title: Lake Peigneur

text: It was a freshwater body, popular with sportsmen, until an unusual man-made disaster on November 20, 1980 changed its structure and the surrounding land.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: On Thursday, November 20, 1980, an oil rig contracted by Texaco was doing exploratory drilling in the lake, above the Diamond Crystal Salt Company salt mine that had operated for decades. The drilling likely started a chain of events that turned the shallow lake from fresh to brackish water, with a deep hole.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: The evidence that could be used to identify the exact cause was destroyed or washed away in the ensuing maelstrom. However, the rig's drill bit had become stuck just two-and-a-half hours before the draining was first observed. After the fact, engineers from Texaco and Diamond Crystal worked together to pinpoint the likely location of the hole which may have pierced the mine. They placed it within a mined out portion of the 1300-foot level of the mine. If the drill actually did puncture the roof of the mine, this would mean that Texaco had made a serious mistake about the location of the bore hole in relation to the mine. Whatever the precise cause, an opening formed in the bottom of the lake. The lake then drained into the hole, expanding the size of that hole as the soil and salt were washed into the mine by the rushing water, filling the enormous caverns that had been left by the removal of salt since 1919.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: The resultant sinkhole swallowed the drilling platform, eleven barges holding supplies for the drilling operation, a tugboat, many trees, and of the surrounding terrain. So much water drained into the caverns that the flow of the Delcambre Canal that usually empties the lake into Vermilion Bay was reversed, causing salt water from the Gulf of Mexico to flow into what was now a dry lakebed. This backflow created for a few days the tallest waterfall ever in the state of Louisiana, at , as the lake refilled with salty water from the Delcambre Canal and Vermilion Bay. Air displaced by water flowing into the mine caverns erupted through the mineshafts as compressed air and then later as geysers.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: Although there were no human deaths, three dogs were reported killed. All 55 employees in the mine at the time of the accident escaped, with six employees later given awards by Diamond Crystal for heroism. Their successful evacuation was thanks to the mine's electrician who noticed a torrent of water and sounded the alarm, as well as the employees' discipline and training making their escape via the only elevator in an orderly fashion. The crew of 7 on the drilling rig fled the platform shortly before it collapsed into the new depths of the lake. A fisherman who was on the lake at the time piloted his small boat to shore and escaped. Days after the disaster, once the water pressure equalized, nine of the eleven sunken barges popped out of the whirlpool and refloated on the lake's surface.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: Texaco and the drilling contractor Wilson Brothers paid $32 million to Diamond Crystal and $12.8 million to a nearby botanical garden and plant nursery, Live Oak Gardens, in out-of-court settlements to compensate for the damage caused. The Mine Safety and Health Administration released a report on the disaster in August 1981 which exhaustively documented the event but stopped short of identifying an official reason for the disaster. The mine was finally closed in December 1986.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: Since 1994, AGL Resources has used Lake Peigneur's underlying salt dome as a storage and hub facility for pressurized natural gas. There was concern from local residents in 2009 over the safety of storing the gas under the lake and nearby drilling operations.


title: Lake Peigneur

text: The lake had salty water after the event, not as a result of salt from the mine dissolving into the water, but from the inflow of salty water from the Delcambre Canal and Vermilion Bay, which are naturally salty or brackish. The event permanently affected the ecosystem of the lake by changing the lake from freshwater to saltwater and increasing the depth of part of the lake.


title: Black ice

text: Black ice, sometimes called clear ice, is a thin coating of glaze ice on a surface, especially on streets. The ice itself is not black, but visually transparent, allowing the often black road below to be seen through it. The typically low levels of noticeable ice pellets, snow, or sleet surrounding black ice means that areas of the ice are often practically invisible to drivers or people stepping on it. There is, thus, a risk of slippage and subsequent accident due to the unexpected loss of traction.


title: Black ice

text: The term "black ice" in the United States is defined by the National Weather Service as "patchy ice on roadways or other transportation surfaces that cannot easily be seen. It is often clear (not white) with the black road surface visible underneath. It is most prevalent during the early morning hours, especially after snowmelt on the roadways has a chance to refreeze overnight when the temperature drops below freezing. Black ice can also form when roadways are slick from rain and temperatures drop below freezing overnight."


title: Black ice

text: The American Meteorological Society Glossary of Meteorology includes the definition of black ice as "a thin sheet of ice, relatively dark in appearance, [that] may form when light rain or drizzle falls on a road surface that is at a temperature below ." Because it represents only a thin accumulation, black ice is highly transparent and thus difficult to see compared with snow, frozen slush, or thicker ice layers. In addition, it is often interleaved with wet pavement, which is nearly identical in appearance. This condition makes driving, cycling or walking on affected surfaces extremely dangerous. Deicing with salt (sodium chloride) is effective down to temperatures of about . Other compounds such as magnesium chloride or calcium chloride have been used for extremely cold temperatures since the freezing-point depression of their solutions is lower.


title: Black ice

text: At low temperatures (below ), black ice can form on roadways when the moisture from automobile exhaust, such as motorcycles and cars, condenses on the road surface.


title: Black ice

text: Such conditions caused multiple accidents in Minnesota when the temperatures dipped below for a prolonged period of time in mid-December 2008. Salt's ineffectiveness at melting ice at these temperatures compounds the problem. Black ice may form even when the ambient temperature is several degrees above the freezing point of water , if the air warms suddenly after a prolonged cold spell that has left the surface of the roadway well below the freezing point temperature, 32 degrees fahrenheit.


title: Black ice

text: On December 1, 2013, heavy post-Thanksgiving weekend traffic encountered black ice on the westbound I-290 expressway in Worcester, Massachusetts. A chain reaction series of crashes resulted, involving three tractor-trailers and over 60 other vehicles. The ice formed suddenly on a long downward slope, surprising drivers coming over the crest of a hill, who could not see crashed vehicles ahead until it was too late to stop on the slick pavement.


title: Black ice

text: On February 11, 2021, icing in Dallas and Fort Worth, Texas, contributed to a crash on I-35W which authorities called a "mass casualty event". Over 100 cars were involved in the pileup and multiple fatalities were reported.


title: Black ice

text: Bridges and overpasses can be especially dangerous. Black ice forms first on bridges and overpasses because air can circulate both above and below the surface of the elevated roadway when the ambient temperature drops, causing the bridge pavement temperature to fall more rapidly. In the United States, road warning signs with the advisory "Bridge May Be Icy" indicate potentially dangerous roadways above bridge structures.


title: Black ice

text: Similar road signs exists throughout Canada, but warnings sometimes appear without words to comply to bilingual requirements. The Canadian sign features a vehicle with skid marks and snow flakes. The same sign's official and undisclosed description is defined as "Pavement is slippery when wet".


title: Black ice

text: Additional signs may be attached with various different wording in Canadian provinces that do not have bilingual requirements:


title: Black ice

text: The I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota, was well known for its black ice before it collapsed in 2007 into the Mississippi River. It had caused several pileups during its 40-year life. On December 19, 1985, the temperature reached . Cars crossing the bridge experienced black ice and there was a massive pile up of crashed vehicles on the bridge on the northbound side. In February and in December 1996, the bridge was identified as the single most treacherous cold-weather spot in the local freeway system, because of the almost frictionless thin layer of black ice that regularly formed when temperatures dropped below freezing. The bridge's proximity to Saint Anthony Falls contributed significantly to the icing problem and the site was noted for frequent spinouts and collisions.


title: Black ice

text: By January 1999, Mn/DOT began testing magnesium chloride solutions and a mixture of magnesium chloride and a corn-processing byproduct to see whether either would reduce the black ice that appeared on the bridge during the winter months. In October 1999, the state embedded temperature-activated nozzles in the bridge deck to spray the bridge with potassium acetate solution to keep the area free of winter black ice. The system came into operation in 2000.


title: Black ice

text: When the temperature is below freezing and the wind is calm, such as under a high atmospheric pressure at night in the fall, a thin layer of ice will form over open water of a lake. If the depth of the body of water is large enough, its color is black and can be seen through the ice, thus the name black ice.


title: Black ice

text: Ice can also be formed by seawater spray and water vapour freezing upon contact with a vessel's superstructure when temperature is low enough. Ice formed in this manner is known as "rime". As the formation progress, the aboveboard weight of the vessel increases and may ultimately cause capsizing. Furthermore, rime ice may impede the correct functioning of important navigational instruments on board, such as radar or radio installations. Different strategies for the removal of such ice are employed: chipping away the ice or even using fire hoses in an attempt to remove the ice.


title: Black ice

text: Black ice is a significant hazard for climbers and scramblers. Cold weather is common at high altitudes, and black ice quickly forms on rock surfaces. Loss of traction is as sudden and unexpected as on a pavement or road, but can be dangerous if the rock is in an exposed position with a drop below. An ice-axe and crampons are essential use in such circumstances as they will help to prevent a fall, and a belay rope will help to arrest a fall.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: A manga adaptation illustrated by Hami was serialized on the "Kono Manga ga Sugoi! Web" website. Kyoto Animation was in charge of its anime adaptations: it produced two seasons of a television series adaptation in 2015 and 2016, depicting the first high school year of the main character, Kumiko Oumae. Two animated theatrical films titled "Liz and the Blue Bird" and "Sound! Euphonium: The Movie – Our Promise: A Brand New Day", both taking place during Kumiko's second high year, were released in premiered in 2018 and 2019 respectively. A third season focused on Kumiko in her third year of high school has been announced for 2024, preceded by a theatrical OVA in 2023 based on the "Ensemble Contest" arc.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: The Kitauji High School Concert Band Club had at one time participated in national tournaments and was a championship-caliber school, but after the club's adviser changed, they had not been able to even participate in the qualifying tournament. However, thanks to the newly appointed adviser's strict instruction, the students are steadily improving and build up their strength. As they fight over who plays solos, some students give priority to studying and quit club activities. Finally, the long wished-for day of the competition arrives.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: "Sound! Euphonium" is a 319-page novel written by Ayano Takeda, and features cover art drawn by Nikki Asada. Takarajimasha published the novel on December 5, 2013. Two sequel novels were released on March 5 and April 4, 2015. In addition, a short story collection was released on May 25, 2015. In 2016, a spin-off novel was released in two volumes on August 4 and September 6. Another spin-off novel was released on October 6, 2016. A two-part sequel to the novels was released in August and October 2017; the story takes place in Kumiko's second year and Mizore's third year of high school. Another short story collection was released on April 5, 2018. Two follow-up novel volumes focused on Kumiko's third and final year on high school were released in April and May 2019.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: A manga adaptation of the first novel illustrated by Hami was serialized on the "Kono Manga ga Sugoi! Web" website between November 28, 2014 and October 30, 2015. Takarajimasha published three "tankōbon" volumes between April 3 and November 20, 2015. A manga adaptation of the second novel followed, and the first volume was released on September 8, 2016; the second volume was released on October 11, 2016. A manga adaptation of the third novel followed; the first volume was released July 20, 2017, and the second volume on August 26, 2017.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: A 13-episode anime television series adaptation of the first volume of the novel series, directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, written by Jukki Hanada, and produced by Kyoto Animation, aired in Japan between April 8 and July 1, 2015. Naoko Yamada served as series production director. The opening theme is "Dream Solister" by True, and the ending theme is by Tomoyo Kurosawa, Ayaka Asai, Moe Toyota, and Chika Anzai. The ending theme for episode 8 is a trumpet and euphonium duet version of and the ending theme for episode 13 is a wind orchestra version of "Dream Solister". The anime is licensed by Ponycan USA in North America, and by Anime Limited in the United Kingdom. The seventh DVD/BD volume, released on December 16, 2015, bundled an original video animation (OVA) episode titled . Kyoto Animation produced an anime film retelling the events of the television series, which premiered on April 23, 2016.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: A second season of the television series began airing on October 6, 2016. The opening theme is by True, and the ending theme is by Kurosawa, Asai, Toyota, and Anzai. The ending theme for episode 9 is a euphonium solo version of (uncredited) and the ending theme for episode 13 is an orchestra version of "Sound! Euphonium". A short anime, titled , was bundled with the second season's first home video release volume, which was released on December 21, 2016. A second anime film retelling the events of the second season was released on September 30, 2017.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: Two new animated films telling the events of Kumiko's second year at Kitauji High were scheduled for release in 2018. The first film, directed by Naoko Yamada and written by Reiko Yoshida, titled , focuses on Nozomi and Mizore and premiered on April 21, 2018. Theatrical distributor Eleven Arts released the film in theaters on November 9, 2018 in the United States. Shout! Factory released it on home video on March 5, 2019. The second film, titled and originally scheduled for release in 2018, is directed by Tatsuya Ishihara and focuses on Kumiko as a student in her second year and premiered on April 19, 2019. The film was released in select US theaters on July 11, 2019, and the English dub debuted on July 15, 2019. Eleven Arts released the film under the title of "Sound! Euphonium—Our Promise: A Brand New Day". It has a different voice cast compared to "Liz and the Blue Bird," though Sarah Anne Williams, Ryan Bartley and Megan Harvey reprised their roles as Natsuki, Satomi and Yuko, respectively. The film was released on a DVD/Blu-Ray set on June 2, 2020 from Shout Factory.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: Along with re-confirmation of the third season, a theatrical OVA, based on the "Ensemble Contest" arc, was announced in 2022, slated to be released in 2023.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: A new anime project was announced in 2019. It focuses on Kumiko as a student in her third year. In 2022, it was announced that the third season is scheduled to be released in 2024.


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: Wind ensemble music for both seasons were performed by the 2014 of the Senzoku Gakuen College of Music. Original music was composed and some featured pieces were arranged by .


title: Sound! Euphonium

text: The series has often been criticized by Western viewers for perceived queerbaiting with regards to the relationship between lead characters Kumiko Oumae and Reina Kousaka. Crunchyroll's Twitter account acknowledged the pairing by tweeting a screenshot from the show, which was still airing and being officially simulcast by the service at the time, in the wake of the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine (symbol Ala or A), or α-alanine, is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an amine group and a carboxylic acid group, both attached to the central carbon atom which also carries a methyl group side chain. Consequently, its IUPAC systematic name is 2-aminopropanoic acid, and it is classified as a nonpolar, aliphatic α-amino acid. Under biological conditions, it exists in its zwitterionic form with its amine group protonated (as −NH) and its carboxyl group deprotonated (as −CO). It is non-essential to humans as it can be synthesised metabolically and does not need to be present in the diet. It is encoded by all codons starting with GC (GCU, GCC, GCA, and GCG).


title: Alanine

text: The -isomer of alanine (left-handed) is the one that is incorporated into proteins. -alanine is second only to leucine in rate of occurrence, accounting for 7.8% of the primary structure in a sample of 1,150 proteins. The right-handed form, -alanine, occurs in polypeptides in some bacterial cell walls and in some peptide antibiotics, and occurs in the tissues of many crustaceans and molluscs as an osmolyte.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine was first synthesized in 1850 when Adolph Strecker combined acetaldehyde and ammonia with hydrogen cyanide. The amino acid was named "Alanin" in German, in reference to aldehyde, with the infix "-an-" for ease of pronunciation, the German ending "-in" used in chemical compounds being analogous to English "-ine".


title: Alanine

text: Alanine is an aliphatic amino acid, because the side-chain connected to the α-carbon atom is a methyl group (-CH); alanine is the simplest α-amino acid after glycine. The methyl side-chain of alanine is non-reactive and is therefore hardly ever directly involved in protein function. Alanine is a nonessential amino acid, meaning it can be manufactured by the human body, and does not need to be obtained through the diet. Alanine is found in a wide variety of foods, but is particularly concentrated in meats.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine can be synthesized from pyruvate and branched chain amino acids such as valine, leucine, and isoleucine.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine is produced by reductive amination of pyruvate, a two-step process. In the first step, α-ketoglutarate, ammonia and NADH are converted by glutamate dehydrogenase to glutamate, NAD and water. In the second step, the amino group of the newly-formed glutamate is transferred to pyruvate by an aminotransferase enzyme, regenerating the α-ketoglutarate, and converting the pyruvate to alanine. The net result is that pyruvate and ammonia are converted to alanine, consuming one reducing equivalent. Because transamination reactions are readily reversible and pyruvate is present in all cells, alanine can be easily formed and thus has close links to metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the citric acid cycle.


title: Alanine

text: L-Alanine is produced industrially by decarboxylation of L-aspartate by the action of aspartate 4-decarboxylase. Fermentation routes to L-alanine are complicated by alanine racemase.


title: Alanine

text: Racemic alanine can be prepared by the condensation of acetaldehyde with ammonium chloride in the presence of sodium cyanide by the Strecker reaction, or by the ammonolysis of 2-bromopropanoic acid.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine is broken down by oxidative deamination, the inverse reaction of the reductive amination reaction described above, catalyzed by the same enzymes. The direction of the process is largely controlled by the relative concentration of the substrates and products of the reactions involved.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine is one of the twenty canonical α-amino acids used as building blocks (monomers) for the ribosome-mediated biosynthesis of proteins. Alanine is believed to be one of the earliest amino acids to be included in the genetic code standard repertoire.


title: Alanine

text: On the basis of this fact the "Alanine World" hypothesis was proposed. This hypothesis explains the evolutionary choice of amino acids in the repertoire of the genetic code from a chemical point of view. In this model the selection of monomers (i.e. amino acids) for ribosomal protein synthesis is rather limited to those Alanine derivatives that are suitable for building α-helix or β-sheet secondary structural elements. Dominant secondary structures in life as we know it are α-helices and β-sheets and most canonical amino acids can be regarded as chemical derivatives of Alanine. Therefore, most canonical amino acids in proteins can be exchanged with Ala by point mutations while the secondary structure remains intact. The fact that Ala mimics the secondary structure preferences of the majority of the encoded amino acids is practically exploited in alanine scanning mutagenesis. In addition, classical X-ray crystallography often employs the polyalanine-backbone model to determine three-dimensional structures of proteins using molecular replacement - a model-based phasing method.


title: Alanine

text: In mammals, alanine plays a key role in glucose–alanine cycle between tissues and liver. In muscle and other tissues that degrade amino acids for fuel, amino groups are collected in the form of glutamate by transamination. Glutamate can then transfer its amino group to pyruvate, a product of muscle glycolysis, through the action of alanine aminotransferase, forming alanine and α-ketoglutarate. The alanine enters the bloodstream, and is transported to the liver. The alanine aminotransferase reaction takes place in reverse in the liver, where the regenerated pyruvate is used in gluconeogenesis, forming glucose which returns to the muscles through the circulation system. Glutamate in the liver enters mitochondria and is broken down by glutamate dehydrogenase into α-ketoglutarate and ammonium, which in turn participates in the urea cycle to form urea which is excreted through the kidneys.


title: Alanine

text: The glucose–alanine cycle enables pyruvate and glutamate to be removed from muscle and safely transported to the liver. Once there, pyruvate is used to regenerate glucose, after which the glucose returns to muscle to be metabolized for energy: this moves the energetic burden of gluconeogenesis to the liver instead of the muscle, and all available ATP in the muscle can be devoted to muscle contraction. It is a catabolic pathway, and relies upon protein breakdown in the muscle tissue. Whether and to what extent it occurs in non-mammals is unclear.


title: Alanine

text: Alterations in the alanine cycle that increase the levels of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) are linked to the development of type II diabetes.


title: Alanine

text: Alanine is useful in loss of function experiments with respect to phosphorylation. Some techniques involve creating a library of genes, each of which has a point mutation at a different position in the area of interest, sometimes even every position in the whole gene: this is called "scanning mutagenesis". The simplest method, and the first to have been used, is so-called alanine scanning, where every position in turn is mutated to alanine.


title: Alanine

text: The deamination of an alanine molecule produces the free radical CHCHCO. Deamination can be induced in solid or aqueous alanine by radiation that causes homolytic cleavage of the carbon–nitrogen bond.


title: Alanine

text: This property of alanine is used in dosimetric measurements in radiotherapy. When normal alanine is irradiated, the radiation causes certain alanine molecules to become free radicals, and, as these radicals are stable, the free radical content can later be measured by electron paramagnetic resonance in order to find out how much radiation the alanine was exposed to. This is considered to be a biologically relevant measure of the amount of radiation damage that living tissue would suffer under the same radiation exposure. Radiotherapy treatment plans can be delivered in test mode to alanine pellets, which can then be measured to check that the intended pattern of radiation dose is correctly delivered by the treatment system.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Pope Gregory III (; died 28 November 741) was the bishop of Rome from 11 February 731 to his death. His pontificate, like that of his predecessor, was disturbed by Byzantine iconoclasm and the advance of the Lombards, in which he invoked the intervention of Charles Martel, although ultimately in vain. He was the last Pope to seek the consent of the Byzantine exarch of Ravenna for his election, and the last non-European pope until the election of Pope Francis on 13 March 2013, more than 1,271 years later.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Gregory was the son of a Syrian named John. He was elected pope by popular acclamation on 11 February 731, but was not formally consecrated as bishop of Rome until 18 March, after having received the approval of the Byzantine exarch of Ravenna. He was the last pope to seek the exarch’s ratification of a papal election.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Immediately upon his accession, Gregory appealed to Emperor Leo III to moderate his position on iconoclasm. When Gregory's representative was arrested on the orders of the emperor, Gregory called a synod in November 731, which condemned iconoclasm outright. Leo responded by trying to bring the pope under control, but the fleet he sent to enforce the imperial will was shipwrecked in the Adriatic Sea. He then proceeded to appropriate papal territories in Sicily and Calabria, and transferred ecclesiastical jurisdictions in the former praetorian prefecture of Illyricum to the patriarch of Constantinople. However, his attempt to force the duke of Naples to enforce an imperial decree to confiscate papal territory in the duchy failed, as the duke was supportive of the pope’s stand.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Gregory, in the meantime, demonstrated his opposition to iconoclasm by emphasising his veneration of icons and relics. He repaired or beautified numerous churches, which involved their decoration with icons and images of Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints. He ordered to be erected in the heart of St. Peter’s Basilica an "iconostasis", situated between six onyx and marble columns which had been sent to Gregory as a gift from the exarch Eutychius. He built a new oratory in St. Peter's Basilica to house the relics of a number of saints, convoking a synod in 732 in order to regulate the prayers and masses to be said there. Gregory was an enthusiastic supporter of monasticism; he established the monastery of St. Chrysogonus and rebuilt the hospice of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, near St. Peter's, endowing it for the support of the poor.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: A temporary lull in the conflict between the Byzantines and the Lombards allowed Gregory to deal with some longstanding internal issues, in particular the ongoing jurisdictional dispute between the patriarchs of Grado and Aquileia. Although the Synod of 731 had adjudicated in this matter in favour of Grado, Gregory was forced to reprimand the patriarch of Aquileia, Calixtus, who had attempted to gain possession of the island of Barbana from Grado’s jurisdiction. In 731, he approved the election of Tatwine as archbishop of Canterbury, after the latter came to Rome in person to ask for the pallium. Gregory approved of the election of his successor, Nothhelm, while in 735 he agreed to the request of King Ceolwulf of Northumbria that Bishop Egbert of York should be elevated to the rank of archbishop.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Gregory promoted the Church in northern Europe. He supported the continuing mission of Saint Boniface in Germany, elevating him to the rank of archbishop of Germany in 732; and, after a personal visit to Rome from Boniface in 737, where he was meant to attend a synod which does not appear to have been held, Gregory made Boniface a papal legate in Germany, and asked him to reorganize the episcopal sees in Germany. Gregory sent Boniface back to Bavaria with three letters. One commanded the bishops and higher ecclesiastical officers to provide Boniface with as much help as they could. A second was addressed to the nobles and people of Germany, urging them to obey Boniface. A third, addressed to the bishops in Alamannia and Bavaria, confirmed Boniface’s status as the papal vicar, ordering them to assemble in a council twice a year at Augsburg under Boniface’s authority. Gregory promoted the mission of Willibald in Germany.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: In 732, Gregory banned the consumption of horse meat, both domestic and wild, anathematizing it as an "abomination" since it was associated with pagan ritual feasting.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Conscious of the ongoing Lombard threat, Gregory undertook and completed the restoration of the Aurelian Walls during the early 730s. He also refortified Centumcellae, purchasing from Thrasimund II of Spoleto the fortress of Gallese along the Via Flaminia, which had been taken by the Lombards, interrupting Rome’s communications with the exarch at Ravenna. The return of the Lombard king Liutprand in 737 saw a renewal of the Lombard assault on the Exarchate of Ravenna.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Gregory's opposition to Byzantine iconoclasm did not stop his lending support to the Byzantine Empire to help in the recapture of Ravenna after it had fallen to the Lombards in around 738. In that same year, Liutprand demanded that the Lombard dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum ravage the area around the Duchy of Rome; but both refused, citing a treaty with the pope. Gregory then actively encouraged the rebellion of Thrasimund, forcing Liutprand to temporarily abandon his attacks on the exarchate, turning his attention towards Spoleto, which Liutprand annexed. Thrasimund was forced to flee Spoleto, seeking refuge in Rome, where he was welcomed by Gregory.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: By the middle of 739, Liutprand was encroaching once again on the Exarchate and threatening Rome. In desperation, Gregory sent ambassadors to Charles Martel, the Frankish mayor of the Palace, begging him to intervene on the pope’s behalf. Although Gregory stated that he was willing to give up his allegiance to the Eastern Empire and place himself under the protection of the Franks, Charles made no promise to assist, since he was fully occupied by the Umayyad invasion of Gaul. Gregory himself referred to these Saracen Muslims as "gens ferocissima" or "that most fierce nation". The Lombard capture of the towns of , Ortas, Polimartium and Blera once again caused Gregory to write to Charles, this time in even greater tones of despair, beseeching his aid:


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Our affliction moves us to write to you once again, trusting that you are a loving son of St. Peter and of us, and that, from respect for him, you will come and defend the Church of God and His peculiar people, who are now unable to endure the persecution and oppression of the Lombards. They have seized the very means set aside to furnish funds for the lights ever kept burning at St. Peter's tomb, and they have carried off offerings that have been made by you and by those who have gone before you. And because, after God, we have turned to you, the Lombards deride and oppress us. Hence the Church of St. Peter has been stripped and reduced to the last straits. We have put into the mouth of the bearer of this letter, your faithful servant all our woes, which he will be able to unfold to you. Please come at once, to show your love towards St. Peter, and us, his own people.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: This time Charles Martel did send an embassy to Rome, and this implicit support, together with the beginnings of fever running through his troops, forced Liutprand to march back to Pavia by the end of August 739. Taking advantage of this withdrawal, Gregory agreed to support Thrasimund II's return to Spoleto. Thrasimund II forced his way back in by December 739 with Roman armed support, but refused to hand over the four captured towns he had promised in exchange for papal support. Learning that Charles Martel was sick, Liutprand once again returned to attacking the Exarchate in 740, forcing Gregory yet again to appeal to the Franks, who again refused to become involved.


title: Pope Gregory III

text: Unsuccessful at stopping the Lombard advance, Gregory III died on 28 November 741. He was succeeded by Pope Zachary. He was buried in St. Peter’s Basilica, in the oratory he had built at the start of his pontificate. Gregory’s feast day is now celebrated on 10


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes in Australia are used to more efficiently sort and route mail within the Australian postal system. Postcodes in Australia have four digits and are placed at the end of the Australian address, before the country. Postcodes were introduced in Australia in 1967 by the Postmaster-General's Department and are now managed by Australia Post, Australia's national postal service. Postcodes are published in booklets available from post offices or online from the Australia Post website.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australian envelopes and postcards often have four square boxes printed in orange at the bottom right for the postcode. These are used to assist with the automated sorting of mail that has been addressed by hand for Australian delivery.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes were introduced in Australia in 1967 by the Postmaster-General's Department (PMG) to replace earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbourne's letter and number codes (e.g., "N3", "E5") and a similar system then used in rural and regional New South Wales. The introduction of the postcodes coincided with the introduction of a large-scale mechanical mail sorting system in Australia, starting with the Sydney GPO.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: By 1968, 75% of mail was using postcodes, and in the same year post office preferred-size envelopes were introduced, which came to be referred to as “standard envelopes”.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcode squares were introduced in June 1990 to enable Australia Post to use optical character recognition (OCR) software in its mail sorting machines to automatically and more quickly sort mail by postcodes.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australian postcodes consist of four digits, and are written after the name of the city, suburb, or town, and the state or territory:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: When writing an address by hand, and a row of four boxes is pre-printed on the lower right-hand corner of an envelope, the postcode may be written in the boxes instead. When posting to an organisation, business names can be written instead of a recipient name. If an article is intended for a specific identity within an organisation, their identity can be prepended on the line above the business name, with c/- prepended to the business name.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: If addressing a letter from outside Australia, the postcode is recorded before 'Australia', which is placed on a fourth line.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australian postcodes are sorting information. They are often linked with one area (e.g. 6160 belongs only to Fremantle, Western Australia). Due to postcode rationalisation, they can be quite complex, especially in country areas (e.g. 2570 belongs to twenty-two towns and suburbs around Camden, New South Wales). The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people. This means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations (e.g., postcode 4350 serving some 100,000 people in Toowoomba and the surrounding area), while other postcodes have much smaller populations, even in urban areas. Australian postcodes range from 0200 for the Australian National University (now 2601) to 9944 for Cannonvale, Queensland.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes — one for street deliveries and another for post office boxes. For example, a street address in the Sydney suburb of Parramatta would be written like this:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Many large businesses, government departments and other institutions receiving high volumes of mail had their own postcode as a "Large Volume Receiver" (LVR), e.g. the Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital has the postcode 4029, the Australian National University had the postcode 0200. More postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s. Australia Post has been progressively discontinuing the LVR programme since 2006.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Sometimes near the state and territory borders, Australia Post finds it easier to send mail through a nearby post office that is across the border:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Some of the postcodes above may cover two or more states. For example, postcode 2620 covers both a locality in NSW ("Gundaroo") as well as a locality in the ACT ("Hume"), and postcode 0872 covers a number of localities across WA, SA and NT.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Three locations (Mingoola, Mungindi and Texas) straddle the NSW-Queensland border (so same town name and postcode on both sides).


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a separate territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, with which it shares a postcode. Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: The numerals used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the same numeral as the first numeral for postcodes in that state, e.g. "2xx" in New South Wales, "3xx" in Victoria, etc. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than forty years.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australia's external territories are also included in Australia Post's postcode system. While these territories do not belong to any state, they are addressed as such for mail sorting:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Three scientific bases in Antarctica operated by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions share a postcode with the isolated sub-Antarctic island of Macquarie Island (part of Tasmania):


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Each state's capital city ends with three zeroes, while territorial capital cities end with two zeroes. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs and PO Boxes were made available. The last numeral can usually be changed from "0" to "1" to get the postcode for General Post Office boxes in any capital city (though Perth now uses a different range of postcodes for its GPO Boxes):


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: While the first numeral of a postcode usually shows the state or territory, the second numeral usually shows a region within the state. However, postcodes with the same second numeral are not always next to each other. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–2299 are split between the southern suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast, Lake Macquarie and Newcastle regions of New South Wales.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes with a second numeral of "0" or "1" are almost always located within the metropolitan area of the state's capital city. Postcodes with higher second numerals are usually located in rural and regional areas. Common exceptions are where towns were rural when postcodes were first introduced in 1967, but have since been suburbanised and incorporated into metropolitan areas, e.g. Penrith, New South Wales has the postcode 2750 and Petrie, Queensland has the postcode 4502.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Within each region with the same second numeral, postcodes are usually allocated in ascending order the further one travels from the state's capital city along major highways and railways. For instance, heading north on the North Coast railway in New South Wales away from Sydney:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Major towns and cities tend to have "0" as the last numeral or last two numerals, e.g. Rockhampton, Queensland has the postcode 4700 and Ballarat, Victoria has the postcode 3350. There are exceptions; the major town of Ipswich, Queensland has the postcode 4305, while Goodna, a relatively small suburb of Ipswich, is allocated 4300.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australia Post prefers envelopes sold in Australia to have four boxes in the bottom right corner of the front of the envelope. Entering the postcode in these boxes or squares, which Australia Post calls "postcode squares", enables Australia Post to use optical character recognition software in its mail sorting machines to automatically and more quickly sort mail into postcodes, which also embeds routing information. Postcode squares were introduced in June 1990.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australia Post says that postcode squares should not be used for machine-addressed mail, or mail going overseas.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Many other organisations now use postcodes. Insurance companies often use postcodes when working out the cost of car and house insurance. Transport for NSW uses postcodes to give specific numbers for each bus stop in Greater Sydney. The stop number is five to seven numbers: the first four are the postcode, and the others show the bus stop (sometimes written with a space in between, e.g. "2000 108").


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Many companies that produce metropolitan street maps also list the postcodes for each suburb, both in indexes and on the maps themselves. Spatial representation of postcodes is also very popular in defining sales and franchise territories.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Taxation Office and many other Federal and State government organisations publish a variety of statistics by postcode which extends the use Australia Post four digit code to many business and social planning related activities.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: There is an inherent problem with spatial representation of postcodes since areas referenced to a specific postal code tend to change over time, as new postcodes are added or existing ones are split by Australia Post for operational purposes.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Some mail generating software can automatically sort outward mail by postcode before it is generated. This pre-sort of mail into postcode order eliminates the need for it to be sorted manually or using mail sorting machines.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: To improve mechanised sorting, each address now has a sorting number which is printed on the letter as an orange-coloured barcode. This number might be 12 digits long. This system enables the post office to place items in delivery order. Companies can also use Rapid Addressing Tool (RATS) to print Customer Addressed Barcodes, which are printed above the address. Every Delivery Point in Australia (DPID) has its own number. Barcode sorter machines sort and sequence letters up to C5 size. Flat multi-level OCR reads, imprints and sorts C5 to A3 sized articles.


title: Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1974

text: This is a list of "Billboard" magazine's Top Hot 100 singles of 1974. The Top 100, as revealed in the Talent In Action section of "Billboard" dated December 28, 1974, is based on Hot 100 charts from the issue dates of November 24, 1973, through October 26, 1974.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: DynaTAC is a series of cellular telephones manufactured by Motorola, Inc. from 1983 to 1994. The Motorola DynaTAC 8000X commercial portable cellular phone received approval from the U.S. FCC on September 21, 1983. A full charge took roughly 10 hours, and it offered 30 minutes of talk time. It also offered an LED display for dialing or recall of one of 30 phone numbers. It was priced at $3,995 in 1984, its commercial release year, equivalent to $ in . DynaTAC was an abbreviation of "Dynamic Adaptive Total Area Coverage".


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Several models followed, starting in 1985 with the 8000s, and continuing with periodic updates of increasing frequency until 1993's Classic II. The DynaTAC was replaced in most roles by the much smaller Motorola MicroTAC when it was first introduced in 1989, and by the time of the Motorola StarTAC's release in 1996, it was obsolete.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: The first cellular phone was the culmination of efforts begun at Bell Labs, which first proposed the idea of a cellular system in 1947, and continued to petition the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for channels through the 1950s and 1960s, and research conducted at Motorola. In 1960, electrical engineer John F. Mitchell became Motorola's chief engineer for its mobile communication products. Mitchell oversaw the development and marketing of the first pager to use transistors.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Motorola had long produced mobile telephones for cars that were large and heavy and consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobile's engine running. Mitchell's team, which included Martin Cooper, developed portable cellular telephony, and Mitchell was among the Motorola employees granted a patent for this work in 1973; the first call on the prototype was completed, reportedly, to a wrong number.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Motorola announced the development of the Dyna-Tac in April 1973, saying that it expected to have it fully operational within three years. Motorola said that the Dyna-Tac would weigh and would cost between $60 and $100 per month. Motorola predicted that the cost would decrease to $10 or $12 per month in no more than 20 years. Motorola said that, while the Dyna-Tac would not use the same network as the existing mobile service network, it anticipated resolving this so that all mobile devices would use the same network by around 1980. By 1975, Motorola's expectations had changed; the Dyna-Tac was anticipated to be released to the public by 1985 because of U.S. Federal Communications Commission proceedings.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: While Motorola was developing the cellular phone itself, from 1968 to 1983, Bell Labs worked on the system called AMPS, while others designed cell phones for that and other cellular systems. Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at Motorola, led a team that produced the DynaTAC 8000x, the first commercially available cellular phone small enough to be easily carried, and made the first phone call from it. Martin Cooper was the first person to make an analog cellular mobile phone call on a prototype in 1973.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: The Motorola DynaTAC 8000x was very large compared to phones today. This first cell phone was very expensive when it was released in the US in 1984. The DynaTAC's retail price, $3,995 (about $ in ), ensured that it would not become a mass-market item (the minimum wage in the United States was $3.35 per hour in 1984, which meant that it required more than 1192 hours of work, or more than 1.6 months - just working for the phone, without taxes); by 1998, when Mitchell retired, cellphones and associated services made up two thirds of Motorola's $30billion in revenue.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: On October 13, 1983, David D. Meilahn placed the first commercial wireless call on a DynaTAC from his 1983 Mercedes-Benz 380SL to Bob Barnett, former president of Ameritech Mobile Communications, who then placed a call on a DynaTAC from inside a Chrysler convertible to the grandson of Alexander Graham Bell, who was in Germany for the event. The call, made at Soldier Field in Chicago, is considered to be a major turning point in communications. Later, Richard H. Frenkiel, the head of system development at Bell Laboratories, said about the DynaTAC: "It was a real triumph; a great breakthrough."


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: U.S. Patent 3,906,166, September 16, 1975 for a Radio Telephone System for the first cell phone was granted by Martin Cooper, Richard W. Dronsurth, Albert J. Leitich, Charles N. Lynk, James J. Mikulski, John F. Mitchell, Roy A. Richardson, and John H. Sangster.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Two names were botched in the original filing; Albert Leitich's surname was erroneously omitted, and Dr. Mikulski's first name was omitted. The original document was refiled by Motorola's legal staff, but has not yet been identified.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: The seeds of the idea for a portable cell phone can be traced to Dr. James J. Mikulski, which were rejected by Mitchell for lack of sufficient business justifications. It is rumored that when John Mitchell suddenly recognized during an attempted phone call that his 400 MHz phone had inherent limitations, he immediately reversed his previous decision and championed the portable cell phone concept.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Several prototypes were made between 1973 and 1983. The product accepted by the FCC weighed 28 ounces (790 g) and was 10 inches (25 cm) high, not including its flexible "rubber duck" whip antenna. In addition to the typical 12-key telephone keypad, it had nine additional special keys:


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: It employed some of the technology previously used in the ALOHAnet system, including metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transceiver and modem technology.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: The DynaTAC 8 Series, Classic, Classic II, Ultra Classic, and Ultra Classic II had an LED display, with red LEDs; the DynaTAC International Series with green LEDs, and the DynaTAC 6000XL used a vacuum fluorescent display. These displays were severely limited in what information they could show. The battery allowed for a call of up to 60 minutes, after which it was necessary to charge the phone up to 10 hours in a trickle charger or one hour in a fast charger, which was a separate accessory. While still retaining the DynaTAC name, the 6000XL was completely unrelated to the DynaTAC 8000 Series, in that it was a transportable phone meant for installation in a vehicle. The 6000XL was later reconfigured as the Motorola Tough Talker, with a ruggedized build intended for construction sites, emergency workers, and special events planners.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: With the removal of analog network cells nearly all over the world, the DynaTAC models running on AMPS or other analog networks are mostly obsolete. Thus, they are more collectors' items than usable telephones. The International series, however, will still work, but only on GSM 900 cells.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: The DynaTac 8000X, due to its resemblance in size and weight to a standard clay-fired brick, was nicknamed the brick phone by users, a term later applied to other brands as a contrast to smaller handsets appearing in the 1990s.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: While it might be considered extremely unwieldy by modern standards, at the time it was considered revolutionary because mobile telephones were bulky affairs installed in vehicles or in heavy briefcases. The DynaTAC 8000X was long and weighed . It was truly the first mobile telephone which could connect to the telephone network without the assistance of a mobile operator and could be carried about by the user.


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Motorola also offered a one-hour desktop charger, though the battery could get quite hot while charging at this accelerated rate. In some cases, this could cause major problems with the battery, occasionally short circuiting it and rendering it unusable. Also, charging the battery at a high enough rate to substantially raise its temperature will cause the battery to wear at an accelerated rate, reducing the number of charge-discharge cycles that can be performed before the battery will need to be replaced. (However, considering the high cost of the DynaTAC, the cost of battery replacement would not typically be a concern to DynaTAC owners.)


title: Motorola DynaTAC

text: Available, too, was a snug-fitting zippered leather case which covered the entire body of the phone and had a clear plastic front to make the user interface accessible. It featured a sturdy spring-steel belt clip and a small cutaway at the top to allow the antenna to protrude. Charging could still be performed with the cover on, but change of battery required its removal.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: The league went back to an even number of teams with the addition of the Houston Texans; the league has remained static with 32 teams since. The clubs were realigned into eight divisions, four teams in each. Also, the Chicago Bears played their home games in 2002 in Champaign, Illinois at Memorial Stadium because of the reconstruction of Soldier Field.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: The NFL title was won by Tampa Bay when they defeated Oakland in Super Bowl XXXVII, at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego, California on January 26, 2003. It would be the last Super Bowl held in January and the last to be hosted in San Diego.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: With the Houston Texans joining the NFL, the teams were realigned into eight divisions: four teams in each division and four divisions in each conference. The league tried to maintain historical rivalries from the old alignment while organizing the teams geographically. Legally, three teams from the AFC Central (Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh) were required to be in the same division as part of any realignment proposals; this was part of the NFL's settlement with the city of Cleveland in the wake of the 1995 Cleveland Browns relocation controversy.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Additionally, the arrival of the Texans meant that the league could return to its pre-1999 scheduling format in which no team received a bye during the first three weeks or last seven weeks of the season. From 1999 to 2001, at least one team sat out each week (including the preseason) because of an odd number of teams in the league (this also happened in 1960, 1966, and other years wherein the league had an odd number of teams). It nearly became problematic during the previous season due to the September 11 attacks, since the San Diego Chargers had their bye week during that week and the league considered cancelling that week's slate of games before ultimately rescheduling them after Week 17.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: The league also introduced a new eight-year scheduling rotation designed so that all teams will play each other at least twice during those eight years, and play in every other team's stadium at least once. Under scheduling formulas in use from 1978 to 2001, there were several instances of two teams in different divisions going over 15 seasons without playing each other. Under the new scheduling formula, only two of a team's games each season are based on the previous season's record, down from four under the previous system. All teams play four interconference games. An analysis of win percentages in 2008 showed a statistical trend upwards for top teams since this change; the top team each year then averaged 14.2 wins, versus 13.4 previously.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: The playoff format was also modified from the one first used in : the number of playoff teams remained the same at 12, but four division winners and two wild cards from each conference advanced to the playoffs, instead of three division winners and three wild cards. In each conference, the division winners were now seeded 1 through 4, and the wild cards were seeded 5 and 6. The only way a wild card team could host a playoff game was if both teams in the conference's championship game were wild cards. This 2002 revised format lasted until . In , the number of playoff teams expanded to 14, and the number of wild card teams went back to three.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: The 2002 NFL Draft was held from April 20 to 21, 2002 at New York City's Theater at Madison Square Garden. With the first pick, the Houston Texans selected quarterback David Carr from Fresno State University.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: The 2002 NFL expansion draft was held on February 18, 2002. 155 players were left unprotected by their teams for the Houston Texans to select to fill their initial roster. With the first overall pick, the Texans selected offensive tackle Tony Boselli from the Jacksonville Jaguars.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Also, with the opening of the NFL's first stadium with a retractable roof, Reliant Stadium, the following rules were enacted:


title: 2002 NFL season

text: This rule was amended in to allow a roof to be opened or closed at halftime, at the home team's discretion.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Reebok took over the contract to be the official athletic supplier to the NFL for all 32 teams’ uniforms. Previously, all teams had individual contracts with athletic suppliers. American Needle, which had a contract with a few teams before the Reebok deal, challenged the NFL in court over Reebok's exclusive deal, with the NFL effectively stating that it was a “single-entity league” instead of a group consisting of various owners. The case eventually went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 2009, the Supreme Court agreed to hear "American Needle, Inc. v. National Football League". In 2010, the court ruled that the NFL is not a single entity. Reebok remained the league's athletic supplier through the 2011 NFL season, when Nike took over the contract for the 2012 NFL season.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Reebok had initially announced when the deal was signed in 2000 that aside from the expansion Texans, all NFL teams would be wearing new uniforms for the 2002 season. However, after protests from several owners—most vocally Pittsburgh Steelers owner Dan Rooney—Reebok later rescinded the proposal. Reebok did, however (by player request to reduce holding calls), shorten the sleeves on the jerseys for teams that hadn't done so already (most players had been for the previous decade tying the sleeves tight around their arms to prevent holding) and made the jerseys tighter-fitting. This is perhaps most noticeable on the Indianapolis Colts jerseys, where the shoulder stripes, which initially went from the top of the shoulders all the way underneath the arms, were truncated to just the top portion of the shoulders.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Although Reebok rescinded the idea of all NFL teams wearing new uniforms for the 2002 season, the Buffalo Bills and Seattle Seahawks did redesign their uniforms, with the Seahawks also unveiling an updated logo in honor of their move to Seahawks Stadium and the NFC.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: This was the fifth year under the league's eight-year broadcast contracts with ABC, CBS, Fox, and ESPN to televise "Monday Night Football", the AFC package, the NFC package, and "Sunday Night Football", respectively.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: This was the first season since 1980 without a Pat Summerall–John Madden lead broadcast team. Although Summerall had previously announced his retirement as a full-time NFL broadcaster after the 2001 season ended, he continued to call selected games for Fox in 2002. Meanwhile, ABC hired Madden from Fox to join Al Michaels in a two-man booth, dropping the network's experiment with Micheals, Dan Fouts, and comedian Dennis Miller on "MNF".


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Joe Buck, Troy Aikman, and Cris Collinsworth replaced Summerall and Madden as Fox's new lead broadcast team. The network opted to leave Dick Stockton and Daryl Johnston as Fox's #2 team in a two-man booth, and not find a replacement for Aikman there. To replace Collinsworth on "Fox NFL Sunday", the network initially used a rotating series of guest analysts before Jimmy Johnson took over the seat permanently midway through the season.


title: 2002 NFL season

text: Boomer Esiason and Dan Marino joined "The NFL Today" as analysts, while Randy Cross went back to color commentating for CBS, Mike Ditka left the program, and Jerry Glanville was a reserve color commentator from 2002-2003.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: Melonie Diaz (born April 25, 1984) is an American film and television actress who has appeared in many independent films, including four shown at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. She received Independent Spirit Awards nominations for performances in films "A Guide to Recognizing Your Saints" (2006) and "Fruitvale Station" (2013). From 2018 to 2022, she appeared as the leading role of witch Mel Vera on the remake television series "Charmed on" The CW.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: Diaz was born in New York City, and was raised along with her elder sister on the Lower East Side, by parents of Puerto Rican descent. She became interested in acting at the Henry Street Settlement and subsequently attended the Professional Performing Arts School in Manhattan.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: She completed a degree in Film Production at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, and has made numerous off-Broadway and workshop appearances including "Medea" at Bullet Space, the Hip Hop Theater Festival at P.S. 122, and the New York City Fringe Festival.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: She started her film career with a supporting role in Tom DiCillo's "Double Whammy" (2001) and later landed roles in Jim McKay and Hannah Weyer's "From an Objective Point of View" and Peter Sollett's "Raising Victor Vargas" (both 2002). Television work at this time included an episode of "Law & Order" and a pilot for "Queens Supreme" (both 2003).


title: Melonie Diaz

text: Her breakthrough roles came as Blanca in Catherine Hardwicke's "Lords of Dogtown" (2005) and as Laurie in Dito Montiel's "A Guide to Recognizing Your Saints" (2006) which earned her an Independent Spirit Awards nomination for Best Supporting Female. She was subsequently cast by Jamie Babbit in the lead role of Anna in "Itty Bitty Titty Committee" (2007) as well as a role in "Hamlet 2", "Be Kind Rewind", and also played Christina in "American Son" in 2008.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: In 2012, she starred in the indie romantic comedy, "She Wants Me" with Josh Gad and Kristen Ruhlin. In a hyped-up, Woody Allen, "Annie Hall"-type film, she plays a girl who gets caught in a love triangle between aspiring artists and a celebrity.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: In 2013, she appeared in "Fruitvale Station", a film based on the shooting of Oscar Grant. The film premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, where it earned the U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic and the Audience Award: U.S. Dramatic. The film had its international premiere at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival, where it played in the section and won the Best First Film award. For her work in the movie she was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: She has expressed a desire to return to Tisch in order to complete her degree in filmmaking, citing director Kathryn Bigelow as an inspiration.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: In 2014 she appeared briefly on an episode of "Girls" as Susan, a friend of Jessa Johansson's. That same year she appeared in Ryan Piers Williams' film "X/Y" alongside America Ferrera as well as "The Cobbler" starring Adam Sandler.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: In February 2018, Diaz was cast in the lead role of Mel Vera in The CW's fantasy drama series "Charmed", a reboot of the 1998 series of the same name. The reboot "centers on three sisters in a college town who discover they are witches".


title: Melonie Diaz

text: Diaz co-starred in the dystopian thriller "The First Purge", the prequel to 2013's "The Purge" and the fourth installment in "The Purge" franchise. The film was released July 4, 2018.


title: Melonie Diaz

text: Diaz is married to actor Octavio Genera, having eloped during the COVID-19 pandemic. She announced her pregnancy with their first child in March of 2021.


title: Up in Smoke

text: Up in Smoke (also referred to as Cheech & Chong's Up in Smoke) is a 1978 American buddy stoner comedy film directed by Lou Adler and starring Cheech Marin, Tommy Chong, Edie Adams, Strother Martin, Stacy Keach, and Tom Skerritt. It is Cheech & Chong's first feature-length film.


title: Up in Smoke

text: Cheech & Chong had been a counterculture comedy team for about ten years before they started reworking some of their material for their first film. Most of the film was shot in Los Angeles, California, including scenes set in Tijuana, while scenes set on the Mexican border were actually filmed at the border in Yuma, Arizona.


title: Up in Smoke

text: While negatively received upon its release, "Up in Smoke" grossed over $104 million, is credited with establishing the stoner film genre, and is now considered a cult classic.


title: Up in Smoke

text: Anthony "Man" Stoner, an unemployed, marijuana-smoking drummer, is told to either get a job by sundown or be sent off to military school by his parents. Man leaves the house and later becomes stranded on the highway. Man is picked up while hitchhiking by the equally enthusiastic stoner Pedro de Pacas, and the two share a large joint, which is revealed to contain Labrador feces after the dog ate Man's supply. When Pedro was having trouble breathing, Man accidentally gives him an extremely powerful dose of LSD. The police find their car parked on a traffic median with them in it, discover that they are high and arrest them. At trial, the pair are released on a technicality after Man discovers that the judge is drinking vodka.


title: Up in Smoke

text: In an attempt to procure more marijuana, they visit Pedro's cousin Strawberry, a Vietnam War veteran. During the party, a lady snorts a couple of lines of Ajax set up by Man, under the presumption it was cocaine, despite Man trying to warn her. They narrowly escape a police raid on Strawberry's house while Strawberry has a flashback and thinks the police are the Viet Cong, but are soon deported to Tijuana, by the INS, along with Pedro's relatives, who actually called the INS on themselves, so they could get a free ride to a wedding in Tijuana.


title: Up in Smoke

text: In order to get back to the United States, they arrange to pick up a vehicle from Pedro's uncle's upholstery shop, but arrive at the wrong address: a marijuana processing plant disguised as an upholstery shop. They end up unknowingly involved in a plot to smuggle a van constructed completely out of "fiberweed" (hardened THC resin derived from marijuana - a play on the word fiberglass) from Mexico to Los Angeles, with an inept police narcotics unit led by the insane and anti-drug Sgt. Stedenko hot on their trail. At the Mexican–American border, they almost get arrested but attention is diverted to a group of nuns (into whose car Man had thrown his joint unintentionally to avoid getting arrested). The duo then cross the border into America as Stedenko finds out from his unit that they have apprehended the wrong group. Stendenko realizes that Pedro and Man’s van is their target, and begin a pursuit; however, one of Stedenko's men accidentally shoots out one of their own tires, abruptly ending the chase.


title: Up in Smoke

text: Pedro and Man pick up two hitchhiking women who convince them to perform at a Battle of the Bands contest at the Roxy Theatre. After narrowly avoiding arrest by a motorcycle cop who had gotten high off fumes from the “fiberweed” van, they arrive at the venue to find that most of the bands performing are being negatively received by the audience, which causes Man to freak out. One of the women gives Man what she believes is an "upper", but mistakenly gives him the wrong drugs. The duo's band, Alice Bowie, win over the audience, including the cops, who get stoned due to a large amount of marijuana smoke from the burning van being funneled into the venue. The pair win the contest and a recording contract.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The film concludes with Pedro and Man driving in the former's car and dreaming how their future career will pay off. Man then lights a small portion of hash and gives some to Pedro. However, it falls into his lap, causing him to panic and swerve the car while trying to put it out; Man attempts to put the hash out with his beer. During the scuffle, the car swerves down the road and smoke billows out the windows.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The screenplay was written under the title "The Adventures of Pedro & Man". Paramount Pictures provided the budget of $1 million but refused to provide the additional $800,000 needed to complete the film after studio president Michael Eisner saw a rough cut, so Lou Adler used his own money to complete it.


title: Up in Smoke

text: As this was the comedy team's first film, Paramount wanted the initial screenings to be filled with their most ardent fans. Cheech and Chong also came up with the novel (and ultimately successful) idea of advertising the film through comic strips, which they left on bus benches.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The film had test screenings in August 1978 and opened in nine theatres in Texas in early September, grossing $344,785 in its first 10 days. The film went on to become a huge success. Prior to its official release date, the film had grossed $1.7 million, and by the end of the first month of release it had grossed $20 million and went on to gross $76 million at the domestic box office and over $104 million worldwide.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The film was banned in South Africa during apartheid. Censors in the country said that the film "might encourage the impressionable youth of South Africa to take up marijuana smoking". It was also banned in Colombia.


title: Up in Smoke

text: On April 10, 2018, a 40th Anniversary Edition set was released, which featured the movie on Blu-ray and DVD, and the album on vinyl record and compact disc, as well as a 7-inch picture disc vinyl record single featuring the songs "Earache My Eye" and "Lost Due To Incompetence (Theme From A Big Green Van)", with an image of Cheech from the film on the A-side and the "YESCA" license plate image on the B-side.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The 40th Anniversary Edition CD featured two bonus tracks, a previously unreleased version of the song "Up In Smoke" with an additional Spanish verse by Cheech, and a newly recorded "2018 version" of the same song.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The set also featured oversized "Up In Smoke" branded rolling papers, a 11×17 film poster and a booklet with new essays by both Marin and Chong, along with rare and unseen photos.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The soundtrack album was released in 1978. Allmusic gave the album a score of 3 out of 5 stars. In 2017, "Billboard" named "Up in Smoke" as one of the 10 best stoner film soundtracks.


title: Up in Smoke

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 47% based on reviews from 19 critics. The site's consensus reads, "Oft-quoted but undeniably flawed, "Up In Smoke" is a seminal piece of stoner cinema thanks to the likability of its two counterculture icons." On Metacritic it has a score of 57% based on reviews from 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Up in Smoke

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called the film "a genially slapdash, sometimes winning live-action cartoon" with "several genuinely funny moments." "Variety" wrote that the film "gets off to a great start" but "once the more obvious drug jokes are exhausted, Adler lets the film degenerate into a mixture of fitful slapstick and toilet humor." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film half of one star out of four, calling it "one of the most juvenile, poorly written, awkwardly directed pictures I have ever seen. And my guess is that even if you saw it in a pleasantly altered state whether from grass, a banana daiquiri, Frango mint milkshake, or a Weight Watchers' Veal Parmigiana frozen dinner, 'Up in Smoke' would still be a real downer, man." He later put it on his year-end unranked list of the worst films of 1978. Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that Cheech & Chong were "a likable, funky duo, but the script they've come up with for their film debut is severely underwritten." He also found it "hard to watch the effects of gulping Quaaludes and the like being treated as something hilarious—especially when one realizes that the kids for whom the film was so clearly intended are probably going to love it."


title: Up in Smoke

text: Pauline Kael of "The New Yorker" compared the film favorably to "The Groove Tube", writing that "Up in Smoke" was "also crudely done but is more consistently funny." She added that "Cheech and Chong are so gracefully dumb-assed that if you're in a relaxed mood you can't help laughing at them." Art Harris of "The Washington Post" wrote that the film "may give you a buzz, but don't count on it to keep you high. Like, you know, the film suffers from a bad case of burn-out, leading one to nod off between jokes and wonder why producer Lou Adler bothered to attempt a Doper's Delight in this post-Woodstock age of Clean Living." David McGillivray of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" observed that the film "looks, unfortunately, as if it were more fun to make than it is to watch."


title: Up in Smoke

text: In December 1978, "Rolling Stone" published an article stating that Cheech and Chong had "seven scripts waiting in the drawer" which included one for an animated film, and one for a sequel to "Up in Smoke". No sequel was ever produced, and "Cheech and Chong's Next Movie", released in 1980, did not feature the characters of Pedro and Man, although the characters they played had personalities and character traits that were virtually identical to that of Pedro and Man.


title: Up in Smoke

text: The Grammy Award Museum in Los Angeles features an "Up in Smoke" exhibit which displays the master tape for the soundtrack album, the annotated original script, limited-edition 40th anniversary "smoking devices," and part of Marin's collection of "Blazing Chicano Guitars."


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The Blue Ridge Parkway is a National Parkway and All-American Road in the United States, noted for its scenic beauty. The parkway, which is America's longest linear park, runs for through 29 Virginia and North Carolina counties, linking Shenandoah National Park to Great Smoky Mountains National Park. It runs mostly along the spine of the Blue Ridge, a major mountain chain that is part of the Appalachian Mountains. Its southern terminus is at U.S. Route 441 (US 441) on the boundary between Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Qualla Boundary of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina, from which it travels north to Shenandoah National Park in Virginia. The roadway continues through Shenandoah as Skyline Drive, a similar scenic road which is managed by a different National Park Service unit. Both Skyline Drive and the Virginia portion of the Blue Ridge Parkway are part of Virginia State Route 48 (SR 48), though this designation is not signed.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The parkway has been the most visited unit of the National Park System every year since 1946 except four (1949, 2013, 2016 and 2019). Land on either side of the road is owned and maintained by the National Park Service, and in many places parkway land is bordered by United States Forest Service property. There is no fee for using the parkway; however, commercial vehicles are prohibited without approval from the Park Service Headquarters, near Asheville, North Carolina. The roadway is not maintained in the winter, and sections that pass over especially high elevations and through tunnels are often impassable and therefore closed from late fall through early spring. Weather is extremely variable in the mountains, so conditions and closures often change rapidly. The speed limit is never higher than and is lower in some sections.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: In addition to the road, the parkway has a folk art center located at mile marker 382 and a visitor center located at mile marker 384, both near Asheville. There are also numerous parking areas at trailheads for the various hiking trails that intersect the parkway, and several campgrounds located along the parkway allow for overnight stays. The Blue Ridge Music Center (also part of the park) is located in Galax, and Mount Mitchell (the highest point in eastern North America) is only accessible via North Carolina Highway 128 (NC 128), which intersects the parkway at milepost 355.4.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The parkway runs from the southern terminus of Shenandoah National Park's Skyline Drive in Virginia at Rockfish Gap to U.S. Route 441 (US 441) at Oconaluftee in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park near Cherokee, North Carolina. In terms of design, the parkway is an undivided two-lane expressway for most of its route; access to the parkway is controlled via interchanges with local roads and state/US highways. It crosses (but does not interchange with) several interstate highways along its route and is carried across streams, railway ravines and cross roads by 168 bridges and six viaducts. Frequent pull-offs, rest areas, and scenic overlooks line the sides of the road. As it is rarely the fastest or most convenient route for travelers, and it avoids population centers, the road and its vistas is designed to be the attraction itself, rather than a merely a means of efficient travel. The use of interchanges and grade separation at cross roads is designed to allow for freer flowing traffic and better vistas than frequent intersections and stoplights would allow for.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The parkway uses short side roads to connect to other highways, and there are no direct interchanges with Interstate Highways, making it possible to enjoy wildlife and other scenery without stopping for cross-traffic. Mileposts along the parkway start at zero at the northeast end in Virginia and count to 469 at the southern end in North Carolina. The mileposts can be found on the right-hand side of the road while traveling southbound on the parkway. Major towns and cities along the way include Waynesboro, Roanoke, and Galax in Virginia; and in North Carolina, Boone and Asheville, where it runs across the property of the Biltmore Estate. The Blue Ridge Parkway tunnels were constructed through the rock—one in Virginia and 25 in North Carolina.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Much of the parkway is located at high elevation, with colder, wetter and windier conditions than in surrounding areas. The highest point on the parkway (south of Waynesville, near Mount Pisgah in North Carolina) is above sea level on Richland Balsam at milepost 431. Sections of the parkway may be temporarily closed to repair damage caused by the cold winter climate of the mountains or for other maintenance. The parkway's natural resource protection protocol limits the use of ice melting chemicals, and certain areas could remain closed for extended periods. During road closures alternative routes are used, but short-term closures may not have a signed detour route. Sections of the parkway near the tunnels are often closed in winter due to icy conditions.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The Blue Ridge Parkway crosses the North Carolina–Virginia state line at mile 216.9. The 1749 party that surveyed the boundary included Peter Jefferson, father of Thomas Jefferson.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Begun during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the project was originally called the Appalachian Scenic Highway.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Original plans called for the highway to connect Shenandoah National Park and Great Smoky Mountains National Park with the highway either turning west into Tennessee at Linville, North Carolina, or continuing southward through North Carolina. According to "Super-scenic Motorway: A Blue Ridge Parkway History" by Anne Mitchell Whisnant, the Tennessee route was recommended. However, Roosevelt had remained friends with Josephus Daniels, Roosevelt's superior as Secretary of the Navy during World War I. Daniels wanted the highway to go through North Carolina and persuaded Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes to choose the North Carolina route. The Bruce Bowers documentary "The Blue Ridge Parkway: The Long and Winding Road" gives Congressman Robert Doughton the credit for getting the route changed. The documentary claims Doughton worked to pass the Social Security Act only after getting the route changed.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Most construction was carried out by private contractors under federal contracts under an authorization by Ickes in his role as federal public works administrator. Work began on September 11, 1935, near Cumberland Knob in North Carolina; construction in Virginia began the following February. On June 30, 1936, Congress formally authorized the project as the Blue Ridge Parkway and placed it under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service. Some work was carried out by various New Deal public works agencies. The Works Progress Administration did some roadway construction. Crews from the Emergency Relief Administration carried out landscape work and development of parkway recreation areas. Personnel from four Civilian Conservation Corps camps worked on roadside cleanup, roadside plantings, grading slopes, and improving adjacent fields and forest lands. During World War II, the CCC crews were replaced by conscientious objectors in the Civilian Public Service program.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The parkway's construction created jobs in the region, but also displaced many residents and created new rules and regulations for landowners, including requirements related to how farmers could transport crops. Residents could no longer build on their lands without permission, or develop land except for agricultural use. They were not permitted to use the parkway for any commercial travel but were required to transport equipment and materials on side roads.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians were also affected by the parkway, which was built through their lands. From 1935 to 1940, they resisted giving up the right-of-way through the Qualla Boundary, and they were successful in gaining more favorable terms from the U.S. government. Specifically, the revised bill "specified the parkway route, assured the $40,000 payment for the tribe's land, and required the state to build [a] regular highway through the Soco Valley". (The highway referred to is part of U.S. Route 19.) Cherokee leaders participated in the dedications when the Cherokee sections opened in the 1950s.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Construction of the parkway was complete by the end of 1966 with one notable exception. The stretch including the Linn Cove Viaduct around Grandfather Mountain did not open until 1987. The project took over 52 years to complete.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Due to serious damage in 2004 from Hurricane Frances, then again by Hurricane Ivan, many areas along the parkway were closed until the spring of 2005, with two areas that were not fully repaired until the spring of 2006.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: An extension of the parkway from its terminus at Beech Gap, North Carolina to a point north of Atlanta, Georgia, was proposed in 1961 by North Carolina Congressman Roy A. Taylor. The route was proposed to pass Whiteside Mountain, Bridal Veil Falls, Cuilasaja Gorge, and Estatoah Falls, ending between Atlanta and Gainesville, Georgia after crossing the Chattahoochee River and passing to the east of Lake Sidney Lanier. By 1963 the National Park Service had proposed a terminus at Interstate 75 north of Marietta, Georgia, in the vicinity of Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed a bill to extend the parkway in 1967. A five-year schedule was proposed, with a budget of $87,536,000 (equivalent to $ in ). In 1970 planning was interrupted by the projected commercial development of land in the proposed path. Increasing costs associated with rerouting and the passage of time coincided with efforts to cut national debt and concerns about the project's environmental impact, and the project stalled in 1973. The project was formally cancelled on September 11, 1985; no construction work had ever taken place.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Flowering shrubs and wildflowers dominate the parkway in the spring, including rhododendrons and dogwoods, moving from valleys to mountains as the cold weather retreats. Smaller annuals and perennials such as the daisy and aster flower through the summer. Brilliant autumn foliage occurs later in September on the mountaintops, descending to the valleys by later in October. Often in early-to-middle October and middle to late April, all three seasons can be seen simply by looking down from the cold and windy parkway to the green and warm valleys below. October is especially dramatic, as the colored leaves stand out boldly and occur mostly at the same time, unlike the flowers.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Major trees include oak, hickory, and tulip tree at lower elevations and buckeye and ash in the middle, turning into conifers such as fir and spruce at the highest elevations on the parkway. Trees near ridges, peaks, and passes (often called gaps or notches) are often distorted and even contorted by the wind, and persistent rime ice is deposited by passing clouds in the winter.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The Blue Ridge Parkway has also been a corridor for the spread of many invasive species, including oriental bittersweet, privet, and multiflora rose.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: There are 26 tunnels constructed along the Blue Ridge Parkway. One, the Bluff Mountain Tunnel, is in Virginia and twenty-five are in North Carolina.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The design standards specified a minimum impact on the land. The vehicle tunnels were often constructed to reduce excessive landscape scarring that open cuts would have produced. They are used in areas of steep terrain where ridges run perpendicular to the roadway alignment.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: North Carolina's more rugged terrain required the majority of the tunnels. Most of the work on the tunnel digging was done by hand and provided by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. Little machinery was used with the intention of creating manual labor in depressed economic times. They did have for tunneling truck-mounted water-cooled compressed air drills called "Jumbos." After the initial holes were drilled into the substrata, dynamite was used for blasting away the rock.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: Concrete lining was done during construction due to tunnel cave-ins. This concrete lining was first used in the Devil's Courthouse Tunnel. It was later discovered that it enhanced the interior lighting within the tunnel itself. Where done the lining covered about a quarter of the interior structure. An additional benefit was the elimination of moisture entering the tunnel. Moisture in the winter caused ice problems.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The Pine Mountain Tunnel is the longest on the parkway at . Ferrin Knob Tunnel #1 is the first and longest of the "triplet tunnels." The local people once referred to ferns as "ferrins." Ferrin Knob Tunnel #2 is located at milepost 401.3 and Ferrin Knob Tunnel #3 is located at milepost 401.5.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The distinctive stone masonry portals now on the parkway tunnels were generally not part of the original construction of the 1930s. They were added later.


title: Blue Ridge Parkway

text: The tunnels are listed below by milepost, name, and length. The maximum height is in the center of the tunnel and the minimum height is at the edge stripe.


title: WebDAV

text: WebDAV (Web Distributed Authoring and Versioning) is a set of extensions to the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which allows user agents to collaboratively author contents "directly" in an HTTP web server by providing facilities for concurrency control and namespace operations, thus allowing Web to be viewed as a "writeable, collaborative medium" and not just a read-only medium. WebDAV is defined in by a working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).


title: WebDAV

text: The WebDAV protocol provides a framework for users to create, change and move documents on a server. The most important features include the maintenance of properties about an author or modification date, namespace management, collections, and overwrite protection. Maintenance of properties includes such things as the creation, removal, and querying of file information. Namespace management deals with the ability to copy and move web pages within a server's namespace. Collections deal with the creation, removal, and listing of various resources. Lastly, overwrite protection handles aspects related to the locking of files. It takes advantage of existing technologies such as Transport Layer Security, digest access authentication or XML to satisfy those requirements.


title: WebDAV

text: WebDAV began in 1996 when Jim Whitehead worked with the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to host two meetings to discuss the problem of distributed authoring on the World Wide Web with interested people. Tim Berners-Lee's original vision of the Web involved a medium for both reading and writing. In fact, Berners-Lee's first web browser, called WorldWideWeb, could both view and edit web pages; but, as the Web grew, it became a read-only medium for most users. Whitehead and other like-minded people wanted to transcend that limitation.


title: WebDAV

text: The meetings resulted in the formation of an IETF working group because the new effort would lead to extensions to HTTP, which the IETF had started to standardize.


title: WebDAV

text: As work began on the protocol, it became clear that handling both distributed authoring and versioning together would involve too much work and that the tasks would have to be separated. The WebDAV group focused on distributed authoring, and left versioning for the future. (The Delta-V extension added versioning later see the Extensions section below.)


title: WebDAV

text: The WebDAV working group concluded its work in March 2007, after the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) accepted an incremental update to . Other extensions left unfinished at that time, such as the BIND method, have been finished by their individual authors, independent of the formal working group.


title: WebDAV

text: WebDAV extends the set of standard HTTP verbs and headers allowed for request methods. The added verbs include:


title: WebDAV

text: The properties of WebDAV protocol are name–value pair, in which a "name" is a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and the "values" are expressed through XML elements. Furthermore, the methods to handle the properties are PROPFIND and PROPPATCH.


title: WebDAV

text: For versioning, the Delta-V protocol under the Web Versioning and Configuration Management working group adds resource revision tracking, published in .


title: WebDAV

text: For searching and locating, the DAV Searching and Locating (DASL) working group never produced any official standard although there are a number of implementations of its last draft. Work continued as non-working-group activity. The WebDAV Search specification attempts to pick up where the working group left off, and was published as in November 2008.


title: WebDAV

text: For calendaring, CalDAV is a protocol allowing calendar access via WebDAV. CalDAV models calendar events as HTTP resources in iCalendar format, and models calendars containing events as WebDAV collections.


title: WebDAV

text: For groupware, GroupDAV is a variant of WebDAV which allows client/server groupware systems to store and fetch objects such as calendar items and address book entries instead of web pages.


title: WebDAV

text: For MS Exchange interoperability, WebDAV can be used for reading/updating/deleting items in a mailbox or public folder. WebDAV for Exchange has been extended by Microsoft to accommodate working with messaging data. Exchange Server version 2000, 2003, and 2007 support WebDAV. However, WebDAV support has been discontinued in Exchange 2010 in favor of Exchange Web Services (EWS), a SOAP/XML based API.


title: WebDAV

text: As part of the Windows Server Protocols (WSPP) documentation set, Microsoft published the following protocol documents detailing extensions to WebDAV:


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: The 2011 Rugby World Cup was the seventh Rugby World Cup, a quadrennial international rugby union competition inaugurated in 1987. The International Rugby Board (IRB) selected New Zealand as the host country in preference to Japan and South Africa at a meeting in Dublin on 17 November 2005. The tournament was won by New Zealand, who defeated France 8–7 in the final. The defending champions, South Africa, were eliminated by Australia 11–9 in the quarter-finals. The result marked the third time that the tournament was won by the country that hosted the event (following New Zealand in 1987 and South Africa in 1995).


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: It was the largest sporting event ever held in New Zealand, eclipsing the 1987 Rugby World Cup, 1990 Commonwealth Games, 1992 Cricket World Cup and the 2003 America's Cup. Overseas visitors to New Zealand for the event totalled 133,000, more than the 95,000 that the organisers expected. However, there was a drop in non-event visitors, meaning the net increase in visitors over the previous year was less than 80,000.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: The games ran over six weeks, commencing on 9 September 2011 with the opening ceremony showcasing New Zealand's history and diverse cultures. The final was played at Eden Park in Auckland on Sunday 23 October 2011, a date chosen because it fell on a long weekend of New Zealand's Labour Day holiday.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: After speculation that the number of participating teams would be reduced to 16, the IRB announced on 30 November 2007 that the 2011 tournament would again feature 20 teams. Twelve teams qualified as a result of finishing in the top three in each pool in the 2007 tournament. The remaining eight berths were determined by regional qualifying tournaments. Of the 20 countries that competed in the previous World Cup in 2007, there was only one change – Russia replaced Portugal.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: New Zealand had co-hosted the first Rugby World Cup with Australia in 1987, and had been set to co-host the 2003 World Cup with Australia before a disagreement over ground signage rights resulted in New Zealand being dropped and Australia became the sole host. The 2011 New Zealand bid contained plans to enlarge the size of Eden Park and other stadiums to help increase the commercial viability of the bid.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: Japan was bidding to become the first Asian nation to host the first Rugby World Cup. Japan had the necessary infrastructure already in place, by virtue of its co-hosting the 2002 FIFA World Cup.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: South Africa had hosted the tournament in 1995. The 2011 South African bid, led by former national captain Francois Pienaar, had strong support from their national government. South Africa had also won the right to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: The IRB Council meeting in Dublin on 17 November 2005 announced that New Zealand had been selected after IRB inspections of each applicant host nation during June and July 2005.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: The event was expected to cost about NZ$310 million to run and to generate NZ$280 million in ticket sales. In Auckland, the city where many of the most important games took place, the costs to the local ratepayers alone was estimated at $102 million.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: Ticket sales exceeding NZ$285 million, accommodation-related spending of another NZ$260 million, and NZ$236 million spent on food and drink was expected to provide a significant fiscal stimulus, of nearly 1.4% of the quarterly GDP.


title: 2011 Rugby World Cup

text: In the years between winning the bid and the staging of the event, New Zealand news media and social agencies cast aspersions on the nation's readiness and appropriate use of national funds for sports infrastructure, as has happened with most large, international, quadrennial, multi-location sporting events of recent decades such as the 2012 Olympics, 2010 FIFA World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Concerns were raised about the process of upgrading Eden Park to expand the capacity to the 60,000 required by the IRB. In late 2008 Rugby World Cup Minister Murray McCully said the remaining consent process might need to be overridden by legislation for the work to be completed on time.