote ""Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas" lacks the freshness that one would expect from a film with a new romantic pair. The reason is obvious: the plot is as old, but not as sturdy, as the hills."


title: Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas

text: The film performed poorly at the box office, collecting 10.03 crore against a 30 crore budget. "Pal Pal Dil Ke Paas" collected 1.15 crore on the opening day with a total opening weekend collection of 4.15 crore.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: Danger Mouse is a British animated television series produced by Cosgrove Hall Films for Thames Television. It features the eponymous Danger Mouse who worked as a secret agent and is a parody of British spy fiction, particularly the "Danger Man" series and James Bond. It originally ran from 28 September 1981 to 19 March 1992 on the ITV network.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: The series spawned a spin-off show, "Count Duckula", which aired between 1988 and 1993, and an updated series, under the same name, began airing in September 2015 on CBBC.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: The show was created by Mark Hall and Brian Cosgrove for their production company, Cosgrove Hall Films. Danger Mouse was based on Patrick McGoohan's lead role in "Danger Man". The show was intended to have a more serious tone as seen in the pilot episode but Mike Harding (who wrote the music for the show) gave Brian Cosgrove and Mark Hall the idea to make the series silly. "The characters had got stuck in reality and were doing James Bond type things rooted in the solid real world," said Harding, "I argued that once you invented a Mouse Secret Agent then all of creation and a good chunk of not creation was his oyster. In other words we could be as barmy (crazy) as we wanted." In an interview with "The Guardian", Cosgrove said "We reckoned a secret service mouse foiling the plans of an evil toad – Baron Silas Greenback – was suitably ridiculous."


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: Cosgrove and Hall brought in Brian Trueman, who was working as an announcer on "Granada TV", as the main writer. For the voice of Danger Mouse, they picked David Jason after they saw him in the show "Only Fools and Horses". For the voice of Penfold, they picked Terry Scott, who was known for the show "Terry and June"


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: On 4 June 1984, the show was (along with "Belle and Sebastian") the first animated show to appear on Nickelodeon in the United States and quickly became the second most popular show on the channel after "You Can’t Do That on Television", as it appealed to both tweens and adults with its quick-witted English humour. It was often compared to American audiences as a British equivalent of "The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show", due to its gentle satire of politics and outrageous plots.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: It returned to terrestrial television after the BBC purchased episodes of it to broadcast in its daytime schedules with its first broadcast on 12 February 2007.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: The show was expensive to make, sometimes needing 2,000 drawings thus footage was reused while certain scenes were set in the North Pole or "in the dark" (i.e. black with eyeballs visible only, or, in Danger Mouse's case, simply one eyeball) as a cost-cutting measure. This time-and-money saving device was cheerfully admitted by both Brian Cosgrove, who conceived the character and the show, and Brian Trueman, who wrote almost all the scripts from the beginning.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: It has been widely claimed that in the show's viewing figures hit an all-time high of 21 million viewers in 1983. This figure is disputed, as the most viewed programme of the year, "Coronation Street", only achieved 18.45 million viewers. The figure of 21 million appears to be the aggregate of viewing figures for five "Danger Mouse" episodes broadcast between 3-7 January 1983 (20.875 million in total, an average of 4.175 million per episode). For the week ending 9 January 1983, the rating figures of "Danger Mouse" did not place it within the top 10 ITV programmes.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: In the UK, Channel 4's "100 Greatest Kids' TV Shows", the show came third, beaten only by "The Muppet Show" and "The Simpsons".


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: It was named the 62nd best animated series by IGN, calling it one of the first British cartoons to become popular with American audiences.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: A long-running comic strip adaptation, written by Angus P. Allan and illustrated by Arthur Ranson, ran in "Look-in" magazine and was syndicated in various other magazines. Ranson also provided some backdrops for the show. Allan and Ranson's work was highly appreciated by Cosgrove Hall, and the pair were awarded an "Oh Goodness!, Oh Crikey!" award in appreciation of their services. Some of Allan's stories were adapted for the show, although Allan's name was misspelled "Angus Allen". Artist Ranson later went on to illustrate Judge Anderson in the UK comic "2000 AD".


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: A series of video games based on the character also appeared. The first were "Danger Mouse in Double Trouble" and "Danger Mouse in the Black Forest Chateau" (both in 1984) followed by "Danger Mouse in Making Whoopee!" in 1985.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: Two mobile games were published by ZED Worldwide; "Danger Mouse: Quiz" in 2010 and "Danger Mouse" in 2011.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: Some stories were also available as read-along cassettes with accompanying books. They were re-read by the cast for audio.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: During its run, the show spawned a wide range of merchandise, including storybooks, hardback annuals, jigsaw puzzles, a Panini sticker album, View-Master reels, and of course, VHS releases. In the years since, products have continued to sell, often aimed at the now-adult audience which grew up with it, such as T-shirts, mugs, key rings, fridge magnets and posters. To coincide with the 25th anniversary, Cosgrove Hall also licensed rights to a number of companies to produce a range of new anniversary merchandise including Blues Clothing (women's and girls' underwear and sleepwear) and Concept 2 Creation (collectible figurines).


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: FremantleMedia launched a webshop run by Metrostar e-commerce where a wide variety of goods were for sale, including the CD Audio adaptation of two of the show's episodes using the original artists voices, released by Steve Deakin-Davies: The Ambition Company.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: The series was transmitted on ITV via the CITV brand from 1981 to 1992. The show has the initials 'DM' prominently emblazoned on his chest. This causes problems for those translating it into other languages, where a literal translation of the words 'Danger' and 'Mouse' do not have those initials; the Scots Gaelic version, for example, calls the show (and the lead) "Donnie Murdo" (two given names unconnected either with mice or danger). which was broadcast on STV – from 1990 to 1994 and again on BBC Alba in 2015.  The series has also been broadcast on numerous channels on Boomerang (2000–06) and BBC Two (2007–09)


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: He was Dzielna Mysz (brave mouse) in Polish, Dundermusen (Thundermouse) in Swedish, and "Dare Dare Motus" in French, "Dare Dare" being French slang for "as fast as possible". The Slovene translation omitted the DM initials entirely, however, dubbing Danger Mouse "" ('Brave Mouse').


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: In Australia, the show was first broadcast on ABC TV in 1982 it then moved to Network Ten in 1996. It was also the first British cartoon to break into Cheez TV, being shown on the weekdays.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: It was reported in 2013 that the series was under consideration for a revival, and in June 2014 it was announced that a new series was being made for broadcast on CBBC in 2015. The new series is produced by Boulder Media for FremantleMedia Kids. It is directed by Robert Cullen with Brian Cosgrove, one of the original creators, acting as creative consultant. Alexander Armstrong and actor Kevin Eldon voice Danger Mouse and Penfold, respectively; Dave Lamb takes the role of the narrator, whilst Stephen Fry plays Colonel K and Ed Gaughan takes over as Baron Greenback. Armstrong's "Pointless" co-host Richard Osman appears in the series as Professor Strontium Jellyfishowitz. John Oliver voices the character Dr Augustus P Crumhorn III and Lena Headey voices the character Jeopardy Mouse, a character newly introduced into this series. This series aired on Netflix in the US. Kevin Eldon describes the animation style as 'much the same as the original'. The first episode aired on 28 September 2015.


title: Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)

text: Jazwares is the master toy partner, Penguin Books published a range of printed books, including story books, official guides, sticker books, novelty books, annuals and electronic titles and D.C. Thomson & Co. published a monthly magazine with comic strips, puzzles, fact files, poster and competitions.


title: 500 (card game)

text: 500 or Five Hundred is a trick-taking game developed in the United States from Euchre. Euchre was extended to a 10 card game with bidding and a Misere contract similar to Russian Preference, producing a good cut-throat three player game like Preference and a four player game played in partnerships like Whist which is the most popular modern form, although with special packs it can be played by up to six players. It arose in America before 1900 and was promoted by the US Playing Card Company, who copyrighted and marketed a deck with a set of rules in 1904. In 1906 the US Playing Card Company released the improved Avondale scoring table to remove bidding irregularities. 500 is a social card game and was highly popular in the United States until around 1920 when first auction bridge and then contract bridge drove it from favour. It continues to be popular in Ohio and Pennsylvania, where it has been taught through six generations community-wide, and in other countries: Australia, New Zealand, Canada (especially Ontario and Quebec) and Shetland. Despite its American origin, 500 is the national card game of Australia.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Of the many variants to 500, the standard deck contains 43 playing cards: a joker is included (sometimes two, in which case the black joker beats the red one), and the 2s, 3s, and two 4s are removed. Either the two black 4s are removed, or the 4 of spades and 4 of diamonds are removed, in which case the 4 that matches the trump colour is also considered trump, so that there are always 13 trump cards (14 when using two jokers). Cards are dealt to each of the four players and three (four with two jokers) are dealt face down on the table to form the "kitty" (also known as the "widow", the "blind" or the " hole card"). Alternatively, a 45-card deck can be used (46 with two jokers), in which case the 4s are not removed. Each player still receives a hand of 10 cards, but the kitty is increased to five cards (six with two jokers).


title: 500 (card game)

text: Players play in pairs, usually opposite each other. Traditionally, a bundle of three cards is dealt to each player, one to the kitty, a bundle of four to each player, one to the kitty, a bundle of three to each player, one to the kitty or with a 45-card deck: the deal is performed by dealing three cards to each player, then placing three cards in the kitty, four cards each and two to the kitty, and then three. In some versions, if a player does not receive a face card this is considered a misdeal and a redeal may be required.


title: 500 (card game)

text: As in euchre, in non-trump suits, the order of cards from highest to lowest is ace, king, queen, (jack), 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, (4). In the trump suit, the highest card is the joker, sometimes known as "best bower" in reference to the trump jacks, followed by the jack of the trump suit called "right bower", and then the jack of the suit of the same colour as the trump suit called "left bower", which is considered part of the trump suit, followed by the ace, king, queen, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, (4).


title: 500 (card game)

text: Bower is an Anglicization of the German "Bauer", a word meaning farmer, peasant, or pawn. This name is often used to refer to the Jack of German games.


title: 500 (card game)

text: After the deal, players call in turn, electing either to bid or to pass. A bid indicates the combined number of tricks the bidder believes they and their partner will take and the suit that will be trump for that hand, or that there will be no trump suit. For instance, a bid of "seven spades" (7) indicates that the player intends to win seven or more tricks with spades being the trump suit, whereas a bid of "seven no-trump" (7NT) indicates that the player intends to win seven or more tricks with no trump suit (in which case the only trump card is the joker).


title: 500 (card game)

text: In American play, a bid of six is called an "inkle". A player who bids "inkle spades" is indicating to their partner that they have some spades but not enough to bid seven. Only the first two players may inkle.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A player may elect not to bid, or to "pass". Bidding proceeds clockwise around the table, with each player passing or making a higher-scoring bid. A player who passes cannot subsequently make a bid in that hand.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A player who has bid may only bid again in that hand if there has been an intervening bid by another player. However, in some variations a player who has bid and not passed may always bid again in that hand.


title: 500 (card game)

text: The order of seniority of suits in bidding (highest to lowest, as reflected in the scores below) is hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades. Therefore, for example, a player who bids 7 may be outbid by a subsequent bidding player on 7 or 7, but not seven spades. A "no-trump" bid beats any suited bid of the same number. Inkles are typically also similarly ranked: If the first player bids 6, the next player cannot inkle spades, clubs, or diamonds. Their only options are to 6NT, bid seven or more (of any suit, or no-trump or Misère), or pass. Eventually, all but one player passes and the bid is decided.


title: 500 (card game)

text: In American play, there is only one round of bidding, with each player getting one chance, in turn, to either bid or pass. The player making the successful bid then collects the kitty. This player sorts through their hand and discards the least-useful three (or five in the case of a 45-card deck) cards (possibly including cards picked up from the kitty), and places them face down; the discarded cards playing no further part in the hand.


title: 500 (card game)

text: If nobody makes a bid, there are multiple variations. Most commonly, the hand is declared dead and a reshuffle and redeal is made. This can be repeated only twice, after which the deal passes to the next player. Alternatively, the game is played where no bids mean the round is played as no-trump, and scoring is ten points per trick. Other variations include that the deal passes to the next player (no reshuffle); or that if no one else makes a bid, the dealer is required to make a bid.


title: 500 (card game)

text: The game focuses on tricks. The lead starts with the player who won the bidding. In some variations, the player to the dealer's left leads first regardless of who won the bid. Players must follow suit if they can (this includes the left bower or any other card that is considered a trump, if trump is led). If a player no longer has any cards of the suit that is led, they may play any card in their hand. After all four players have played a card, the highest trump takes the trick. If no trump is played, the highest card of the lead suit wins the trick. The winner of the trick leads on the next trick. Once all ten tricks have been played, the hand is scored. The player to the left of the previous dealer deals for the next hand, so that the deal moves clockwise around the table.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Double nullo may be called by one partner even if the other partner passes. In this instance the player who calls nullo draws in his/her partner and both must play and not take any tricks. The person who calls double nullo picks up the kitty and gives the five cards he/she wants to discard to their partner. Their partner then must take those five cards and pick the ones he/she wants to keep and discard the rest.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Variations exist, with appropriate additions or deductions to the deck for playing three, five or six-handed 500. Three-handed uses no teams, five-handed teams rotate and each player takes a turn without a partner, six-handed can be played as either three teams of two or two teams of three. Six-handed 500 requires a special deck with 63 cards.


title: 500 (card game)

text: The game may be played with a standard variation known as "setting". An opponent is "set" when they fail to fulfill a contract by a predetermined number of bids. The point system and scoring remain as per standard, but an opponent who is awarded the kitty and is subsequently set is not allowed to bid in the next round. Note that it is only the player awarded the kitty (not all players on the team) that is not allowed to bid in the next round. In the case of a set occurring during double misère the player who touches the kitty first is not allowed to bid in the next round.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Typically, the set occurs at one trick more than is actually necessary to break the bidding team's contract. In other words, 5 tricks in a 7-trick bid, 4 tricks in an 8-trick bid, 3 tricks in a 9-trick bid, 2 tricks in a 10-trick bid. However, for misère, open misère, and double misère a set always occurs at 3 tricks.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Breach indicates that a non-bidding team intends to breach the contract of a bidding team by at least one more trick than is actually necessary to break the contract. As opposed to the Setting rule, Breach must be called on a per hand basis, and does result in additional scoring. Typically, Breach is not played in a game when the setting rule is being used.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A single player from a non-bidding partnership may call to breach another team's contract after a successful bid for a seven-trick (or more) contract has been made. The breach call may be made before or after the contracting team picks up the kitty, but must be made before game play starts. Typically, a breach occurs at one trick more than is actually necessary to break the bidding team's contract. In other words, 5 tricks in a 7-trick bid, 4 tricks in an 8-trick bid, 3 tricks in a 9-trick bid, 2 tricks in a 10-trick bid. However, for misère, open misère, and double misère a breach always occurs at 3 tricks.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Because breach is not considered an actual bid, a team may not win or lose (“go out the back door”) based on points gained or lost from a breach call.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A player who calls breach but does not fulfill the conditions of breach (win/lose or lose/lose scenario) is not allowed to bid in the next round. A player who bids a seven-trick contract but is successfully breached by an opponent (lose/win scenario) is not allowed to bid in the next round.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A variation on the score keeping, the point-spread rule ends the game when one team has a negative score and the other team has a positive score, which results in a point spread of 500 or more points.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Two-handed 500 is played with a deck of 43 cards as per the standard game. Whereas in the standard game which includes partners, in the Two-handed game each player plays both the hand that is dealt to them and their partner's which is dealt to the table. The deal is the same as the standard game, except that the partners hands are dealt to the table so that they have 5 cards face down, each covered by a face up card (to give a total of 10 cards). Bidding is the same as the standard game except "Misère" is generally not allowed. The kitty is used with the player's hand only and no cards can be swapped between the hands. Order of play is as per the standard game. After each trick any exposed face down cards from the partner's hands are turned up and revealed. Play then continues with the lead from the hand that won the last trick.


title: 500 (card game)

text: An alternative version is played with the standard 52 card deck. Each player is dealt ten cards and then 8 more cards are exposed on the table. Each player chooses one of these cards to be added to the kitty. No dummies are used and the bidding is standard. After the bid is won the defending player adds one of the remaining exposed cards to their hand and discards an unwanted card. The remaining exposed cards are added to the dead card pile.


title: 500 (card game)

text: One additional variant is to use a standard game deck of 45 (or 43) cards and have players alternate in drawing cards from the central deck. The kitty is set aside in advance, and in turn, players draw a card, choose to keep or discard it, and then either discard or keep the next card, taking the opposite action as with the previous card.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Three-handed 500 is played with a deck of 33 cards (a joker plus a "Piquet pack", i.e. 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s and 6s removed from the standard 52 cards). Dealing, scoring and game play are as for the standard game. The common variant is in bidding, where "misère" may be bid before a bid for seven tricks. This variant is permitted due to the relative rarity of seven-trick bids outside of team play. "Open misère" may be bid in a similar fashion. Alternatively, the game may be played with the standard deck (45 or 43 cards) with one hand dealt face down, which remains untouched during the game (a so-called "dead hand"). The common strategy is that the two players who are unsuccessful in bidding form a temporary alliance in an attempt to force the other player to lose their bid.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Another variation allows five players to play. All of the cards in a deck are used (although only one joker) so that each player can be dealt ten cards. The bidding starts to the dealer's left, and works by the same system as normal 500. The player who wins the bidding may then choose to "go it alone" (go on his/her own – without a partner for this hand) or gets to choose a card (the joker cannot be chosen) to select a partner. One of the bowers is usually chosen, or another high card; however, some variants prevent any trump card from being called. There are two versions of this variation. In one, the player who owns the chosen card announces that they have it, and then becomes the bidder's partner for that round. In the other, even the player winning the bidding will not know who the partner is until the chosen card is played (although the card chosen "could" be a card the bidder themselves has, that is they effectively selected no partner). Note that the partnership will usually change for each round. The remaining three players then play against the partnership. The player who won the bid gets to play the first card.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Scoring for this variation uses the same values as normal 500. If the partnership wins the required number of tricks, they will both get points (full points each or half points each, depending on the variation), and if they don't, they will both lose points (either full or half). If one of the three remaining players wins a trick, that player will receive ten points. Neither misère nor open misère is usually permitted in this variant since it is too easy to win. Because the partnership changes each round, there are no fixed teams and each player plays for themselves. This adds dynamic, and new strategies will arise.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Special decks of cards were created by the United States Playing Card Company for playing six-handed 500, using a total of 63 cards. Besides using all 52 cards of the standard poker deck, plus one joker, these sets include 11s, 12s, and red 13s (a variation of their 61-card packs, with no red 13-spot cards, patented in 1881, that had been sold with rules for a forerunner of 500, and updated in 1897 to include red 13s). Each player receives 10 cards, and the kitty receives 3. Players seated in alternating positions around the table form two teams of three players each (or three teams of two, in "Cut Throat Six-Handed" 500). These decks are also made by Queen's Slipper, Piatnik, and Cartamundi. A variation is to use "two" jokers, the black-and-white one ranking highest.


title: 500 (card game)

text: In some versions, no trump games (including misère), the only trump card is the joker (the best card) and it has no suit. There are no bowers and all the jacks fall between the queen and highest number card (ten, twelve or thirteen) of their respective suits. Players must always follow suit and may use the joker to trump a trick only if they cannot otherwise follow suit. A player may lead a trick with the joker by naming the suit to be followed, but may not name a suit to which the player has previously claimed to be void. In some variations, a player may not "renege" with the joker – that is, use it as a card of a suit in which the player has already claimed to be void (unless the joker is the only card in the player's hand). In some variations, the joker may only be played as the first or last card in a suit.


title: 500 (card game)

text: In other variations, the person who wins the bid also has the option to 'Declare'. Such a declaration entitles the winner of the bid to receive one card from their partner after discarding from the kitty or blind. The partner picks their best card and hands it face down to the winning bidder, who must then discard one additional card to retain a ten-card hand. The winning bidder now plays against the opponents without the assistance of the partner and must take all ten tricks. If such a bid is unsuccessful it is scored as −500 (negative 500).


title: 500 (card game)

text: A variation in which the winning team/player must win exactly 500 points. The game is played as normal, with the additional rule that 1000 points (like negative 500 points) loses the game. "Peggings" (or "Scab Points") must be played. This variation usually (not always) results in a longer game, and generates an enjoyable level of complexity to both the bidding and playing.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A variation for four players using two Jokers ("bonhommes") and a standard 52-card pack stripped of 2s and 3s. The white Joker ("la blanche") is considered stronger. The players are dealt 10 cards each in batches of 3–3–4. When 3 are passed, another 3 go to the kitty ("chatte", middle of the table). There should be 6 cards in the middle after the deal. Some variations allow for the final card placed in the kitty to be turned upright for all players to see.


title: 500 (card game)

text: The attacking player takes the kitty and discards six cards of their choice, and no other player may see them. The bidding goes accordingly with the other variation, and Misère ("Nulot") may be allowed. The "petite" misère is equal to 500 points and can only be outbid by 8NT while "la grosse" or open misère is worth 1000 points and can only be outbid by 10NT (the latter is distinguished in that all cards are placed face-up on the table).


title: 500 (card game)

text: The game is played to a total of 1000 points. If a team fails to fulfil its contract, the points are added to the other team's total. Points are never subtracted.


title: 500 (card game)

text: The goal is for the team who wins the bid to take at least as many tricks as they bid. If the high bid is 8, then the team wins the hand if they take 8, 9, or all 10 tricks and are awarded points according to the table below. There are no bonuses for overtricks (tricks over the number bid) in the original rules. If they do not make their bid, the same number of points is "subtracted" from their score. Whether or not the bid winning team achieves its bid, the opposing team receives 10 points for each trick they take. A team wins the game by scoring at least 500 points; if two teams score 500 or more in the same hand, one by winning their contracted bid and the opponent by winning some tricks, only the team winning the bid wins the game ("goes out the front door"), although some Australian versions (see below) hold that winning the game at any time requires winning a bid. The original (copyrighted 1904) rules, by the U.S. Playing Card Co., state "If any player scores out during play of a hand, balance of hand is not played, unless the bidder can win out" meaning that the "first player" to make 500 wins, unless the bidder (also called the "maker" or "declarer") makes 500 later in the same hand. A team whose score dips to −500 points or below (referred to as "set back 500 points") loses the game. This is also known as going "out the back door" or "out backwards".


title: 500 (card game)

text: Scoring for each family of tricks is reduced by 20 points (see table below), causing 10NT (the highest bid) to be worth exactly 500 points.


title: 500 (card game)

text: These are options that may be agreed upon amongst players at the outset, or regional variations of the usually-assumed rules.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Bids are typically made with the consideration that one will be receiving cards from the kitty and playing with a partner (except for misère and open misère) who hopefully will also be able to win a certain number of tricks. While the number of tricks one feel one's partner will be able to win will vary in each situation, one should bid based on that assumption and not only on the cards in one's hand.


title: 500 (card game)

text: On the other hand, it is also important to remember that one's partner will be using the same strategy in their bidding; and therefore, if one's partner bids 6, for example, one may not necessarily want to bid 8 simply because one have two cards of the proposed trump suit in one's hand.


title: 500 (card game)

text: When confronted with a hand that is more-or-less even in two different suits, it is customary to bid on the suit with a higher point value.


title: 500 (card game)

text: When playing with 45 cards, the deck is composed of four suits with 11 cards each, and one Joker. In a suited contract (7, 8, and so on), the trump suit will have 13 cards, the suit of the same colour will have only ten, and the two suits of opposite colour will remain at 11 cards each.


title: 500 (card game)

text: A simple strategy to bidding is to attempt to predict how the unaccounted-for trump cards (the ones one don't actually hold in one's hand) would be distributed among the remaining players, excluding the kitty, with all things being equal. In other words, if one hold seven cards of one suit it can be helpful to assume that the remaining six trump cards are distributed evenly among the remaining three players (two each and none in the kitty). Doing so can provide a basic idea of how many times one's opponents will be able to follow suit in each of the four suits.


title: 500 (card game)

text: If one are successful at bidding a suited contract and are awarded the kitty, a basic strategy of discarding is to eliminate as many non-trump suits from one's hand as possible, thus giving the most opportunity to use trump cards. However, discarding as many suits as possible is only a basic strategy, and should be met with some qualifications.


title: 500 (card game)

text: First, in most contract bids it is beneficial to keep an ace of any non-trump suit, as with all things being equal each player will with high probability have at least two cards of any given non-trump suit, making the ace of that suit a winning card.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Second, it can also be effective in some circumstances to intentionally keep the king of a non-trump suit and a low card of the same suit (for example the 6 and K when spades are trump) when one are unable to discard that suit entirely. The resulting strategy is to then play the low card first, with the assumption that one will lose the trick to the player holding the ace of that suit, and then when one have regained control of the table the king is played under the assumption that it will be a winning card.


title: 500 (card game)

text: The way in which cards should be led will always be situational, and is subject to variations in the rules described in the Rules section.


title: 500 (card game)

text: Sometimes called "flushing" or "bleeding" trump, leading the trump suit immediately can often be (but isn't always) an effective strategy. This is typically done in the following situations.


title: 500 (card game)

text: First, when a player has an above-average number of high trump cards they may wish to flush out the missing high trump cards. For example, if a player who has bid 7 is left holding the red joker and , then they have five of the six highest cards (and six total). A suitable strategy would be to start the game playing highest trump (the Joker) in an attempt to force the play of the J.


title: 500 (card game)

text: An alternative, but similar, strategy in this situation would be to play the Q. This alternative strategy would force the player holding the J to decide between either playing the jack, or throwing away a lower trump card to intentionally lose to the queen.


title: Lowrider

text: A lowrider or low rider is a customized car with a lowered body. These customized vehicles are generally individually painted with intricate, colorful designs, rolling on wire-spoke wheels with whitewall tires. Lowrider rims are generally smaller than the original wheels, ranging down to . They are also often fitted with hydraulic systems that allow height adjustable suspension, where the vehicle is raised or lowered at the owner's command. Given these specific characteristics, while a lowrider is always a lowered car, a lowered car is not always a lowrider. The term is used to describe a class of vehicle, not simply the height from ground to chassis.


title: Lowrider

text: The lowrider car serves no practical purpose beyond that of a standard car. Lowrider car culture began in Los Angeles, California, in the mid-to-late 1940s and during the post-war prosperity of the 1950s. Initially, some Mexican-American youths lowered blocks, cut spring coils, z'ed the frames and dropped spindles. The aim of the lowriders is to cruise as slowly as possible, "Low and Slow" being their motto. By redesigning these cars in ways that go against their intended purposes and in painting their cars so that they reflect and hold meanings from Mexican-American culture, lowriders create cultural and political statements that go against the more prevalent Anglo culture.


title: Lowrider

text: The rise in popularity resulted in a backlash: the enactment of Section 24008 of the California Vehicle Code on January 1, 1958, which made it illegal to operate any car modified so that any part was lower than the bottoms of its wheel rims.


title: Lowrider

text: In 1959, mechanic Ron Aguirre found a way to bypass the law by installing hydraulics that could raise and lower a General Motors X-frame chassis by flipping a switch.


title: Lowrider

text: Lowriding became popular in the 1980s and 1990s, and then regained popularity a little in 2009, then significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. In the 2020s, activists argued that the practice was harmless and banning it was simply the result of prejudice against Mexican-Americans. Bans were enacted in San Jose in 1986 and Sacramento in 1988, but repealed in 2022. In 2022, the State Assembly unanimously passed a resolution urging all remaining cities with bans (including National City, which banned it in 1992) to repeal them.


title: Lowrider

text: In 1959, a customizer named Ron Aguirre developed a way of bypassing the law with the use of hydraulic Pesco pumps and valves that allowed him to change ride height at the flick of a switch.


title: Lowrider

text: The preceding year, 1958 saw the emergence of the Chevrolet Impala, which featured an X-shaped frame that was perfectly suited for lowering and modification with hydraulics. On this car, the standard perimeter-type frame was abandoned, replaced by a unit with rails laid out in the form of an elongated "X." Chevrolet claimed that the new frame offered increased torsional rigidity and allowed for a lower placement of the passenger compartment. This was a transitional step between traditional perimeter frame construction and the later fully unitized body/chassis, the body structure was strengthened in the rocker panels and firewall. This frame was not as effective in protecting the interior structure in a side impact crash, as a traditional perimeter frame.


title: Lowrider

text: Between 1960 and 1975, customizers adapted and refined GM X-frames, hydraulics, and airbrushing techniques to create the modern lowrider style.


title: Lowrider

text: At first, lowriders were only seen in places such as Los Angeles, especially in the 1970s on Whittier Boulevard when lowriding came to its peak. Whittier was a wide commercial street that cut through the barrio of the city in Los Angeles, California. Throughout the 1970s that culture spread throughout the Central Valley and San Jose areas of California, helped by release of the R&B song “Low Rider” by War, and creation of low riding clubs such as Carnales Unidos in 1975, and further expanded with the publishing of "Low Rider" magazine by San Jose State students in 1977. At its peak, "Low Rider" magazine had over 60,000 copies of monthly sales in 1988. Lowriders were featured in the 1979 film "Boulevard Nights", which some blamed for associating lowrider culture with street gangs.


title: Lowrider

text: In the 1990s, low riders became strongly associated with West Coast Hip hop and G-Funk culture. Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Game, Warren G, South Central Cartel, Eazy-E, Above the Law and John Cena (In a music video of "Right Now") among others featured low riders prominently in their music videos.


title: Lowrider

text: Today, the lowriding scene is diverse with many different participating cultures, vehicle makes, and visual styles.


title: Lowrider

text: Junichi Shimordaira continues to import and sell these cars through his business, Paradise Road. The spread of lowrider culture and the fame of Paradise Road even raised the attention of Ed Roth, who is famous for creating custom cars such as hot rods and a prominent figure in Kustom Kulture. Since the introduction of lowriders in Japan and the rise of lowriders in Japan in 2001, it is estimated that there are still 200 car clubs that are related to the lowrider scene that are still active to this day.


title: William Russ

text: William Russ (born October 20, 1950) is an American actor and television director. He played Alan Matthews on the sitcom "Boy Meets World" (1993–2000) and appeared in the television series "Wiseguy", the soap operas "Another World" and "The Young and the Restless" and the feature films "The Right Stuff" (1983), "Pastime" (1990) and "American History X" (1998).


title: William Russ

text: Russ' acting first began on the New York stage before he embarked onto a television and film career. In 1977, he had his first supporting role in "". This film would not be officially released until 2003.


title: William Russ

text: During the 1980s, Russ found work in more supporting roles such as "Crisis at Central High" (1981), a television film also starring Academy Award winning actress Joanne Woodward, "The Border" (1981), "The Right Stuff" (1983) as Slick Goodlin, "St. Elsewhere" (1986) and "Crime Story" (1986).


title: William Russ

text: He continued finding work in both television and film. He also guest-starred in the television series "Miami Vice" in the notable 1985 episode "Evan" as the title character, an ATF agent who shared a history with Don Johnson's character, Sonny Crockett. He made fourteen appearances on the 1987–1990 crime drama "Wiseguy" as Roger Lococco.


title: William Russ

text: Russ received critical acclaim when he starred in "Pastime" (1991) as Roy Dean Bream, a veteran minor league hurler who mentors a young phenomenon. The role earned him a nomination at the 1992 Independent Spirit Awards for "Best Male Lead."


title: William Russ

text: In 1993, he was cast as Alan Matthews on the television sitcom "Boy Meets World". Russ played this role until the series ended in 2000. Russ also directed several episodes of the series during the last three seasons. His other television directing credits include directing one episode of both "Lizzie McGuire" and "Rude Awakening".


title: William Russ

text: However, he continued performing in other series and films throughout his time on "Boy Meets World", primarily television films. In 1998, he performed as Danny and Derek Vinyard's father in the critically acclaimed "American History X". Later, he starred in the short-lived television serial drama "Mister Sterling".


title: William Russ

text: In fall 2009, it was announced that Russ would be cast as the new character Tucker on "The Young and the Restless". Russ' time on the show was short, however, as it has been announced the role of Tucker was being recast with Stephen Nichols replacing Russ in the role.


title: William Russ

text: Russ is the star of the comedy web series "Home at Last". In the series, he portrays "Bob", a homeless man who moves in with the son he abandoned at birth.


title: William Russ

text: In 2014, Russ reprised his role of Alan Matthews from "Boy Meets World" on its spinoff "Girl Meets World". In season 2, he joined the production crew, and directed one episode, being the only cast member to direct episodes of both "Boy Meets World" and "Girl Meets World".


title: Lotus Evora

text: The Lotus Evora is a sports car produced by British car manufacturer Lotus. The car, which was developed under the project name "Project Eagle", was launched on 22 July 2008 at the British International Motor Show. The Evora S was launched in 2010 with a supercharged 3.5-litre V6. A facelifted and more powerful Evora 400 model was unveiled at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show, followed by another more powerful variant, the Evora GT430, which was unveiled in 2017.


title: Lotus Evora

text: The Lotus Evora is based on the first all-new vehicle platform from Lotus Cars since the introduction of the Lotus Elise in 1995 (the Exige and the 2006 Europa S are both derivatives of the Elise). The Evora was planned to be the first of three vehicles to be built on the same platform. The sales target was 2,000 cars per year, with prices between £45,000 and just over £50,000, and sales in America scheduled from the beginning of 2010.