title: Power electronics

text: In 1969, Hitachi introduced the first vertical power MOSFET, which would later be known as the VMOS (V-groove MOSFET). From 1974, Yamaha, JVC, Pioneer Corporation, Sony and Toshiba began manufacturing audio amplifiers with power MOSFETs. International Rectifier introduced a 25 A, 400 V power MOSFET in 1978. This device allows operation at higher frequencies than a bipolar transistor, but is limited to low voltage applications.


title: Power electronics

text: The power MOSFET is the most common power device in the world, due to its low gate drive power, fast switching speed, easy advanced paralleling capability, wide bandwidth, ruggedness, easy drive, simple biasing, ease of application, and ease of repair. It has a wide range of power electronic applications, such as portable information appliances, power integrated circuits, cell phones, notebook computers, and the communications infrastructure that enables the Internet.


title: Power electronics

text: In 1982, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) was introduced. It became widely available in the 1990s. This component has the power handling capability of the bipolar transistor and the advantages of the isolated gate drive of the power MOSFET.


title: Power electronics

text: The capabilities and economy of power electronics system are determined by the active devices that are available. Their characteristics and limitations are a key element in the design of power electronics systems. Formerly, the mercury arc valve, the high-vacuum and gas-filled diode thermionic rectifiers, and triggered devices such as the thyratron and ignitron were widely used in power electronics. As the ratings of solid-state devices improved in both voltage and current-handling capacity, vacuum devices have been nearly entirely replaced by solid-state devices.


title: Power electronics

text: Power electronic devices may be used as switches, or as amplifiers. An ideal switch is either open or closed and so dissipates no power; it withstands an applied voltage and passes no current or passes any amount of current with no voltage drop. Semiconductor devices used as switches can approximate this ideal property and so most power electronic applications rely on switching devices on and off, which makes systems very efficient as very little power is wasted in the switch. By contrast, in the case of the amplifier, the current through the device varies continuously according to a controlled input. The voltage and current at the device terminals follow a load line, and the power dissipation inside the device is large compared with the power delivered to the load.


title: Power electronics

text: Several attributes dictate how devices are used. Devices such as diodes conduct when a forward voltage is applied and have no external control of the start of conduction. Power devices such as silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors (as well as the mercury valve and thyratron) allow control of the start of conduction but rely on periodic reversal of current flow to turn them off. Devices such as gate turn-off thyristors, BJT and MOSFET transistors provide full switching control and can be turned on or off without regard to the current flow through them. Transistor devices also allow proportional amplification, but this is rarely used for systems rated more than a few hundred watts. The control input characteristics of a device also significantly affect design; sometimes, the control input is at a very high voltage with respect to ground and must be driven by an isolated source.


title: Power electronics

text: As efficiency is at a premium in a power electronic converter, the losses generated by a power electronic device should be as low as possible.


title: Power electronics

text: Devices vary in switching speed. Some diodes and thyristors are suited for relatively slow speed and are useful for power frequency switching and control; certain thyristors are useful at a few kilohertz. Devices such as MOSFETS and BJTs can switch at tens of kilohertz up to a few megahertz in power applications, but with decreasing power levels. Vacuum tube devices dominate high power (hundreds of kilowatts) at very high frequency (hundreds or thousands of megahertz) applications. Faster switching devices minimize energy lost in the transitions from on to off and back but may create problems with radiated electromagnetic interference. Gate drive (or equivalent) circuits must be designed to supply sufficient drive current to achieve the full switching speed possible with a device. A device without sufficient drive to switch rapidly may be destroyed by excess heating.


title: Power electronics

text: Practical devices have a non-zero voltage drop and dissipate power when on, and take some time to pass through an active region until they reach the "on" or "off" state. These losses are a significant part of the total lost power in a converter.


title: Power electronics

text: Power handling and dissipation of devices is also critical factor in design. Power electronic devices may have to dissipate tens or hundreds of watts of waste heat, even switching as efficiently as possible between conducting and non-conducting states. In the switching mode, the power controlled is much larger than the power dissipated in the switch. The forward voltage drop in the conducting state translates into heat that must be dissipated. High power semiconductors require specialized heat sinks or active cooling systems to manage their junction temperature; exotic semiconductors such as silicon carbide have an advantage over straight silicon in this respect, and germanium, once the main-stay of solid-state electronics is now little used due to its unfavorable high-temperature properties.


title: Power electronics

text: Semiconductor devices exist with ratings up to a few kilovolts in a single device. Where very high voltage must be controlled, multiple devices must be used in series, with networks to equalize voltage across all devices. Again, switching speed is a critical factor since the slowest-switching device will have to withstand a disproportionate share of the overall voltage. Mercury valves were once available with ratings to 100 kV in a single unit, simplifying their application in HVDC systems.


title: Power electronics

text: The current rating of a semiconductor device is limited by the heat generated within the dies and the heat developed in the resistance of the interconnecting leads. Semiconductor devices must be designed so that current is evenly distributed within the device across its internal junctions (or channels); once a "hot spot" develops, breakdown effects can rapidly destroy the device. Certain SCRs are available with current ratings to 3000 amperes in a single unit.


title: Power electronics

text: DC to AC converters produce an AC output waveform from a DC source. Applications include adjustable speed drives (ASD), uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), voltage compensators, and photovoltaic inverters. Topologies for these converters can be separated into two distinct categories: voltage source inverters and current source inverters. Voltage source inverters (VSIs) are named so because the independently controlled output is a voltage waveform. Similarly, current source inverters (CSIs) are distinct in that the controlled AC output is a current waveform.


title: Power electronics

text: DC to AC power conversion is the result of power switching devices, which are commonly fully controllable semiconductor power switches. The output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values, producing fast transitions rather than smooth ones. For some applications, even a rough approximation of the sinusoidal waveform of AC power is adequate. Where a near sinusoidal waveform is required, the switching devices are operated much faster than the desired output frequency, and the time they spend in either state is controlled so the averaged output is nearly sinusoidal. Common modulation techniques include the carrier-based technique, or Pulse-width modulation, space-vector technique, and the selective-harmonic technique.


title: Power electronics

text: Voltage source inverters have practical uses in both single-phase and three-phase applications. Single-phase VSIs utilize half-bridge and full-bridge configurations, and are widely used for power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and elaborate high-power topologies when used in multicell configurations. Three-phase VSIs are used in applications that require sinusoidal voltage waveforms, such as ASDs, UPSs, and some types of FACTS devices such as the STATCOM. They are also used in applications where arbitrary voltages are required, as in the case of active power filters and voltage compensators.


title: Power electronics

text: Current source inverters are used to produce an AC output current from a DC current supply. This type of inverter is practical for three-phase applications in which high-quality voltage waveforms are required.


title: Power electronics

text: A relatively new class of inverters, called multilevel inverters, has gained widespread interest. The normal operation of CSIs and VSIs can be classified as two-level inverters, due to the fact that power switches connect to either the positive or to the negative DC bus. If more than two voltage levels were available to the inverter output terminals, the AC output could better approximate a sine wave. It is for this reason that multilevel inverters, although more complex and costly, offer higher performance.


title: Power electronics

text: Each inverter type differs in the DC links used, and in whether or not they require freewheeling diodes. Either can be made to operate in square-wave or pulse-width modulation (PWM) mode, depending on its intended usage. Square-wave mode offers simplicity, while PWM can be implemented in several different ways and produces higher quality waveforms.


title: Power electronics

text: Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) feed the output inverter section from an approximately constant-voltage source.


title: Power electronics

text: The desired quality of the current output waveform determines which modulation technique needs to be selected for a given application. The output of a VSI is composed of discrete values. In order to obtain a smooth current waveform, the loads need to be inductive at the select harmonic frequencies. Without some sort of inductive filtering between the source and load, a capacitive load will cause the load to receive a choppy current waveform, with large and frequent current spikes.


title: Power electronics

text: The single-phase voltage source half-bridge inverters are meant for lower voltage applications and are commonly used in power supplies. Figure 9 shows the circuit schematic of this inverter.


title: Power electronics

text: Low-order current harmonics get injected back to the source voltage by the operation of the inverter. This means that two large capacitors are needed for filtering purposes in this design. As Figure 9 illustrates, only one switch can be on at a time in each leg of the inverter. If both switches in a leg were on at the same time, the DC source would be shorted out.


title: Power electronics

text: Inverters can use several modulation techniques to control their switching schemes. The carrier-based PWM technique compares the AC output waveform, v, to a carrier voltage signal, v. When v is greater than v, S+ is on, and when v is less than v, S- is on. When the AC output is at frequency fc with its amplitude at v, and the triangular carrier signal is at frequency f with its amplitude at v, the PWM becomes a special sinusoidal case of the carrier based PWM. This case is dubbed sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM).For this, the modulation index, or amplitude-modulation ratio, is defined as .


title: Power electronics

text: If the over-modulation region, ma, exceeds one, a higher fundamental AC output voltage will be observed, but at the cost of saturation. For SPWM, the harmonics of the output waveform are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes. This simplifies the design of the filtering components needed for the low-order current harmonic injection from the operation of the inverter. The maximum output amplitude in this mode of operation is half of the source voltage. If the maximum output amplitude, m, exceeds 3.24, the output waveform of the inverter becomes a square wave.


title: Power electronics

text: As was true for Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM), both switches in a leg for square wave modulation cannot be turned on at the same time, as this would cause a short across the voltage source. The switching scheme requires that both S+ and S- be on for a half cycle of the AC output period. The fundamental AC output amplitude is equal to .


title: Power electronics

text: Therefore, the AC output voltage is not controlled by the inverter, but rather by the magnitude of the DC input voltage of the inverter.


title: Power electronics

text: Using selective harmonic elimination (SHE) as a modulation technique allows the switching of the inverter to selectively eliminate intrinsic harmonics. The fundamental component of the AC output voltage can also be adjusted within a desirable range. Since the AC output voltage obtained from this modulation technique has odd half and odd quarter-wave symmetry, even harmonics do not exist. Any undesirable odd (N-1) intrinsic harmonics from the output waveform can be eliminated.


title: Power electronics

text: The full-bridge inverter is similar to the half bridge-inverter, but it has an additional leg to connect the neutral point to the load. Figure 3 shows the circuit schematic of the single-phase voltage source full-bridge inverter.


title: Power electronics

text: To avoid shorting out the voltage source, S1+, and S1- cannot be on at the same time, and S2+ and S2- also cannot be on at the same time. Any modulating technique used for the full-bridge configuration should have either the top or the bottom switch of each leg on at any given time. Due to the extra leg, the maximum amplitude of the output waveform is Vi, and is twice as large as the maximum achievable output amplitude for the half-bridge configuration.


title: Power electronics

text: States 1 and 2 from Table 2 are used to generate the AC output voltage with bipolar SPWM. The AC output voltage can take on only two values, either Vi or –Vi. To generate these same states using a half-bridge configuration, a carrier based technique can be used. S+ being on for the half-bridge corresponds to S1+ and S2- being on for the full-bridge. Similarly, S- being on for the half-bridge corresponds to S1- and S2+ being on for the full bridge. The output voltage for this modulation technique is more or less sinusoidal, with a fundamental component that has an amplitude in the linear region of less than or equal to one .


title: Power electronics

text: Unlike the bipolar PWM technique, the unipolar approach uses states 1, 2, 3, and 4 from Table 2 to generate its AC output voltage. Therefore, the AC output voltage can take on the values Vi, 0 or –V [1]i. To generate these states, two sinusoidal modulating signals, Vc and –Vc, are needed, as seen in Figure 4.


title: Power electronics

text: Vc is used to generate VaN, while –Vc is used to generate VbN. The following relationship is called unipolar carrier-based SPWM .


title: Power electronics

text: The phase voltages VaN and VbN are identical, but 180 degrees out of phase with each other. The output voltage is equal to the difference of the two-phase voltages, and do not contain any even harmonics. Therefore, if mf is taken, even the AC output voltage harmonics will appear at normalized odd frequencies, fh. These frequencies are centered on double the value of the normalized carrier frequency. This particular feature allows for smaller filtering components when trying to obtain a higher quality output waveform.


title: Power electronics

text: As was the case for the half-bridge SHE, the AC output voltage contains no even harmonics due to its odd half and odd quarter-wave symmetry.


title: Power electronics

text: Single-phase VSIs are used primarily for low power range applications, while three-phase VSIs cover both medium and high power range applications. Figure 5 shows the circuit schematic for a three-phase VSI.


title: Power electronics

text: Switches in any of the three legs of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously due to this resulting in the voltages being dependent on the respective line current's polarity. States 7 and 8 produce zero AC line voltages, which result in AC line currents freewheeling through either the upper or the lower components. However, the line voltages for states 1 through 6 produce an AC line voltage consisting of the discrete values of Vi, 0 or –Vi.


title: Power electronics

text: For three-phase SPWM, three modulating signals that are 120 degrees out of phase with one another are used in order to produce out-of-phase load voltages. In order to preserve the PWM features with a single carrier signal, the normalized carrier frequency, mf, needs to be a multiple of three. This keeps the magnitude of the phase voltages identical, but out of phase with each other by 120 degrees. The maximum achievable phase voltage amplitude in the linear region, ma less than or equal to one, is '. The maximum achievable line voltage amplitude is '


title: Power electronics

text: Current source inverters convert DC current into an AC current waveform. In applications requiring sinusoidal AC waveforms, magnitude, frequency, and phase should all be controlled. CSIs have high changes in current over time, so capacitors are commonly employed on the AC side, while inductors are commonly employed on the DC side. Due to the absence of freewheeling diodes, the power circuit is reduced in size and weight, and tends to be more reliable than VSIs. Although single-phase topologies are possible, three-phase CSIs are more practical.


title: Power electronics

text: In its most generalized form, a three-phase CSI employs the same conduction sequence as a six-pulse rectifier. At any time, only one common-cathode switch and one common-anode switch are on.


title: Power electronics

text: As a result, line currents take discrete values of –ii, 0 and ii. States are chosen such that a desired waveform is output and only valid states are used. This selection is based on modulating techniques, which include carrier-based PWM, selective harmonic elimination, and space-vector techniques.


title: Power electronics

text: Carrier-based techniques used for VSIs can also be implemented for CSIs, resulting in CSI line currents that behave in the same way as VSI line voltages. The digital circuit utilized for modulating signals contains a switching pulse generator, a shorting pulse generator, a shorting pulse distributor, and a switching and shorting pulse combiner. A gating signal is produced based on a carrier current and three modulating signals.


title: Power electronics

text: A shorting pulse is added to this signal when no top switches and no bottom switches are gated, causing the RMS currents to be equal in all legs. The same methods are utilized for each phase, however, switching variables are 120 degrees out of phase relative to one another, and the current pulses are shifted by a half-cycle with respect to output currents. If a triangular carrier is used with sinusoidal modulating signals, the CSI is said to be utilizing synchronized-pulse-width-modulation (SPWM). If full over-modulation is used in conjunction with SPWM the inverter is said to be in square-wave operation.


title: Power electronics

text: The second CSI modulation category, SHE is also similar to its VSI counterpart. Utilizing the gating signals developed for a VSI and a set of synchronizing sinusoidal current signals, results in symmetrically distributed shorting pulses and, therefore, symmetrical gating patterns. This allows any arbitrary number of harmonics to be eliminated. It also allows control of the fundamental line current through the proper selection of primary switching angles. Optimal switching patterns must have quarter-wave and half-wave symmetry, as well as symmetry about 30 degrees and 150 degrees. Switching patterns are never allowed between 60 degrees and 120 degrees. The current ripple can be further reduced with the use of larger output capacitors, or by increasing the number of switching pulses.


title: Power electronics

text: The third category, space-vector-based modulation, generates PWM load line currents that equal load line currents, on average. Valid switching states and time selections are made digitally based on space vector transformation. Modulating signals are represented as a complex vector using a transformation equation. For balanced three-phase sinusoidal signals, this vector becomes a fixed module, which rotates at a frequency, ω. These space vectors are then used to approximate the modulating signal. If the signal is between arbitrary vectors, the vectors are combined with the zero vectors I7, I8, or I9. The following equations are used to ensure that the generated currents and the current vectors are on the average equivalent.


title: Power electronics

text: A relatively new class called multilevel inverters has gained widespread interest. Normal operation of CSIs and VSIs can be classified as two-level inverters because the power switches connect to either the positive or the negative DC bus. If more than two voltage levels were available to the inverter output terminals, the AC output could better approximate a sine wave. For this reason multilevel inverters, although more complex and costly, offer higher performance. A three-level neutral-clamped inverter is shown in Figure 10.


title: Power electronics

text: Control methods for a three-level inverter only allow two switches of the four switches in each leg to simultaneously change conduction states. This allows smooth commutation and avoids shoot through by only selecting valid states. It may also be noted that since the DC bus voltage is shared by at least two power valves, their voltage ratings can be less than a two-level counterpart.


title: Power electronics

text: Carrier-based and space-vector modulation techniques are used for multilevel topologies. The methods for these techniques follow those of classic inverters, but with added complexity. Space-vector modulation offers a greater number of fixed voltage vectors to be used in approximating the modulation signal, and therefore allows more effective space vector PWM strategies to be accomplished at the cost of more elaborate algorithms. Due to added complexity and the number of semiconductor devices, multilevel inverters are currently more suitable for high-power high-voltage applications.


title: Power electronics

text: Converting AC power to AC power allows control of the voltage, frequency, and phase of the waveform applied to a load from a supplied AC system . The two main categories that can be used to separate the types of converters are whether the frequency of the waveform is changed. AC/AC converter that don't allow the user to modify the frequencies are known as AC Voltage Controllers, or AC Regulators. AC converters that allow the user to change the frequency are simply referred to as frequency converters for AC to AC conversion. Under frequency converters there are three different types of converters that are typically used: cycloconverter, matrix converter, DC link converter (aka AC/DC/AC converter).


title: Power electronics

text: AC voltage controller: The purpose of an AC Voltage Controller, or AC Regulator, is to vary the RMS voltage across the load while at a constant frequency. Three control methods that are generally accepted are ON/OFF Control, Phase-Angle Control, and Pulse-Width Modulation AC Chopper Control (PWM AC Chopper Control). All three of these methods can be implemented not only in single-phase circuits, but three-phase circuits as well.


title: Power electronics

text: Matrix converters and cycloconverters: Cycloconverters are widely used in industry for ac to ac conversion, because they are able to be used in high-power applications. They are commutated direct frequency converters that are synchronised by a supply line. The cycloconverters output voltage waveforms have complex harmonics with the higher-order harmonics being filtered by the machine inductance. Causing the machine current to have fewer harmonics, while the remaining harmonics causes losses and torque pulsations. Note that in a cycloconverter, unlike other converters, there are no inductors or capacitors, i.e. no storage devices. For this reason, the instantaneous input power and the output power are equal.


title: Power electronics

text: With recent device advances, newer forms of cycloconverters are being developed, such as matrix converters. The first change that is first noticed is that matrix converters utilize bi-directional, bipolar switches. A single phase to a single phase matrix converter consists of a matrix of 9 switches connecting the three input phases to the tree output phase. Any input phase and output phase can be connected together at any time without connecting any two switches from the same phase at the same time; otherwise this will cause a short circuit of the input phases. Matrix converters are lighter, more compact and versatile than other converter solutions. As a result, they are able to achieve higher levels of integration, higher temperature operation, broad output frequency and natural bi-directional power flow suitable to regenerate energy back to the utility.


title: Power electronics

text: The matrix converters are subdivided into two types: direct and indirect converters. A direct matrix converter with three-phase input and three-phase output, the switches in a matrix converter must be bi-directional, that is, they must be able to block voltages of either polarity and to conduct current in either direction. This switching strategy permits the highest possible output voltage and reduces the reactive line-side current. Therefore, the power flow through the converter is reversible. Because of its commutation problem and complex control keep it from being broadly utilized in industry.


title: Power electronics

text: Unlike the direct matrix converters, the indirect matrix converters has the same functionality, but uses separate input and output sections that are connected through a dc link without storage elements. The design includes a four-quadrant current source rectifier and a voltage source inverter. The input section consists of bi-directional bipolar switches. The commutation strategy can be applied by changing the switching state of the input section while the output section is in a freewheeling mode. This commutation algorithm is significantly less complex, and has higher reliability as compared to a conventional direct matrix converter.


title: Power electronics

text: DC link converters: DC Link Converters, also referred to as AC/DC/AC converters, convert an AC input to an AC output with the use of a DC link in the middle. Meaning that the power in the converter is converted to DC from AC with the use of a rectifier, and then it is converted back to AC from DC with the use of an inverter. The end result is an output with a lower voltage and variable (higher or lower) frequency. Due to their wide area of application, the AC/DC/AC converters are the most common contemporary solution. Other advantages to AC/DC/AC converters is that they are stable in overload and no-load conditions, as well as they can be disengaged from a load without damage.


title: Power electronics

text: Hybrid matrix converter: Hybrid matrix converters are relatively new for AC/AC converters. These converters combine the AC/DC/AC design with the matrix converter design. Multiple types of hybrid converters have been developed in this new category, an example being a converter that uses uni-directional switches and two converter stages without the dc-link; without the capacitors or inductors needed for a dc-link, the weight and size of the converter is reduced. Two sub-categories exist from the hybrid converters, named hybrid direct matrix converter (HDMC) and hybrid indirect matrix converter (HIMC). HDMC convert the voltage and current in one stage, while the HIMC utilizes separate stages, like the AC/DC/AC converter, but without the use of an intermediate storage element.


title: Power electronics

text: Power electronic circuits are simulated using computer simulation programs such as PLECS, PSIM, SPICE, and MATLAB/simulink. Circuits are simulated before they are produced to test how the circuits respond under certain conditions. Also, creating a simulation is both cheaper and faster than creating a prototype to use for testing.


title: Power electronics

text: Applications of power electronics range in size from a switched mode power supply in an AC adapter, battery chargers, audio amplifiers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, through variable frequency drives and DC motor drives used to operate pumps, fans, and manufacturing machinery, up to gigawatt-scale high voltage direct current power transmission systems used to interconnect electrical grids. Power electronic systems are found in virtually every electronic device. For example:


title: Power electronics

text: Motor drives are found in pumps, blowers, and mill drives for textile, paper, cement and other such facilities. Drives may be used for power conversion and for motion control. For AC motors, applications include variable-frequency drives, motor soft starters and excitation systems.


title: Power electronics

text: In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), power electronics are used in two formats: series hybrid and parallel hybrid. The difference between a series hybrid and a parallel hybrid is the relationship of the electric motor to the internal combustion engine (ICE). Devices used in electric vehicles consist mostly of dc/dc converters for battery charging and dc/ac converters to power the propulsion motor. Electric trains use power electronic devices to obtain power, as well as for vector control using pulse-width modulation (PWM) rectifiers. The trains obtain their power from power lines. Another new usage for power electronics is in elevator systems. These systems may use thyristors, inverters, permanent magnet motors, or various hybrid systems that incorporate PWM systems and standard motors.


title: Power electronics

text: In general, inverters are utilized in applications requiring direct conversion of electrical energy from DC to AC or indirect conversion from AC to AC. DC to AC conversion is useful for many fields, including power conditioning, harmonic compensation, motor drives, renewable energy grid integration, and spacecraft solar power systems.


title: Power electronics

text: In power systems it is often desired to eliminate harmonic content found in line currents. VSIs can be used as active power filters to provide this compensation. Based on measured line currents and voltages, a control system determines reference current signals for each phase. This is fed back through an outer loop and subtracted from actual current signals to create current signals for an inner loop to the inverter. These signals then cause the inverter to generate output currents that compensate for the harmonic content. This configuration requires no real power consumption, as it is fully fed by the line; the DC link is simply a capacitor that is kept at a constant voltage by the control system. In this configuration, output currents are in phase with line voltages to produce a unity power factor. Conversely, VAR compensation is possible in a similar configuration where output currents lead line voltages to improve the overall power factor.


title: Power electronics

text: In facilities that require energy at all times, such as hospitals and airports, UPS systems are utilized. In a standby system, an inverter is brought online when the normally supplying grid is interrupted. Power is instantaneously drawn from onsite batteries and converted into usable AC voltage by the VSI, until grid power is restored, or until backup generators are brought online. In an online UPS system, a rectifier-DC-link-inverter is used to protect the load from transients and harmonic content. A battery in parallel with the DC-link is kept fully charged by the output in case the grid power is interrupted, while the output of the inverter is fed through a low pass filter to the load. High power quality and independence from disturbances is achieved.


title: Power electronics

text: Various AC motor drives have been developed for speed, torque, and position control of AC motors. These drives can be categorized as low-performance or as high-performance, based on whether they are scalar-controlled or vector-controlled, respectively. In scalar-controlled drives, fundamental stator current, or voltage frequency and amplitude, are the only controllable quantities. Therefore, these drives are employed in applications where high quality control is not required, such as fans and compressors. On the other hand, vector-controlled drives allow for instantaneous current and voltage values to be controlled continuously. This high performance is necessary for applications such as elevators and electric cars.


title: Power electronics

text: Inverters are also vital to many renewable energy applications. In photovoltaic purposes, the inverter, which is usually a PWM VSI, gets fed by the DC electrical energy output of a photovoltaic module or array. The inverter then converts this into an AC voltage to be interfaced with either a load or the utility grid. Inverters may also be employed in other renewable systems, such as wind turbines. In these applications, the turbine speed usually varies, causing changes in voltage frequency and sometimes in the magnitude. In this case, the generated voltage can be rectified and then inverted to stabilize frequency and magnitude.


title: Power electronics

text: A smart grid is a modernized electrical grid that uses information and communications technology to gather and act on information, such as information about the behaviors of suppliers and consumers, in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity.


title: Power electronics

text: Electric power generated by wind turbines and hydroelectric turbines by using induction generators can cause variances in the frequency at which power is generated. Power electronic devices are utilized in these systems to convert the generated ac voltages into high-voltage direct current (HVDC). The HVDC power can be more easily converted into three phase power that is coherent with the power associated to the existing power grid. Through these devices, the power delivered by these systems is cleaner and has a higher associated power factor. Wind power systems optimum torque is obtained either through a gearbox or direct drive technologies that can reduce the size of the power electronics device.


title: Power electronics

text: Electric power can be generated through photovoltaic cells by using power electronic devices. The produced power is usually then transformed by solar inverters. Inverters are divided into three different types: central, module-integrated, and string. Central converters can be connected either in parallel or in series on the DC side of the system. For photovoltaic "farms", a single central converter is used for the entire system. Module-integrated converters are connected in series on either the DC or AC side. Normally several modules are used within a photovoltaic system, since the system requires these converters on both DC and AC terminals. A string converter is used in a system that utilizes photovoltaic cells that are facing different directions. It is used to convert the power generated to each string, or line, in which the photovoltaic cells are interacting.


title: Power electronics

text: Power electronics can be used to help utilities adapt to the rapid increase in distributed residential/commercial solar power generation. Germany and parts of Hawaii, California, and New Jersey require costly studies to be conducted before approving new solar installations. Relatively small-scale ground- or pole-mounted devices create the potential for a distributed control infrastructure to monitor and manage the flow of power. Traditional electromechanical systems, such as capacitor banks or voltage regulators at substations, can take minutes to adjust voltage and can be distant from the solar installations where the problems originate. If voltage on a neighborhood circuit goes too high, it can endanger utility crews and cause damage to both utility and customer equipment. Further, a grid fault causes photovoltaic generators to shut down immediately, spiking the demand for grid power. Smart grid-based regulators are more controllable than far more numerous consumer devices.


title: Power electronics

text: In another approach, a group of 16 western utilities called the Western Electric Industry Leaders called for the mandatory use of "smart inverters." These devices convert DC to household AC and can also help with power quality. Such devices could eliminate the need for expensive utility equipment upgrades at a much lower total cost.


title: Henning Wehn

text: Wehn studied Business Administration in Münster and worked in customer relations. In 2002, he moved to the United Kingdom to work in the marketing department of Wycombe Wanderers. One evening, he saw an open mic night and decided to try comedy. Of his decision to stay in the UK, Wehn later wrote:


title: Henning Wehn

text: As a result, since October 2003, Wehn has been the self-styled "German Comedy Ambassador in London". After beginning his career as "warm-up act" to various comedians in London (including Stewart Lee for "Comedy Vehicle"), he now has his own act on the British comedy circuit.


title: Henning Wehn

text: Wehn has appeared on the panel shows "8 Out of 10 Cats", "Have I Got News for You", "Room 101", "8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown", "QI" and "Would I Lie to You?". He also appeared on Channel 4's political discussion/comedy show "10 O'Clock Live" in May 2013. He is a recurring panellist on both the Radio Five Live comedy sports show "Fighting Talk" and on the Radio Four panel game "The Unbelievable Truth". Wehn also appeared as a panellist on the 2015, 2016 and 2017 series of "" for both the BBC and Channel 4.


title: Henning Wehn

text: He appeared on "Would I Lie To You?", Episode 7 of Series 7, in which he revealed that for three weeks in the mid-1990s he was listed as a missing person by Interpol. He later appeared on Episode 9 of Series 9, in which he revealed that he and his friend were once arrested by border guards for illegally entering the Czech Republic in the mid-1990s.


title: Henning Wehn

text: In 2014, Wehn and fellow comedian Mark Watson fronted a travelogue in Brazil called "The Road to Rio" for TV channel Dave. In the show, they explored the country's sporting culture, tying in with the 2014 World Cup held in the country. Henning has often toured and performed with fellow German comedian . Kuhnle appeared on Wehn's BBC Radio 2 series "Henning knows best" in 2012.


title: Henning Wehn

text: In May 2015, Wehn presented "An Immigrant's Guide to Britain" on Channel 4, telling "Radio Times": "[W]hat I really like about the programme it mixes light-hearted issues (the job market), with more serious ones (trouble of having two water taps instead of just one) to the ultra serious (the British class system)". In October that same year, Wehn was the presenter of the BBC World Service radio documentary "Wall in the Head" in which he explored "the invisible cultural and psychological divide" between East and West Germans twenty five years after German reunification following the fall of the Berlin Wall.


title: Henning Wehn

text: In October 2018, Wehn appeared in the German episode of History's TV series "Al Murray: Why Does Everyone Hate The English" alongside host Al Murray.


title: Henning Wehn

text: Wehn's comedy frequently employs common stereotypes about Germans, with critic Brian Logan noting in UK daily newspaper "The Guardian" in 2015: "Wehn has made a career out of sending up and celebrating German stereotypes. But that particular ingredient is lower in the new show's mix – with abundant TV and radio credits to his name, Wehn is now well enough established to joke not only about who he is, but what he thinks".


title: Henning Wehn

text: Wehn's views have been described as right-wing by "The Times" and Richard Wilson, executive producer of "Have I Got News For You". In an article on left wing stand-up Stewart Lee describes him as occupying "[a] broadly libertarian position".


title: Wheels of Fire

text: Wheels of Fire is the third album by the British rock band Cream. It was released in the US in June 1968 as a two-disc vinyl LP, with one disc recorded in the studio and the other recorded live. It was released in the UK on August 9. It reached number three in the United Kingdom and number one in the United States, Canada and Australia, becoming the world's first platinum-selling double album. In May 2012, "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked it at number 205 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. It was voted number 757 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums" (2000).


title: Wheels of Fire

text: It was also released as two single LPs, Wheels of Fire (In the Studio) and Wheels of Fire (Live at the Fillmore), released together with similar cover art. In the UK the studio album art was black print on aluminium foil, while the live album art was a negative image of the studio cover. In Japan, the studio album art was black on gold foil, while the live album art was black on aluminium foil. In Australia, both covers were laminated copies of the Japanese releases.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: Cream's third album was planned to be a double album on which Atco Records' producer Felix Pappalardi and the group would include several live performances. Unlike "Disraeli Gears", which had been recorded in a matter of days, the "Wheels of Fire" sessions took place in small bursts over many months. The group and Pappalardi had, in July and August 1967, recorded studio material at IBC Studios in London. Recordings continued with short sessions at Atlantic Studios in September, October and December 1967. Further work took place at Atlantic in February 1968, during a break from the band's heavy tour schedule. The following month, Pappalardi ordered that a mobile recording studio in Los Angeles be shipped to the Fillmore Auditorium and the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco. Six shows were recorded in San Francisco by Pappalardi and recording engineer Bill Halverson, and extra performances not included on "Wheels of Fire" ended up on "Live Cream" and "Live Cream Volume II". Studio recordings and mixing for the album were completed in June 1968, nearly a year after they had started.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: The recording engineers on disc one were Tom Dowd and Adrian Barber. The songs on disc two were recorded by Bill Halverson, and the performances on the second disc were mixed by Adrian Barber. The artwork for the album was by Martin Sharp, who had also done the artwork for "Disraeli Gears". The photography was by Jim Marshall.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: The band's drummer Ginger Baker co-wrote three songs for the album with pianist Mike Taylor. Bassist Jack Bruce co-wrote four songs with poet Pete Brown. Guitarist Eric Clapton contributed to the album by choosing two blues songs to cover.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: For the second disc, Felix Pappalardi chose "Traintime" because it featured Jack Bruce's singing and harmonica playing, and "Toad" because it featured Ginger Baker's lengthy drum solo, while "Spoonful" and "Crossroads" were used to showcase Eric Clapton's guitar playing.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: Performers on disc one are "the Cream quartet" consisting of Clapton, Baker, and Bruce together with Felix Pappalardi, who plays many different instruments and is also credited with production.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: While the second disc is labelled "Live at the Fillmore", only "Toad" was recorded there. The other three tracks were recorded at the Winterland Ballroom.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: In 2014, Japan Polydor released a two-disc limited edition SHM-CD (UICY-76024/5) with four bonus tracks: two on the studio disc, and two on the live one.


title: Wheels of Fire

text: "Recorded at IBC Studios, July and August 1967; Atlantic Studios, September, 9–10 October, and 12–15 December 1967; 13–22 February and 12–13 June 1968"


title: California Gurls

text: "California Gurls" is a song recorded by American singer Katy Perry. It served as the lead single for her third studio album, "Teenage Dream" (2010). The song features verses from rapper Snoop Dogg. The artists co-wrote the song with Bonnie McKee and its co-producers Dr. Luke and Max Martin, with additional production from Benny Blanco. According to Perry, "California Gurls" is an answer song to "Empire State of Mind" (2009), by Jay-Z and Alicia Keys. Its mid-tempo production incorporates disco-pop and funk-pop with influences of new wave and electropop. Its lyrics are an ode to the state of California, in which both Perry and Snoop Dogg were born and raised.


title: California Gurls

text: "California Gurls" garnered positive reviews from music critics, with the majority of them labeling it a "summer anthem", as well as complimenting its production and chorus. Originally, the song was intended to be sent to mainstream and rhythmic airplay on May 25, 2010, the song debuted on May 7, 2010, after clips from the "Teenage Dream" album were leaked online. It was subsequently released to iTunes on May 11, 2010, as the album's lead single. The song was a worldwide success, peaking at number-one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for six consecutive weeks, giving Perry her second number-one single in the US and Snoop Dogg his third. The song also reached number-one in seven other countries, was the best-selling song of 2010 in Canada, and is certified Platinum or higher in nine countries, including 4× Platinum in Canada, 6× Platinum in Australia, and 8× Platinum in the US.


title: California Gurls

text: A music video for the song was released on June 15, 2010, featuring Perry and her dancers as pieces of a board game, set in the fictional "Candyfornia". Perry has said that the inspiration behind the video was artist Will Cotton, who was also the artistic director of the video. It has also been noted that the video was influenced by several other works, including "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", and the board game "Candyland". On December 2, 2010, the song received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. In 2012, "Billboard" ranked the song number one on a special The 30 Summer Songs of All Time listing.


title: California Gurls

text: In an interview with HitQuarters, Perry's A&R at the time, Chris Anokute, said that while travelling back from an Oscar after-party, Perry texted him to say she did not think the album was finished and that it needed one more song. She said that she wanted to write a song about California girls. During a "Rolling Stone" photo shoot in April 2010, Perry revealed details about the song, reportedly a response to Jay-Z's "Empire State of Mind", she stated:


title: California Gurls

text: Perry used Wikipedia to research which rapper she wanted to collaborate with for "California Gurls", browsing West Coast artists before selecting Snoop Dogg. Initially, the song was going to be titled "California Girls". The spelling was changed to "California Gurls" after the death of Big Star member Alex Chilton as a nod to their song, "September Gurls". Rondor Music, the company that owns the publishing rights to the Beach Boys' "California Girls", allegedly threatened a lawsuit due to the lyric "I wish they could all be California Girls", a line that was taken from the Beach Boys' song.


title: California Gurls

text: After the song was leaked online, Capitol Records decided to release it early, and it was posted on Perry's official website, and the radio date was moved up from May 25, 2010, to May 7, 2010. The artwork was also released, featuring Perry laying out on the beach sand with a bejeweled bikini.


title: California Gurls

text: "California Gurls" is composed in styles of disco-pop, funk-pop and bubblegum pop while bearing influence of new wave music and electropop within its composition. According to digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony-ATV Music Publishing, the song is written in the key of F major and the tempo moves at 125 beats per minute over a house beat. Perry's vocal range in the song spans from the lower note of C to the higher note of D. "California Gurls" utilizes multiple synths, drums, funk guitars, and electronic whooshes in its production.


title: California Gurls

text: "California Gurls" received widespread critical acclaim. The song was given five stars from Nick Levine of Digital Spy who commended Perry's "charismatic" vocals on the song as well as its "unstoppable pop chorus". Leah Greenblatt of "Entertainment Weekly" and Katie Hasty of HitFix called it "the summer jam" of 2010. Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" said that the song sets the tone for "Teenage Dream". Chris Richards of "The Washington Post" praised the song, calling it "fresh" and "fierce". He commended the expertise of the song's arrangement and its "buoyant" chorus. Richards went on to say that "California Gurls" is "an ever-lasting gobstopper of a tune" and that "summertime megahits rarely feel this good". Musician Brian Wilson, who had co-written the Beach Boys' "California Girls", commended Perry's vocal on her song and described its melody as "infectious".


title: California Gurls

text: Glenn Gamboa of "Newsday" reviewed the song saying, "'California Gurls' is a fizzy-pop concoction of empty calories, but it sure does stick with you." He went on to note that the craftsmanship of the song was of a high standard. Steve Leftridge of PopMatters called "California Gurls" the radio jam of the summer of 2010 and "the gargantuan singalong fantasy that delivered on the promise built by the disco thump of hits like 'I Kissed a Girl' and 'Hot n Cold'." Leftridge also praised the song's musical composition, lyrical content and chorus which he said "you know by heart halfway through your first listen." The track was deemed as a highlight on "Teenage Dream" by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic. Michael Cragg of musicOMH praised the song, "First single California Gurls is brilliant, brattish fun, Perry sounding sweet and coy on the verses before that huge chorus erupts". Edna Gundersen of "USA Today" said that the track is "an effervescent toast to summer fun." In a negative review, Greg Kot of "Chicago Tribune" dismissed the song as "relentlessly mechanical". He went on to describe Perry's vocal performance on the song as "a series of syllables digitally stitched together." The single received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. On May 25, 2012, "Billboard" ranked the song number one on a special The 30 Summer Songs of All Time listing.


title: California Gurls

text: "California Gurls" sold 294,000 digital downloads in its first week and debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" Digital Songs chart. It debuted at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100, making it Perry's highest debut on the chart at the time. On the issue dated June 19, 2010, the song reached number one, becoming Perry's second number-one song and Snoop Dogg's third. "California Gurls" became the first single by an artist signed to Capitol Records in nearly 43 years to ascend to the number-one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 in its fourth week since Bobbie Gentry's single "Ode to Billie Joe" reached the top after four weeks on the chart. It is Perry's third number one on the Pop Songs chart. "California Gurls" became the first song to top the 300,000 mark in digital sales more than once in 2010 with 318,000 and 359,000 copies sold in the first and second week of June, respectively. Within seven weeks of its release, "California Gurls" sold over two million downloads, which is the second fastest pace to do so in digital history behind Flo Rida's "Right Round". It debuted at number 31 on the "Billboard" Radio Songs chart and in the July 10, 2010, issue it reached number one on the magazine's Hot Dance Airplay chart, giving Perry her second number-one single on that chart. As of August 2020, the song has been certified 8 times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and sold 5.9 million copies in the US.


title: California Gurls

text: Elsewhere, "California Gurls" reached number one in Canada and debuted in the top 20 in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), New Zealand and Norway. On May 24, 2010, "California Gurls" debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number three, and later reached the number-one spot. On the RIANZ Top 10 Radio Airplay Charts, the song came in at number one in New Zealand and also received Gold certification from Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). "California Gurls" entered the UK Singles Chart on June 27, 2010, at number one, becoming her second chart-topper in the country. The single sold 123,607 copies in the UK in its first week (the second highest number in 2010 after the Helping Haiti charity single "Everybody Hurts"). After two weeks, the song sold 216,000 copies in the UK. On October 29, 2010, the British Phonographic Industry classified the single as a "platinum record" (meaning it has sold over 600,000 units). As of October 2013, the single had sold 780,787 copies in the United Kingdom, becoming Perry's third best-selling single there behind "Firework" and "Roar".


title: California Gurls

text: The video was directed by Mathew Cullen and was inspired by the work of Will Cotton, who was also the artistic director of the video. Filming of the video began on May 14, 2010. It premiered on June 15, 2010. Perry explained the use of a candy theme instead of a beach theme for the video, saying, "It's definitely something to watch when you have the munchies. ... It's all edible. We named it 'Candyfornia' instead of 'California', so it's a different world," she said. "It's not just like, 'Oh, let's go to the beach and throw a party and then shoot a music video!' It's more like, 'Let's put us California Gurls in a whole different world!" The video has been controversial since there were several accusations of plagiarism against Perry, one due to similarities between the video and "Fergalicious" by Fergie, particularly in the sets and the outfits.


title: California Gurls

text: In the music video, Perry is a game piece in Candyfornia, a game based in poker and board games. The settings are inspired in part by "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", and the board game Candy Land, with much of the set decorated with cupcakes, ice creams, cotton candy, and lollipops. Snoop Dogg, who is referenced in the lyrics by his old name Snoop "Doggy" Dogg, appears in the video as a king named "Sugar Daddy" that is holding several young women (Queens of Candyfornia) captive throughout the game, using candy-related devices to hold them. Perry moves around, experimenting with objects. She moves through the land, making discoveries and freeing the women. In the chorus, she appears lying down on a cotton candy cloud, naked. Snoop Dogg tries to block her advances in many ways. When all the women are free, Perry leads them in a dance on the beach. Seeing the women freed, "Sugar Daddy" becomes enraged, marching on the women's position with an army of gummy bears. Perry defeats the army with whipped cream guns attached to her breasts, after which the stunned king throws down his staff and surrenders. The video ends with "Sugar Daddy" buried up to his neck in the sand by the women, nonetheless admiring their beauty and (in a nod to the Beach Boys song) wishing that women everywhere could be California girls. Various California landmarks appear in the video, such as the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the Hollywood Sign, Sunset Boulevard, the Capitol Records Building, the Golden Gate Bridge and Venice Beach which were all made out of confectionery.


title: California Gurls

text: Perry performed the song on May 20, 2010, at the CW networks' annual "upfronts" presentation in New York. Perry performed the song at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards on June 6, 2010, alongside Snoop Dogg. She performed the song at the Le Grand Journal in Paris, on June 10, 2010, without Snoop Dogg. Perry also performed the song during her guest appearance on the September 25, 2010 episode of "Saturday Night Live". Perry performed the song on The GRAMMY Nominations Concert Live! – Countdown to Music's Biggest Night on December 1, 2010. "California Gurls" was included as the encore for her California Dreams Tour. Perry performed California Gurls without Snoop Dogg on the BBC One chat show "The Graham Norton Show" on June 28, 2010.


title: California Gurls

text: On February 1, 2015, Perry was the headliner of Super Bowl XLIX halftime show and "California Gurls" was part of the performance.


title: California Gurls

text: The German cover band The Baseballs covered the song. It is included on their album "Strings 'n' Stripes". The Hub has released a promo for the animated series "". Entitled "Equestria Girls", it is set to the song's melody, with a new set of lyrics written specifically for the show and sung by Shannon Chan-Kent from the perspective of the character Pinkie Pie. A video clip of Cebu Pacific flight attendants performing a pre-flight safety demonstration as a dance routine to this song ended up as a viral YouTube video clip, attracting comment.


title: California Gurls

text: The parody song "G33k & G4m3r Girls" by Team Unicorn was released online in September 2010. The music video pays tribute to women who love gaming, manga, and science fiction. The video reached 1 million views in its first week online and stirred controversy over its sexy portrayal of geek girls.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie is a children's book written by Laura Numeroff and illustrated by Felicia Bond, first published in 1985 by Harper and Row. Described as a "circular tale", illustrating a slippery slope, it is Numeroff and Bond's first collaboration in what came to be the "If You Give..." series.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: The entire story is told in second person. A boy named Oliver gives a cookie to a mouse named Quinley . The mouse asks for a glass of milk. He then requests a straw (to drink the milk), a mirror (to avoid a milk mustache), nail scissors (to trim his hair in the mirror), and a broom (to sweep up his hair trimmings). Next, he wants to take a nap, have a story read to him, draw a picture, and hang the drawing on the refrigerator. Looking at the refrigerator makes him thirsty, so the mouse asks for a glass of milk. The circle is complete when he wants a cookie to go with it.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: The text was interpreted by illustrator Felicia Bond to show the increasing energy of the mouse, with the little boy being run ragged by the end of the story. The art was praised by "School Library Journal" for its "meticulous attention to detail", and was executed with vibrant colors of blended pencil in a complex process of layering magenta, cyan, yellow, and black on separate sheets, which were then assembled during printing.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: Bond describes rushing to get the sketches done before leaving town with her boyfriend, and that the energy of the mouse evolved from that excitement. She has mentioned on numerous occasions that the little boy in the book was her boyfriend, Stephen Roxburgh, as a child.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: "If You Give a Mouse a Cookie" quickly became established as a popular favorite and is today considered a contemporary classic. A series of seventeen titles followed. They have been translated into more than thirteen languages. The "If You Give..." series has garnered numerous awards, and their popularity is witnessed by their consistent presence on "The New York Times" Best Seller List.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: Charles Schulz created two "Peanuts" strips about "If You Give a Mouse a Cookie", and in 2000 Oprah Winfrey chose "If You Give a Pig a Pancake" as one of her favorite things in 2000. She also included it on her list "Oprah's Favorite Things from A-Z" in that same year. ""If You Give a Moose a Muffin"" was the answer to a question on "Jeopardy!". The books have been adapted into plays for children's theaters. The Bronx Zoo in New York featured the art in their Children's Zoo for one year and the artwork has been used to create murals in the wings of children's hospitals. The series has fans of all ages from all over the world including Japan, where an entire Tokyo city bus was painted with images of Mouse. Mouse also made it to the White House; in Laura Bush's Celebration of American Authors at the 2001 Presidential Inauguration Felicia Bond and Laura Numeroff were among those honored for their "If You Give..." series, and the former First Lady writes that the Bush family cat India's favorite book was "If You Take a Mouse to the Movies". A bronze sculpture of her sleeping on the book is included in the George W. Bush Presidential Library. First Lady Michelle Obama read "If You Give a Mouse a Cookie" on the White House lawn during the 2009 Easter Egg Roll.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: The book itself was featured in an episode of "Kino's Storytime", and appeared as part of a "Mail Time" segment on the "Blue's Clues" episode "Blue's ABCs".


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: The book series was also awarded an Honoree "Laura Bush Celebrates American Authors" in 2001 plus Presidential Inauguration "NEA Teacher’s Picks Books to Read Across America" in 1999.


title: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie

text: An animated series adaptation of "If You Give a Mouse a Cookie" was released on Amazon Prime on November 7, 2017.


title: Doctor Prisoner

text: Doctor Prisoner () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Namkoong Min, Kwon Nara, and Kim Byung-chul. It aired on KBS2's Wednesdays and Thursdays at 22:00 (KST) from March 20 to May 15, 2019.


title: Doctor Prisoner

text: A skilled doctor is forced to quit working at a hospital after being accused of medical malpractice. He starts working in a prison with the goal of acquiring enough connections to take his revenge.


title: Doctor Prisoner

text: The first script reading took place in January 2019 at KBS Broadcasting Station in Yeouido, South Korea.


title: Bell 47

text: The Bell 47 is a single-rotor single-engine light helicopter manufactured by Bell Helicopter. It was based on the third Bell 30 prototype, which was the company's first helicopter designed by Arthur M. Young. The 47 became the first helicopter certified for civilian use on 8 March 1946. The first civilian delivery was made on 31 December 1946 to Helicopter Air Transport. More than 5,600 Bell 47s were produced, including those under license by Agusta in Italy, Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan, and Westland Aircraft in the United Kingdom. The Bell 47J Ranger is a modified version with a fully enclosed cabin and tail boom.


title: Bell 47

text: Early models varied in appearance, with open cockpits or sheet metal cabins, fabric covered or open structures, some with four-wheel landing gear.


title: Bell 47

text: Later model D and Korean War H-13D and E types settled on a more utilitarian style. The most common model, the 47G introduced in 1953, can be recognized by the full "soap bubble" canopy, exposed welded-tube tail boom, saddle fuel tanks and skid landing gear.


title: Bell 47

text: The later three-seat 47H had an enclosed cabin with full cowling and monocoque tail boom. It was an attempt to market a "luxury" version of the basic 47G. Relatively few were produced.


title: Bell 47

text: Engines were Franklin or Lycoming vertically mounted piston engines of 178 to 305 HP (150 to 230 kW). Seating varied from two (early 47s and the later G-5A) to four (the J and KH-4).


title: Bell 47

text: In April 2011 there were 1068 registered with the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States and 15 in the United Kingdom.


title: Bell 47

text: Bell 47s were produced in Japan by a Bell and Kawasaki venture; this led to the Kawasaki KH-4 variant, a four-seat version of the Model 47 with a cabin similar to the Bell 47J. It differed from the "J" in having a standard uncovered tail boom and fuel tanks like the G series. It was sold throughout Asia, and some were used in Australia.


title: Bell 47

text: In February 2010, the Bell 47 type certificates were transferred to "Scott's Helicopter Services". The sister company that was formed, Scott's - Bell 47, is in the process of starting production of a turboshaft powered version of the Bell 47, the 47GT-6, using a Rolls-Royce RR300 engine and with composite rotor blades, with deliveries planned from 2016.


title: Bell 47

text: The Bell 47 entered US military service in late 1946, and operated in a variety of versions and under different designations for three decades. It was designated H-13 Sioux by the US Army, and during the Korean War, it served a variety of roles, including reconnaissance and scouting, search and rescue, and medevac.


title: Bell 47

text: The "Telecopter" was a Bell Model 47 rented by television station KTLA in Los Angeles, California. It was outfitted with a television camera and it made the worlds first flight by a television news helicopter on July 3, 1958, with its inventor, John D. Silva, aboard. When the television station reported it was receiving no video, Silva exited the helicopters cockpit to climb onto its landing skid while it hovered at 1,500 feet (457 m) so he could investigate the microwave transmitter bolted to its side, where he discovered a vacuum tube had failed due to vibration and hot weather. After Silva fixed the problem overnight, the Telecopter made the world's first successful television news flight on July 4, 1958.


title: Bell 47

text: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) had a number of Bell 47s during the Apollo program, used by astronauts as trainers for the lunar lander. Apollo 17 commander Eugene Cernan had a nearly disastrous crash into the Indian River in Florida in 1971, before his flight to the moon. The 47 has also served as the helicopter of choice for basic helicopter flight instruction in many countries.


title: Bell 47

text: Agusta A.115 1971 Italian prototype of a Bell 47J with an unclad, tubular tail boom, and powered by a Turbomeca Astazou II turboshaft engine


title: Bell 47

text: Kawasaki KH-4 Japanese production version with redesigned, lengthened cabin, and redesigned control system


title: Bell 47

text: El Tomcat Mk.II Bell 47G-2 modified extensively for agricultural spraying by Continental Copters Inc. First flew in April 1959, followed by further improved versions.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Urban fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy which places imaginary and unreal elements in an approximation of a contemporary urban setting. The combination provides the writer with quixotic plot-drivers, unusual character traits, and a platform for classic fantasy tropes, without demanding the creation of an entirely-imagined world. Although precursors of urban fantasy date back to the 19th century, the term dates back to the 1970s. The current popularity began in the 1980s, with writers encouraged by the success of Stephen King and Anne Rice.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Urban fantasy combines selected imaginary/unrealistic elements of plot, character, theme, or setting with a largely-familiar world—combining the familiar and the strange. Such elements may exist secretly in the world or may occur openly. Fantastic components may be magic, paranormal beings, recognizable mythic or folk-tale plots, or thematic tropes (a quest, battle of good/evil, &c.). Authors may use current "urban myths", borrow fictional technologies, or even invent occult practices, as well as using established supernatural characters and events from literature, film, or comics. The "urban" component is usually found in the setting - typically a large or small city - or even a suburban community in a metropolitan area. Common use of contemporary technologies (automotive vehicles, communications, etc.) and everyday community and social institutions (such as libraries, schools/universities, markets) also establishes a familiar context. The period in which the action occurs may be the fairly recent past or the near future, but will typically require merely only casual historical or other special knowledge from the reader. The city-setting is a tool; used to establish a tone, to help move the plot, and may even be acknowledged as a character itself.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Urban fantasy is most often a sub-genre of low fantasy (where magical events intrude on an otherwise-normal world) and/or hard fantasy (treating magic as something understandable and explainable), and works may be found in the sub-genres of horror, occult detective fiction, or the various "punk" genres. Common themes include coexistence or conflict between humans and other beings, and the changes such characters and events bring to local life. Many authors, publishers, and readers particularly distinguish urban fantasy from works of paranormal romance, which use similar characters and settings, but focus on the romantic relationships between characters.


title: Urban fantasy

text: The term "urban fantasy" has been in use from the early 20th century. It originally described a characteristic of some object or place. Horst Schmidt-Brummer's 1973 book about Venice, California is subtitled "An Urban Fantasy", to denote a nostalgic appreciation for the unique city. In "New York Times" advertisements in 1928 through 1930 for the St. Regis hotel, the term implies that the hotel is a sort of paradise: "Never was an urban fantasy so enchanting..."


title: Urban fantasy

text: During the late Romantic era, writers of sensational fiction (including Mary Shelley, Dickens, Hoffmann, Le Fanu, Hugo, Poe, Wilkie Collins, Stoker, &c.) wrote melodramas that explored social anxieties induced by new technologies, population shifts to industrial-centers, and immigration. Early modern fiction that re-imagined the contemporary universe is by manipulating one or more social/political realities exploded with highly-popular works by Jules Verne, and Doyle's Professor Challenger stories. Jack London's 1908 dystopian novel "The Iron Heel" preceded by a year H. G. Wells' novel "The Sleeper Awakes". Karel Čapek, Aldous Huxley, and even Sinclair Lewis (in his novel "It Can't Happen Here") all wrote along this axis, exploiting a market for adventure that was "post-apocalyptic", and "dystopian".


title: Urban fantasy

text: The 1800s also saw an explosion of popular mail-delivered periodicals across Europe and in the U.S., such as "The Saturday Evening Post" (1821), "Godey's Lady's Book" (1830), and Harper's Weekly (1857). The success of general-interest magazines led to others targeted at specific readerships: "Boys' Own Magazine" (1855), and "Argosy" (1882) among them. All of these magazines published short and serialized fiction features, as well as reportage, instructional articles, illustration, and opinion. Before WW1, fantasy vied for magazine space with westerns, romance, mysteries, military adventure, comedies, and horror. Many writers published stories in multiple genres - among them Arthur Conan Doyle, Robert E. Howard, Isaac Asimov, and Elmore Leonard. A vaunted hallmark for many of these writers was ""realism"' - even though their stories were outrageously fantastic. When Robert deGraff founded Simon & Schuster's Pocket Books in 1939, he also distributed the books not only in the 2,800 US bookstores, but also in more than a hundred thousand drugstores, news-stands, 5-&-10s, cigar stores, groceries, and diners, establishing a market - not for copies of Shakespeare or Jane Austin - but for collections and book-length versions of popular magazine fiction.


title: Urban fantasy

text: In 1899 Harper's Weekly editor John Kendrick Bangs altered fantasy parameters with "The Enchanted Type-Writer" (a series of humorous short-stories supposedly typed by the ghost of 18th century writer James Boswell) - introducing a benign revenant in a contemporary setting. Thorne Smith was successful in 1920s-30s, especially his two ""Topper"" farces about a middle-aged banker's adventures with a couple of ghosts (subsequently made into films, radio plays, and a 1950s television series). Charles G. Finney's celebrated 1935 experimental novel "The Circus of Dr. Lao" placed mythical creatures in a contemporary setting to examine the society in a small Arizona town. Occult detective stories, such as Manly Wade Wellman's John Thunstone stories - written originally during the 1940s -are credited by many current authors for bringing contemporary characters and American settings into the fantasy and horror genres. These early tales, however, differ from current urban fantasy - they present supernatural beings and acts as unnatural, aberrant, and a possible danger to ordinary citizens.


title: Urban fantasy

text: "Unknown" magazine (1939–1943) was conceived by its editor John W. Campbell as a fantasy equivalent of Campbell's successful "Astounding" science fiction magazine; its stories often took place in the present and many had a thoughtful "science-fictional" approach. Writers such as Fritz Leiber (""Smoke Ghost"", published in 1941), Jack Williamson with ""Darker Than You Think"" (originally published 1940), H. L. Gold (with his ""Trouble with Water"", published in 1939) and L. Sprague de Camp's ""Nothing in the Rules"" (1939) presented ghosts, lycanthropes, gnomes, mermaids, demons and more, in a modern setting, with horrific and/or humorous results. The prolific de Camp and his writing partner, war game inventor Fletcher Pratt, also explored urban material with their stories of Harold Shea in the 1940s and Gavagan's Bar stories in the 1950s.


title: Urban fantasy

text: The 1954 best-selling novel "The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant" details a Faustian deal with the devil in major-league professional baseball; it was made into the successful 1957 Broadway musical "Damn Yankees" (subsequently revived several times), and then into a 1958 Hollywood film. The British spy-novel writers Adelaide Manning and Cyril Coles (writing under the pseudonym Francis Gaites, though published in the United States as by Manning Coles) produced a series of humorous novels from 1954-58 placing ghostly revenants of Franco-Prussian War era into 1950s Paris and Como. Herman Cohen's teen-horror films for American International Pictures commenced in 1957 with "I Was a Teenage Werewolf", combining supernatural characters with the mundane (and popular) post WW2 teen-culture. In 1959, the fantasy/sci-fi TV anthology The Twilight Zone began, after the success of its pilot ""The Time Element"" appeared as a 1958 episode of Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse.


title: Urban fantasy

text: In 1962, Ray Bradbury published the dark novel "Something Wicked This Way Comes", which has been cited as a particular influence by writers Stephen King, R. L. Stine, and Neil Gaiman. The highly successful TV fantasy series "Bewitched" began its 8-year run in 1964, with its rival "I Dream of Jeannie" and a less-successful fantasy show "My Mother the Car" appearing a year later; "The Addams Family" based on Charles Addams New Yorker cartoons also debuted in 1964. Chester Anderson's psychedelic adventure "The Butterfly Kid" was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1968. Also in 1968, the English translation of Italo Calvino's short-story collection ""Le cosmicomiche"" made his fantastic tales built around minor scientific details available to the Anglo-American audience that was interested in urban fantasy.


title: Urban fantasy

text: After the success of Stephen King's contemporary horror-story "Carrie" in 1973, the author introduced supernatural characters (vampires) into his next book, "'Salem's Lot" (1976), which he has claimed is his own favorite. Retrospective reviews of King's work note that he "brought reality to genre novels", and have remarked that "Jerusalem's Lot is the main character here, a warm-up for what King would later do with his beloved fictional towns of Derry and Castle Rock. We're given a vivid description, details and foibles, before the town is populated with a cast of characters..."


title: Urban fantasy

text: Anne Rice published "Interview with the Vampire" (a re-working of her own late-60s short story) in 1976 to strikingly mixed critical reviews. Incorporating many genres (horror, eroticism, fantasy, romance, historical fiction), it and its sequels established a new audience for fantasy characters in a real world. Recognizing its potential Alfred A. Knopf editor Victoria Wilson recommended a very substantial advance; later, the paperback rights cost Ballantine Books $700,000.


title: Urban fantasy

text: The 1974 TV show "" was an occult detective series featuring a Chicago newspaper reporter uncovering and battling supernatural creatures (e.g. vampires and zombies) in an urban environment. He was unbelieved and unappreciated, considered by his boss, colleagues, the police and the public as something between a crackpot or an insane murderer as he struggles with both real and metaphorical demons in each episode. This series spun off from the 1972 horror movie "The Night Stalker".


title: Urban fantasy

text: Isaac Asimov's Azazel stories, most of which were written in the 1980s, take some of their urban character of his mystery stories initially published in "Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine".


title: Urban fantasy

text: In the cinema, the re-write of Dan Aykroyd's original 1982 science fiction comedy script for "Ghostbusters" by Harold Ramis replaced the futuristic setting for the present day. This effectively enabled the film to be made, and introduced to the mainstream the idea of fantastical events taking place in New York City. Two years later, "Gremlins" brought another batch of supernatural beings into our everyday world. At the same time another low-budget supernatural comedy success, "Teen Wolf" was popular enough to generate a television show, an animated cartoon, and a cinema sequel. Before its run was finished, another general-audience teen comedy with supernatural elements, "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", was in production.


title: Urban fantasy

text: The term began to come into its present use in the late 1970s but its meaning kept shifting during the 1980s and early 1990s. This development is apparent in the increased use of the term in contemporary reviews.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Terri Windling's shared Borderlands universe, made up of a number of anthologies and novels, launched with the eponymous paperback original anthology, "Borderland" in 1986, followed up by "Bordertown", also in 1986. The series was later touted by Neil Gaiman as "one of the most important places where Urban Fantasy began". An article in Tor.com has stated that "some say, Urban Fantasy was born in Bordertown," which provided "young, beginning writers like Charles de Lint and Emma Bull" with a platform. Emma Bull's unrelated 1987 urban fantasy "War for the Oaks", where fairy factions battle in present-day Minneapolis, also received interest and attention. Both Bull's novel and the Borderlands books emphasized young, poor, hip protagonists. In this, they had much in common with the usual protagonist of the cyberpunk sub-genre of science fiction.


title: Urban fantasy

text: "Sweet Silver Blues" a 1987 novel by fantasy author Glen Cook began his Garrett P.I. series. These tales chronicled adventures of a hardboiled detective in a contemporary fantasy world, and were among the earliest to use a fantastic "underworld" in place of the criminals and thugs of Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler, and their followers. Prolific author Mercedes Lackey started a series in the waning years of 1980s with "Burning Water", exploring the life of a contemporary American witch.


title: Urban fantasy

text: "Shadowrun", a tabletop RPG with a similar concept to the Borderlands universe appeared. Like those earlier books, "Shadowrun" took place in a future Earth setting (specifically 2050, in the first edition), after the reappearance of supernatural powers and beings. Players could play humans (cybernetically enhanced or otherwise), elves, dwarves or orcs, all in a dark high tech setting. The more definitely cyberpunk approach (jaundiced and gritty) of the game's universe exerted its own influence.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Anthologist and professor. Dr. Martin H. Greenberg sparked growth in urban fantasy by commissioning established authors to write stories for his many fantasy anthologies (among them "Wizards, Witches, Devils," and "Faeries". The commissioned work was juxtaposed with older fiction; it frequently used supernatural elements in contemporary urban settings.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Several publications and writers have cited authors Laurell K. Hamilton and Kim Harrison as notable contributors to the genre. "Entertainment Weekly", "USA Today", and "Time" have recognized the longevity and influence of Hamilton's stories, while "The New York Times" and "Amazon.com" have noted the work of Kim Harrison. Author Courtney Allison Moulton has cited Hamilton's early works among her inspirations. Kelly Gay has noted Hamilton, Harrison, and Emma Bull as primary influences. Jim Butcher's "The Dresden Files" series have been described by Barnes and Noble as "the gold standard" for the genre; one of the books from the series was nominated for the 2015 Hugo Award. N. K. Jemisin's "The City We Became" features major cities acquiring sentience through human avatars; it won the 2020 BFSA Best Novel Award and was nominated for the 2021 Hugo and Nebula.


title: Urban fantasy

text: While adult urban fantasy novels may stand-alone (like "Mulengro" by Charles de Lint or Emma Bull's "War for the Oaks"), the economics of the market favor series characters, and genre-crossing allows sales along multiple lines.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Many urban-fantasy novels are told via a first-person narrative, and often feature mythological beings, romance, and female protagonists who are involved in law enforcement or vigilantism. Laurell K. Hamilton's Anita Blake series—which follows the investigations of a supernatural Federal Marshal during paranormal cases—has been called a substantial and influential work of the genre. Kim Harrison's Rachel Morgan novels, also regarded as inspirational works, feature a bounty-hunting "witch-born" demon who battles numerous supernatural foes. Multi-genre offerings combine urban fantasy with other established forms (e.g.: police procedurals, as presented in the Peter Grant stories of Ben Aaronovitch, or the Charlie Madigan series, by Kelly Gay, which explores challenges a police officer faces while trying to balance her paranormal cases with life as a single mother).


title: Urban fantasy

text: In addition to books which present largely independent characters, certain stories feature men and women who are regularly partnered on adventures—often with an underlying romantic element. The Jaz Parks series, by Jennifer Rardin, follows the titular CIA operative and her vampire boss as they combat supernatural threats to national security. Jocelynn Drake's "Dark Days" novels follow a vampire named Mira and a vampire hunter named Danaus, who work together to protect their people from a mutual enemy. "Night Huntress", a series by Jeaniene Frost, centers on a half-vampire named Catherine and a vampire bounty hunter called Bones, who gradually become lovers while battling the undead.


title: Urban fantasy

text: In contrast to the "professional heroes" found in adult urban-fantasy novels, many novels aimed at young adult audiences follow inexperienced protagonists who are unexpectedly drawn into paranormal struggles. Amidst these conflicts, characters often gain allies, find romance, and, in some cases, develop or discover supernatural abilities of their own. In Kelley Armstrong's "The Darkest Powers" series, a group of teens with paranormal talents go on the run while fleeing from a persistent band of scientists. "Gone", by Michael Grant, follows an isolated town in which adults have mysteriously disappeared, leaving a society of super-powered children behind. In "Unearthly", by Cynthia Hand, a girl discovers that she is part angel and gifted with superhuman abilities, leading her to seek out her purpose on Earth.


title: Urban fantasy

text: "The Immortals" series, by Alyson Noël, follows a girl who gains special abilities after recovering from an accident, and also grows close to a mysterious new boy at her school. Love triangles also play a prominent part in these and several other urban-fantasy novels. Coming-of-age themes and teen 'voices' also often distinguish young-adult urban fantasy from adult books in the genre. Bruce Coville and Jane Yolen collaborated on Armageddon Summer which places a standard teen romance in the middle of an imagined apocalyptic cult.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Boarding schools are a common setting in teen urban fantasy. "Rampant", by Diana Peterfreund, follows a group of young women at a cloisters as they train to fight killer unicorns. The "House of Night" series, by P. C. and Kristin Cast, presents a school where future vampires are disciplined while on the path to transformation, during which several romantic conflicts and other clashes ensue. Claudia Gray's "Evernight" novels center on a mysterious academy, where a romantic bond develops between a girl born to vampires, and a boy who hunts them. "Fallen", by Lauren Kate, revolves around a student named Luce who finds herself drawn to a boy named Daniel, unaware that he is a fallen angel who shares a history with her. Other series, such as Carrie Jones's "Need", have characters moving to new locations but attending public schools while discovering mysterious occurrences elsewhere in their towns.


title: Urban fantasy

text: A helping of the fantastic is often an element in childrens literature, but the two major strands of urban fantasy are well-represented in particular.


title: Urban fantasy

text: The "hidden-world" focuses on stories and characters taking place in a fully-realized domain which operates secretly but simultaneously to the world with which we are familiar. An outstanding example are the "Harry Potter" books of J. K. Rowling - where our own ("muggle") world is unaware of an entire universe of wizards and magical creatures; and intersections of these domains provide plot material and character dimensionality for the action taking place primarily in the magic universe - and so being a type of "high-fantasy"


title: Urban fantasy

text: On the other hand "magical charm" stories operate mostly in the mundane universe, but where a spell or token provides plot-interest. The protagonist of Robert Lawson's 1945 "Mr. Wilmer" works as a clerk for a big New York City company - but suddenly one morning he can speak with and understand animals. In the magical stories of Edward Eager, groups of children are granted wishes or transported through time by invoking spells. This makes the stories a variety of "low-fantasy"


title: Urban fantasy

text: Possibly the best-known urban fantasy series for children are P. L. Travers' low-fantasy Mary Poppins stories, set in London between the World Wars. As well as eight books, there have been several film and stage adaptations. The high-fantasy Harry Potter phenomenon may soon be in position to overtake Poppins.


title: Urban fantasy

text: In an online commentary, author Jeannie Holmes described differences between urban fantasy and paranormal romance:


title: Urban fantasy

text: Use of other forms of media has become a common part of the creation and promotion of urban-fantasy works.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Several urban-fantasy authors cite music as an inspiration. Certain writers recommend songs or playlists on their official websites, including Courtney Allison Moulton, Jaye Wells, and Sarah J. Maas, who couple their recommendations with links to music-providing services. Publishers have also used music for book trailers, including the trailer for Carrie Jones's "Captivate", which features the work of songwriter Derek Daisey.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Original music is also produced. In 2010, musicians Alexandra Monir, Michael Bearden, and Heather Holley (a songwriter for Christina Aguilera's "Stripped") collaborated to create songs for Monir's debut novel, "Timeless".


title: Urban fantasy

text: Book trailers are often used to promote urban-fantasy novels. Publishers such as HarperCollins also produce regular video interviews with debuting authors.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Adaptations of urban-fantasy novels have appeared in comic books and manga. Among the tales to be adapted are Laurell K. Hamilton's Anita Blake series, Patricia Briggs's Mercy Thompson stories, and Melissa Marr's "Wicked Lovely".


title: Urban fantasy

text: Works of urban fantasy have been adapted to or have originated in film and television. Well-known examples include the 1992 series "" and the TV adaptation of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", which is regarded as a seminal work of the genre.


title: Urban fantasy

text: Certain staples of urban-fantasy novels are also present in television shows. The concept of peaceful coexistence with paranormal beings is explored in the 1996 series "", which focuses on secret vampire clans in San Francisco. Works such as "Witchblade" present the more common matter of a protagonist attempting to protect citizens.


title: Urban fantasy

text: While urban-fantasy novels are often centered on heroines, television programs have regularly featured both genders in leading roles. Shows such as "Beauty and the Beast", "The Dresden Files", "Forever Knight", "Grimm", "Moonlight", and "Supernatural" are based around male protagonists, while other programs, including "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Charmed", and "Witchblade", focus largely on female protagonists.


title: Urban fantasy

text: The following is an incomplete list of notable authors of urban fantasy. According to 2013 statistics by the fantasy publisher Tor Books, among writers of urban fantasy or paranormal romance, 57% are women and 43% are men, whereas men outnumber women by about two to one in writing historical, epic, or high fantasy.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: James Fullington (born June 16, 1963), better known by his ring name The Sandman, is a semi-retired American professional wrestler, best known for his career with Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), where he developed into a smoking and drinking "Hardcore Icon" and held the ECW World Heavyweight Championship a record five times. He also had stints in World Championship Wrestling, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, and World Wrestling Entertainment.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: Fullington got his start in professional wrestling in the Philadelphia-based Tri-State Wrestling Alliance under the ring name Mr. Sandman, managed by his then real-life wife Peaches. He also performed in Memphis in 1991–1992.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: In April 1992 he arrived in Eastern Championship Wrestling (later renamed Extreme Championship Wrestling) as a crowd favorite. He won his first ECW Championship from Don Muraco on November 16, 1992, but lost it back to Muraco on April 3, 1993. At the end of 1992, he changed his name from Mr. Sandman to The Sandman. For the rest of 1993, Sandman teamed on and off with JT Smith and was featured regularly.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: In 1994, Sandman changed his gimmick after ECW owner Tod Gordon suggested that he channel his own personality into his character, creating an edgier gimmick. In February 1994, he began a feud with his former tag team partner Tommy Cairo, after The Sandman was temporarily blinded following a match and inadvertently struck Peaches. When The Sandman regained his sight and saw Cairo assisting Peaches to her feet, he attacked Cairo. The Sandman subsequently became estranged from his wife (claiming "life's a bitch, and then you marry one"). After losing a match against Cairo, that led to Peaches hitting him with a strap profusely, Woman attacked Peaches and led her back to the ring where Sandman held her and Woman applied the strap to her skin before Cairo returned to save her. After this event Sandman adopted Woman as his new manager. In keeping with The Sandman's character, Woman opened his beers and lit his cigarettes prior to matches. She began carrying a Singapore cane with which she struck The Sandman's opponents.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: After Cairo insinuated that he was sleeping with Peaches, The Sandman stated that Cairo owed him "$25 a romp" and began demanding that Cairo "pay your bills". Following the highly publicized caning of Michael P. Fay in Singapore on May 5, 1994, Sandman adopted another defining attribute of his new gimmick as he began wielding a kendo stick, referred to as a Singapore cane, taking delight in caning other wrestlers such as rookie Tommy Dreamer or his "estranged" wife. Sandman and Woman faced Cairo and Lori in a mixed Singapore Caning match on May 14, 1994, at When Worlds Collide. After Cairo and Lori defeated their opponents, Lori caned Sandman's crotch until Woman threw salt in her eyes, enabling Sandman to regroup and use his cane on both Lori and Cairo.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: During a match against Tommy Dreamer, Sandman's valet: Woman attempted to attack Dreamer on his behalf when Dreamer planted a long kiss on her. After the match Sandman was told by Woman that Dreamer was with Cairo and that they were both sleeping with his wife, which enraged Sandman. Woman wanted to make Dreamer suffer and so she lured Dreamer into a match with Sandman wherein whoever lost would have to receive ten strikes from the other with a Singapore cane. After losing the match Tommy began to take the strokes, when it became clear that Woman's intention was to humiliate him by making him beg her for mercy, which he did not, much to her chagrin, and Dreamer was idolized by the fans for his resolve and the level of disdain for the Sandman was increased. This was a defining moment for both men and for ECW in years to come.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: In late-1994, The Sandman was once again (kayfabe) blinded after a lit cigarette was pushed into his eye during an "I Quit" match with Tommy Dreamer. Woman blamed Sandman for the injury and abandoned him. The Sandman subsequently claimed that he would have to retire as a result, with Dreamer responding by dedicating the remainder of his career to The Sandman. Cairo began mocking The Sandman, which led to Dreamer heavily beating him during a match at November to Remember. At Sandman's retirement ceremony during the same event, an attempted reconciliation with Lori was interrupted by Woman, who caned Lori and threatened Sandman. As Dreamer came to the rescue, Sandman revealed that he was not in fact blinded and attacked Dreamer. The Sandman later revealed that his blinding had been an elaborate ruse concocted to trick Dreamer into hurting Cairo on his behalf. Sandman had to wrestle Dreamer again the following month at Holiday Hell when he and now reconciled partner Tommy Cairo, teamed up against Cactus Jack and Dreamer, but were defeated by the duo.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: Sandman challenged Shane Douglas for the ECW Championship in April 1995 at Three Way Dance, but was attacked by his own valet, Woman, who helped Shane Douglas retain the title. In a rematch at Hostile City Showdown on April 15, 1995, Sandman faced Douglas (who had Woman in his corner) in a rematch. During the course of the match, Woman turned on the now overconfident Douglas, helping Sandman become the ECW World Heavyweight Champion. It was revealed that the entire sequence of events was a double-cross planned all along by Woman to aid Sandman while psychologically destroying Douglas in the process. Douglas attempted to regain the championship in the following months, but left for the World Wrestling Federation before he was able. Sandman's first title defenses after winning the ECW Championship were against Cactus Jack, with the latter never getting the upper hand due to interference by Woman, rival Terry Funk, 'stickler' referee Bill Alfonso, and Douglas, who was bitter over losing his title.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: Sandman's feud with Cactus Jack lasted throughout 1995 and culminated in a series of matches involving barbed wire. In a Texas Death match in February 1995, Sandman was hit with a heavy metal frying pan, giving Fullington a legitimate concussion. Throughout the remainder of the match, Fullington was visibly disoriented and forgot the scripted ending of the match; several times Cactus Jack hit Sandman with his signature double underhook DDT and again and again Sandman instinctively kicked out. This went on for about a minute before Cactus Jack delivered a legit maneuver, hoping it would keep Sandman down. The referee also had to resort to making the ten-count (as per the match's rules) at nearly double his original speed.


title: The Sandman (wrestler)

text: On October 25, Sandman lost the title to Mikey Whipwreck in a ladder match. Three days later, Sandman teamed up with then Television Champion 2 Cold Scorpio to win the ECW Tag Team Championship from The Public Enemy. On December 9 at December to Dismember, Sandman regained his World Heavyweight title by defeating Whipwreck and Steve Austin in a Three-Way Dance. At the end of the month, 2 Cold Scorpio lost both the Television and Tag Team Championships to Whipwreck in a singles match on December 29, while Sandman became embroiled in his feud with Raven.