title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: The ruling has also resulted in some states implementing voter identification laws and becoming more aggressive in expunging allegedly ineligible voters from registration rolls. States that have changed their voting policies post-Shelby include both jurisdictions that were previously required to undergo federal preclearance and some that were not, including Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, North Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin and Texas. According to the Brennan Center for Justice, the states most likely to enact voting restrictions were states with the highest African-American turnout in the 2008 election.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Three years after the ruling, 868 U.S. polling places had closed. Five years after the ruling, nearly 1,000 polling places had closed, many of them in predominantly African-American counties. Research shows that changing and reducing voter locations can reduce voter turnout. A 2018 report by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (a bipartisan, independent commission of the United States federal government) found that there had been an increase in laws making it harder for minorities to vote. The commission found that at least 23 states enacted restrictive voter laws, such as closures of polling places, cuts to early voting, purges of voter rolls, and imposition of strict voter ID laws. The commission chair said people "continue to suffer significant and profoundly unequal, limitations on their ability to vote ... That stark reality denigrates our democracy and diminishes our ideals. This level of ongoing discrimination confirms what was true before 1965, when the Voting Rights Act became law and has remained true since 1965: Americans need strong and effective federal protections to guarantee that ours is a real democracy."


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: A 2017 study in the "American Journal of Political Science" by Boston University political scientist Sophie Schuit and Harvard University political scientist Jon C. Rogowski found that the Voting Rights Act's preclearance requirement led to greater representation of Black interests and that this effect persisted long after the Act's passage. Schuit and Rogowski note that this finding is contrary to the "majority's opinion in "Shelby County v. Holder" that 'things have changed' and that the issues addressed by the VRA are 'decades‐old problems'. To the contrary, preclearance under the VRA appeared to substantially increase Black representation in the contemporary era."


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Journalist Vann R. Newkirk II asserted in July 2018 that in "Shelby County v. Holder" and the 2018 decisions "Husted v. Randolph Institute" and "Abbott v. Perez", the Roberts Court has "set the stage for a new era of white hegemony", because these cases "furthered Roberts's mandate to distance the federal judiciary from Thurgood Marshall's vision of those bodies as active watchdogs for the Fourteenth and arbiters for America's racial injustices." According to Newkirk, with these three cases "the Court has established that not only are the legacies of Jim Crow no longer a valid justification for proactive restrictions on states, but the Court doesn't necessarily have a role in advancing the spirit of the franchise. Furthermore, with Alito's gerrymandering decision, the Court holds that past discrimination by states—even at its boldest and most naked—is not really a consideration in assessments of current policies. This part is crucial, because in an era where crafty state politicians have moved toward race-neutral language that clearly still seeks to disenfranchise people of color, a certain default suspicion by federal courts and the Department of Justice based on those state politicians' histories has been the main protective force for the minorities' voting rights. That suspicion is gone now, as are all vestiges of Marshall's intended vigilance. The full text of the Voting Rights Act may or may not be in danger depending on the nature of the challenges that arise for the next generation of justices, but the damage has already been done. If the act represented a commitment by the federal government to ensure the true fulfillment of the Fourteenth Amendment's right to due process and the Fifteenth Amendment’s erasure of race-based disenfranchisement, then Roberts's Court has all but dismantled that commitment."


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: A 2019 "American Economic Journal" study found that preclearance substantially increased turnout among minorities, even as late as 2012. The study estimates that preclearance led to an increase in minority turnout of 17 percentage points. Civil rights and voting rights groups described to "Vox" in June 2019 the consequences they saw six years after the "Shelby" decision, including an increase in litigation with states, growing costs because of monitoring and pursuing litigation over voting restrictions and an increase in laws that created new requirements in the voting process and disproportionately affected minority groups. Voting restrictions and new requirements in the voting process include "strict photo ID requirements, limitations on who can provide assistance at polling places, the curbing of early voting days, and the closing of hundreds of polling places across the US. Other measures, like the purging of voters from state voter rolls and drawing election districts in a way that curbs the power of voters of color, have affected how much power communities of color hold in elections." Automatic voter registration as a prerequisite for voting was passed in 16 states and the District of Columbia as of June 2019. Under these voter registration systems two things happen: if eligible citizens interact with government agencies they are registered to vote or have their existing registration information updated (this is not compulsory; citizens can refuse to participate in the system) and instead of using paper registration forms, government agencies transfer voter registration information to election officials electronically. The Brennan Center for Justice argues that automatic voter registration does not only "increase registration rates, clean up the voter rolls, and save states money", but is also "a new way forward that can help to open access to the franchise and improve American democracy. Particularly at a time when many states have enacted restrictive voting laws and voter turnout has hit record lows".


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Numerous strict voter ID laws have passed in states that required preclearance under the Civil Rights Act. Such laws were passed for the stated reason of preventing vote fraud, but there is no evidence of widespread voter fraud, and critics say these laws are intended to make it harder for minorities to vote. Research is mixed as to whether voter ID requirements suppress turnout, with many studies finding that they reduce minority participation, and others finding no impact. A 2020 study found that the jurisdictions that had previously been covered by preclearance substantially increased the rate of voter registration purges after the "Shelby" decision.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: After "Shelby", Alabama Republicans drew a new legislative apportionment map of the state that some, such as federal judge Myron Herbert Thompson, contended was illegal. Democrats said that the new map packs African-American voters into too few voting districts and is an effort to hamper the power of the largely Democratic voting base.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: In 2014, the Supreme Court said it would hear appeals from the Alabama Legislative Black Caucus regarding the redistricting.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: In an opinion issued by Arizona's attorney general in 2013, Arizona residents who registered to vote using forms provided by the federal government must also provide documentation proving their citizenship, or their registration will be labeled invalid. Attorney General Tom Horne said those who registered using federal registration could vote in federal elections, but not state and local elections without showing proof of citizenship. The attorney general also held that these same registrants will not be able to sign petitions for candidates or ballot initiatives.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Shortly after the "Shelby" ruling, North Carolina Governor Pat McCrory signed into law H.B. 589, which terminated valid out-of-precinct voting, same-day registration during the early voting period, and pre-registration for those about to turn 18, while also enacting a voter ID law. Opponents criticized the law as adversely affecting minority voters.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: The law was challenged on behalf of the North Carolina State Conference of the NAACP in a suit filed by Advancement Project, pro bono counsel Kirkland & Ellis, and North Carolina attorneys Adam Stein and Irv Joyner. The suit alleged that the law violates Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act and the 14th and 15th Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: On July 29, 2016, a three-judge panel of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed a trial court decision in a number of consolidated actions, finding that the new voting provisions targeted African Americans "with almost surgical precision" and that the legislators had acted with "discriminatory intent" in enacting strict election rules; the Court struck down the law's photo ID requirement and changes to early voting, preregistration, same-day registration, and out-of-district voting.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: On October 10, 2018, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit upheld an act of North Dakota that requires voters to have an ID with their name, street address, and date of birth. At the time the state's Native reservations did not generally have street addresses, only post boxes for residents; there was concern that this provision would disproportionately affect Native voting and speculation that it was drafted with that as a primary goal.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Dissenting Justices Ginsburg and Kagan wrote, "The risk of voter confusion appears severe here because the injunction against requiring residential-address identification was in force during the primary election and because the Secretary of State's website announced for months the ID requirements as they existed under that injunction."


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: In February 2014, the Ohio House approved a bill that eliminated the so-called "Golden Week" during which Ohio voters could register and vote on the same day. The bill also cut six days from Ohio's early voting period. In a separate bill, the House made it easier for registrars to reject absentee ballots for missing information. This bill ends a program that mailed absentee ballot applications to all registered voters. Under the new law, Ohio's secretary of state would have to get lawmaker approval to mail these absentee ballot applications.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: While its voter ID law was passed in 2011, Texas did not enact the law until 2013 after the "Shelby" ruling, when the state was no longer subject to federal preclearance for changes to its voting laws. Under the law, Texas voters must show a photo ID to vote. While there are some exemptions, such as for voters with disabilities, most are required to produce a Texas driver's license or state ID card. Other forms of acceptable ID include concealed handgun licenses, military ID, U.S. citizenship papers with photo, and a U.S. passport.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: If the voter does not possess one of the forms of acceptable photo ID and cannot reasonably obtain one, the voter may present one of the following, after which they must execute a Reasonable Impediment Declaration: a copy or original of a government document that shows the voter's name and an address, including the voter's voter registration certificate; a current utility bill; a bank statement; a government check; a paycheck; or (a) a certified domestic (from a U.S. state or territory) birth certificate or (b) a document confirming birth admissible in a court of law that establishes the voter's identity (which may be a foreign birth document).


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Examples of problems under the new law involved public figures: Texas judge Sandra Watts was unable to vote because the name on her photo ID did not match the name on the voter rolls. State Senator Wendy Davis and then-Attorney General Greg Abbott were delayed in voting under the new law. They were all able to vote after signing affidavits attesting that they were who they claimed to be.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: In 2014, the American Civil Liberties Union and the Advancement Project filed a petition asking the Supreme Court to block Wisconsin's voter ID law, charging the measure would disproportionately affect voters of color. Challenging the law under Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act and the U.S. Constitution, Advancement Project litigated on behalf of the League of United Latin American Citizens of Wisconsin, Cross Lutheran Church, Wisconsin League of Young Voters Education Fund, and the Milwaukee Area Labor Council of the AFL-CIO. Advancement Project claimed that Wisconsin's voter ID law, enacted in 2012, is "part of a broader attack on the right to vote". On October 9, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court issued an emergency stay in this case, blocking a Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals order to implement Wisconsin's voter ID law and enabling registration under previous rules for the fall of 2014 elections. It has yet to rule on the provisions of Wisconsin's law.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: On January 16, 2014, a bipartisan group of members of Congress, consisting of Representatives Jim Sensenbrenner and John Conyers and Senator Patrick Leahy, introduced H.R.3899/S.R.1945, the Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014. The bill was introduced to strengthen the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA) and vital protections of it after "Shelby County v. Holder". The proposed Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014 consists of five components:


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: As of June 2014 the Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014 was in limbo because there was no widespread support for amending the Voting Rights Act as it was by its reauthorization in 2006. The House and Senate versions of the bill died in their respective Judiciary Committees. The House introduced the Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015 the next year. It was referred to the House Judiciary Committee on the day it was introduced, but did not move past the committee stage. The Voting Rights Advancement Act of 2015 (H.R. 2867), a similar measure to the Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015, was introduced on June 24, 2015, but died with the end of the 114th United States Congress. The most recent legislative attempt, the Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2017 (H.R. 3239), was introduced on July 13, 2017, and again referred to the House Judiciary Committee.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: New York Senator Kirsten Gillibrand proposed to make online voter registration universal. Under her proposal, states with existing online access would expand their system beyond those with state-issued IDs to allow more young people, seniors, minorities, and the poor access and update their own voter records online. To ensure security, online systems will verify voter's eligibility by checking each person's personal information, like date of birth, Social Security, and address. According to the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University Law School in 2014 several states (California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Utah) and Washington, D.C. passed laws improving voter access, while laws restricting voter access were only passed by a minority of states in 2014. Introduced and pending legislation to expand and improve access to registration and voting include, as of December 2014, electronic transfer of voter registration information, online registration; portability, i.e. the possibility to move a voter's registration with her when she moves to a new address within the same county or state); fail-safe protections; easier registration and voting for students, people with disabilities, military members, and voters who speak a language other than English; and expansion of opportunities for voting registration and for early in-person voting.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: According to congressional Democrats, "Shelby County v. Holder" gave states more leeway to pass even more restrictive voting laws. In February 2019, congressional Democrats therefore introduced the Voting Rights Advancement Act of 2019 (H.R. 4 in the 116th Congress), which would restore the Voting Rights Act's preclearance provision, requiring certain jurisdictions to secure federal approval before enacting voting changes. Alabama, California, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia were predicted to be covered by the act. Since 2013, 19 states have implemented restrictive voter identification laws, closed polling places, and shortened early voting periods, according to U.S. Representative Terri Sewell. U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy added:In the wake of "Shelby County"—which gutted Section 5 of the Voting Right Acts and consequently crippled the federal government's ability to prevent discriminatory changes to state voting laws—states have unleashed this torrent of voter suppression schemes. Because of a single, misguided, 5 to 4 decision, the federal government can no longer effectively serve as a shield against disenfranchisement operations targeting minorities and the disadvantaged across the country. The proliferation of threats to the right to vote in the wake of "Shelby County" makes it unmistakably clear why we need the full protections of the Voting Rights Act. That is why I am introducing the Voting Rights Advancement Act of 2019 to restore Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, improve and modernize that landmark legislation, and provide the federal government with other critical tools to combat this full-fledged assault on the franchise. The proposed bill was later referred to as "the Democrat Politician Protection Act" by Mitch McConnell.


title: Shelby County v. Holder

text: Automatic voter registration as a prerequisite for voting was approved in 16 states and the District of Columbia as of June 2019. The Brennan Center for Justice argues automatic voter registration does not only "increase registration rates, clean up the voter rolls, and save states money", but is also "a new way forward that can help to open access to the franchise and improve American democracy. Particularly at a time when many states have enacted restrictive voting laws and voter turnout has hit record lows".


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base (DM AFB) is a United States Air Force base southeast of downtown Tucson, Arizona. It was established in 1925 as Davis–Monthan Landing Field. The host unit for Davis–Monthan AFB is the 355th Wing (355 WG) assigned to Twelfth Air Force (12AF), part of Air Combat Command (ACC). The base is best known as the location of the Air Force Materiel Command's 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (309 AMARG), the aircraft boneyard for all excess military and U.S. government aircraft and aerospace vehicles.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base is a key ACC installation. The 355th Wing (355 WG) provides A-10 Thunderbolt II close air support and OA-10 forward air controllers to ground forces worldwide. The 355 FW is a host unit, providing medical, logistical, mission and operational support to assigned units. The 355 FW is the sole formal training unit for the A-10 aircraft, providing initial and recurrent training to all U.S. Air Force A-10 and OA-10 pilots, to include those in the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG). The 355th is ACC's executive agent for INF and START treaty compliance. In October 2018, the 563rd Rescue Group, previously a geographically separated unit of the 23rd Wing at Moody AFB, Georgia, was transferred to the 355th Wing, along with its HC-130J COMBAT KING II and HH-60G Pave Hawk aircraft.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: One of the wing's tenant units, the 55th Electronic Combat Group (55 ECG), is a geographically separated unit (GSU) of the 55th Wing (55 WG) at Offutt AFB, Nebraska. Tasked to provide offensive counter-information and electronic attack capabilities in support of U.S. and Coalition tactical air, surface, and special operations forces, the 55 ECG unit employs its Lockheed EC-130H Compass Call aircraft worldwide in tactical air operations in war and other contingencies. It also provides initial and recurrent training to all EC-130H Compass Call pilots, navigators, electronic warfare officers, and aircrew.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Another major tenant unit is the Air Force Reserve Command's (AFRC) 943rd Rescue Group (structured as a GSU under AFRC's 920th Rescue Wing at Patrick Space Force Base, Florida). Equipped with HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters and Guardian Angel personnel, the 943 RQG is tasked to provide combat search and rescue (CSAR) and personnel recovery (PR) support worldwide.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Perhaps the most prominent tenant is the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (309 AMARG) of the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC). As the main location for the 309 AMARG, Davis–Monthan AFB is the sole aircraft boneyard for excess military and U.S. government aircraft and other aerospace vehicles such as ballistic missiles. Tucson's dry climate and alkali soil make it an ideal location to store and preserve aircraft; more than 4,000 military aircraft are parked on the base.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The base was named in honor of World War I pilots Lieutenants Samuel H. Davis (1896–1921) and Oscar Monthan (1885–1924), both Tucson natives. Monthan enlisted in the Army as a private in 1917, was commissioned as a ground officer in 1918, and later became a pilot; he was killed in the crash of a Martin B2 bomber in Hawaii in 1924.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: First Lieutenant Samuel Howard Davis (November 20, 1896 – December 28, 1921) was a pilot and United States Army Air Service officer. Born to Sam and Effie Davis in 1896 in Dyer County, Tennessee, Davis was known by his middle name, Howard. He attended public schools in Tucson. As a young man, his hobbies included horseback riding and shooting; he was a good marksman.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis enrolled at Texas A&M College in 1915 as a student of mechanical engineering, having previously attended the University of Arizona in Tucson. After enlisting in the military in 1917, he was briefly assigned to Fort Hauchuca in Arizona before being transferred to College Station, Texas, to complete his academic studies. He returned to the military after graduation in 1918, assembling airplanes at Kelly Field in San Antonio, Texas. He trained pilots during the first World War, including some pilots who took down German planes. He reached the rank of Second Lieutenant. Davis was honorably discharged from the military about 1919 with the rank of First Lieutenant in the reserve corps. For a time he worked commercial aviation as a manager with the Arizona Aviation Company, where he piloted Orioles and standard manufacture airplanes. Davis married Marjorie Cameron of San Antonio in 1920.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis returned to the Army Air Service in August 1921. He died in a military aircraft accident completing a training mission on December 28, 1921, while a passenger in a Curtiss JN-6 HG at Carlstrom Field, near Arcadia, Florida. One other person, William C. Sinclair, was also killed. They were hunting ducks at the time; Sinclair was piloting and Davis was shooting. After a funeral at the home of his parents, Davis was buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Tucson. He was survived by his widow, his parents, and a brother, Wilton.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis' father was in attendance at the 1925 dedication of the base, as was Governor G.W.P. Hunt, who spoke at the dedication.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In 1919, the Tucson Chamber of Commerce aviation committee established the nation's first municipally owned airfield at the current site of the Tucson Rodeo Grounds. The rapid increase in aviation activities meant a move in 1927 to the site which is now Davis–Monthan Air Force Base. The City of Tucson acquired land southeast of town for a runway and dedicated the field in 1925. Charles Lindbergh, fresh from his nonstop crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, flew his "Spirit of St. Louis" to Tucson in 1927 to dedicate the airport at Davis–Monthan Field, then the largest municipal airport in the United States.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Military presence at the field began when Sergeant Simpson relocated his fuel and service operation to the site on 6 October 1927. He kept a log containing names of the field's customers, including Lindbergh, Amelia Earhart, Benjamin Foulois, and Jimmy Doolittle. Doolittle, awarded the Medal of Honor for his 1942 Tokyo raid, was the first military customer at the field on 9 October 1927. The combination of civil and military operations worked well until the early 1940s, when military requirements began to require the relocation of civil aviation activities.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis–Monthan Airport became Tucson Army Air Field in 1940, as the United States prepared for World War II. The first assigned U.S. Army Air Corps units were the 1st Bomb Wing, 41st Bomb Group and 31st Air Base Group, activating on 30 April 1941 with Lieutenant Colonel Ames S. Albro Sr. as commanding officer. In its military role, the base became known as Davis–Monthan Army Air Field on 3 December 1941. U.S. Army Air Forces leaders then utilized the airfield for heavy bomber operation, sending Douglas B-18 Bolo, Consolidated B-24 Liberator, and Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers, for training and observation missions.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Training at the airfield came to a halt on 14 August 1945, when the Japanese surrendered. Davis–Monthan played a post-war role by housing German POWs from June 1945 to March 1946. It also served as a separation center, which brought the base populace to a high of 11,614 in September 1945.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: With the end of the war, operations at the base came to a virtual standstill. It was then that the base was selected as a storage site for hundreds of decommissioned aircraft, with the activation of the 4105th Army Air Force Unit. The 4105th oversaw the storage of excess B-29s and C-47 "Gooney Birds." Tucson's low humidity and alkali soil made it an ideal location for aircraft storage and preservation, awaiting cannibalization or possible reuse—a mission that has continued to this day.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The Cold War era was ushered in at Davis–Monthan on 21 March 1946, with the installation placed under the claimancy of the recently established Strategic Air Command (SAC). SAC's presence at the base began in the form of the 40th and 444th Bombardment Groups, both equipped with B-29s. As part of the postwar austerity, these groups were later inactivated, with the personnel and equipment being consolidated into the 43d Bombardment Group in October. On 11 January 1948, with the establishment of the United States Air Force as independent service four months earlier, the facility was renamed Davis–Monthan Air Force Base. On 30 June 1948, the Air Force activated the 43rd Air Refueling Squadron, whose KB-29Ms were newly equipped with aerial refueling equipment purchased from the British firm FRL. The 43rd ARS, along with the 509th ARS at Walker AFB, New Mexico, was the first dedicated air refueling unit in history.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 2 March 1949, the "Lucky Lady II", a B-50A of the 43d Bombardment Wing, completed the first nonstop round-the-world flight, having covered in 94 hours and 1 minute (249.45 mph). "Lucky Lady II" was refueled four times in the air by KB-29 tankers of the 43d Air Refueling Squadron, which had made only one operational air refueling contact before the mission. For this outstanding flight, the "Lucky Lady II"s crew received the Mackay Trophy, given annually by the National Aeronautic Association for the outstanding flight of the year, and the Air Age Trophy, an Air Force Association award, given each year in recognition of significant contributions to the public understanding of the air age.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In 1953, the jet age came to Davis–Monthan when SAC units on the base converted to the new Boeing B-47 Stratojet. The 303d Bombardment Wing, Medium, was initially established on 27 August 1951, and activated at Davis–Monthan AFB on 4 September 1951. The wing operated B-29s until January 1952, when it was equipped with KB-29s. On 20 January 1953, the 303d transitioned to the Boeing B-47 Stratojet for its three bomb squadrons, while an additional air refueling squadron equipped with KC-97s was assigned to the wing between 18 February 1953, and 1 February 1956. A standard SAC Alert Area ramp was constructed in the southeast corner of the base adjacent to the runway and the 303d assumed nuclear alert responsibilities when final conversion and checkout in the B-47 was complete.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In April 1953, the Air Defense Command's (ADC) 15th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was activated with F-86A Sabres. A year later, the unit transitioned into F-86Ds followed by a transition to F-86Ls in the fall of 1957. In the spring of 1959 the unit received Northrop F-89J interceptors which it flew for only a year when it transitioned into McDonnell F-101Bs. On 24 December 1964, the 15th FIS was inactivated.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In 1962, the Strategic Air Command's 390th Strategic Missile Wing (390 SMW) and its 18 Titan II ICBM sites around Tucson were activated. The 390 SMW was one of only three Titan II missile wings in SAC and represented the heaviest land-based missile and the largest single warhead ever fielded by U.S. strategic deterrent forces.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In July 1963, the 4028th Strategic Reconnaissance Weather Wing, equipped with U-2 strategic reconnaissance aircraft, began flying global missions from Davis–Monthan. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963, the 4080th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing at Laughlin AFB, Texas, relocated to the base and assumed responsibility for all U-2 operations, emphasizing long-range strategic reconnaissance and intelligence collection. As a Strategic Air Command (SAC) unit, the 4080th was later redesignated the 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing and also acquired Lockheed DC-130 Hercules aircraft for launch and control of Firebee reconnaissance drones that were the precursors of contemporary unmanned aerial systems. The DC-130s and U-2s remained at the Davis–Monthan until 1976, when the 100 SRW was inactivated, its DC-130s transferred to Tactical Air Command's 432d Tactical Drone Group, and its U-2s transferred to SAC's 9th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing (9 SRW) at Beale Air Force Base, California, where U-2 Dragon Lady operations were consolidated with SR-71 Blackbird operations.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 15 June 1964, Davis–Monthan's 303d Bombardment Wing was inactivated as part of the retirement of the B-47 Stratojet from active service. The year 1964 brought back the combat crew training mission of the World War II years with the 4453d Combat Crew Training Wing of the Tactical Air Command equipped with the Air Force's newest and most sophisticated fighter, the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. In July 1971, the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing, flying the A-7 Corsair II aircraft, was activated at the base and the previously assigned F-4s were moved to Luke AFB, near Phoenix, Arizona.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 1 October 1976, the base was transferred to Tactical Air Command (TAC) after 30 years under SAC, with SAC's 390th Strategic Missile Wing becoming a tenant command of the base. It was also that year the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing accepted the first A-10 Thunderbolt II. Since 1979, D–M has been the training location for pilots in the A-10; the base was redesignated the 355th Tactical Training Wing on 1 September 1979. The organization was later redesignated the 355th Fighter Wing since it includes operational, deployable A-10 squadrons in addition to its CONUS training mission


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The 1980s brought several diverse missions to D–M. The headquarters charged with overseeing them was now the 836th Air Division, which was activated 1 January 1981. The AD advised Air Force component commanders and land forces on A-10 aircraft tactics, training, employment and readiness, and subordinate units participated in exercises such as Red Flag and Celtic Echo.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The 41st Electronic Combat Squadron equipped with the EC-130H Compass Call aircraft, arrived on 1 July 1980, and reported to the 552d Airborne Warning and Control Wing. In 1981 D–M welcomed the 868th Tactical Missile Training Group (866 TMTG). The 868th was the only U.S.-based Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM) unit and the source of the crews that staffed the forward deployed GLCM wings in NATO in 1982.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 1 September 1982, the headquarters of the 602d Tactical Air Control Wing (TAIRCW) and its subordinate 23rd Tactical Air Support Squadron (TASS), a unit responsible for the Air Force's tactical air control system west of the Mississippi River transferred from Bergstrom Air Force Base, Texas, and stood up at D–M, bringing 16 OA-37B aircraft and numerous new personnel to the base. The 23rd TASS became the Air Force's first O/A-10 squadron in 1988, providing heavily armed airborne forward air control (FAC) capability for the first time. Unlike all other D–M aircraft at the time, the 23rd TASS fleet's tail flash read "NF", for "Nail FAC"; the squadron's radio call sign was "Nail".


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In 1984, as a result of the first series of Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties START I between the United States and the Soviet Union, SAC began to decommission its Titan II missile system. In 1982, the 390 SMW began removing its 18 missiles and inactivating the associated sites in preparation for eventual demolition.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In October 1981, President Ronald Reagan announced that, as part of the strategic modernization program, Titan II systems were to be retired by 1 October 1987. Deactivation began at Davis–Monthan on 1 October 1982. During the operation, titled "Rivet Cap", the missiles were removed and shipped to Norton AFB, California for refurbishment and storage. Explosive demolition began at the headworks of missile complex 570–7 on 30 November 1983. In May 1984, the 390 SMW's last Titan II at Davis–Monthan came off alert status. SAC subsequently inactivated the 390th Strategic Missile Wing on 30 June 1984.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: One site under the 390 SMW, known both as Titan II Site 571-7 and as Air Force Facility Missile Site 8, was initially decommissioned in 1982. Located approximately south of Tucson in Sahuarita, Arizona, it was saved from demolition and turned over to the Arizona Aerospace Foundation, a nonprofit organization which also administers the Pima Air and Space Museum immediately south of Davis–Monthan AFB. With a variety of items on loan from the National Museum of the United States Air Force, including an inert Titan II missile, Site 571-7 is now known as the Titan Missile Museum and is one of two remaining examples of a Titan II missile site in existence (the other being located at Vandenberg Space Force Base, California; site 395-C). In 1994, the site was declared a National Historic Landmark.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In 1987, the 71st Special Operations Squadron, an Air Force Reserve unit flying HH-3 Jolly Green Giants, was activated at the base. While it served after the invasion of Kuwait in Desert Shield/Storm, it did not survive the end of the Cold War drawdown, and disbanded in 1992.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In the 1990s, the 355 TTW continued to train A-10 crews for assignments to units in the United States, England, and Korea. During this period, the 602nd Tactical Air Control Wing deployed Airborne Forward Air Controllers in their OA-10 aircraft to Operation Desert Storm, providing nearly 100 percent of this capability to the war.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 1 October 1991, the 355 TTW was redesignated as the 355th Fighter Wing (355 FW) in tune with the Air Force's Objective Wing philosophy. The 355th Fighter Wing was composed of the 355th Operations Group (355 OG), the 355th Maintenance Group (355 MG), the 355th Medical Group (355 MDG), and the 355th Mission Support Group (355 MSG).


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In May 1992, the 41st and 43d Electronic Combat Squadrons, flying EC-130E Hercules Compass Call arrived. The aircraft carried an airborne battlefield command and control center capsule that provides continuous control of tactical air operations in the forward battle area and behind enemy lines. This capability added yet more strength to the wing's combat capability. The 43rd Electronic Combat Squadron "Bats" are part of the 55th Wing at Offutt AFB, Nebraska, but operate out of Davis–Monthan. In addition, the 42d Airborne Command and Control Squadron arrived from Keesler AFB, Mississippi on 19 July 1994.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 1 May 1992, senior Air Force leaders implemented the policy of one base, one wing, one boss. The 836 AD and 602 TAIRCW inactivated (the later on 15 June 1992) while the 41 ECS and 43 ECS came under control of the 355 FW. With the mission diversified, the 355th Fighter Wing was re-designated as the 355th Wing (355 WG).


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 1 June 1992, Tactical Air Command was inactivated and all aircraft, personnel and installations previously under TAC were transferred to the newly established Air Combat Command (ACC) on the same date. Following Operation Desert Storm, the 355 WG supported Operation Southern Watch during deployments to Al Jaber, Kuwait, in 1997 by deploying 24 A-10s, in 1998 by deploying 16 A-10s, and in 1999 by deploying 14 A-10s—all to ensure compliance of the 33rd parallel southern no-fly zone. The flight and mysterious crash of Captain Craig D. Button took off from Davis–Monthan Air Force Base on 12 April 1997.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The attacks on 11 September 2001, led to the initiation of three ongoing missions: Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), and Operation Noble Eagle (ONE). After Operation Enduring Freedom, eight A-10s from the 355 WG were called to Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan, to fly close air support missions supporting multinational ground forces.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In September 2002, the 48th, 55th, and the 79th Rescue Squadron's (RQS) transferred under control of the 355 WG, equipped with HC-130 aircraft and HH-60 helicopters. At the same time, the 41st and 43d Electronic Combat Squadrons were realigned under the control of the 55th Electronic Combat Group (55 ECG). While personnel and aircraft remained on Davis–Monthan AFB, operational control of the 55 ECG was assumed by the 55th Wing at Offutt AFB, Nebraska. Another major wing realignment occurred on 1 October 2003, with the activation of the 563rd Rescue Group (563 RQG) on Davis–Monthan AFB. Control of the 48th, 55th, and 79th Rescue Squadrons (RQS) was passed to the new group with the 23rd Wing (23 WG) at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia assuming operational command of the unit.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: In 2003 and 2005, the 354th Fighter Squadron (354 FS) "Bulldogs" deployed on five-month deployments to Bagram Airfield in Afghanistan. During these deployments, they provided 24-hour presence to reassure the Afghan population as it struggled with its emergent democracy, and provided key support during national elections. While the 2003 deployment saw limited action, the Bulldogs employed over 22,000 rounds of 30 mm during 130 troops-in-contact situations during the 2005 deployment. Returning to Afghanistan in April 2007 for another six-month deployment, the 345th again provided 24-hour presence and Close Air Support expertise to coalition forces in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. During this period, insurgent activity level was the highest recorded to date in OEF. The Bulldogs employed an unprecedented number of munitions during this deployment—over 150,000 rounds of 30 mm in support of over 400 troops-in-contact situations.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 26 April 2007, the 355th Wing was re-designated as the 355th Fighter Wing (355 FW) with only A-10 fighter aircraft assigned. Also in 2007, the 214th Reconnaissance Group (214 RG), an Arizona Air National Guard unit, was activated. As of October 2020, the 355 FW is composed of four groups: the 355th Operations Group (355 OG), the 355th Maintenance Group (355 MG), the 355th Mission Support Group (355 MSG), and the 355th Medical Group (355 MDG). Along with their tenant organizations, they make up the 6,100 airmen and 1,700 civilian personnel at Davis–Monthan AFB. The 355th Fighter Wing was re-designated 355th Wing on January 2, 2019. On 20 August 2020, the 355th Wing again realigned and now falls under the 15th Air Force Headquarters at Shaw AFB, SC.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: On 1 October 2021, the 418th Test and Evaluation Squadron was activated at David-Monthan to provide test and evaluation of new tactics, techniques and procedures for the EC-130H Compass Call and HC-130J Combat King II.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The 355 OG consists of six squadrons and over 450 personnel employing A-10 aircraft and an AN/TPS-75 radar system. It provides war-fighters with forces for close air support (CAS), air interdiction (AI), forward air control (FAC), combat search and rescue (CSAR), ground-based tactical air control, and airbase operations. It also conducts all formal course directed aircraft initial qualification/ re-qualification training. All active duty aircraft assigned to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base carry the tail code "DM".


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The 924 FG of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) was reactivated in 2011 and initially assigned to Davis–Monthan AFB as an "associate" unit to the 355 FW flying the A-10 aircraft. As part of the Air Force Reserve Command, it is also a geographically separated unit (GSU) of AFRC's 944th Fighter Wing (944 FW) at Luke AFB, Arizona. Like the 355 FW, the 924 FG currently flies the same Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II close air support aircraft. The 924 FG consists of the 47th Fighter Squadron (A-10C), 924th Maintenance Squadron, 924th Operational Support Flight.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Between October 2013 and March 2014, the 924 FG transitioned from being a "classic" associate unit when it gained 28 A-10 aircraft of its own from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana. The 924th is now part of the Total Force Enterprise, and is the only unit-equipped both active and classic associate fighter group in Air Force Reserve Command's inventory. With oversight of the 47th Fighter Squadron, 924th MS, and 924th OSF, the group is charged with working with the Regular Air Force's 355th Fighter Wing to functionally integrate with the 355th Operations Group and 355th Maintenance Group to conduct A-10 pilot training at Davis–Monthan AFB.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Davis Monthan is headquarters of Air Combat Command's Twelfth Air Force and the 612th Air and Space Operations Center which operates AFSOUTH's Combined Air and Space Operations Center (CAOC). Other Direct Report Units include the 612th Air Communications Squadron.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG) is part of Air Force Materiel Command and is responsible for the base's aircraft "graveyard", the largest in terms of number of planes in the world, where old military and other aircraft are stationed either to be stored indefinitely, demilitarized for museum or monument display, stripped and pulped/recycled, or restored for service.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: The base provides additional active duty support to the 162d Fighter Wing (162 FW) of the Arizona Air National Guard and the Air National Guard Air Force Reserve Command Test Center, both located at Tucson Air National Guard Base at nearby Tucson International Airport, and both of which fly the F-16C and F-16D Fighting Falcon, with the latter also operating an A-10 Thunderbolt II detachment in concert with the 355 FW at Davis–Monthan AFB.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Also located on base is the 25th Operational Weather Squadron 25 OWS. The squadron produces forecasts for the Western United States and is part of the 1st Weather Group (1 WXG) headquartered at Offutt Air Force Base, Neb. The squadron also serves as a training hub for new weather professionals—both enlisted and officers.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Other military activities and federal agencies using the base include the Navy Operational Support Center Tucson, a detachment of the Naval Air Systems Command, the Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection Air and Marine Operations Tucson Air Branch, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.


title: Davis–Monthan Air Force Base

text: Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Davis–Monthan, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The Euthyphro dilemma is found in Plato's dialogue "Euthyphro", in which Socrates asks Euthyphro, "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a)


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Although it was originally applied to the ancient Greek pantheon, the dilemma has implications for modern monotheistic religions. Gottfried Leibniz asked whether the good and just "is good and just because God wills it or whether God wills it because it is good and just". Ever since Plato's original discussion, this question has presented a problem for some theists, though others have thought it a false dilemma, and it continues to be an object of theological and philosophical discussion today.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Socrates and Euthyphro discuss the nature of piety in Plato's "Euthyphro". Euthyphro proposes (6e) that the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) is the same thing as that which is loved by the gods (τὸ θεοφιλές), but Socrates finds a problem with this proposal: the gods may disagree among themselves (7e). Euthyphro then revises his definition, so that piety is only that which is loved by all of the gods unanimously (9e).


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: At this point the dilemma surfaces. Socrates asks whether the gods love the pious because it is the pious, or whether the pious is pious only because it is loved by the gods (10a). Socrates and Euthyphro both contemplate the first option: surely the gods love the pious because it is the pious. But this means, Socrates argues, that we are forced to reject the second option: the fact that the gods love something cannot explain why the pious is the pious (10d). Socrates points out that if both options were true, they together would yield a vicious circle, with the gods loving the pious because it is the pious, and the pious being the pious because the gods love it. And this in turn means, Socrates argues, that the pious is not the same as the god-beloved, for what makes the pious the pious is not what makes the god-beloved the god-beloved. After all, what makes the god-beloved the god-beloved is the fact that the gods love it, whereas what makes the pious the pious is something else (9d-11a). Thus Euthyphro's theory does not give us the very "nature" of the pious, but at most a "quality" of the pious (11ab).


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The dilemma can be modified to apply to philosophical theism, where it is still the object of theological and philosophical discussion, largely within the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic traditions. As German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz presented this version of the dilemma: "It is generally agreed that whatever God wills is good and just. But there remains the question whether it is good and just because God wills it or whether God wills it because it is good and just; in other words, whether justice and Goodness are arbitrary or whether they belong to the necessary and eternal truths about the nature of things."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Many philosophers and theologians have addressed the Euthyphro dilemma since the time of Plato, though not always with reference to the Platonic dialogue. According to scholar Terence Irwin, the issue and its connection with Plato was revived by Ralph Cudworth and Samuel Clarke in the 17th and 18th centuries. More recently, it has received a great deal of attention from contemporary philosophers working in metaethics and the philosophy of religion. Philosophers and theologians aiming to defend theism against the threat of the dilemma have developed a variety of responses.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The first horn of the dilemma (i.e. that which is right is commanded by God "because it is right") goes by a variety of names, including intellectualism, rationalism, realism, naturalism, and objectivism. Roughly, it is the view that there are independent moral standards: some actions are right or wrong in themselves, independent of God's commands. This is the view accepted by Socrates and Euthyphro in Plato's dialogue. The Mu'tazilah school of Islamic theology also defended the view (with, for example, Nazzam maintaining that God is powerless to engage in injustice or lying), as did the Islamic philosopher Averroes. Thomas Aquinas never explicitly addresses the Euthyphro dilemma, but Aquinas scholars often put him on this side of the issue. Aquinas draws a distinction between what is good or evil in itself and what is good or evil because of God's commands, with unchangeable moral standards forming the bulk of natural law. Thus he contends that not even God can change the Ten Commandments (adding, however, that God "can" change what individuals deserve in particular cases, in what might look like special dispensations to murder or stealing). Among later Scholastics, Gabriel Vásquez is particularly clear-cut about obligations existing prior to anyone's will, even God's. Modern natural law theory saw Grotius and Leibniz also putting morality prior to God's will, comparing moral truths to unchangeable mathematical truths, and engaging voluntarists like Pufendorf in philosophical controversy. Cambridge Platonists like Benjamin Whichcote and Ralph Cudworth mounted seminal attacks on voluntarist theories, paving the way for the later rationalist metaethics of Samuel Clarke and Richard Price; what emerged was a view on which eternal moral standards, though dependent on God in some way, exist independently of God's will and prior to God's commands. Contemporary philosophers of religion who embrace this horn of the Euthyphro dilemma include Richard Swinburne and T. J. Mawson (though see below for complications).


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Contemporary philosophers Joshua Hoffman and Gary S. Rosenkrantz take the first horn of the dilemma, branding divine command theory a "subjective theory of value" that makes morality arbitrary. They accept a theory of morality on which, "right and wrong, good and bad, are in a sense independent of what "anyone" believes, wants, or prefers." They do not address the aforementioned problems with the first horn, but do consider a related problem concerning God's omnipotence: namely, that it might be handicapped by his inability to bring about what is independently evil. To this they reply that God is omnipotent, even though there are states of affairs he cannot bring about: omnipotence is a matter of "maximal power", not an ability to bring about all possible states of affairs. And supposing that it is impossible for God not to exist, then since there cannot be more than one omnipotent being, it is therefore impossible for any being to have more power than God (e.g., a being who is omnipotent but not omnibenevolent). Thus God's omnipotence remains intact.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Richard Swinburne and T. J. Mawson have a slightly more complicated view. They both take the first horn of the dilemma when it comes to "necessary" moral truths. But divine commands are not totally irrelevant, for God and his will can still effect "contingent" moral truths. On the one hand, the most fundamental moral truths hold true regardless of whether God exists or what God has commanded: "Genocide and torturing children are wrong and would remain so whatever commands any person issued." This is because, according to Swinburne, such truths are true as a matter of logical necessity: like the laws of logic, one cannot deny them without contradiction. This parallel offers a solution to the aforementioned problems of God's sovereignty, omnipotence, and freedom: namely, that these necessary truths of morality pose no more of a threat than the laws of logic. On the other hand, there is still an important role for God's will. First, there are some divine commands that can directly create moral obligations: e.g., the command to worship on Sundays instead of on Tuesdays. Notably, not even these commands, for which Swinburne and Mawson take the second horn of the dilemma, have ultimate, underived authority. Rather, they create obligations only because of God's role as creator and sustainer and indeed owner of the universe, together with the necessary moral truth that we owe some limited consideration to benefactors and owners. Second, God can make an "indirect" moral difference by deciding what sort of universe to create. For example, whether a public policy is morally good might indirectly depend on God's creative acts: the policy's goodness or badness might depend on its effects, and those effects would in turn depend on the sort of universe God has decided to create.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The second horn of the dilemma (i.e. that which is right is right "because it is commanded by God") is sometimes known as divine command theory or voluntarism. Roughly, it is the view that there are no moral standards other than God's will: without God's commands, nothing would be right or wrong. This view was partially defended by Duns Scotus, who argued that not all Ten Commandments belong to the Natural Law in the strictest sense. Scotus held that while our duties to God (the first three commandments, traditionally thought of as the First Tablet) are self-evident, true by definition, and unchangeable even by God, our duties to others (found on the second tablet) were arbitrarily willed by God and are within his power to revoke and replace (although, the third commandment, to honour the Sabbath and keep it holy, has a little of both, as we are absolutely obliged to render worship to God, but there is no obligation in natural law to do it on this day or that). Scotus does note, however that the last seven commandments ""are highly consonant with [the natural law], though they do not follow necessarily from first practical principles that are known in virtue of their terms and are necessarily known by any intellect [that understands their terms. And it is certain that all the precepts of the second table belong to the natural law in this second way, since their rectitude is highly consonant with first practical principles that are known necessarily"". Scotus justifies this position with the example of a peaceful society, noting that the possession of private property is not necessary to have a peaceful society, but that "those of weak character" would be more easily made peaceful with private property than without.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: William of Ockham went further, contending that (since there is no contradiction in it) God could command us not to love God and even to "hate" God. Later Scholastics like Pierre D'Ailly and his student Jean de Gerson explicitly confronted the Euthyphro dilemma, taking the voluntarist position that God does not "command good actions because they are good or prohibit evil ones because they are evil; but... these are therefore good because they are commanded and evil because prohibited." Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin both stressed the absolute sovereignty of God's will, with Luther writing that "for [God's] will there is no cause or reason that can be laid down as a rule or measure for it", and Calvin writing that "everything which [God] wills must be held to be righteous by the mere fact of his willing it." The voluntarist emphasis on God's absolute power was carried further by Descartes, who notoriously held that God had freely created the eternal truths of logic and mathematics, and that God was therefore capable of giving circles unequal radii, giving triangles other than 180 internal degrees, and even making contradictions true. Descartes explicitly seconded Ockham: "why should [God] not have been able to give this command [i.e., the command to hate God] to one of his creatures?" Thomas Hobbes notoriously reduced the justice of God to "irresistible power" (drawing the complaint of Bishop Bramhall that this "overturns... all law"). And William Paley held that all moral obligations bottom out in the self-interested "urge" to avoid Hell and enter Heaven by acting in accord with God's commands. Islam's Ash'arite theologians, al-Ghazali foremost among them, embraced voluntarism: scholar George Hourani writes that the view "was probably more prominent and widespread in Islam than in any other civilization." Wittgenstein said that of "the two interpretations of the Essence of the Good", that which holds that "the Good is good, in virtue of the fact that God wills it" is "the deeper", while that which holds that "God wills the good, because it is good" is "the shallow, rationalistic one, in that it behaves 'as though' that which is good could be given some further foundation". Today, divine command theory is defended by many philosophers of religion, though typically in a restricted form (see below).


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: One common response to the Euthyphro dilemma centers on a distinction between "value" and "obligation". Obligation, which concerns rightness and wrongness (or what is required, forbidden, or permissible), is given a voluntarist treatment. But value, which concerns goodness and badness, is treated as independent of divine commands. The result is a "restricted" divine command theory that applies only to a specific region of morality: the deontic region of obligation. This response is found in Francisco Suárez's discussion of natural law and voluntarism in "De legibus" and has been prominent in contemporary philosophy of religion, appearing in the work of Robert M. Adams, Philip L. Quinn, and William P. Alston.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: A significant attraction of such a view is that, since it allows for a non-voluntarist treatment of goodness and badness, and therefore of God's own moral attributes, some of the aforementioned problems with voluntarism can perhaps be answered. God's commands are not arbitrary: there are reasons which guide his commands based ultimately on this goodness and badness. God could not issue horrible commands: God's own essential goodness or loving character would keep him from issuing any unsuitable commands. Our obligation to obey God's commands does not result in circular reasoning; it might instead be based on a gratitude whose appropriateness is itself independent of divine commands. These proposed solutions are controversial, and some steer the view back into problems associated with the first horn.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: One problem remains for such views: if God's own essential goodness does not depend on divine commands, then on what "does" it depend? Something other than God? Here the restricted divine command theory is commonly combined with a view reminiscent of Plato: God is identical to the ultimate standard for goodness. Alston offers the analogy of the standard meter bar in France. Something is a meter long inasmuch as it is the same length as the standard meter bar, and likewise, something is good inasmuch as it approximates God. If one asks why "God" is identified as the ultimate standard for goodness, Alston replies that this is "the end of the line," with no further explanation available, but adds that this is no more arbitrary than a view that invokes a fundamental moral standard. On this view, then, even though goodness is independent of God's "will", it still depends on "God", and thus God's sovereignty remains intact.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: This solution has been criticized by Wes Morriston. If we identify the ultimate standard for goodness with God's nature, then it seems we are identifying it with certain properties of God (e.g., being loving, being just). If so, then the dilemma resurfaces: is God good because he has those properties, or are those properties good because God has them? Nevertheless, Morriston concludes that the appeal to God's essential goodness is the divine-command theorist's best bet. To produce a satisfying result, however, it would have to give an account of God's goodness that does not trivialize it and does not make God subject to an independent standard of goodness.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Moral philosopher Peter Singer, disputing the perspective that "God is good" and could never advocate something like torture, states that those who propose this are "caught in a trap of their own making, for what can they possibly mean by the assertion that God is good? That God is approved of by God?"


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Augustine, Anselm, and Aquinas all wrote about the issues raised by the Euthyphro dilemma, although, like William James and Wittgenstein later, they did not mention it by name. As philosopher and Anselm scholar Katherin A. Rogers observes, many contemporary philosophers of religion suppose that there are true propositions which exist as platonic abstracta independently of God. Among these are propositions constituting a moral order, to which God must conform in order to be good. Classical Judaeo-Christian theism, however, rejects such a view as inconsistent with God's omnipotence, which requires that God and what he has made is all that there is. "The classical tradition," Rogers notes, "also steers clear of the other horn of the Euthyphro dilemma, divine command theory." From a classical theistic perspective, therefore, the Euthyphro dilemma is false. As Rogers puts it, "Anselm, like Augustine before him and Aquinas later, rejects both horns of the Euthyphro dilemma. God neither conforms to nor invents the moral order. Rather His very nature is the standard for value." Another criticism raised by Peter Geach is that the dilemma implies you must search for a definition that fits piety rather than work backwards by deciding pious acts (i.e. you must know what piety is before you can list acts which are pious). It also implies something can not be pious if it is only intended to serve the Gods without actually fulfilling any useful purpose.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The basis of the false dilemma response—God's nature is the standard for value—predates the dilemma itself, appearing first in the thought of the eighth-century BC Hebrew prophets, Amos, Hosea, Micah and Isaiah. (Amos lived some three centuries before Socrates and two before Thales, traditionally regarded as the first Greek philosopher.) "Their message," writes British scholar Norman H. Snaith, "is recognized by all as marking a considerable advance on all previous ideas," not least in its "special consideration for the poor and down-trodden." As Snaith observes, "tsedeq", the Hebrew word for righteousness, "actually stands for the establishment of God's will in the land." This includes justice, but goes beyond it, "because God's will is wider than justice. He has a particular regard for the helpless ones on earth." "Tsedeq" "is the norm by which all must be judged" and it "depends entirely upon the Nature of God."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Hebrew has few abstract nouns. What the Greeks thought of as ideas or abstractions, the Hebrews thought of as activities. In contrast to the Greek "dikaiosune" (justice) of the philosophers, "tsedeq" is not an idea abstracted from this world of affairs. As Snaith writes:


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The Hebrew stance on what came to be called the problem of universals, as on much else, was very different from that of Plato and precluded anything like the Euthyphro dilemma. This has not changed. In 2005, Jonathan Sacks wrote, "In Judaism, the Euthyphro dilemma does not exist." Jewish philosophers Avi Sagi and Daniel Statman criticized the Euthyphro dilemma as "misleading" because "it is not exhaustive": it leaves out a third option, namely that God "acts only out of His nature."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Like Aristotle, Aquinas rejected Platonism. In his view, to speak of abstractions not only as existent, but as more perfect exemplars than fully designated particulars, is to put a premium on generality and vagueness. On this analysis, the abstract "good" in the first horn of the Euthyphro dilemma is an unnecessary obfuscation. Aquinas frequently quoted with approval Aristotle's definition, "Good is what all desire." As he clarified, "When we say that good is what all desire, it is not to be understood that every kind of good thing is desired by all, but that whatever is desired has the nature of good." In other words, even those who desire evil desire it "only under the aspect of good," i.e., of what is desirable. The difference between desiring good and desiring evil is that in the former, will and reason are in harmony, whereas in the latter, they are in discord.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Aquinas's discussion of sin provides a good point of entry to his philosophical explanation of why the nature of God is the standard for value. "Every sin," he writes, "consists in the longing for a passing [i.e., ultimately unreal or false] good." Thus, "in a certain sense it is true what Socrates says, namely that no one sins with full knowledge." "No sin in the will happens without an ignorance of the understanding." God, however, has full knowledge (omniscience) and therefore by definition (that of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle as well as Aquinas) can never will anything other than what is good. It has been claimed – for instance, by Nicolai Hartmann, who wrote: "There is no freedom for the good that would not be at the same time freedom for evil" – that this would limit God's freedom, and therefore his omnipotence. Josef Pieper, however, replies that such arguments rest upon an impermissibly anthropomorphic conception of God. In the case of humans, as Aquinas says, to be able to sin is indeed a consequence, or even a sign, of freedom ("quodam libertatis signum"). Humans, in other words, are not puppets manipulated by God so that they always do what is right. However, "it does not belong to the essence of the free will to be able to decide for evil." "To will evil is neither freedom nor a part of freedom." It is precisely humans' creatureliness – that is, their not being God and therefore omniscient – that makes them capable of sinning. Consequently, writes Pieper, "the inability to sin should be looked on as the very signature of a higher freedom – contrary to the usual way of conceiving the issue." Pieper concludes: "Only "the" will [i.e., God's] can be the right standard of its own willing and must will what is right necessarily, from within itself, and always. A deviation from the norm would not even be thinkable. And obviously only the absolute divine will is the right standard of its own act" – and consequently of all human acts. Thus the second horn of the Euthyphro dilemma, divine command theory, is also disposed of.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Thomist philosopher Edward Feser writes, "Divine simplicity [entails] that God's will just is God's goodness which just is His immutable and necessary existence. That means that what is objectively good and what God wills for us as morally obligatory are really the same thing considered under different descriptions, and that neither could have been other than they are. There can be no question then, either of God's having arbitrarily commanded something different for us (torturing babies for fun, or whatever) or of there being a standard of goodness apart from Him. Again, the Euthyphro dilemma is a false one; the third option that it fails to consider is that what is morally obligatory is what God commands in accordance with a non-arbitrary and unchanging standard of goodness that is not independent of Him... He is not "under" the moral law precisely because He "is" the moral law."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: William James, in his essay "The Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life", dismisses the first horn of the Euthyphro dilemma and stays clear of the second. He writes: "Our ordinary attitude of regarding ourselves as subject to an overarching system of moral relations, true 'in themselves,' is ... either an out-and-out superstition, or else it must be treated as a merely provisional abstraction from that real Thinker ... to whom the existence of the universe is due." Moral obligations are created by "personal demands," whether these demands come from the weakest creatures, from the most insignificant persons, or from God. It follows that "ethics have as genuine a foothold in a universe where the highest consciousness is human, as in a universe where there is a God as well." However, whether "the purely human system" works "as well as the other is a different question."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: For James, the deepest practical difference in the moral life is between what he calls "the easy-going and the strenuous mood." In a purely human moral system, it is hard to rise above the easy-going mood, since the thinker's "various ideals, known to him to be mere preferences of his own, are too nearly of the same denominational value; he can play fast and loose with them at will. This too is why, in a merely human world without a God, the appeal to our moral energy falls short of its maximum stimulating power." Our attitude is "entirely different" in a world where there are none but "finite demanders" from that in a world where there is also "an infinite demander." This is because "the stable and systematic moral universe for which the ethical philosopher asks is fully possible only in a world where there is a divine thinker with all-enveloping demands", for in that case, "actualized in his thought already must be that ethical philosophy which we seek as the pattern which our own must evermore approach." Even though "exactly what the thought of this infinite thinker may be is hidden from us", our postulation of him serves "to let loose in us the strenuous mood" and confront us with an existential "challenge" in which "our total character and personal genius ... are on trial; and if we invoke any so-called philosophy, our choice and use of that also are but revelations of our personal aptitude or incapacity for moral life. From this unsparing practical ordeal no professor's lectures and no array of books can save us." In the words of Richard M. Gale, "God inspires us to lead the morally strenuous life in virtue of our conceiving of him as unsurpassably "good". This supplies James with an adequate answer to the underlying question of the "Euthyphro"."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Atheism challenges the assumption of the dilemma that God exists (or in the original formulation, that the many gods in Greek religion existed). This eliminates the need to decide whether God is either non-omniscient or arbitrary, and also eliminates the possibility of God as the source of morality.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Secular humanism takes the positive stance that morality is not dependent on religion or theology, and that ethical rules should be developed based on reason, science, experience, debate, and democracy. Some secular humanists believe in ethical naturalism, that there are objective, discoverable laws of morality inherent to the human condition, of which humans may have imperfect knowledge. Others have adopted ethical subjectivism in the sense of meta-ethics – the idea that ethics are a social construct – but nonetheless by way of utilitarianism advocate imposing a set of universal ethics and laws that create the type of society in which they wish to live, where people are safe, prosperous, and happy. These competing resolutions represent different answers to a question similar to the original dilemma: "Is something inherently ethical or unethical, or is something ethical or unethical because a person or society says it is so?"


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: The other assumption of the dilemma is that there is a universal right and wrong, against which a god either creates or is defined by. Moral nihilism challenges that assumption by rejecting the concept of morality entirely. This conflicts with the teachings of most religions (and thus is usually accompanied by atheism) but is theoretically compatible with the notion of a powerful God or gods who have opinions about how people should behave.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Alexander Rosenberg uses a version of the Euthyphro dilemma to argue that objective morality cannot exist and hence an acceptance of moral nihilism is warranted. He asks, is objective morality correct because evolution discovered it or did evolution discover objective morality because it is correct? If the first horn of the dilemma is true then our current morality cannot be objectively correct by accident because if evolution had given us another type of morality then that would have been objectively correct. If the second horn of dilemma is true then one must account for how the random process of evolution managed to only select for objectively correct moral traits while ignoring the wrong moral traits. Given the knowledge that evolution has given us tendencies to be xenophobic and sexist it is mistaken to claim that evolution has only selected for objective morality as evidently it did not. Because both horns of the dilemma do not give an adequate account for how the evolutionary process instantiated objective morality in humans, a position of Moral nihilism is warranted.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Moral relativism accepts the idea of morality, but asserts that there are multiple potential arbiters of moral truth. This opens the possibility of disagreeing with God about the rules of ethics, and of creating multiple societies with different, equally valid sets of ethics (just as different countries have different sets of laws). "Normative moral relativism" asserts that behavior based on alternative systems of morality should be tolerated. In the context of religious pluralism, strong relativism it also opens the possibility that different gods and different belief systems produce different but equally valid moral systems, which may apply only to adherents of those faiths.


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: In the song "No Church in the Wild" from the album "Watch the Throne", rapper Jay Z references the dilemma with the line, "Is pious pious 'cause God loves pious? Socrates asked whose bias do y'all seek."


title: Euthyphro dilemma

text: Yale Law School Professor Myres S. McDougal, formerly a classicist, later a scholar of property law, posed the question, "Do we protect it because it's a property right, or is it a property right because we protect it?" The dilemma has also been restated in legal terms by Geoffrey Hodgson, who asked: "Does a state make a law because it is a customary rule, or does law become a customary rule because it is approved by the state?"


title: Ganguro

text: The Shibuya and Ikebukuro districts of Tokyo were the centres of "ganguro" fashion; it was started by rebellious youth who contradicted the traditional Japanese concept of beauty; pale skin, dark hair and neutral makeup tones. "Ganguro" instead tanned their skin, bleached their hair and used much colourful makeup in unusual ways.


title: Ganguro

text: "Ganguro" has a connection to Japanese folklore of ghosts and demons who are depicted with a similar appearance such as those in kabuki and noh costumes. This connection is further underlined by the off-shoot style "yamanba", named after a mountain witch in Japanese folklore.


title: Ganguro

text: The "ganguro" trend started in the mid-1990s and reached its peak by the latter half of the decade; it purportedly became almost obsolete by 2000 when a bihaku (light skin) craze emerged among young women who wanted to imitate the look of their favourite popular singers, specifically Ayumi Hamasaki, who debuted at the time. The "ganguro" trend faded out afterwards, although its influence can be observed in "yamanba" and "manba" styles.


title: Ganguro

text: Ganguro appeared as a new fashion style in Japan in the mid-1990s and was prevalent mostly among young women. In "ganguro" fashion, a deep tan is combined with hair dyed in shades of red to blonde, or a silver grey known as "high bleached". Black ink is used as eyeliner and white concealer is used as lipstick and eyeshadow. False eyelashes, plastic facial gems, and pearl powder are often added to this. Platform shoes and brightly coloured outfits complete the "ganguro" look. Also typical of "ganguro" fashion are tie-dyed sarongs, miniskirts, stickers on the face, and many bracelets, rings, and necklaces.


title: Ganguro

text: Ganguro falls into the larger subculture of , a slang term used for various groups of young women, usually referring to overly childish women. Researchers in the field of Japanese studies believe that "ganguro" is a form of revenge against traditional Japanese society due to resentment of neglect, isolation, and constraint of Japanese society. This is their attempt at individuality, self-expression, and freedom, in open defiance of school standards and regulations.


title: Ganguro

text: "Ganguro" can be used to describe girls, or gals, with a tan, lightened hair and some brand clothing; they can often be confused with "Oneegyaru" (Big Sister Gal) and "Serebu" (Celeb), although "Oneegyaru" is usually associated with expensive gal brands and "Serebu" focuses on expensive western fashions.


title: Ganguro

text: Fashion magazines like "Egg" and "Ageha" have had a direct influence on the "ganguro". Other popular "ganguro" magazines include "Popteen" and "Ego System". The "ganguro" culture is often linked with "para para", a Japanese dance style. However, most para para dancers are not ganguro, and most ganguro are not para para dancers, though there are many who are ganguro or gal and dance para para.


title: Ganguro

text: One of the most famous early "ganguro" girls was known as Buriteri, nicknamed after the black soy sauce used to flavor yellowtail fish in teriyaki cooking. "Egg" made her a star by frequently featuring her in its pages during the height of the "ganguro" craze. After modelling and advertising for the Shibuya tanning salon "Blacky", social pressure and negative press convinced Buriteri to retire from the "ganguro" lifestyle.


title: Ganguro

text: and are styles which developed from "ganguro". Old school "yamanba" and "manba" (particularly known as 2004 Manba) featured dark tans and white lipstick, pastel eye makeup, tiny metallic or glittery adhesives below the eyes, brightly coloured circle lenses, plastic dayglo-coloured clothing, and incongruous accessories, such as Hawaiian "leis". Stickers on the face died out shortly after 2004 and, for a while, "yamanba" died. "Manba" then became more extreme, with multicoloured and usually synthetic hair. "Manba" in 2008 saw a darker tan, and no facial stickers. Hair was usually neon/bright colours, with pink being a favourite. Wool emulating dreadlocks, extensions, and clips were worn to make hair appear longer. Clothing remained the same, although "leis" were worn less frequently.


title: Ganguro

text: "Yamanba" and "manba" are distinct from one another. Yamanba involves white make-up only above the eye, while manba makeup is applied below the eye also. Stuffed animals, bracelets, bells and hibiscus flowers are worn. The male equivalent is called a "Center guy", a pun on the name of a popular pedestrian shopping street near Shibuya Station in Tokyo called .


title: Ganguro

text: Ganguro practitioners say that the term derives from the phrase . The word "ganguro" can be translated as "burn-black look", and "dark tanning".


title: Ganguro

text: The term "yamanba" is derived from Yama-uba, the name of a mountain hag in Japanese folklore whom the fashion is thought to resemble.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The Third Day is a British-American psychological thriller–folk horror drama television serial created by Felix Barrett and Dennis Kelly for HBO and Sky Atlantic.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: A co-production between Sky Studios, Plan B Entertainment and Punchdrunk, the series premiered in the United States on 14 September 2020, on HBO, and in the United Kingdom on 15 September 2020, on Sky Atlantic.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The series chronicles the individual journeys of a man and woman who arrive on a mysterious island at different times.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The production is split into three interconnected parts. The first, "Summer", directed by Marc Munden, follows Sam (played by Jude Law), a man drawn to a mysterious island off the English coast where he encounters a group of islanders set on preserving their traditions at any cost.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The second part of the production, "Autumn", was broadcast in the format of a twelve-hour live event on the island. Described by the producers of the show as a "major immersive theatre event", the live segment of the show aired in one continuous take and is intended to allow followers of "The Third Day" to "inhabit the story as it happens". It features Jude Law and other members of the series cast. Part 2 also features singer Florence Welch.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The third part of the series, "Winter", directed by Philippa Lowthorpe, follows Helen (played by Naomie Harris), a strong-willed outsider who comes to the island seeking answers, but whose arrival precipitates a fractious battle to decide its fate.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The series was commissioned in June 2019, with the announcement that Jude Law was cast in the lead role. Marc Munden was hired to direct the first three episodes, with Dennis Kelly writing. In July, Katherine Waterston, Paddy Considine and Emily Watson were added to the cast. Naomie Harris and John Dagleish were added in August, with Philippa Lowthorpe hired to direct the final three episodes of the series. Kit de Waal and Dean O'Loughlin also joined Kelly to co-write two episodes.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The series is set on Osea Island and its causeway. Filming began on the series in July 2019 in the United Kingdom in Essex and Kent. Production visited many locations in Kent for filming, including Fog Signal Station at Dungeness, Allens Farm, Harty Ferry Road near Harty Ferry Inn in Swale, Walpole Bay Tidal Pool, St Clere Estate, Bedgebury National Pinetum Forest, Hever Castle, Grain Coastal Park on the Isle of Grain, Chislehurst Caves and Shellness Beach on the Isle of Sheppey.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The series was initially set to premiere in the United States on HBO on 11 May 2020, and on Sky Atlantic on 12 May 2020. In April 2020, HBO and Sky pulled the series from the schedule due to post-production on the series being affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. It was subsequently rescheduled for a 14 September premiere in the U.S., and 15 September in the UK.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The first episodes of both the "Summer" and "Winter" parts premiered as part of the Primetime section of the 2020 Toronto International Film Festival on 11 September 2020.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: The "Autumn" live event was broadcast live in the UK on Sky Arts and streamed for free via the Sky UK and HBO Facebook pages, on 3 October 2020.


title: The Third Day (TV series)

text: For the miniseries, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 76% based on 41 reviews, with an average rating of 7.03/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "With a sufficiently arresting atmosphere and captivating performances from stars Jude Law and Naomie Harris, "The Third Day" is an intriguing—if overly familiar—addition to the folk-horror genre." Metacritic gave the miniseries a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Srebrenica

text: Srebrenica (, ) is a town and municipality located in the easternmost part of Republika Srpska, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is a small mountain town, with its main industry being salt mining and a nearby spa. As of 2013, the town has a population of 2,607 inhabitants, while the municipality has 13,409 inhabitants.


title: Srebrenica

text: During the Bosnian War in 1995, Srebrenica was the site of a massacre of more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys, which was subsequently designated as an act of genocide by the ICTY and the International Court of Justice.


title: Srebrenica

text: Illyrians inhabited Srebrenica and mined the silver in a nearby mine. Silver was also the main reason behind the Roman invasion of the area.


title: Srebrenica

text: During the Roman times, there was a settlement of Domavia, known to have been near a mine. Silver ore from there was moved to the mints in Salona in the southwest and Sirmium in the northeast using the Via Argentaria. The current settlement of Srebrenica was also known by the Romans as Argentaria.


title: Srebrenica

text: In the 13th and 14th century the region was part of the Banate of Bosnia, and, subsequently, the Bosnian Kingdom. The earliest reference to the name Srebrenica was in 1376, by which time it was already an important centre for trade in the western Balkans, based especially on the silver mines of the region. (Compare modern srebro "silver".) By that time, a large number of merchants of the Republic of Ragusa were established there, and they controlled the domestic silver trade and the export by sea, almost entirely via the port of Ragusa (Dubrovnik). During the 14th century, many German miners moved into the area. There were often armed conflicts about Srebrenica because of its mines. According to Czech historian Konstantin Josef Jireček, from 1411 to 1463, Srebrenica switched hands several times, being Hungarian one time, Serbian five times, Bosnian four times, and Ottoman three times. The mines of Bosnian Podrinje and Usora were part of the Serbian Despotate prior to the Ottoman conquest.


title: Srebrenica

text: With the town coming under Ottoman rule, becoming less influenced by the Republic of Ragusa, the economic importance of Srebrenica went into decline, as did the proportion of Christians in the population. The Franciscan church of St. Nicholas was converted into the White Mosque, but the large number of Catholics, Ragusan and Saxon, caused the transformation of the town to Islam to be slower than in most of the other towns in the area.


title: Srebrenica

text: The area of Osat was liberated for a short time during the First Serbian Uprising (1804–13), under the leadership of Kara-Marko Vasić from Crvica. Upon the breakout of the uprising, Metropolitan Hadži Melentije Stevanović contacted Vasić, who met with the rebel leadership. After participating in battles on the Drina (1804), Vasić asked Karađorđe for an army to liberate Osat; Lazar Mutap was dispatched and the region came under rebel rule. In 1808, the Ottomans cleared out Osat, and by 1813, the rebels left the region.


title: Srebrenica

text: The town came under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878, when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which later in 1908 became a condominium under the joint control of Austria and Hungary. The natural mineral water springs Crni Guber ("Black Guber") developed into an important part of the local economy. The Bohemian company Mattoni established a distribution infrastructure to tap and export the water named "Guber-Quelle" ("Guber Spring") throughout the monarchy and abroad. The construction of a spa was recommended. Modern infrastructure such as administration, electricity, roads, schools, telephone, healthcare, a postal service and other things were introduced.


title: Srebrenica

text: Although the Austrian rulers tried to stop the spread of nationalism and favoured a multi-religious and multi-cultural makeup with religious tolerance under their hegemony, Serbian nationalism was viewed with suspicion and hostility, since it demanded a unification of Bosnia with Serbia. As modern education raised the levels of general literacy, ideas spread through the advent of newspapers and publications. The region became increasingly restless as nationalism spread to all groups.


title: Srebrenica

text: During the First World War, one of the region's main battle areas was in Eastern Bosnia and the Drina, from where the units of Austria-Hungary advanced towards the Kingdom of Serbia. In late summer 1914 Srebrenica was taken over by Serbian volunteers under Kosta Todorović but later retaken by Austro-Hungarian units. Following World War I, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which later was renamed Yugoslavia.


title: Srebrenica

text: During the Second World War there were many atrocities committed by the Chetniks and Ustashas. Partisans fought Chetniks and Ustashe during the war and the people of Srebrenica built a partisan memorial cemetery monument for the fallen victims.


title: Srebrenica

text: Tourism gained importance during the communist Yugoslav period and wellness spa and taking to the waters became an important part of the local economy. The "Banja Guber" was constructed for that purpose. Up to the 1990s over 90,000 overnight stays were recorded and an annual income of about three million dollars generated.


title: Srebrenica

text: The town of Srebrenica came to international prominence as a result of events during the Bosnian War (1992–1995). The strategic objectives proclaimed by the secessionist Bosnian Serb presidency included the creation of a border separating the Serb people from Bosnia's other ethnic communities and the abolition of the border along the River Drina separating Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs' Republika Srpska. The Bosnian Muslim/Bosniak majority population of the Drina Valley posed a major obstacle to the achievement of these objectives. In the early days of the campaign of forcible transfer (ethnic cleansing) that followed the outbreak of war in April 1992 the town of Srebrenica was occupied by Serb/Serbian forces. It was subsequently retaken by Bosniak resistance groups. Refugees expelled from towns and villages across the central Drina valley sought shelter in Srebrenica, swelling the town's population.


title: Srebrenica

text: The town and its surrounding area was surrounded and besieged by Serb forces. On 16 April 1993, the United Nations declared the Bosnian Muslim/Bosniak enclave a UN safe area, to be "free from any armed attack or any other hostile act", and guarded by a small Dutch unit operating under the mandate of United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), which did not get permission to use force from the UN, which they needed to defend the local population.


title: Srebrenica

text: Srebrenica and the other UN safe areas of Žepa and Goražde were isolated pockets of Bosnian government-held territory in eastern Bosnia. In July 1995, despite the town's UN-protected status, it was attacked and captured by the Army of Republika Srpska led by general Ratko Mladic. Following the town's capture, all men of fighting age who fell into Bosnian Serb hands were massacred in a systematically organised series of summary executions. The women of the town and men below 12 years of age and above 65 were transferred by bus to Tuzla. The Srebrenica massacre was the deadliest massacre in Europe since World War II, being the only incident in Europe to have been recognized as a genocide since the Holocaust.


title: Srebrenica

text: In 2001, the Srebrenica massacre was determined by judgement of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) to have been a crime of genocide (confirmed on appeal in 2004). This finding was upheld in 2007 by the International Court of Justice. The decision of the ICTY was followed by an admission to and an apology for the massacre by the Republika Srpska government.


title: Srebrenica

text: Under the 1995 Dayton Agreement which ended the Bosnian War, Srebrenica was included in the territory assigned to Bosnian Serb control as the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although guaranteed under the provisions of the Dayton Agreement, the return of survivors was repeatedly obstructed. In 2007, verbal and physical attacks on returning refugees continued to be reported in the region around Srebrenica.


title: Srebrenica

text: In 1992, Bosniak villages around Srebrenica were under constant attacks by Serb forces. The Bosnian Institute in the United Kingdom has published a list of 296 villages destroyed by Serb forces around Srebrenica three years before the genocide and in the first three months of war (April–June 1992):


title: Srebrenica

text: The British National Archives in Kew released the documents dating back to July 1995 which deal with communication between British military and political actors during the Bosnian war. Several of the reports appear to blame the Bosniak Army (BiH) for provoking the Srebrenica attack. British intelligence doubted that Pale (Bosnian Serb headquarters) had any plans to overrun Srebrenica. Instead, the manoeuvre came as a response due to repeated Bosniak Army (BiH) attacks on BSA (Bosnian Serb Army) supply lines.


title: Srebrenica

text: When Serbs entered the town, General Mladić threatened to shell the Dutch camp if UN troops did not disarm Bosniak troops. However, the report confirms no Bosniak army soldiers remained at the camp, all 2,000 armed Muslims "had simply left during the night" in the direction of Tuzla.


title: Srebrenica

text: The town has a religious makeup of roughly half Muslim and half Orthodox. Most of the town's 23 mosques that were destroyed were reconstructed with donations and aid, also from abroad.


title: Srebrenica

text: Unemployment rates are high since the economy was destroyed and reconstruction progresses slowly, as in many parts of the country. There are plans to revive the mineral water and spa business again. The reconstruction of the "Banja Guber" was scheduled for 2019 but experienced delays.


title: Srebrenica

text: In 2007, Srebrenica's municipal assembly adopted a resolution demanding independence from the Republika Srpska entity (although not from Bosnia's sovereignty); the Serb members of the assembly did not vote on the resolution. In the 2016 elections Mladen Grujičić, a Bosnian Serb and native of the town of Srebrenica, was elected as mayor.


title: Srebrenica

text: The municipality emblem was developed during the Yugoslav period and depicts a red and white stylised "S" with a depiction of the mineral water spring in the lower middle and a tree in the upper middle. The spring underscores the historical importance to the town's economy and the tree the nature and forests of the region.


title: Srebrenica

text: The municipality (општина or "opština") is further subdivided into the following local communities (мјесне заједнице or "mjesne zajednice"):


title: Srebrenica

text: The borders of the municipality in the 1953 and 1961 census were different. In 1953, a distinctive Muslim nationality had been yet to emerge as an ethnicity, leading Slavic Muslims to identify as Yugoslavs. As "Yugoslav" was itself not adopted in 1948, they were classified as "other" and while many self-identified as “Serbs” or “Croats”. Until 1961 census, the municipality of Srebrenica included today's territory of Bratunac municipality. The ethnic composition of the municipality:


title: Srebrenica

text: Before 1992, there was a metal factory in the town, and lead, zinc, and gold mines nearby. The town's name (Srebrenica) means "silver mine", the same meaning of its old Latin name "Argentaria".


title: Srebrenica

text: Before the war, Srebrenica also had a big spa and the town prospered from wellness tourism from the Crni Guber ("Black Guber") ferruginous spring water and other springs. Nowadays, Srebrenica has some tourism but a lot less developed than before the war. Currently, a pension, motel and a hostel are operating in the town.


title: Srebrenica

text: The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):


title: Impact crater

text: An impact crater is a circular depression in the surface of a solid astronomical object formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller object. In contrast to volcanic craters, which result from explosion or internal collapse, impact craters typically have raised rims and floors that are lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. Lunar impact craters range from microscopic craters on lunar rocks returned by the Apollo Program and small, simple, bowl-shaped depressions in the lunar regolith to large, complex, multi-ringed impact basins. Meteor Crater is a well-known example of a small impact crater on Earth.