title: Ola Electric

text: Ola S1 was launched on May 27, 2020. The scooter can travel 121 km on one charge. It can attain a top speed of 90kmph. It takes from 5 to 6 hours to recharge the scooter.


title: Ola Electric

text: Ola S1 Pro was launched on August 15,2022 with one variant and 11 colours. According to the company, the highest speed will be 115 kmph, and the ARAI certified range will be 181 kilometers on a full charge, compared to 90 km and 121 km for the standard model. It takes from 5 to 6 hours to charge the scooter.


title: Ola Electric

text: The Ola S1 Air was launched as the most affordable electric scooter with an 85K price range. The new Ola S1 Air will be an upgrade to its existing S1 model. Ola S1 Air will have a ARAI range of 100km and can accelerate from 0 to 40 km in 4.3 seconds. It comes with a battery of 2.5Kwh and a 7-inch touchscreen. The upgraded version offers its customers a flat footboard, a hub motor, a rear swing arm, front telescopic suspension, and rear dual suspension in place of horizontal mono suspension, redesigned grab rail, dual tone colours, and a lighter body.


title: Queen mother

text: A queen mother is a former queen, often a queen dowager, who is the mother of the reigning monarch. The term has been used in English since the early 1560s. It arises in hereditary monarchies in Europe and is also used to describe a number of similar yet distinct monarchical concepts in non-European cultures around the world.


title: Queen mother

text: " Queen Mother" usually, in English, refers to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (queen consort, 1936–1952; queen mother, 1952–2002), who was the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and one of the few people to use the term as an official style. However, it is also used as an official title in Thailand where Sirikit, the mother of the present king, is officially styled "The Queen Mother".


title: Queen mother

text: A queen mother is often a queen dowager, a widow of a king, who is simultaneously a former queen consort and the mother of the current monarch. As there is only one monarch, there can only be one queen mother.


title: Queen mother

text: It is unclear if a queen consort whose husband abdicates the throne, or a queen regnant who abdicates, and is the mother of the current monarch would be the queen mother. In many countries, such as the United Kingdom, a monarch loses the title of king or queen after abdication. For example, Juliana of the Netherlands, who abdicated and was succeeded by her daughter Beatrix, was sometimes colloquially referred to as the queen mother despite declining the title and having reverted to being a princess. Queen Paola of Belgium, whose husband Albert II abdicated but retained the title of king, has generally been referred to as the queen mother of Philippe despite not being a queen dowager.


title: Queen mother

text: A former queen consort who is the grandmother of the reigning monarch is sometimes called the queen grandmother. Savang Vadhana of Thailand was known by this style.


title: Queen mother

text: The title "queen mother" evolved to distinguish a queen dowager from all other queens when she is also the mother of the reigning sovereign. Thus, upon the death of her husband, King George V, Queen Mary became queen mother, retaining the status throughout the reigns of her sons, Edward VIII and George VI.


title: Queen mother

text: The title also distinguishes former queens consort from those who are simply the mother of the current monarch. For example, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was "the queen's mother" when her daughter Victoria became queen regnant, but she was "not" "queen mother" as her husband was never a king. The title in British usage is purely a courtesy title. While the wife of a king is called "queen", there is no constitutional or statutory recognition of "queen mother" as a title.


title: Queen mother

text: There is no male equivalent to a queen mother (i.e. "king father"). This would occur only if the husband of a queen regnant outlived the queen and was thereafter father to the new king or queen. Such a situation has never occurred. Since the title "queen mother" derives from the woman's previous title of "queen", it would also be incongruous to call such a father of a monarch the "king father", as the husbands of queens regnant are not given the title "king", but rather titled as a prince. The exact title such a person would assume has not been clarified by royal lineage experts. "Prince father" is a possibility.


title: Queen mother

text: In the Ottoman Empire, "valide sultan" () or sultana mother was the title held by the mother of a ruling Sultan. The title was first used in the 16th century for Hafsa Sultan, consort of Selim I and mother of Suleiman the Magnificent, superseding the previous title of "mehd-i ülya" ("cradle of the great"). The Turkish pronunciation of the word "Valide" is .


title: Queen mother

text: The second position the most important position in the Ottoman Empire after the sultan himself and being at the same level of power and hierarchy as Haseki sultan. As the mother to the sultan, by Islamic tradition ("A mother's right is God's right"), the valide sultan would have a significant influence on the affairs of the empire. She had great power in the court and her own rooms (always adjacent to her son's) and state staff. In particular during the 17th century, in a period known as the "Sultanate of Women", a series of incompetent or child sultans raised the role of the valide sultan to new heights.


title: Queen mother

text: The Israelites had in the Kingdom of Judah a title called "Gebirah" which can be translated to Queen Mother. The mother of the Jewish Monarch was given high rank and status among the Israelites.


title: Queen mother

text: In India, a queen (usually styled rani, or in the Muslim tradition, begum) who becomes queen-mother is known in Sanskrit and Hindi as a rajamata - literally, mother of the king/monarch.


title: Queen mother

text: In Eswatini, the queen mother, or Ndlovukati, reigns alongside her son. She serves as a ceremonial figurehead, while her son serves as the administrative head of state. He has absolute power. She is important at festivals such as the annual reed dance ceremony.


title: Queen mother

text: In many matrilineal societies of West Africa, such as the Ashanti, the queen mother is the one through whom royal descent is reckoned and thus wields considerable power. One of the greatest leaders of Ashanti was Nana Yaa Asantewaa (1840–1921), who led her subjects against the British Empire during the War of the Golden Stool in 1900.


title: Queen mother

text: In more symbolically driven societies such as the kingdoms of the Yoruba peoples, the "queen mother" may not even be a blood relative of the reigning monarch. She could be a female individual of any age who is vested with the ritual essence of the departed queens in a ceremonial sense, and who is practically regarded as the monarch's mother as a result. A good example of this is Oloye Erelu Kuti I of Lagos, who has been seen as the "iya oba" or queen mother of every succeeding king of that realm, due to the activities of the three successors to her noble title that have reigned since her demise.


title: Queen mother

text: These mothers of monarchs, and others, albeit not always officially so titled have also been considered equal to queen mothers:


title: Queen mother

text: The male equivalent of a queen mother, being a male former monarch or consort who is the father of the reigning monarch, is sometimes known as the "king father" or another variation based on the title of the monarch or consort. If a king abdicates and passes the throne to his child, or if a reigning queen abdicates or dies and is survived by her husband, he might acquire a substantive title.


title: Queen mother

text: The following individuals hold a similar role as mothers or fathers of their country's reigning monarchs:


title: Contract for difference

text: In finance, a contract for difference (CFD) is a legally binding agreement that creates, defines, and governs mutual rights and obligations between two parties, typically described as "buyer" and "seller", stipulating that the buyer will pay to the seller the difference between the current value of an asset and its value at contract time. If the closing trade price is higher than the opening price, then the seller will pay the buyer the difference, and that will be the buyer’s profit. The opposite is also true. That is, if the current asset price is lower at the exit price than the value at the contract’s opening, then the seller, rather than the buyer, will benefit from the difference.


title: Contract for difference

text: Developed in Britain in 1974 as a way to leverage gold, CFDs have been trading widely since the early 1990s. CFDs were originally developed as a type of equity swap that was traded on margin. The invention of the CFD is widely credited to Brian Keelan and Jon Wood, both of UBS Warburg, on their Trafalgar House deal in the early 1990s.


title: Contract for difference

text: CFDs are different from financial transmission right (FTR) in two ways. First, a CFD is usually defined at a specific location, not between a pair of locations. Thus, CFDs are a tool principally for hedging temporal price risk – the variation in the nodal pricing or locational marginal pricing (LMP) over time at a specific location. Second, CFDs are not traded through regional transmission organizations (RTOs) markets. They are bilateral contracts between individual market participants.


title: Contract for difference

text: CFDs were initially used by hedge funds and institutional traders to cost-effectively gain an exposure to stocks on the London Stock Exchange (LSE), partly because they required only a small margin but also, since no physical shares changed hands, they also avoided stamp duty in the United Kingdom.


title: Contract for difference

text: It remains common for hedge funds and other asset managers to use CFDs as an alternative to physical holdings (or physical short selling) for UK listed equities, with similar risk and leverage profiles. A hedge fund's prime broker will act as the counterparty to CFD, and will often hedge its own risk under the CFD (or its net risk under all CFDs held by its clients, long and short) by trading physical shares on the exchange. Trades by the prime broker for its own account, for hedging purposes, will be exempt from UK stamp duty.


title: Contract for difference

text: Institutional traders started to use CFDs to hedge stock exposure and avoid taxes. Several firms began marketing CFDs to retail traders in the late 1990s, stressing its leverage and tax-free status in the United Kingdom. A number of service providers expanded their products beyond the London Stock Exchange to include global stocks, commodities, bonds, and currencies. Index CFDs, which were based on key global indexes including the Dow Jones, S&P 500, FTSE, and DAX, immediately gained popularity.


title: Contract for difference

text: In the late 1990s, CFDs were introduced to retail traders. They were popularized by a number of UK companies, characterized by innovative online trading platforms that made it easy to see live prices and trade in real-time. The first company to do this was GNI (originally known as Gerrard & National Intercommodities).


title: Contract for difference

text: GNI provided retail stock traders with the opportunity to trade CFDs on LSE stocks through its innovative front-end electronic trading system, GNI Touch, via a home computer connected to the Internet. GNI’s retail service created the basis for retail stock traders to trade directly onto the Stock Exchange Electronic Trading Service (SETS) central limit order book at the LSE through a process known as direct market access (DMA). For example, if a retail trader sent an order to buy a stock CFD, GNI would sell the CFD to the trader and then buy the equivalent stock position from the marketplace as a full hedge.


title: Contract for difference

text: GNI and its CFD trading service GNI Touch was later acquired by MF Global. They were soon followed by IG Markets and CMC Markets who started to popularize the service in 2000. Subsequently, European CFD providers such as Saxo Bank and Australian CFD providers such as Macquarie Bank and Prudential have made significant progress in establishing global CFD markets.


title: Contract for difference

text: Around 2001, a number of the CFD providers realized that CFDs had the same economic effect as financial spread betting in the UK except that spread betting profits were exempt from Capital Gains Tax. Most CFD providers launched financial spread betting operations in parallel to their CFD offering. In the UK, the CFD market mirrors the financial spread betting market and the products are in many ways the same. However, unlike CFDs, which have been exported to a number of different countries, spread betting, inasmuch as it relies on a country-specific tax advantage, has remained primarily a UK and Irish phenomenon.


title: Contract for difference

text: CFD providers then started to expand to overseas markets, starting with Australia in July 2002 by IG Markets (first CFD provider to be licensed by ASIC) and CMC Markets. CFDs have since been introduced into a number of other countries. They are available in most European countries, as well as Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, Singapore, South Africa, Turkey, and New Zealand, throughout South America and others. They are not permitted in a number of other countries – most notably the United States, where the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) prohibit CFDs from being listed on regulated exchanges and being traded on foreign or domestic trading platforms due to their high-risk nature. At the same time, a number of trading apps with various usage scenarios operate on the market such as eToro, Freetrade, Fidelity Personal Investing (part of Fidelity Investments), Trading212, among others.


title: Contract for difference

text: The Securities and Futures Commission of Hong Kong totally forbids CFD trading. However, HK residents can trade CFD via oversea brokers.


title: Contract for difference

text: In 2016 the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) issued a warning on the sale of speculative products to retail investors that included the sale of CFDs.


title: Contract for difference

text: The majority of CFDs are traded OTC using the "direct market access" (DMA) or "market maker" model, but from 2007 until June 2014 the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) offered exchange traded CFDs. As a result, a small percentage of CFDs were traded through the Australian exchange during this period.


title: Contract for difference

text: The advantages and disadvantages of having an exchange traded CFD were similar for most financial products and meant reducing counterparty risk and increasing transparency but costs were higher. The disadvantages of the ASX exchange traded CFDs and lack of liquidity meant that most Australian traders opted for over-the-counter CFD providers


title: Contract for difference

text: In June 2009, the UK regulator the Financial Services Authority (FSA) implemented a general disclosure regime for CFDs to avoid them being used in insider information cases. This was after a number of high-profile cases where positions in CFDs were used instead of physical underlying stock to hide them from the normal disclosure rules related to insider information.


title: Contract for difference

text: In October 2013, LCH.Clearnet in partnership with Cantor Fitzgerald, ING Bank and Commerzbank launched centrally cleared CFDs in line with the EU financial regulators’ stated aim of increasing the proportion of cleared OTC contracts.


title: Contract for difference

text: In 2016 the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) issued a warning on the sale of speculative products to retail investors that included the sale of CFDs. This was after they observed an increase in the marketing of these products at the same time as a rise in the number of complaints from retail investors who have suffered significant losses. Within Europe, any provider based in any member country can offer the products to all member countries under MiFID and many of the European financial regulators responded with new rules on CFDs after the warning. The majority of providers are based in either Cyprus or the UK and both countries' financial regulators were first to respond. CySEC the Cyprus financial regulator, where many of the firms are registered, increased the regulations on CFDs by limiting the maximum leverage to 50:1 as well prohibiting the paying of bonuses as sales incentives in November 2016. This was followed by the UK Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) issuing a proposal for similar restrictions on the December 6, 2016. The FCA imposed further restrictions on 1 August 2019 for CFDs and 1 September 2019 for CFD-like options with the maximum leverage being 30:1. The German regulator BaFin took a different approach and in response to the ESMA warning prohibited additional payments when a client made losses. While the French regulator Autorité des marchés financiers decided to ban all advertising of the CFDs. In March the Irish Financial Regulator followed suit and put out a proposal to either ban CFDs or implement limitations on leverage.


title: Contract for difference

text: To support new low carbon electricity generation in the United Kingdom, both nuclear and renewable, contracts for difference were introduced by the Energy Act 2013, progressively replacing the previous Renewables Obligation scheme. A House of Commons Library report explained the scheme as:


title: Contract for difference

text: The main risk is market risk, as contract for difference trading is designed to pay the difference between the opening price and the closing price of the underlying asset. CFDs are traded on margin, which amplifies risk and reward via leverage. A 2021 study by Saferinvestor showed that the average client loss was 74.38% when trading CFDs. The Financial Conduct Authority of the UK estimates that the average loss amounts to £2,200 per client.


title: Contract for difference

text: It is this risk that drives the use of CFDs, either for speculation in financial markets, or for profit in a falling market through hedging. One of the ways to mitigate this risk is the use of stop loss orders. Users typically deposit an amount of money with the CFD provider to cover the margin and can lose much more than this deposit if the market moves against them.


title: Contract for difference

text: In the professional asset management industry, an investment vehicle's portfolio will usually contain elements that offset the leverage inherent in CFDs when looking at leverage of the overall portfolio. In particular, the retention of cash holdings reduces the effective leverage of a portfolio: if an investment vehicle buys 100 shares for $10,000 in cash, this provides the same exposure to the shares as entering into a CFD for the same 100 shares with $500 of margin, and retaining $9,500 as a cash reserve. The use of CFDs in this context therefore does not necessarily imply an increased market exposure (and where there is an increased market exposure, it will generally be less than the headline leverage of the CFD).


title: Contract for difference

text: If prices move against an open CFD position, additional variation margin is required to maintain the margin level. The CFD providers may call upon the party to deposit additional sums to cover this, in what is known as a margin call. In fast moving markets, margin calls may be at short notice. If funds are not provided in time, the CFD provider may close/liquidate the positions at a loss for which the other party is liable.


title: Contract for difference

text: Another dimension of CFD risk is counterparty risk, a factor in most over-the-counter (OTC) traded derivatives. Counterparty risk is associated with the financial stability or solvency of the counterparty to a contract. In the context of CFD contracts, if the counterparty to a contract fails to meet their financial obligations, the CFD may have little or no value regardless of the underlying instrument. This means that a CFD trader could potentially incur severe losses, even if the underlying instrument moves in the desired direction. OTC CFD providers are required to segregate client funds protecting client balances in event of company default, but cases such as that of MF Global remind us that guarantees can be broken. Exchange-traded contracts traded through a clearing house are generally believed to have less counterparty risk. Ultimately, the degree of counterparty risk is defined by the credit risk of the counterparty, including the clearing house if applicable. This risk is heightened due to the fact that custody is linked to the company or bank supplying the trading.


title: Contract for difference

text: There are a number of different financial instruments that have been used in the past to speculate on financial markets. These range from trading in physical shares either directly or via margin lending, to using derivatives such as futures, options or covered warrants. A number of brokers have been actively promoting CFDs as alternatives to all of these products.


title: Contract for difference

text: CFDs and Futures trading are both forms of derivatives trading. A futures contract is an agreement to buy or sell the underlying asset at a set price at a set date in the future, regardless of how the price changes in the meanwhile. Professionals prefer future contracts for indices and interest rate trading over CFDs as they are a mature product and are exchange traded. The main advantages of CFDs, compared to futures, is that contract sizes are smaller making it more accessible for small traders and pricing is more transparent. Futures contracts tend to only converge to the price of the underlying instrument near the expiry date, while the CFD never expires and simply mirrors the underlying instrument.


title: Contract for difference

text: Futures are often used by the CFD providers to hedge their own positions and many CFDs are written over futures as futures prices are easily obtainable. CFDs don't have expiry dates so when a CFD is written over a futures contract the CFD contract has to deal with the futures contract expiration date. The industry practice is for the CFD provider to 'roll' the CFD position to the next future period when the liquidity starts to dry in the last few days before expiry, thus creating a rolling CFD contract.


title: Contract for difference

text: Options, like futures, are established products that are exchange traded, centrally cleared and used by professionals. Options, like futures, can be used to hedge risk or to take on risk to speculate. CFDs are only comparable in the latter case. The main advantage of CFDs over options is the price simplicity and range of underlying instruments. An important disadvantage is that a CFD cannot be allowed to lapse, unlike an option. This means that the downside risk of a CFD is unlimited, whereas the most that can be lost on an option (by a buyer) is the price of the option itself. In addition, no margin calls are made on options if the market moves against the trader.


title: Contract for difference

text: Compared to CFDs, option pricing is complex and has price decay when nearing expiry while CFDs prices simply mirror the underlying instrument. CFDs cannot be used to reduce risk in the way that options can.


title: Contract for difference

text: Similar to options, covered warrants have become popular in recent years as a way of speculating cheaply on market movements. CFDs costs tend to be lower for short periods and have a much wider range of underlying products. In markets such as Singapore, some brokers have been heavily promoting CFDs as alternatives to covered warrants, and may have been partially responsible for the decline in volume of covered warrant.


title: Contract for difference

text: This is the traditional way to trade financial markets, this requires a relationship with a broker in each country, require paying broker fees and commissions and dealing with settlement process for that product. With the advent of discount brokers, this has become easier and cheaper, but can still be challenging for retail traders particularly if trading in overseas markets. Without leverage this is capital intensive as all positions have to be fully funded. CFDs make it much easier to access global markets for much lower costs and much easier to move in and out of a position quickly. All forms of margin trading involve financing costs, in effect the cost of borrowing the money for the whole position.


title: Contract for difference

text: Margin lending, also known as margin buying or leveraged equities, have all the same attributes as physical shares discussed earlier, but with the addition of leverage, which means like CFDs, futures, and options much less capital is required, but risks are increased. Since the advent of CFDs, many traders have moved from margin lending to CFD trading. The main benefits of CFD versus margin lending are that there are more underlying products, the margin rates are lower, and it is easy to go short. Even with the recent bans on short selling, CFD providers who have been able to hedge their book in other ways have allowed clients to continue to short sell those stocks.


title: Contract for difference

text: Some financial commentators and regulators have expressed concern about the way that CFDs are marketed at new and inexperienced traders by the CFD providers. In particular the way that the potential gains are advertised in a way that may not fully explain the risks involved. In anticipation and response to this concern most financial regulators that cover CFDs specify that risk warnings must be prominently displayed on all advertising, web sites and when new accounts are opened. For example, the UK FSA rules for CFD providers include that they must assess the suitability of CFDs for each new client based on their experience and must provide a risk warning document to all new clients, based on a general template devised by the FSA. The Australian financial regulator ASIC on its trader information site suggests that trading CFDs is riskier than gambling on horses or going to a casino. Even a small price change against one’s CFD position can have an impact on trading returns or losses. It recommends that trading CFDs should be carried out by individuals who have extensive experience of trading, in particular during volatile markets and can afford losses that any trading system cannot avoid.


title: Contract for difference

text: There has also been concern that CFDs are little more than gambling implying that most traders lose money trading CFDs. It is impossible to confirm what the average returns are from trading as no reliable statistics are available and CFD providers do not publish such information, however prices of CFDs are based on publicly available underlying instruments and odds are not stacked against traders as the CFD is simply the difference in underlying price.


title: Contract for difference

text: There has also been some concern that CFD trading lacks transparency as it happens primarily over-the-counter and that there is no standard contract. This has led some to suggest that CFD providers could exploit their clients. This topic appears regularly on trading forums, in particular when it comes to rules around executing stops, and liquidating positions in margin call.


title: Contract for difference

text: This is also something that the Australian Securities Exchange, promoting their Australian exchange traded CFD and some of the CFD providers, promoting direct market access products, have used to support their particular offering. They argue that their offering reduces this particular risk in some way. The counter argument is that there are many CFD providers and the industry is very competitive with over twenty CFD providers in the UK alone. If there were issues with one provider, clients could switch to another. Providers of contracts for difference (CFDs) often target potential investors through magazine advertisements, newspaper supplements, prime-time television spots and websites.


title: Contract for difference

text: Some of the criticism surrounding CFD trading is connected with the CFD brokers' unwillingness to inform their users about the psychology involved in this kind of high-risk trading. Factors such as the fear of losing that translates into neutral and even losing positions become a reality when the users change from a demonstration account to the real one. This fact is not documented by the majority of CFD brokers.


title: Contract for difference

text: Criticism has also been expressed about the way that some CFD providers hedge their own exposure and the conflict of interest that this could cause when they define the terms under which the CFD is traded. One article suggested that some CFD providers had been running positions against their clients based on client profiles, in the expectation that those clients would lose, and that this created a conflict of interest for the providers.


title: Contract for difference

text: CFDs, when offered by providers under the market maker model, have been compared to the bets sold by bucket shops, were businesses that allowed speculation based on the prices of stocks or commodities flourished in the United States at the turn of the 20th century. These allowed speculators to place highly leveraged bets on stocks generally not backed or hedged by actual trades on an exchange, so the speculator was in effect betting against the house. Bucket shops, colourfully described in Jesse Livermore's semi-autobiographical "Reminiscences of a Stock Operator", are illegal in the United States according to criminal as well as securities law.


title: Ismail Darbar

text: Ismail Darbar is from Surat, Gujarat. He worked for several years as a session violinist for leading music directors Laxmikant Pyarelal, Kalyanji Anandji, Bappi Lahiri, Rajesh Roshan, Anand–Milind, Nadeem-Shravan, Jatin–Lalit and A. R. Rahman. Finally, he got a break with Sanjay Leela Bhansali's film "Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam". Earlier, Darbar had played violin for Jatin–Lalit in the movie "". Later, his music in Bhansali's "Devdas" was acclaimed. He did not work with Bhansali after "Devdas" due to personal differences. After "Devdas", Darbar did a few more movies but without much success. In 2005, he composed for seven out of 12 tracks for Subhash Ghai's "" after A. R. Rahman had left the project mid-way to complete an international assignment. However, Ghai would later say, "The music [of the film] has turned out so well that you can't distinguish an Ismail song from a Rahman one".


title: Ismail Darbar

text: Darbar, Jatin–Lalit, Aadesh Shrivastava and Himesh Reshammiya were the four judges on "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005". Darbar was also a judge for "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2007". He was also one of the three judges for "Amul Star Voice of India 2" and "" – Season 2 on DD National..


title: Ismail Darbar

text: In 2018, Darbar co-composed his directorial debut film, "Yeh Kaisa Tigdam", with Badshah (Nanu) Khan.


title: Ismail Darbar

text: Darbar became the subject of controversy when he accused A.R. Rahman of having bought the Academy Awards he won for the film "Slumdog Millionaire" (2008). Rahman denied the allegations, but decided not to file a lawsuit against Darbar.


title: Ismail Darbar

text: On 2 February 2015, Darbar, his son Zaid and their associates were arrested for physically assaulting an assistant director, Prashamit Chaudhury, who had been employed by him earlier. Darbar refused to pay his due salaries and instead settled the score by assaulting his former employee.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: The Tukhchar massacre was an incident during the War of Dagestan, filmed and distributed on tape, in which Russian prisoners of war were executed. Throughout the war, Russian soldiers reported finding taped executions of Russian officers and men. Experts say such films were an attempt to frighten enemy soldiers and advertise their deeds. Some videos were later sold as snuff films and ended up online. One tape created in September 1999 showed six Russian servicemen, one as young as 19, being brutally executed by Chechen militants. The method was a pierced trachea.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: On 5 September 1999, two units of Chechen militants crossed into Dagestan, seizing the border village of Tukhchar in the Novolaksky District. The Chechen commander leading the attack was identified as Umar Edilsultanov (known as Karpinsky Amir, named after the microdistrict of Karpinka in Grozny), a subordinate of Abdul-Malik Mezhidov, commander of the Islamic religious police of Ichkeria.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: Attacking very early in the morning, the Chechens found and exchanged fire with 12 Russian conscripts and one officer of the Kalachevsky brigade stationed at a police checkpoint to strengthen border security. Shortly after the fighting began, the Russian operator of the unit's 30 mm BMP-2 was killed, communication was disrupted, and the Russians had run out of ammunition. Senior lieutenant Vasily Tashkin ordered a retreat to a second checkpoint. During a lull in the battle, local residents told Russian soldiers that the Chechens had given them half an hour to leave the village. The villagers brought with them civilian clothing so they could smuggle the policemen and soldiers out of town safely. Tashkin refused to retreat any further, and his resolve convinced others to stay as well. When the half hour was up, the Chechen militants began to search for the Russian defenders, who had been hidden by the townspeople. Six of them barricaded themselves in a barn, but the Chechens surrounded it and poured gasoline on the walls, threatening to burn the structure down. The Chechen militants called for the Russians to surrender, claiming that their intent was to obtain leverage for a prisoner exchange.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: The six gave up their arms and surrendered on the promise of becoming prisoners of war. It was not long before the Russians realised that they had been deceived. In the name of resolving a "blood feud"—revenge for the recent loss of four friends and relatives in the war—the Chechen commander Umar Edilsultanov then staged a public execution in a nearby field. The prisoners were ordered to lie face down on a track outside the village, and Edilsultanov selected five men from his unit to cut the prisoners' throats. The sixth (Alexey Polagaev) was killed by Edilsultanov himself. One of the Russian soldiers, identified as Alexey Lipatov, fled the site, but was shot. The others killed were named as Senior lieutenant Vasily Tashkin, Vladimir Kaufman, Boris Erdneyev, Alexey Polagaev, and Alexey Paranin.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: The morning following the executions, village head Magomed-Sultan Khasanov sought and received permission from the Chechen militants to retrieve the bodies of the Russian soldiers. The Chechens held the village until September 8. Survivors Alexey Ivanov and Fyodor Tchernavin escaped execution by remaining in hiding. Ivanov spent two days in an attic, while Tchernavin hid for five days in a basement, and it was not until after they were rescued that they learned of their colleagues' deaths. In late September the soldiers were quietly buried, with their families unaware of the gruesome nature of their deaths.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: In 2000, the film showing the killings was discovered by Russia's security service on sale in Grozny, which sparked an investigation into this as a war crime.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: The first perpetrator of the massacre identified was Tamerlan Khasaev. At the time Khasaev was already in jail for kidnapping a man in December 2001, and by chance a police officer happened to see the tape and recognized Khasaev from the earlier abduction investigation. Khasaev was brought back to Dagestan from a jail in central Russia to face charges for the death of Alexey Lipatov. In an interview with a Russian investigator, Khasaev said he was simply following orders, and while he described the act as "unpleasant", he expressed no remorse.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: Khasaev faced a trial before the Dagestan Supreme Court in October 2002. He pleaded guilty only in part, admitting to participation in illegal militant groups, armed rebellion, and illegal possession of firearms. In his defense, he claimed that he did not strike the killing blow since the sight of blood made him feel ill at ease, and he handed the knife to another fighter. The Russian Lipatov then broke and ran, and a militant shot him in the back. Previously facing 8.5 years of imprisonment for the kidnapping charge, Khasaev was sentenced to life in prison. The court declared that he deserved the death penalty, but because of a moratorium on its use, life imprisonment would have to suffice. Khasaev died in prison shortly afterward.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: Police later detained Islan Mukaev (murderer of Vladimir Kaufman), known as a former Chechen militant, for the crimes. Mukaev lived in the Ingush district centre of Ordzhonikidzevskaya. In 2005, he was sentenced to 25 years in prison.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: Authorities in 2000 identified Arbi Dandaev, accused of executing lieutenant Vasily Tashkin and Boris Erdneyev. Dandaev evaded capture for eight years but was arrested in Grozny by Chechen police on 3 April 2008. According to the investigation, Dandaev turned himself in, confessed to the crime, and confirmed his testimony when he was taken to the site of the execution. He pleaded not guilty, however, before the Dagestan Supreme Court, saying that he was interrogated under duress and refused to testify. Nevertheless, the court found his previous admission of guilt valid because it was made in the presence of a lawyer and no complaints were filed at the time. The court studied the film of the execution, and noted that the name Arbi was clearly pronounced in the recording. In interviews with the residents of Tukhchar village, one claimed to recognize Dandaev, although the court weighed the eyewitness evidence lightly given the villager's advanced age and uncertainty.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: Dandaev's defense also claimed that Dandaev was mentally disturbed, and petitioned the court multiple times to repeat psychiatric evaluations that previously had determined that the defendant was fit to stand trial. The petition claimed that in 1995, Russian soldiers wounded Dandaev's younger brother in Grozny, and after some time in the military hospital the boy's corpse was returned to the family, his internal organs harvested to fuel the illegal Chechen human organ trafficking trade. According to Dandaev's lawyers, the incident caused intense mental trauma, and the charges against Dandaev were devised to prevent the defendant's father from seeking legal redress for the death of his youngest son. Nonetheless, the court held that Dandaev was sane and that the investigation into his brother's death had no bearing on the case. Dandaev was convicted, and although the prosecutor asked for a sentence of 22 years, the court sentenced Dandaev to life imprisonment in 2009.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: In 2010, the investigation led to Mansur Razhaev, a 34-year old from Grozny in jail for gang-related crime and robbery. Like Khasaev, he said he was present, but did not strike a killing blow and thus wasn't guilty of murder. During the trial Dandaev testified on behalf of Razhaev. Razhaev was convicted on 31 January 2012 for the execution of Boris Erdneyev and sentenced to life imprisonment.


title: Tukhchar massacre

text: On August 8, 2011, Rizvan Vagapov was detained by law enforcement agencies in Grozny. He was convicted and sentenced to 18 years imprisonment for his role in the massacre.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: General elections were held in Bulgaria on 14 November 2021 to elect both the President and the National Assembly. They were the country's third parliamentary elections in 2021, with no party able to form a government after the elections in April and July. A second round of the presidential elections were held on 21 November 2021 as no candidate was able to receive a majority of the vote in the first round.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: We Continue the Change won the most seats, although it was not a majority. Shortly after the election, they announced that coalition talks were going to be held. Incumbent president Rumen Radev gathered 66.72% of the vote, defeating university professor Anastas Gerdzhikov in a runoff.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Nationwide turnout in the parliamentary and first presidential round fell to 38% Bulgaria's lowest participation rate in 30 years for both presidential and legislative elections. Nationwide turnout in the second presidential round experienced another drop, featuring only 33% of registered voters.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The leaders of PP, BSP, ITN, and DB announced on 10 December that they had agreed to form a coalition that would end a months-long political crisis. President Radev shortly after announced that he had given the mandate to form a government to Petkov. On 12 December, Kiril Petkov presented the composition of the incoming government, and it was approved on 13 December by the National Assembly.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The previous parliamentary election which was held in July 2021, resulted in a narrow victory for the newly established There Is Such A People (ITN) over the ruling GERB party; however, ITN won only 65 out of 240 seats in the National Assembly of Bulgaria. Following the elections, ITN opted to try and form a minority government and started talks with potential partners (DB, IBG-NI, and BSP) in order to secure their support. Nevertheless, these attempts proved unsuccessful, and ITN announced on 10 August that they were withdrawing their proposed cabinet, making a third election more likely. Slavi Trifonov, the leader of ITN, said in a video statement that this meant new elections. The mandate to form a cabinet went to GERB.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: GERB, the party of the previous prime minister Boyko Borisov, said earlier that it would not try to form a government. The BSP said that if the scenario repeats itself, it would suggest that the incumbent caretaker cabinet becomes permanent. IBG-NI also expressed confidence that it could come up with a solution if handed the mandate to form a government. Trifonov subsequently announced that he would not support any other parties proposing a cabinet. Parliament announced on 2 September that Bulgaria would hold the first round of the presidential election on 14 November, with a snap election likely to take place in the same month.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: On 6 September 2021, BSP handed back the last mandate of forming a government, meaning the parliament would be dissolved and a third parliamentary election would officially take place in 2021. President Rumen Radev declared on 11 September that there would be two-in-one elections on 14 November for the first time in Bulgarian history, where voters would be able to vote on the president and the parliament. This decision was taken "to save treasury costs and voters' time".


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The 240 members of the National Assembly are elected by open list proportional representation from 31 multi-member constituencies ranging in size from 4 to 16 seats. The electoral threshold is 4% for parties, with seats allocated according to the largest remainder method.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The President of Bulgaria is elected using the two-round system, with voters also given a none of the above option.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: When only some of the leaders of a coalition are its official representatives, their names are in bold. All lines with a light grey background indicate support for a party or coalition that has been agreed upon outside of the official CEC electoral registration.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The campaign started after the election was officially announced for 14 November. The pandemic remained a large issue, especially with the rise of the Delta variant in the country. The anti-corruption parties (ITN, DB, and IBG-NI) were all looking to hold their ground, while the established parties (GERB, DPS, and BSP) wanted to capitalise on public frustrations with the inability to form a government. The elections were widely hoped to bring an end to the political stalemate that had lasted since the April 2021 elections, after which no government could be formed. This time, there was more pressure on the anti-establishment parties to start negotiating a coalition government after the elections.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: After the president announced the new caretaker cabinet, the economy and finance ministers who were replaced in the reshuffle, Kiril Petkov and Asen Vasilev, announced that they would compete in the November election as part of a new coalition named We Continue the Change, with the aim of becoming a new anti-corruption force that could form an effective government.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The global energy crisis was a large issue in the campaign, with natural gas prices soaring to record highs. Campaigning parties offered varying solutions to address this, with some supporting more reliance on Russia for energy, while others proposed domestic nuclear power in the longer term. The campaign was also influenced by the high levels of inflation in the country, which hit record levels at 4.8% in September, causing public dissatisfaction.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Another important issue was COVID-19 vaccinations. Due to a low vaccine take-up and high rises in the number of cases, the caretaker government implemented a "green pass", also known as the vaccine passport. The green pass required citizens to provide proof of their vaccination status in several locations such as hospitals, schools and restaurants. The measure was met with widespread protests.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: On 6 October, the instructions of the Minister of Health and the Chief State Health Inspector for voting were approved, and did not differ from those for the elections on 11 July. Deputy Chairman of the Central Election Commission, Rositsa Mateva, said "there is no requirement for a green certificate for voting in the parliamentary and presidential elections on 14 November."


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Bulgaria's Central Election Commission accepted the registration of 23 candidates for the presidential elections, announced after the deadline for applications on 12 October. This was the largest number of candidates in a presidential election in Bulgaria since the country began direct democratic elections for its head of state; previously, the highest number was 21, which occurred in 1992 and 2016.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) announced in a statement that it would send an observation team to the general elections, following an invitation from the authorities of Bulgaria. It noted that the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) had previously observed 12 elections in the country, most recently the 11 July 2021 early parliamentary elections.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The opinion poll results below were recalculated from the original data and exclude polls that chose "I will not vote" or "I am uncertain" options.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Polling stations opened at 08:00 and closed at 20:00. Kiril Petkov and Asen Vasilev were viewed as the winners of the legislative elections. Their party (We Continue the Change) received more than 25% of the vote. GERB remained second with more than 22%. DPS finished third place with over 13%, overtaking BSP, who finished fourth with around 10%. There Is Such a People, the winner of the previous election, was seen as the election loser, dropping to fifth with less than 10% of the vote. Democratic Bulgaria also dropped significantly in support, losing over 50% of their voters from the previous election and receiving only around 6% of the vote. Lastly, Revival managed to enter the parliament with around 5% of the votes, running on a campaign of Bulgarian nationalism and opposition to vaccine mandates. Stand Up BG! We're coming! lost all their seats in the parliament, receiving only 2%, whilst IMRO did not succeed in entering parliament.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: We Continue the Change won the most votes in 14 districts of the country, including all three in the capital, Sofia. They also won in major cities such as Burgas, Varna and Plovdiv. GERB-SDS won in 12 districts, including Sofia-Oblast, Gabrovo, and Blagoevgrad. DPS was first in five districts in Kardzhali and Razgrad, as well as in Targovishte, Silistra, and Shumen. The results of the overseas vote differed from those in the country, as DPS received the most votes abroad with over 38% support. In second place abroad was We Continue the Change with over 22 percent. There Is Such a People, which was helped by the votes abroad, finished third, and GERB-SDS came fourth.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Incumbent president Radev received around 49% of the vote and was forced into a runoff against university professor Gerdzhikov on 21 November. Shortly after the second round of the presidential elections, President Radev was projected to win another term with nearly two-thirds of the vote, according to exit polls published by Alpha Research and Gallup International. Voter turnout stood at a record-low 33.7% and 3.0% of people who went to the polls did not support either of the two candidates, according to Alpha Research polling agency.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Gallup exit polling suggested the following demographic breakdown. The parties which got below 4% of the vote are included in 'Others':


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Following the DB coalition's poor results in the elections, Hristo Ivanov and the entire party leadership of Yes, Bulgaria! announced their resignations on 15 November. Korneliya Ninova, the leader of BSP, also resigned after her party's "catastrophic" result, winning only 26 seats and falling to fourth place. However, both were reaffirmed as party leaders by early February 2022.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Following the PP victory, Petkov told reporters after initial results were released that "Bulgaria is taking a new path. If we can stop [corruption] and redistribute money for the well-being of the taxpayers, then we should be able to come to an agreement with several parties." Petkov said he was willing to work with all parties that would join the fight against corruption in Bulgaria. He announced he was seeking to become prime minister and said he wanted to pursue "transparent" coalition negotiations with DB and There Is Such a People. DPS and GERB rejected coalition talks with PP. Analysts such as Boryana Dimitrova and Parvan Simeonov predicted that PP, ITN, DB, and BSP would form a coalition.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: Shortly after exit polls projected that President Radev had won another term with nearly two-thirds of the vote, he commented in a statement that "an unprecedented political month of two types of elections ended, which clearly showed the will of the people to change and to break with corruption, robbery and lawlessness, to remove the mafia from power." PP co-leaders Kiril Petkov and Assen Vassilev congratulated Radev on his re-election victory: "We are ready to work with this president," Petkov said at a briefing after the end of election day. Vassilev commented that: "Next week we are beginning work on developing a clear and precise plan on how to make Bulgaria a much better place to live in the coming 4 years".


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: A series of talks on 18 policy areas were held between 23 November and 27 November, between the representatives of PP, BSP, ITN, and DB.


title: 2021 Bulgarian general election

text: The leaders of four Bulgarian parties on 10 December said they had agreed to form a coalition that would end a months-long political crisis, making it the first regular government since April. The agreement followed lengthy talks between PP, DB, ITN and BSP. Kiril Petkov announced, "we are moving towards proposing a stable government, which we hope will continue for the next four years." Shortly later, President Radev announced that he had given the mandate to form a government to Petkov. On 12 December, Petkov presented the composition of the incoming government, and it was approved by the National Assembly on 13 December 2021.


title: Tokyo (Money Heist)

text: Tokyo (Silene Oliveira) is a fictional character in the Netflix series "Money Heist", portrayed by Úrsula Corberó. The "de facto" protagonist of the series, she is the unreliable narrator and a runaway robber who is scouted by the Professor to participate in his heists.


title: Tokyo (Money Heist)

text: Tokyo is a young thief on the run from the police after a failed robbery in which her boyfriend was killed. Her mother tried to hand her over to the police before she was involved in the heist, but later died of cardiac arrest, potentially from stress. She was hired by the Professor to help in carrying out a heist of the Royal Mint in Madrid. Together with the other seven robbers chosen for the heist, she is taken to a secluded villa where they plan the heist for five months. The Professor asks each of the robbers to choose a city name to hide their identities during the robbery and she chooses Tokyo. Tokyo is a flirty and rebellious character, and she has a relationship with Rio, that stops and starts throughout the first heist. She shares a good friendship with Nairobi, the two having gotten drunk together many times. She doesn’t like being told what to do and shows dislike for Berlin in the first series.


title: Tokyo (Money Heist)

text: The producers found Tokyo among the hardest characters to develop, as they were originally looking for an older actress to play the character who had nothing to lose before meeting the Professor. Úrsula Corberó eventually landed the role for bringing a playful energy to the role; her voice was heavily factored in during casting, as she was the first voice the audience hears in the show. Corberó described Tokyo at the beginning of the show as "a girl who really lacks self-esteem, has been very lonely, has had a very bad time [and] has not had a father figure at home", resulting in a vulnerability that the character doesn't know how to express. Actor Álvaro Morte (the Professor) regarded Tokyo as one of the Professor's favourite gang members, since both characters confide in and confront each other like best friends despite being opposite sexes.


title: Tokyo (Money Heist)

text: Sandra Faginas of Spanish newspaper "La Razón" praised the character, saying Tokyo was "a wonderful cocktail of passion and reason" that was "born splendidly in script". She regarded Tokyo as a "free soul touching every companion and approaching them in different ways: Rio with passionate tenderness, the Professor with cold respect, Nairobi with joy and attunement, and Berlin with challenging discipline". John Doyle of "The Globe and Mail" saw Corbero "as a strong female lead, her character doesn't conform to much [w]hat you'd see in an equivalent British or American crime drama". Meanwhile, Alfonso Rivadeneyra García of Peruvian newspaper "El Comercio" disliked the hypersexualization of Tokyo in part 3 as fan service. Keyvan Azh of German "Focus" regarded Tokyo as a one-dimensional protagonist relying on the "cheap stylistic device" of tell, don't show.


title: Tokyo (Money Heist)

text: For the role of Tokyo, Corberó was nominated for the Premios Feroz in 2017 in the category Best Leading Actress of a Series, and won the Iris Awards in 2018 for Best Actress.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: Cadence Design Systems, Inc. (stylized as cādence), headquartered in San Jose, California, is an American multinational computational software company, founded in 1988 by the merger of SDA Systems and ECAD, Inc. The company produces software, hardware and silicon structures for designing integrated circuits, systems on chips (SoCs) and printed circuit boards.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: Cadence Design Systems began as an electronic design automation (EDA) company, formed by the 1988 merger of Solomon Design Automation (SDA), co-founded in 1983 by Richard Newton, Alberto Sangiovanni-Vincentelli and James Solomon, and ECAD, a public company co-founded by Ping Chao, Glen Antle and Paul Huang in 1982. SDA's CEO Joseph Costello was appointed as CEO of the newly combined company.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: Following the resignation of Cadence's original CEO Joe Costello in 1997, Jack Harding was appointed CEO. Ray Bingham was named CEO in 1999. In 2004, Mike Fister became Cadence's new CEO.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: In 2008, Cadence's board appointed Lip-Bu Tan as acting CEO, after the resignation of Mike Fister; Tan had served on the Cadence board of directors since 2004. In January 2009, the board of directors of Cadence voted unanimously to confirm Lip-Bu Tan as president and CEO. Tan had been most recently CEO of Walden International, a venture capital firm, where he remains chairman of the firm.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: On December 15, 2021, Anirudh Devgan assumed the role of president & CEO, and Lip-Bu Tan became executive chairman. Devgan joined Cadence in 2012 and was appointed president in 2017.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: The company develops software, hardware and intellectual properties (IP) used to design chips, systems and printed circuit boards, as well as IP covering interfaces, memory, analog, SoC peripherals, data plane processing units, and verification.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: Other Cadence RTL to GDS II tools: Conformal Equivalence Checker, Stratus High-Level Synthesis, Joules Power Analysis, Quantus RC Extraction, Modus AutomaticTest Pattern Generation.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: Design IP targeting areas including memory / storage / high-performance interface protocols (USB or PCIe controllers and PHYs), Tensilica DSP processors for audio, vision, wireless modems and convolutional neural nets. Tensilica DSP processors IP include:


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: Tensilica Vision DSPs for Imaging, Vision and AI processing; Tensilica HiFi DSPs for Audio/Voice/Speech processing; Tensilica Fusion DSPs for IoT; Tensilica ConnX DSPs for Radar, Lidar, and Communications processing.; and Tensilica DNA Processor Family for AI acceleration


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: In 2021, Cadence launched the Tensilica AI Platform to accelerate AI SoC development and improve power, performance and area—targeting mobile, IoT, automotive, intelligent sensor, and industrial AI SoC designs.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: In 2020, Fortune Magazine named Cadence to Fortune's "100 Best Companies to Work For list" for the sixth consecutive year.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: In 2019, Investor's Business Daily ranked Cadence Design Systems #5 on its 50 Best Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Companies list.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: In 2016, Cadence CEO Lip-Bu Tan was awarded the Dr. Morris Chang Exemplary Leadership Award by the Global Semiconductor Alliance.


title: Cadence Design Systems

text: The company has also acquired High-Level Design (HLD), UniCAD, CadMOS, Ambit Design Systems, Simplex, Silicon Perspective, Plato, and Get2Chip.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (; – ), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by Plato and the Stoics. His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement is usually regarded as a Church Father. He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism, Ethiopian Christianity, and Anglicanism. He was revered in Western Catholicism until 1586, when his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is speculated that he was born sometime around 150 AD. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: His parents were pagans and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the "Protrepticus" he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek religion and mystery religions, which could only have arisen from the practice of his family's religion.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption, he travelled in Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt. Clement's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking. In Greece, he encountered an Ionian theologian, who has been identified as Athenagoras of Athens; while in the east, he was taught by an Assyrian, sometimes identified with Tatian, and a Jew, possibly Theophilus of Caesarea.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: In around 180 AD, Clement reached Alexandria, where he met Pantaenus, who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school, but controversy exists about whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen. Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's personal life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: During the Severian persecution of 202–203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211, Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch, which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time. He died at an unknown location.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Three of Clement's major works have survived in full and they are collectively referred to as a trilogy:


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The "Protrepticus" (: "Exhortation to the Greeks") is, as its title suggests, an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity. Within it, Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology. It is chiefly important due to Clement's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon. After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages. Clement suggests that at first, humans mistakenly believed the Sun, the Moon, and other heavenly bodies to be deities. The next developmental stage was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose. Humans then paid reverence to revenge and deified human feelings of love and fear, among others. In the following stage, the poets Hesiod and Homer attempt to enumerate the deities; Hesiod's Theogony giving the number of twelve. Finally, humans reached a stage when they proclaimed others, such as Asclepius and Heracles, as deities. Discussing idolatry, Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone, and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved. Following Plato, Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys".


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the "Protrepticus" on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples. He attacks the mystery religions for their ritualism and mysticism. In particular, the worshippers of Dionysus are ridiculed by him for their family-based rituals (such as the use of children's toys in ceremony). He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans, but at other times he suggests that they are misanthropic demons, and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis. Clement, like many pre-Nicene church fathers, writes favourably about Euhemerus and other rationalist philosophers, on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism. However, his greatest praise is reserved for Plato, whose apophatic views of God prefigure Christianity.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The figure of Orpheus is prominent throughout the Protrepticus narrative, and Clement contrasts the song of Orpheus, representing pagan superstition, with the divine Logos of Christ. According to Clement, through conversion to Christianity alone can one fully participate in the Logos, which is universal truth.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The title of "Paedagogus", translatable as "tutor", refers to Christ as the teacher of all humans, and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children. It is not simply instructional: Clement intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically. Following Plato (Republic 4:441), he divides life into three elements: character, actions, and passions. The first having been dealt with in the "Protrepticus", he devotes the "Paedagogus" to reflections on Christ's role in teaching humans to act morally and to control their passions. Despite its explicitly Christian nature, Clement's work draws on Stoic philosophy and pagan literature; Homer, alone, is cited more than sixty times in the work.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Although Christ, like a human, is made in the image of God, he alone shares the likeness of God the Father. Christ is both sinless and apathetic, and thus by striving to imitate Christ, one can achieve salvation. To Clement, sin is involuntary, and thus irrational (), removed only through the wisdom of the Logos. God's guidance away from sin is thus a manifestation of God's universal love for mankind. The word play on and is characteristic of Clement's writing, and may be rooted in the Epicurean belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement argues for the equality of sexes, on the grounds that salvation is extended to all humans equally. Unusually, he suggests that Christ is neither female nor male, and that God the Father has both female and male aspects: the eucharist is described as milk from the breast (Christ) of the Father. Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the "Paedagogus" were influenced by Gnosticism, however, later in the work, he argues against the Gnostics that faith, not esoteric knowledge (), is required for salvation. According to Clement, it is through faith in Christ that one is enlightened and comes to know God.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: In the second book, Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life. He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good table manners. While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23. Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian monotheism. He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing, and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes, but Clement does not believe in the abandonment of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express joy in God's creation through gaiety and partying. He opposes the wearing of garlands, because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God, and the garland resembles the crown of thorns.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement treats sex at some length. He argues that both promiscuity and sexual abstinence are unnatural, and that the main goal of human sexuality is procreation. He argues that adultery, coitus with pregnant women, concubinage, homosexuality, and prostitution all should be avoided as they will not contribute toward the generation of legitimate offspring.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: In his third book, Clement continues along a similar vein, condemning cosmetics on the grounds that it is one's soul, not the body, one should seek to beautify. Clement also opposes the dyeing of men's hair and male depilation as being effeminate. He advises choosing one's company carefully, to avoid being corrupted by immoral people, and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself, it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth that is found in Christ. The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement's argument, and following a prayer, the lyrics of a hymn.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The contents of the "Stromata", as its title suggests, are miscellaneous. Its place in the trilogy is disputed – Clement initially intended to write the "Didasculus", a work that would complement the practical guidance of the "Paedagogus" with a more intellectual schooling in theology. The "Stromata" is less systematic and ordered than Clement's other works, and it has been theorized by André Méhat that it was intended for a limited, esoteric readership. Although Eusebius wrote of the eight books of the work, only seven undoubtedly survive. Photius, writing in the 9th century, found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books, which led Daniel Heinsius to suggest that the original eighth book is lost, and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the "Hypotyposes".


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy. Consistent with his other writing, Clement affirms that philosophy had a propaedeutic role for the Greeks, similar to the function of the law for the Jews. He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology, arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners, and (erroneously) that Jewish culture was the most significant influence on Greece. In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of Moses, Clement gives an extended chronology of the world, wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May, 4–2 BC, and the creation of the world to 5592 BC. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The second book is largely devoted to the respective roles of faith and philosophical argument. Clement contends that while both are important, the fear of God is foremost, because through faith one receives divine wisdom. To Clement, scripture is an innately true primitive philosophy that is complemented by human reason through the Logos. Faith is voluntary, and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God. It is never irrational, as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos, but all knowledge proceeds from faith, as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The third book covers asceticism. He discusses marriage, which is treated similarly in the "Paedagogus". Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage, arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate, and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation. He argues that this has not always been so: the Fall occurred because Adam and Eve succumbed to their desire for each other, and copulated before the allotted time. He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life, which stems from Luke, contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother", one of the Ten Commandments. Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books. The fourth book focuses on martyrdom. While all good Christians should be unafraid of death, Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life. He is ambivalent about whether any believing Christians can become martyrs by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives. Marcionites cannot become martyrs, because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father, so their sufferings are in vain. There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology. According to Clement, there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father, because the Logos has revelatory, not analysable meaning, although Christ was an object of the senses. God had no beginning, and is the universal first principle.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The fifth book returns to the subject of faith. Clement argues that truth, justice, and goodness can be seen only by the mind, not the eye; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable. He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once one's moral faults have been corrected. This parallels Clement's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds, not those who simply profess their faith. God transcends matter entirely, and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God. Although Christ was God incarnate, it is spiritual, not physical comprehension of him that is important.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: In the beginning of the sixth book, Clement intends to demonstrate that the works of Greek poets were derived from the prophetic books of the Bible. In order to reinforce his position that the Greeks were inclined toward plagiarism, he cites numerous instances of such inappropriate appropriation by classical Greek writers, reported second-hand from "On Plagiarism", an anonymous 3rd-century BC work sometimes ascribed to Aretades. Clement then digresses to the subject of sin and hell, arguing that Adam was not perfect when created, but given the potential to achieve perfection. He espouses broadly universalist doctrine, holding that Christ's promise of salvation is available to all, even those condemned to hell.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The final extant book begins with a description of the nature of Christ, and that of the true Christian, who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son. Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions, quoting Xenophanes' famous description of African, Thracian, and Egyptian deities. He indicates that the Greek deities may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects: Ares representing iron, and Dionysus wine. Prayer, and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed. Corinthians 13:8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in reverence for the Creator. Following Socrates, he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance, not from intention. The Christian is a "laborer in God's vineyard", responsible both for one's own path to salvation and that of one's neighbor. The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Besides the great trilogy, Clement's only other extant work is the treatise "Salvation for the Rich", also known as "Who is the Rich Man who is Saved?" written c. 203 AD Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes toward the wealthy, Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10:25. The rich are either unconvinced by the promise of eternal life, or unaware of the conflict between the possession of material and spiritual wealth, and the good Christian has a duty to guide them toward a better life through the Gospel. Jesus' words are not to be taken literally — the supercelestial () meanings should be sought in which the true route to salvation is revealed. The holding of material wealth in itself is not a wrong, so long as it is used charitably, but Christians should be careful not to let their wealth dominate their spirit. It is more important to give up sinful passions than external wealth. If the rich are to be saved, all they must do is to follow the two commandments, and while material wealth is of no value to God, it can be used to alleviate the suffering of neighbors.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Other known works exist in fragments alone, including the four eschatological works in the secret tradition: "Hypotyposes", "Excerpta ex Theodoto", "Eclogae Propheticae", and the "Adumbraetiones". These cover Clement's celestial hierarchy, a complex schema in which the universe is headed by the Face of God, below which lie seven "protoctists", followed by archangels, angels, and humans. According to Jean Daniélou, this schema is inherited from a Judaeo-Christian esotericism, followed by the Apostles, which was only imparted orally to those Christians who could be trusted with such mysteries. The "proctocists" are the first beings created by God, and act as priests to the archangels. Clement identifies them both as the "Eyes of the Lord" and with the Thrones. Clement characterizes the celestial forms as entirely different from anything earthly, although he argues that members of each order only seem incorporeal to those of lower orders. According to the "Eclogae Propheticae", every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree, and thus humans can become angels. Even the "protoctists" can be elevated, although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined. The apparent contradiction between the fact that there can be only seven "protoctists" but also a vast number of archangels to be promoted to their order is problematical. One modern solution regards the story as an example of "interiorized apocalypticism": imagistic details are not to be taken literally, but as symbolizing interior transformation.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The titles of several lost works are known because of a list in Eusebius' "Ecclesiastical History", 6.13.1–3. They include the "Outlines", in eight books, and "Against Judaizers". Others are known only from mentions in Clement's own writings, including "On Marriage" and "On Prophecy", although few are attested by other writers and it is difficult to separate works that he intended to write from those that were completed.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The Mar Saba letter was attributed to Clement by Morton Smith, but there remains much debate today over whether it is an authentic letter from Clement, an ancient pseudepigraph, or a modern forgery. If authentic, its main significance would be in its relating that the Apostle Mark came to Alexandria from Rome and there, wrote a more spiritual Gospel, which he entrusted to the Church in Alexandria on his death; if genuine, the letter pushes back the tradition related by Eusebius connecting Mark with Alexandria by a century.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Eusebius is the first writer to provide an account of Clement's life and works, in his "Ecclesiastical History", 5.11.1–5, 6.6.1 Eusebius provides a list of Clement's works, biographical information, and an extended quotation from the "Stromata".


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Photios I of Constantinople writes against Clement's theology in the "Bibliotheca", although he is appreciative of Clement's learning and the literary merits of his work. In particular, he is highly critical of the "Hypotyposes", a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived. Photios compared Clement's treatise, which, like his other works, was highly syncretic, featuring ideas of Hellenistic, Jewish, and Gnostic origin, unfavorably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century. Amongst the particular ideas Photios deemed heretical were:


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived, he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work, focusing on, among other things, his exegesis of scripture, his Logos-theology and pneumatology, the relationship between his thought and non-Christian philosophy, and his influence on Origen.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Up until the 17th century Clement was venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. His name was to be found in the martyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December, but when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal Baronius. Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known, that he had never obtained public cultus in the Church, and that some of his doctrines were, if not erroneous, at least suspect.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Although Clement is not widely venerated in Eastern Christianity, the Prologue of Ohrid repeatedly refers to him as a saint, as do various Orthodox authorities including the Greek Metropolitan Kallinikos of Edessa.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The Coptic tradition considers Clement a saint. Saint Clement Coptic Orthodox Christian Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, is specifically named after him.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement is commemorated in Anglicanism. The independent Universal Catholic Church's cathedral in Dallas is also dedicated to him.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement taught that faith was the basis of salvation, however he also believed that faith was also the basis of "gnosis" which for him mean spiritual and mystical knowledge. Clement of Alexandria appropriated the word "gnosis" from what the Gnostics used, whom he opposed, but re-interpreted the word in a more Christian manner. Clement of Alexandria distinguished between two kinds of Christians, a pistic Christian who lives according to God's law, and the Christian gnostic who lives on the level of the gospel and responds by discipline and love. Clement's views of gnosis can be considered a forerunner of monasticism that began in Egypt after his death.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement claimed that philosophy was a preparatory discipline to the Greek world that would lead them to accept Christianity. Clement of Alexandria also was a forerunner to some views of Augustine, including the just war theory and the theory of the two cities.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: For Clement, disciplining the body will help the Christian discipline his soul, which is why he gives detailed instructions on proper Christian conduct, decorum, and relationships in the second and third books of "The Instructor". Only once the passions are subject to the authority of the Word (or reason) can the Christian embark on an advanced course of philosophical study and contemplation.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement adopts a position that will give rise to a whole stream of later Christian thought: true philosophy and authentic human knowledge have their origin in the Logos, which is the unique source of all truth. He accepts the conception of παιδεία as he conducts the wisdom taught by the Logos through education in the sacred letters: on the one hand, the Greek παιδεία prepares the mind of the Christian to distinguish and defend the truth, and, on the other, the liberal arts help the new Christian to direct all his efforts towards the truly useful of each particular discipline, geometry, music, grammar and philosophy.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement attacked a literal interpretation of the command "sell what you have and give to the poor" and he argued that the Bible does not command to renounce all property and that wealth can be used either for good or evil.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement believed that the days mentioned in Genesis are allegorical. Clement assumed a double creation, one of an invisible world and the second being material creation. He believed that formless matter existed before the creation of the world, being influenced by Plato. Clement tried to interpret Genesis 6 in harmony with the Book of Enoch.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: The first person in church history to introduce a view of an invisible and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria. Because Clement saw the Protoevangelium of James as canonical, it could imply he believed in the perpetual virginity of Mary, though some have argued that he does not seem to believe in the sinlessness of Mary.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement of Alexandria believed that those who died in their deathbed without having time to be sanctified, would be sanctified in a purifying fire after death.


title: Clement of Alexandria

text: Clement of Alexandria used the word "symbol" to define the Eucharist, and interpreted "John 6" to be an allegory about faith, however his views on real presence are disputed.


title: Fincantieri

text: Fincantieri S.p.A. () is an Italian shipbuilding company based in Trieste, Italy. Already the largest shipbuilder in Europe, after the acquisition of Vard in 2013, Fincantieri group doubled in size to become the fourth largest in the world (2014). The company builds both commercial and military vessels.


title: Fincantieri

text: The company is listed on the Borsa Italiana (Milan Stock Exchange) and is a component of FTSE Italia Mid Cap Index.


title: Fincantieri

text: Fincantieri designs and builds merchant vessels, passenger ships, offshore, and naval vessels, and is also active in the conversion and ship repair sectors. The company also owned Grandi Motori Trieste, which constructed marine diesel engines, but this was sold to Wärtsilä in 1999.


title: Fincantieri

text: Founded in 1959 as Società Finanziaria Cantieri Navali – Fincantieri S.p.A. as a State financial holding company, part of IRI, the company became a separate entity in 1984.


title: Fincantieri

text: Fincantieri employs a staff of about 10,000 workers at eight shipyards, two design centres, one research centre and two production sites for mechanical components. Another 10,000 people contribute to its supply chains.


title: Fincantieri

text: The shipyards of Monfalcone (Gorizia), Marghera (Venice), Sestri Ponente (Genoa), Ancona, Castellammare di Stabia (Naples) and Palermo report to the Merchant Ships Business Unit while the shipyards of Riva Trigoso (Genoa) and Muggiano (La Spezia) report to the Naval Vessel Business Unit.


title: Fincantieri

text: Fincantieri successfully completed the acquisition of Manitowoc Marine Group from its parent company The Manitowoc Company, Inc. on 1 January 2009, which consisted of two shipyards in Wisconsin, including Marinette Marine, which built the first . Fincantieri also purchased from Manitowoc Marine Group a topside repair yard in Ohio and one production plant in Wisconsin, making it one of the leading mid-sized shipbuilders in the United States for commercial and government customers, including the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard.


title: Fincantieri

text: Already the largest shipbuilder in Europe, after the acquisition of Vard, formerly part of STX Europe, the Fincantieri group doubled in size to become the fourth largest in the world.


title: Fincantieri

text: In March 2015, Fincantieri won its biggest ever independent order from Carnival Corporation & plc in a 4 billion euro deal commissioning the company to build five new cruise ships.


title: Fincantieri

text: On 2 February 2018, Fincantieri announced an agreement for 50 percent of STX France valued at 59.7 million euro.


title: Fincantieri

text: In March 2018, Fincantieri established Fincantieri Services USA – a subsidiary based in Miami, Florida, USA.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: A hawker is a vendor of merchandise that can be easily transported; the term is roughly synonymous with costermonger or peddler. In most places where the term is used, a hawker sells inexpensive goods, handicrafts, or food items. Whether stationary or mobile, hawkers often advertise by loud street cries or chants, and conduct banter with customers, to attract attention and enhance sales.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: A hawker is a type of street vendor; “a person who travels from place-to-place selling goods.” Synonyms include huckster, peddler, chapman or in Britain, costermonger. However, hawkers are distinguished from other types of street vendors in that they are mobile. In contrast, peddlers, for example, may take up a temporary pitch in a public place. Similarly, hawkers tend to be associated with the sale of non-perishable items such as brushes and cookware while costermongers are exclusively associated with the sale of fresh produce. When accompanied by a demonstration or detailed explanation of the product, the hawker is sometimes referred to as a demonstrator or pitchman.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Social commentator Henry Mayhew wrote, "Among the more ancient of the trades, then carried on in England, is that of the hawker or pedlar", and he notes, "the hawker dealt, in the old times, more in textile fabrics than in anything else." In several passages of his work, Mayhew categorises hawkers, hucksters, and peddlers as a single group of itinerant salesman, and claims that he is unable to say what distinction was drawn between a hawker and a huckster. Mayhew estimated the number of licensed pedlars in 1861 as 14,038 in England, 2,561 in Scotland, and 624 in Wales.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Hawkers have been known since antiquity and possibly earlier. Claire Holleran has examined literary, legal and pictorial sources to provide evidence for the presence of hawkers in antiquity, especially ancient Rome. Her findings indicate that the Romans had no specific term for hawkers – rather they went by a variety of labels including: ambulator (a person who walks around); circitor (to go around); circulator (a broad term which included itinerant entertainers) and institor (a business manager). She found that hawkers and street vendors were an important part of the distribution system. They vendors mainly sold everyday food at low prices and clustered around temples, theatres, bathhouses and forums where to take advantage of the optimal commercial opportunities. Their Street cries were part of the fabric of street life yet were largely viewed as an unwelcome disturbance. In Roman society, hawkers experienced the same disdain that Romans held for retail generally; hawkers were low in social status, with privileged groups often referring to them in pejorative terms.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Literary references and images of hawkers and peddlers during the medieval period are relatively rare. Hawkers, hucksters and peddlers occupied a different social position to merchants and were regarded as marginal in society. However, English narratives from the 12th and 13th centuries suggest that hardworking hawkers could advance to positions as packmen and ultimately wealthy wholesalers or merchants.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In many African metropolitan areas, hawkers, commonly referred to as "vendors", are seen everywhere. They sell a wide range of goods such as fish, fruits, vegetables, clothes and books. In suburban areas, they go door to door, and in more commercial areas, they usually have stands or lay their goods on the ground. In the afternoon, many of them sell commercial goods in the more crowded parts of the cities, and at night, they sell juices, tea and snacks. The prices are lower than in shops and so attract people on low incomes.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, there are 10 million street vendors in India, with Mumbai accounting for 250,000, Delhi has 200,000, Kolkata, more than 150,000, and Ahmedabad, 100,000. Most of them are immigrants or laid-off workers, work for an average 10–12 hours a day, and remain impoverished. Though the prevalent license-permit raj in Indian bureaucracy ended for most retailing in the 1990s, it continues in this trade. Inappropriate license ceiling in most cities, like Mumbai which has a ceiling 14,000 licenses, means more vendors hawk their goods illegally, which also makes them prone to the bribery and extortion culture under local police and municipal authorities, besides harassment, heavy fines and sudden evictions. In Kolkata, the profession was a cognisable and non-bailable offense.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Over the years the street vendors have organized themselves into trade unions and associations, and numerous NGO's have started working for them. In fact, The National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI) based in Delhi, is a federation of 715 street vendor organizations, trade unions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Kolkata has two such unions, namely the Bengal Hawkers Association and the Calcutta Hawkers' Men Union. In September, 2012, long-awaited Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act was introduced in the Lok Sabha (Lower of Indian Parliament) aimed at providing social security and livelihood rights, and regulated the prevalent license system. The Bill was passed in the Lok Sabha on 6 September 2013 and by the Rajya Sabha (upper house) on 19 February 2014. The bill received the assent of the President of India on 4 March 2014. Only three states have implemented the bill as of April 2017. The bill handed governance over public space and vendors over to municipalities. Although, one of the main purposes of the Street Vendors Act was to allow the vendors to have a voice in governance, the bill made conditions more difficult for vendors as they have become more heavily scrutinized.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In the capital city of Dhaka, street vendors such as small tea stalls, and popular food stalls (fuchka, chotpoti) along the public spaces (university campuses, bus terminals, market places) have a significant role to cater to the urban population. Street vendors are a source of food security, especially to the poorer section of the urban population. Street vending is significant portion of Dhaka's informal economy, an employment opportunity for better livelihoods of the urban poor.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Balut is a popular dish sold by hawkers in the Philippines, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Another common food you will see in Southeast Asia is Taho which is soft tofu served with syrup. In both China and Hong Kong, hawkers' inventories often include fish ball, beef ball, butzaigo, roasted chestnuts, and stinky tofu. In Singapore and Malaysia, these stands have become so successful that many have chosen to set up shop more permanently in a hawker centre.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Across Asia, stalls have been set up with little to no government monitoring. Due to health concerns and other liability problems, the food culture has been seriously challenged in Indonesia, though without marked success. However, in Hong Kong, the lease versus licensed hawker restrictions have put a burden on this mobile food culture. The term Jau Gwei (literally: "running from ghosts") has been used to describe vendors often running away from local police.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: The costermongers of London, England were at their peak in the 19th century. Organised, yet semi-obvious, they were ubiquitous, and their street cries could be heard everywhere. The soft drinks company, R. White's Lemonade, began in 1845 with Robert and Mary White selling their drinks around south London in a wheelbarrow.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Street vendors in Latin America are known in local Spanish and Portuguese variously as "vendedores ambulantes" ("mobile vendors") or simply "ambulantes", a term also used in Italy. In Argentina they are known as "manteros". In Brazil, they are also known as "camelôs". Some "ambulantes" set up in a fixed location while others are mobile. Some ambulantes sell their goods door-to-door. "Puestos" are market stalls or stands.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: There are sometimes disputes between established merchants and ambulantes. Bribes are also a problem. Many vendors operate illegally. In order to avoid overwhelming tourists or shoppers, ambulantes are known to establish territories and limit their numbers. Thieves stealing their goods can be a problem.