title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: The extraordinary meeting of the World Motorsports Council took place on 21 September 2009 in Paris. After a ninety-minute hearing, the council imposed a disqualification on Renault, suspended for two years. This meant that if a similar incident occurred before 2011, Renault would be banned from Formula One. Briatore was banned indefinitely from any FIA-sanctioned event, while Symonds received a five-year ban. Furthermore, Briatore was indefinitely banned from managing drivers when the FIA stated that superlicences would not be issued or renewed to any driver associated with him in the future. Alonso was cleared of wrongdoing; the FIA found no evidence that he or his mechanics knew anything about the scheme.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: The council came down hard on Briatore because he denied his involvement despite overwhelming evidence. Symonds, in contrast, had confessed, expressing his "eternal regret and shame" for his role in the scheme. In announcing the sanctions, the council stated that Renault's actions were serious enough to merit being thrown out of Formula One altogether. However, it opted to impose a suspended sentence because Renault took swift action in forcing Briatore and Symonds to resign. "The Daily Mirror" described the "de facto" lifetime ban on Briatore as the harshest sanction ever imposed on an individual in the history of motorsport.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: A major contribution to the punishment of Briatore and Symonds was the testimony of an unnamed "Witness X", a Renault employee who was also present at the pre-race meeting but rejected the idea.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: After Renault F1 were formally charged, the alleged offence was thought to be unprecedented within Formula One. The scandal followed two recent Formula One cheating scandals: a case of industrial espionage between teams (including Renault F1); and an instance of the 2008 World Champion Lewis Hamilton being found to have lied to race stewards in March 2009.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: The scandal interrupted the team's parent company Renault S.A.'s launch of four electric vehicles at the Frankfurt Motor Show after journalists questioned Renault chief executive Carlos Ghosn over the affair, who directed all inquiries to Bernard Rey, chairman of Renault F1. On 17 September, Patrick Pelata, Renault S.A.'s chief operating officer, first representative from Renault to officially comment on the Singapore crash affair, stated that "The [Renault F1] team believes that a mistake has been made, and punishment must follow. Flavio Briatore considered himself to be morally responsible and resigned" and that the team would defer making a decision on the future options for the team. Pelata added that he did not wish the actions of Briatore and Symonds to "reflect upon the whole company and the entire Formula 1 team". In addition, Ghosn also called for calm and for Renault to "not react in the heat of the moment" while the Renault F1 team collaborated with the authorities, adding that "I am confident when the facts are established, we can take a very clear decision".


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Former Jordan Grand Prix F1 team principal Eddie Jordan believed that the departure of Briatore and Symonds from Renault on 16 September was an effective admission of guilt. Former three-time Formula One World Champion and former team owner Sir Jackie Stewart said of the Singapore scandal that "There is something fundamentally rotten and wrong at the heart of Formula One. Never in my experience has Formula One been in such a mood of self-destruction. Millions of fans are amazed, if not disgusted, at a sport which now goes from crisis to crisis with everyone blaming everyone else." Former three-time Formula One World Champion and former Jaguar Racing team manager Niki Lauda, while comparing the Singapore incident to the 2007 espionage scandal, declared that "This [the Singapore crash incident], though, is new. The biggest damage ever. Now the FIA must punish Renault heavily to restore credibility in the sport." Former 1996 F1 World Champion Damon Hill described the Singapore crash as "not a very good episode" for the sport and said of the future of F1 that "I'm concerned the sport is going to suffer as a genuine challenge, which is what I always felt it should be and would like it to be, of skill and competitiveness". Former racing driver Eddie Irvine, who retired from Formula One at the end of 2002, believed that the response to the Singapore incident had been an overreaction, stating that "This [Singapore incident] is probably slightly on the wrong side of the cheating thing but in days past every team have done whatever they could to win – cheat, bend the rules, break the rules, sabotage opponents", "[t]his is just the FIA going on a crusade". He also speculated that the FIA would be lenient on Renault F1 and not expel them, due to the sport's current "shaky" condition after recent team departures.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Chief Sportswriter Simon Barnes of British newspaper "The Times" sparked debate over the incident when he labelled it "the worst single piece of cheating in the history of sport" primarily because of its "potentially lethal consequences" to Piquet, the other drivers, marshals and spectators. Supporting Barnes, "The Times"' motor racing correspondent Edward Gorman cited the alleged top level pre-conceived elements of conspiracy that sought to sacrifice one team member to benefit another to put the incident on a par with controversies such as Ben Johnson, horse doping and illegal keels used in the America's Cup. Gorman then postulated that this incident was worse than those because Briatore and Symonds set in motion "an event of violent destruction, the consequences of which they could neither predict nor control." Matthew Syed countered that while the incident was premeditated, "unspeakably unethical" and dangerous, it was not nearly as reckless as the East German athletics doping scandal and other instances of long-term doping. Syed also argued that the Renault team would not have been expecting injuries to result from the crash, in contrast to incidents such as the assault on ice skater Nancy Kerrigan.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Responding to Flavio Briatore's resignation from Renault F1, Formula One Management's Bernie Ecclestone stated that "It is a pity that Flavio has ended his Formula One career in this way", "You can't defend him at all. What he did was completely unnecessary. It's a pity that it's happened", although Ecclestone denied that the scandal would 'finish' the sport, citing the sport's recovery from the death of Ayrton Senna and the (first) retirement of seven-time World Champion Michael Schumacher.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: In response to the scandal Renault's main sponsors ING and Mutua Madrileña ended their sponsorship agreements with Renault early, within a week after the FIA's decision and right before the next race, the 2009 Singapore Grand Prix, with the team removing their logos from the cars before the event.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Major sponsor Mutua Madrileña withdrew its sponsorship of the Renault F1 team first, just before the 2009 Singapore Grand Prix weekend, believing that the situation "could affect the image, reputation and good name of the team's sponsors." Mutua Madrileña did not withdraw sponsorship of Renault driver Fernando Alonso, as he was not implicated in the scandal. This was followed hours later by the withdrawal of title sponsor ING Group with immediate effect, who had been previously due to end their sponsorship of the team at the end of 2009.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: On 19 October 2009, Flavio Briatore announced his intentions to sue the FIA for his lifetime ban, claiming that "the FIA [had] been used as a tool of vengeance on behalf of one man" and that there were several miscarriages of justice, including a delay in summons, a failure to state the charges in advance and a lack of access to documents and "Witness X". On 5 January 2010, the French Tribunal de Grande Instance overturned his ban, and awarded him €15,000 in compensation. Symonds' ban was also overturned, and he was awarded €5,000 in compensation. Briatore was believed to be suing the FIA for damages in addition to getting his ban overturned, and has also stated his intention to pursue legal action against the Piquet family.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: On 11 January 2010, the FIA announced that they would appeal the decision of the Tribunal de Grande Instance to overturn the bans imposed on Flavio Briatore and Pat Symonds. The FIA reinstated the bans while the appeal was active, but stated that drivers managed by Briatore would be granted their superlicences for 2010. On 12 April, the FIA announced a settlement with Briatore and Symonds, and that the legal action had been ended. Both men agreed not to work in Formula One until 2013, nor any other FIA-sanctioned championship until the end of 2011.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: On 7 December 2010 it was announced that Piquet and his father had won a libel case against Renault at the High Court based on the allegations described above. Renault apologised to the Piquets and paid them substantial damages. Admitting they libelled the duo, a Renault statement read: "The team accepts, as it did before the World Motor Sport Council, that the allegations made by Nelson Piquet Junior were not false. As a result, these serious allegations contained in our press release were wholly untrue and unfounded, and we withdraw them unequivocally. We would like to apologise unreservedly to Mr Piquet Junior and his father for the distress and embarrassment caused as a result. As a mark of the sincerity of our apology and regret, we have agreed to pay them a substantial amount of damages for libel as well as their costs, and have undertaken not to repeat these allegations at any time in the future. It also accepts that Mr Piquet Junior and his father did not invent these allegations to blackmail the team into allowing him to drive for them for the remainder of the 2009 season."


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: It was suggested in the media that if Briatore were personally found guilty of race-fixing, he might fail the English Football League's fit-and-proper-person test which applies to football club owners and directors, whose regulations exclude people who are "subject to a ban from a sports governing body relating to the administration of their sport", though a BBC report opined that his position might be secure given that he had left Renault. The Football League stated that they would wait for the conclusion of the investigation before examining Briatore's fitness to continue to be a director of Queens Park Rangers F.C. The Football League board discussed the matter on 8 October 2009 and declared that they would be awaiting a response from Briatore to various questions before commenting further. Briatore stepped down from the club in February 2010 as a result.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: In addition to any sporting sanctions by the FIA, Renault, Piquet Jr. or even Felipe Massa could take legal action over the incident. It was speculated by the media that Briatore and Symonds could be extradited to Singapore to face criminal charges relating to the incident, which according to one lawyer could encompass "causing malicious or willful damage to property, endangering a vehicle and criminal conspiracy to commit a serious crime". This was thought to be unlikely however, with the Singaporean authorities believed to be unwilling to attract the negative publicity charges it would create, and also complicated by the fact that Singapore has an extradition treaty with the United Kingdom (Symonds being a British citizen) but not Italy as Briatore is an Italian citizen.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Piquet Jr. was criticized by many in the community and some suggest that the controversy effectively ended his hopes of continuing in F1. Martin Brundle, at the time the BBC's F1 commentator, suggested that Piquet Jr. was now unemployable in Formula One, saying that no team or sponsor would want to be associated with the Piquet family. Brundle noted that Piquet Jr. "didn't deliver at Renault, he wasn't fast enough, that's why he was released and that's why he has dropped hand grenades into the system ever since". Brundle was also highly critical that Piquet Jr. escaped sanction from the FIA despite admitting to race-fixing, while the others involved were heavily punished. Other leading F1 figures have echoed Brundle's sentiments. Toyota team principal John Howett was quoted as saying, "I think on his performance...disregarding the issue, I probably would not give him a drive and I would probably be further influenced in that decision by what took place." Christian Horner, team principal of Red Bull Racing, has added, "I don't think we would have any interest [in Piquet Jr.] at Red Bull Racing."


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Following the scandal Piquet Jr. would join America's NASCAR circuit, competing full time in the Camping World Truck Series from 2011 to 2012 and the Nationwide Series in 2013. Piquet also competed full-time in Global Rallycross for SH racing from 2014 to 2015. In 2014–2015, Piquet Jr. took part in the inaugural Formula E season with China Racing, eventually becoming Formula E's inaugural champion by a single point over Sébastien Buemi. He would continue to compete full time in Formula E until he left midway through the 2018–19 season. As of 2020 Piquet competes full time in the Stock Car Brasil Championship for TMG Racing.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: Despite the scandal, Alonso's career is said to have been untarnished by it, despite being the main person who benefited from the crash. Following the accident he raced with Ferrari (2010-2014) and McLaren (2015-2018), then out of Formula One for two seasons before returning to Formula One to race for Alpine in 2021. In 2014, Massa claimed that Alonso knew about the planned crash, despite being cleared by the FIA from such knowledge.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: From 2011 to 2013, Symonds returned to F1 as a technical consultant for Virgin Racing (which later became Marussia in 2012). In 2013, he left the team to serve as chief technical officer of Williams from 2013 to 2016. In March 2017 Symonds was hired as Formula One's Chief Technical officer, a position he now currently holds.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: In 2022, Flavio Briatore returned to Formula One as an ambassador for the sport after more than a decade following Crashgate.


title: Renault Formula One crash controversy

text: In a 2018 retrospective article the BBC argued that nothing changed in Formula One as a result of the scandal and nobody in the sport wants to talk about it. In 2021 Motorsport.com listed the incident as one of biggest incidents of cheating in F1's history.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation is a state of complete or near-complete lack of contact between an individual and society. It differs from loneliness, which reflects temporary and involuntary lack of contact with other humans in the world. Social isolation can be an issue for individuals of any age, though symptoms may differ by age group.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation has similar characteristics in both temporary instances and for those with a historical lifelong isolation cycle. All types of social isolation can include staying home for lengthy periods of time, having no communication with family, acquaintances or friends, and/or willfully avoiding any contact with other humans when those opportunities do arise.


title: Social isolation

text: True social isolation over years and decades can be a chronic condition affecting all aspects of a person's existence. Social isolation can lead to feelings of loneliness, fear of others, or negative self-esteem. Lack of consistent human contact can also cause conflict with the (peripheral) friends. The socially isolated person may occasionally talk to or cause problems with family members.


title: Social isolation

text: In the case of mood-related isolation, the individual may isolate during a depressive episode only to 'surface' when their mood improves. The individual may attempt to justify their reclusive or isolating behavior as enjoyable or comfortable. There can be an inner realization on the part of the individual that there is something wrong with their isolating responses which can lead to heightened anxiety. Relationships can be a struggle, as the individual may reconnect with others during a healthier mood only to return to an isolated state during a subsequent low or depressed mood.


title: Social isolation

text: Research indicates that perceived social isolation (PSI) is a risk factor for and may contribute to “poorer overall cognitive performance and poorer executive functioning, faster cognitive decline, more negative and depressive cognition, heightened sensitivity to social threats, and a self-protective confirmatory bias in social cognition.” PSI also contributes to accelerating the ageing process: Wilson et al. (2007) reported that, after controlling for social network size and frequency of social activity, perceived social isolation is predictive of cognitive decline and risk for Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, the social interactions of individuals who feel socially isolated are more negative and less subjectively satisfying. This contributes to a vicious cycle in which the person becomes more and more isolated.


title: Social isolation

text: In the first resting state fMRI functional connectivity (FC) study on PSI, PSI was found to be associated with increased resting-state FC between several nodes of the cingulo-opercular network, a neural network associated with tonic alertness. PSI was also associated with reduced resting-state FC between the cingulo-opercular network and the right superior frontal gyrus, suggesting diminished executive control.


title: Social isolation

text: Cacioppo and colleagues (2009) found that lonely individuals express weaker activation of the ventral striatum in response to pleasant pictures of people than of objects, suggesting decreased reward to social stimuli. Lonely individuals also expressed greater activation of the visual cortex in response to unpleasant depictions of people (i.e., negative facial expressions) than of objects; non-lonely individuals show greater activation of the right and left temporoparietal junction (TPJ), a region implicated in theory of mind. The authors interpreted the findings to represent that lonely individuals pay greater attention to negative social stimuli, but non-lonely individuals, to a greater degree than lonely individuals, insert themselves into the perspective of others.


title: Social isolation

text: Moreover, Kanai et al. (2012) reported that loneliness negatively correlated with gray matter density in the left posterior temporal sulcus, an area involved in biological motion perception, mentalizing, and social perception.


title: Social isolation

text: Overall, several neuroimaging studies in humans on perceived social isolation have emphasized implications of the visual cortex and right-hemispheric stress-related circuits underlying difference between lonely and non-lonely individuals. A recent population-genetics study marked a 50x increase in the neuroimaging research on perceived social isolation. The investigators tested for signatures of loneliness in grey matter morphology, intrinsic functional coupling, and fiber tract microstructure. The loneliness-linked neurobiological profiles converged on a collection of brain regions known as the default mode network. This higher associative network shows more consistent loneliness associations in grey matter volume than other cortical brain networks. Lonely individuals display stronger functional communication in the default network, and greater microstructural integrity of its fornix pathway. The findings fit with the possibility that the up-regulation of these neural circuits supports mentalizing, reminiscence and imagination to fill the social void.


title: Social isolation

text: Experimental manipulations of social isolation in rats and mice (e.g., isolated rearing) are a common means of elucidating the effects of isolation on social animals in general. Researchers have proposed isolated rearing of rats as an etiologically valid model of human mental illness. Indeed, chronic social isolation in rats has been found to lead to depression-, anxiety-, and psychosis-like behaviors as well signs of autonomic, neuroendocrine, and metabolic dysregulation. For example, a systematic review found that social isolation in rats is associated with increased expression of BDNF in the hippocampus, which is associated with increased anxiety-like symptoms. In another example, a study found that social isolation in rats is associated with increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the prefrontal cortex. This results in the dysregulation of neural activity which is associated with anxiety, depression, and social dysfunction.


title: Social isolation

text: The effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species has been shown to resemble the effects of perceived isolation in humans, and include: increased tonic sympathetic tone and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activation and decreased inflammatory control, immunity, sleep salubrity, and expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses. However, the biological, neurological, and genetic mechanisms underlying these symptoms are poorly understood.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation contributes to abnormal hippocampal development via specific alterations to microtubule stability and decreased MAP-2 expression. Social isolation contributes to decreased expression of the synaptic protein synaptophysin and decreased dendritic length and dendritic spine density of pyramidal cells. The underlying molecular mechanism of these structural neuronal alterations are microtubule stabilizations, which impair the remodeling and extension of axons and dendrites.


title: Social isolation

text: Research by Cole and colleagues showed that perceived social isolation is associated with gene expression – specifically, the under-expression of genes bearing anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid response elements and over-expression of genes bearing response elements for pro-inflammatory NF-κB/Rel transcription factors. This finding is paralleled by decreased lymphocyte sensitivity to physiological regulation by the HPA axis in lonely individuals. This, together with evidence of increased activity of the HPA axis, suggests the development of glucocorticoid resistance in chronically lonely individuals.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation can be a precipitating factor for suicidal behavior. A large body of literature suggests that individuals who experience isolation in their lives are more vulnerable to suicide than those who have strong social ties with others. A study found social isolation to be among the most common risk factors identified by Australian men who attempt suicide. Professor Ian Hickie of the University of Sydney said that social isolation was perhaps the most important factor contributing to male suicide attempts. Hickie said there was a wealth of evidence that men had more restricted social networks than women, and that these networks were heavily work-based.


title: Social isolation

text: A lack of social relationships negatively impacts the development of the brain's structure. In extreme cases of social isolation, studies of young mice and monkeys have shown how the brain is strongly affected by a lack of social behaviour and relationships.


title: Social isolation

text: In a hypothesis proposed by Cacioppo and colleagues, the isolation of a member of a social species has detrimental biological effects. In a 2009 review, Cacioppo and Hawkley noted that the health, life, and genetic legacy of members of social species are threatened when they find themselves on the social perimeter. For instance, social isolation decreases lifespan in the fruit fly; promotes obesity and type 2 diabetes in mice; exacerbates infarct size and oedema and decreases post-stroke survival rate following experimentally induced stroke in mice; promotes activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary response to an acute immobilisation or cold stressor in rats; delays the effects of exercise on adult neurogenesis in rats; decreases open field activity, increases basal cortisol concentrations, and decreases lymphocyte proliferation to mitogens in pigs; increases the 24-hour urinary catecholamine levels and evidence of oxidative stress in the aortic arch of rabbits; and decreases the expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid response in the frontal cortex.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation in the common starling, a highly social, flocking species of bird, has also been shown to stress the isolated birds.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation is both a potential cause and a symptom of emotional or psychological challenges. As a cause, the perceived inability to interact with the world and others can create an escalating pattern of these challenges. As a symptom, periods of isolation can be chronic or episodic, depending upon any cyclical changes in mood, especially in the case of clinical depression.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation can begin early in life. During this time of development, a person may become more preoccupied with feelings and thoughts of their individuality that are not easy to share with other individuals. This can result from feelings of shame, guilt, or alienation during childhood experiences. Social isolation can also coincide with developmental disabilities. Individuals with learning impairments may have trouble with social interaction. The difficulties experienced academically can greatly impact the individual's esteem and sense of self-worth. An example would be the need to repeat a year of school. During the early childhood developmental years, the need to fit in and be accepted is paramount. Having a learning deficit can in turn lead to feelings of isolation, that they are somehow 'different' from others.


title: Social isolation

text: Whether new technologies such as the Internet and mobile phones exacerbate social isolation (of any origin) is a debated topic among sociologists, with studies showing both positive correlation of social connections with use of social media as well as mood disorders coinciding with problematic use.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation impacts approximately 24% of older adults in the United States, approximately 9 million people. The elderly have a unique set of isolating dynamics that often perpetuate one another and can drive the individual into deeper isolation. Increasing frailty, possible declines in overall health, absent or uninvolved relatives or children, economic struggles can all add to the feeling of isolation. Among the elderly, childlessness can be a cause for social isolation. Whether their child is deceased or they did not have children at all, the loneliness that comes from not having a child can cause social isolation. Retirement, the abrupt end of daily work relationships, the death of close friends or spouses can also contribute to social isolation.


title: Social isolation

text: In the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom, a significant sector of the elderly who are in their 80s and 90s are brought to nursing homes if they show severe signs of social isolation. Other societies such as many in Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, East Asia, and also the Caribbean and South America, do not normally share the tendency towards admission to nursing homes, preferring instead to have children and extended-family of elderly parents take care of those elderly parents until their deaths. On the other hand, a report from Statistics Norway in 2016 stated that more than 30 percent of seniors over the age of 66 have two or fewer people to rely on should personal problems arise. Even still, nearly half of all members of senior communities are at high risk for social isolation, this is especially prevalent with seniors of a lower education and within the lower economic class and compounded with diminished availability of socializing options to these lower class individuals. There has also been an observed increase in physical gait among members of these communities.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation among older adults has been linked to an increase in disease morbidity, a higher risk of dementia, and a decrease in physical mobility along with an increase in general health concerns. Evidence of increased cognitive decline has been link to an increase in social isolation in depressed elderly women.


title: Social isolation

text: The use of video communication/video calls has been suggested as a potential intervention to improve social isolation in seniors. However, its effectiveness is not known.


title: Social isolation

text: Social isolation and loneliness in older adults is associated with an increased risk for poor mental and physical health and increased mortality. There is an increased risk for early mortality in individuals experiencing social isolation compared to those who are not socially isolated. Studies have found social isolation is associated with increased risk in physical health conditions including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, elevated stress hormones, and weakened immune systems. Research also suggests that social isolation and mortality in the elderly share a common link to chronic inflammation with some differences between men and women. Social isolation has also been found to be associated with poor mental health including increased risk for depression, cognitive decline, anxiety, and substance use. Social isolation in elderly individuals is also associated with an increased risk for dementia.


title: Social isolation

text: Middle school is a time when youth tend to be sensitive to social challenges and their self-esteem can be fragile. During this vulnerable time in development, supporting students' sense of belonging at school is of critical importance. Existing research finds that adolescents' development of a sense of belonging is an important factor in adolescence for creating social and emotional well-being and academic success. Studies have found that friendship-related loneliness is more explanatory for depressive symptoms among adolescents than parent-related loneliness. One possible explanation is that friends are the preferred source of social support during adolescence.


title: Social isolation

text: Scientists have long known that loneliness in adults can predispose depressive symptoms later in life. Lately, scientists have also seen that lonely children are more susceptible to depressive symptoms in youth. In one study, researchers conclude that prevention of loneliness in childhood may be a protective factor against depression in adulthood. Socially isolated children tend to have lower subsequent educational attainment, be part of a less advantaged social class in adulthood, and are more likely to be psychologically distressed in adulthood. By receiving social assistance, studies show that children can cope more easily with high levels of stress. It is also shown that social support is strongly associated with feelings of mastery and the ability to deal with stressful situations, as well as strongly associated with increased quality of life.


title: Maya Kazan

text: Maya Kazan (; born November 24, 1986) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Eleanor Gallinger on the television series" The Knick" (2014–2015).


title: Maya Kazan

text: Kazan is the daughter of screenwriters Nicholas Kazan and Robin Swicord, and the granddaughter of film director Elia Kazan and playwright Molly Kazan. Her sister is actress Zoe Kazan.


title: Maya Kazan

text: In 2012, Kazan starred as Lucrece in Pierre Corneille's "The Liar", written by David Ives at the Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey.


title: Maya Kazan

text: In 2013, she played the role of Laura in Michael Rabe's play "The Future Is Not What It Was" at the Walkerspace theater in New York.


title: Maya Kazan

text: In 2014, she took on the role of the adult Perdita in William Shakespeare's "The Winter's Tale" at the Old Globe Theater. In a February 2014 "Los Angeles Times" review, critic Charles McNulty wrote: "Kazan doesn't yet possess a strong stage voice, but she has everything else that's needed to make us fall in love with Perdita — natural radiance, unassuming intelligence and gentleness."


title: Maya Kazan

text: In 2014, Kazan landed a recurring role as Eleanor Gallinger in Steven Soderbergh's "The Knick" on Cinemax alongside co-stars Clive Owen, Eve Hewson and Grainger Hines. That same year, she landed another recurring role on HBO's "Boardwalk Empire" playing Mabel Thompson, the wife of a young Nucky Thompson, in a string of flashbacks throughout the series' fifth and final season.


title: Horned lizard

text: Horned lizards ("Phrynosoma"), also known as horny toads or horntoads, are a genus of North American lizards and the type genus of the family Phrynosomatidae. The common names refer directly to their horns or to their flattened, rounded bodies, and blunt snouts.


title: Horned lizard

text: The generic name "Phrynosoma" means "toad-bodied". In common with true toads (amphibians of the family Bufonidae), horned lizards tend to move sluggishly, often remain motionless, and rely on their remarkable camouflage to avoid detection by predators. They are adapted to arid or semiarid areas. The spines on the lizard's back and sides are modified reptile scales, which prevent water loss through the skin, whereas the horns on the head are true horns (i.e., they have a bony core). Of the 21 species of horned lizards, 15 are native to the USA. The largest-bodied and most widely distributed of the American species is the Texas horned lizard.


title: Horned lizard

text: Horned lizards use a variety of means to avoid predation. Their coloration generally serves as camouflage. When threatened, their first defense is to remain still to avoid detection. If approached too closely, they generally run in short bursts and stop abruptly to confuse the predator's visual acuity. If this fails, they puff up their bodies to cause them to appear more horned and larger, so that they are more difficult to swallow.


title: Horned lizard

text: At least eight species ("P. asio", "P. cornutum", "P. coronatum", "P. ditmarsi", "P. hernandesi", "P. orbiculare", "P. solare", and "P. taurus") are also able to squirt an aimed stream of blood from the corners of the eyes for a distance up to . They do this by restricting the blood flow leaving the head, thereby increasing blood pressure and rupturing tiny vessels around the eyelids. The blood not only confuses predators, but also tastes foul to canine and feline predators. It appears to have no effect against predatory birds. Only three closely related species ("P. mcallii", "P. modestum", and "P. platyrhinos") are certainly known to be unable to squirt blood.


title: Horned lizard

text: While previous thought held that compounds were added to the blood from glands in the ocular sinus cavity, current research has shown that the chemical compounds that make up the defense are already in the circulating blood. It is possible that their diet of large quantities of venomous harvester ants could be a factor; however, the origin and structure of the chemicals responsible are still unknown. The blood-squirting mechanism increases survival after contact with canine predators; the trait may provide an evolutionary advantage. Ocular autohemorrhaging has also been documented in other lizards, which suggests blood-squirting could have evolved from a less extreme defense in the ancestral branch of the genus. Recent phylogenic research supports this claim, so the species incapable of squirting blood apparently have lost the adaptation for reasons yet unstudied.


title: Horned lizard

text: To avoid being picked up by the head or neck, a horned lizard ducks or elevates its head and orients its cranial horns straight up, or back. If a predator tries to take it by the body, the lizard drives that side of its body down into the ground so the predator cannot easily get its lower jaw underneath.


title: Horned lizard

text: A University of Texas publication notes that horned lizard populations continue to disappear throughout their distribution despite protective legislation. Population declines are attributed to a number of factors, including the fragmentation and loss of habitat from real estate development and road construction, the planting of non-native grasses (both suburban and rural), conversion of native land to pastureland and agricultural uses, and pesticides. Additionally predation by domestic dogs and cats place continued pressure upon horned lizards.


title: Horned lizard

text: Fire ants ("Solenopsis invicta") introduced from South America via the nursery industry's potted plants, pose a significant threat to all wildlife including horned lizards. "Phrynosoma" do not eat fire ants. Fire ants kill many species of wildlife and are fierce competitors against native ants which horned lizards require for food (with their specialized nutritional content). Fire ants have given all ants a bad reputation and human attempts to eradicate ants, including invasive species and the native species on which the lizards prey, contribute to the continued displacement of native ant species and decline of horned lizards.


title: Horned lizard

text: The Texas horned lizard ("Phrynosoma cornutum") has disappeared from almost half of its geographic range. Their popularity in the early to mid 20th century pet trade, where collectors took thousands from the wild populations to sell to pet distributors, without provision for their highly specialized nutritional needs (primarily formic acid from harvester ants), resulted in certain death for almost all the collected lizards. In 1967 the state of Texas passed protective legislation preventing the collection, exportation, and sale of "Phrynosoma", and by the early 1970s most states enacted similar laws to protect and conserve horned lizards in the USA. However, as recently as the early 2000s the state of Nevada still allowed commercial sale of "Phrynosoma". Despite limited federal protection in Mexico, horned lizards are still offered in Mexican "pet" markets throughout the country.


title: Horned lizard

text: In 2014, the Center for Biological Diversity in Tucson petitioned the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation to have the Texas horned lizard put on the endangered species list due to the massive declines of its population in Oklahoma, where it was once plentiful. The center said it may later seek protection for the animal on a federal level; it also said that reptiles in general are dying off at up to 10,000 times their historic extinction rate, greatly due to human influences.


title: Horned lizard

text: The following 21 species (listed alphabetically by scientific name) are recognized as being valid by the Reptile Database, three species of which have recognized subspecies:


title: Horned lizard

text: "Note": In the above list, a binomial authority or trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than "Phrynosoma".


title: Horned lizard

text: Texas designated the Texas horned lizard ("Phrynosoma cornutum") as the official state reptile in 1993 and the "TCU Horned Frog" is the mascot of Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. TCU is the only known athletic team with the horned lizard as a mascot.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: A or kabushiki kaisha, commonly abbreviated K.K. or KK, is a type of defined under the Companies Act of Japan. The term is often translated as "stock company", "joint-stock company" or "stock corporation". The term "kabushiki gaisha" in Japan refers to any joint-stock company regardless of country of origin or incorporation; however, outside Japan the term refers specifically to joint-stock companies incorporated in Japan.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: In Latin script, "kabushiki kaisha", with a , is often used, but the original Japanese pronunciation is "kabushiki gaisha", with a , owing to rendaku.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: A "kabushiki gaisha" must include "" in its name (Article 6, paragraph 2 of the Companies Act). In a company name, "" can be used as a prefix (e.g. , "kabushiki gaisha Dentsū", a style called , "mae-kabu") or as a suffix (e.g. , "Toyota Jidōsha kabushiki gaisha", a style called , "ato-kabu").


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Many Japanese companies translate the phrase "" in their name as "Company, Limited"—this is very often abbreviated as "Co., Ltd."—but others use the more Americanized translations "Corporation" or "Incorporated." Texts in England often refer to "kabushiki gaisha" as "joint stock companies". While that is close to a literal translation of the term, the two are not precisely the same. The Japanese government once endorsed "business corporation" as an official translation but now uses more literal translation "stock company."


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Japanese often abbreviate "" in a company name on signage (including the sides of their vehicles) to in parentheses, as, for example, "." The full, formal name would then be "". is also combined into one Unicode character at code point , while the parenthesized form can also be represented with a single character, as well as parentheses around . These forms, however, only exist for backward compatibility with older Japanese character encodings and Unicode and should be avoided when possible in new text.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Rules regarding "kabushiki gaisha" were set out in the Commercial Code of Japan, and was originally based on laws regulating German (which also means share company). However, during the United States-led Allied Occupation of Japan following World War II, the occupation authorities introduced revisions to the Commercial Code based on the Illinois Business Corporation Act of 1933, giving "kabushiki gaisha" many traits of American corporations, and to be more exact, Illinois corporations.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Over time, Japanese and U.S. corporate law diverged, and K.K. assumed many characteristics not found in U.S. corporations. For instance, a K.K. could not repurchase its own stock (a restriction lifted by the amendment of the Commercial Code in 2001), issue stock for a price of less than ¥50,000 per share (effective 1982-2003), or operate with paid-in capital of less than ¥10 million (effective 1991-2005).


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: A "kabushiki gaisha" may be started with capital as low as ¥1, making the total cost of a K.K. incorporation approximately ¥240,000 (about US$2,500) in taxes and notarization fees. Under the old Commercial Code, a K.K. required starting capital of ¥10 million (about US$105,000); a lower capital requirement was later instituted, but corporations with under ¥3 million in assets were barred from issuing dividends, and companies were required to increase their capital to ¥10 million within five years of formation.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: The incorporation of a K.K. is carried out by one or more . Although seven incorporators were required as recently as the 1980s, a K.K. now only needs one incorporator, which may be an individual or a corporation. If there are multiple incorporators, they must sign a partnership agreement before incorporating the company.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: The purpose statement requires some specialized knowledge, as Japan follows an doctrine and does not allow a K.K. to act beyond its purposes. Judicial or administrative scriveners are often hired to draft the purposes of a new company.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Other matters may also be included, such as limits on the number of directors and auditors. The Corporation Code allows a K.K. to be formed as a , or a (so-called) , in which case the company (e.g. its board of directors or a shareholders' meeting, as defined in the articles of incorporation) must approve any transfer of shares between shareholders; this designation must be made in the articles of incorporation.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: The articles must be sealed by the incorporator(s) and notarized by a civil law notary, then filed with the Legal Affairs Bureau in the jurisdiction where the company will have its head office.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: In a direct incorporation, each incorporator receives a specified amount of stock as designated in the articles of incorporation. Each incorporator must then promptly pay its share of the starting capital of the company, and if no directors have been designated in the articles of incorporation, meet to determine the initial directors and other officers.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: The other method is an "incorporation by offering," in which each incorporator becomes the stock underwriter of a specified number of shares (at least one each), and the other shares are offered to other investors. As in a direct incorporation, the incorporators must then hold an organizational meeting to appoint the initial directors and other officers. Any person wishing to receive shares must submit an application to the incorporator, and then make payment for his or her shares by a date specified by the incorporator(s).


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Capital must be received in a commercial bank account designated by the incorporator(s), and the bank must provide certification that payment has been made. Once the capital has been received and certified, the incorporation may be registered at the Legal Affairs Bureau.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Under present law, a K.K. must have a consisting of at least three individuals. Directors have a statutory term of office of two years, and auditors have a term of four years.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Small companies can exist with only one or two directors, with no statutory term of office, and . In such companies, decisions are made via shareholder meeting and the decision-making power of the directors is relatively limited. As soon as a third director is designated such companies must form a board.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: At least one director is designated as a , holds the corporate seal and is empowered to represent the company in transactions. The Representative Director must "report" to the board of directors every three months; the exact meaning of this statutory provision is unclear, but some legal scholars interpret it to mean that the board must meet every three months. In 2015, the requirement that at least one director and one Representative Director must be a resident of Japan was changed. It is not required to have a resident Representative Director although it can be convenient to do so.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Directors are mandatories (agents) of the shareholders, and the Representative Director is a mandatory of the board. Any action outside of these mandates is considered a breach of mandatory duty.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Every K.K. with multiple directors must have at least one . Statutory auditors report to the shareholders, and are empowered to demand financial and operational reports from the directors.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: K.K.s with capital of over ¥500m, liabilities of over ¥2bn and/or publicly traded securities are required to have three statutory auditors, and must also have an annual audit performed by an outside CPA. Public K.K.s must also file securities law reports with the Ministry of Finance.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Under the new Company Law, public and other non-close K.K.s may either have a statutory auditor, or a , and structure similar to that of American public corporations. If the company has an auditing committee, it is referred to as a .


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Close K.K.s may also have a single person serving as director and statutory auditor, regardless of capital or liabilities.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: A statutory auditor may be any person who is not an employee or director of the company. In practice, the position is often filled by a very senior employee close to retirement, or by an outside attorney or accountant.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Japanese law does not designate any corporate officer positions. Most Japanese-owned kabushiki gaisha do not have "officers" "per se", but are directly managed by the directors, one of whom generally has the title of . The Japanese equivalent of a corporate vice president is a . Traditionally, under the lifetime employment system, directors and department chiefs begin their careers as line employees of the company and work their way up the management hierarchy over time. This is not the case in most foreign-owned companies in Japan, and some native companies have also abandoned this system in recent years in favor of encouraging more lateral movement in management.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Corporate officers often have the legal title of shihainin, which makes them authorized representatives of the corporation at a particular place of business, in addition to a common-use title.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Kabushiki gaisha are subject to double taxation of profits and dividends, as are corporations in most countries. In contrast to many other countries, however, Japan also levies double taxes on close corporations (yugen gaisha and gōdō gaisha). This makes taxation a minor issue when deciding how to structure a business in Japan. As all publicly traded companies follow the K.K. structure, smaller businesses often choose to incorporate as a K.K. simply to appear more prestigious.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: In addition to income taxes, K.K.s must also pay registration taxes to the national government and may be subject to local taxes.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Generally, the power to bring actions against the directors on the corporation's behalf is granted to the statutory auditor.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: Historically, derivative suits by shareholders were rare in Japan. Shareholders have been permitted to sue on the corporation's behalf since the postwar Americanization of the Commercial Code; however, this power was severely limited by the nature of court costs in Japan. Because the cost to file a civil action is proportional to the amount of damages being claimed, shareholders rarely had the motivation to sue on the company's behalf.


title: Kabushiki gaisha

text: In 1993, the Commercial Code was amended to reduce the filing fee for all shareholder derivative suits to ¥8,200 per claim. This led to a rise in the number of derivative suits heard by Japanese courts, from 31 pending cases in 1992 to 286 in 1999, and to a number of very high-profile shareholder actions, such as those against Daiwa Bank and Nomura Securities


title: Gabber

text: Gabber (; ) is a style of electronic dance music and a subgenre of hardcore techno, as well as the surrounding subculture. The music is more commonly referred to as Hardcore, which is characterised by fast beats, distorted & heavier kickdrums, with darker themes and samples, and was developed in Rotterdam and Amsterdam in the 1990s by producers like Marc Acardipane, Paul Elstak, DJ Rob, and The Prophet, forming record labels such as Rotterdam Records, Mokum Records, Pengo Records and Industrial Strength Records.


title: Gabber

text: Gabber remains highly popular in the Netherlands, and has seen a major resurgence recent years. Gabber formed as an underground, anti-establishment movement with small, underground raves, most often illegally held in empty warehouses, basements and tunnels. Rave parties such as Thunderdome held by ID&T and Mysteryland became hugely popular, eventually becoming part of mainstream Dutch culture in the 1990s. The music and culture quickly spread across Europe and the world, finding home with the rave communities in countries such as the UK, Spain, Italy, USA, and Australia.


title: Gabber

text: Gabber, also known as gabba, early hardcore, or Rotterdam hardcore, is a style of electronic music and a subgenre of hardcore techno. It was derived from acid house, techno and new beat in the early 1990s. The musical style is described as "a relentless mix of superfast BPMs, distorted kickdrums, and roared vocals". The music is generally between 140 up to 190 beats per minute with samples taken from films or other tracks.


title: Gabber

text: The word "gabber" comes from an Amsterdam Bargoens slang based on the Hebrew "chaver" meaning "mate" or "friend". An Amsterdam DJ was asked about the hard Rotterdam scene and said "They're just a bunch of gabbers having fun". Having heard this, Paul Elstak etched in the vinyl on the first Euromasters record (released through Rotterdam Records in 1992), "Gabber zijn is geen schande!" ("It's not a disgrace to be a gabber!"). The word gained popularity in the Rotterdam music scene and people started to call themselves "gabbers".


title: Gabber

text: Influential early labels were DJ Paul Elstak's Rotterdam Records, Mokum Records in Amsterdam, and Lenny Dee's New York based Industrial Strength Recordings. Alongside Elstak and Dee, other early artists included Marc Acardipane, The Prophet, and Rotterdam Termination Source.


title: Gabber

text: Elstak and DJ Rob organised parties first at Parkzicht in Rotterdam and when the numbers attending increased they moved to the Energiehal. ID&T later organised Thunderdome parties for up to 40,000 people. When the sound spread to London in the mid-1990s, Dead by Dawn parties at the 121 Centre in Brixton played gabba, speedcore, and noise. In the Midwestern United States, gabber inspired the foundation of the label Drop Bass Network.


title: Gabber

text: The popularity of gabber created a youth subculture in the Netherlands. Fashion-wise, gabber ravers wore tracksuits, bomber jackets, and Nike Air Max shoes. Tennis tracksuits from the Italian fashion label L’Alpina were prized. Most men shaved their heads bald, while women braided their hair and shaved the sides. Drug use was common, with ecstasy and speed the popular choice.


title: Gabber

text: Later the look became blouses and short skirts for women. Men wore polo shirts and shirts with jeans and army boots, with a racist minority wearing the Lonsdale brand because of its connection to right-wing extremism. Gabber also had a small following in the German neo-Nazi fringe movement. In order to repudiate the connection, labels and artists began to release anti-fascist and anti-racist statements. Some examples includes "Chosen Anthem (Against Racism)" by DJ Chosen Few, "Die Nazi Scum" by Party Animals featuring MC Rob Gee, "Time to Make a Stand" by United Hardcore and "Fuck the Nazism" by Hellcore. Mokum Records made its slogan (printed on all records): "Hardcore united against fascism and racism" and in addition some producers are themselves black, such as Dark Raver and Loftgroover. When gabber became popular again in the 2000s, Dutch neo-Nazis attempted to capitalise on it but their structures were short-lived.


title: Gabber

text: By the mid-1990s, gabber had become part of mainstream culture in the Netherlands. "Billboard" magazine called it the country's "first homegrown youth culture" in 1997. Its popularity also led to parody tracks such as Gabber Piet's "Hakke & Zage" which drew on the theme tune of the Peppi & Kokki


title: Gabber

text: children's television show. The name also referred to hakken, the style of gabber dancing characterised by fast leg movements which had become popular. Gabber fans were angered by the commercialisation of their scene and Gabber Piet was fired from his job at ID&T. His album "Love U Hardcore" attempted to make amends but it did not sell well.


title: Gabber

text: While the peak of gabber popularity waned in the years after the millennium, there always remained a die-hard few that kept the sound and culture alive. In 2017, Thunderdome celebrated 25 years of hardcore at the Jaarbeurs congress centre in Utrecht. It was attended by 40,000 ravers and was heralded as the official comeback for Thunderdome. The event was the ultimate encapsulation of the history of hardcore, featuring the biggest names in hardcore , showcasing evolution of hardcore music over 25 years from all of the leading hardcore DJs and producers from then and now.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot is a monster truck. The original Bigfoot began as a 1974 Ford F-250 pickup that was modified by its owner Bob Chandler beginning in 1975. By 1979, the modifications were so extensive, the truck came to be regarded as the first monster truck. Other trucks with the name "Bigfoot" have been introduced in the years since, and it remains a well-known monster truck moniker in the United States.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: A former construction worker and off-roading enthusiast from the St. Louis area, Chandler began racing in 1975, using the Chandler family's 1974 Ford F-250 four-wheel drive pickup truck and found that automotive shops in the Midwest generally did not carry the parts needed to repair the frequent damage. To remedy this problem, Chandler and his wife Marilyn, along with friend Jim Kramer, opened a shop called Midwest Four Wheel Drive and Performance Center in Ferguson, Missouri. The shop moved to Hazelwood, Missouri, in 1984, which remained as Bigfoot's headquarters until 2015 when the headquarters was relocated to Pacific, Missouri.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: In 1979, Chandler replaced the under assembly of the truck with one from a military-surplus top loader featuring four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering that used 48-inch tires. This modification drew attention and Chandler started making appearances at tractor pulls and car shows with his newly christened "Bigfoot" (so named for Chandler's heavy-footed racing style which caused frequent breakage of parts) to show off the truck's capabilities as well as to promote his shop. The truck's growing popularity led to its appearance in the 1981 Gus Trikonis film "Take This Job and Shove It" (which also features the early monster truck USA-1 credited under a different name).


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Chandler's next experiment would prove revolutionary. In 1981, Chandler placed two dilapidated cars in a field, so that Chandler could videotape himself crushing the cars with Bigfoot as a joke. When Chandler began playing the video in his shop, a man promoting a motorsports event in Columbia, Missouri, asked him to duplicate the stunt in front of a crowd. After initial hesitation because of the destructive image it would convey, Chandler eventually agreed to perform at the event in April of the following year in what is believed to be the first public car crush. Later that year, a second Bigfoot, built to help meet the steadily rising demand to see the vehicle and sporting 66-inch tall tires, received more major media attention by crushing cars at the Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan. In 1983, Bigfoot began receiving sponsorship from Ford Motor Company, a relationship which continued until 2005.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: By 1984, many truck owners around the country had taken to imitating Chandler's template of outfitting their vehicles with tires standing 66 inches tall, with some trucks sporting even larger tires. Promoters of truck and tractor pulls, such as SRO Motorsports (later the United States Hot Rod Association) and Golden State Promotions, noticed the exploding popularity of the giant trucks and began booking several to crush cars at their events, with the eventual result being the advent of side-by-side, drag-racing style car crushing events. A popular example of the early days of monster truck racing is portrayed in the 1986 home video release "Return of the Monster Trucks", which involves a truck pull, car crushing, and mud bogging all in the same course. That event, held in the Louisiana Superdome, was won by Bigfoot, as well as most of the events it was entered into in the mid-1980s. By this point, Chandler had already built an entire fleet of "Bigfoot" trucks to accommodate the vast demand for his vehicle, which remained as the most popular and marketable monster truck despite the large number of imitators. In 1987, Chandler added to his innovations by founding the Monster Truck Racing Association, which remains today as the chief voice in monster truck safety.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Another form of competition Chandler faced was the physical size of the competition. Many truck owners had taken to calling their vehicles the "world's largest monster truck", so Chandler outfitted his "Bigfoot 4" vehicle with 10-foot-tall tires he had purchased from a junkyard owner in Seattle, for $1000. The tires had been previously used by the US Army in Alaska on their overland train in the 1950s. In 1986, Chandler built a new truck, "Bigfoot 5", specifically for the tires. Upon its public debut in Indianapolis, Indiana, the truck immediately took the title of the "world's tallest, widest, and heaviest monster truck" and was eventually given official recognition of the title by the "Guinness Book of Records" in 2002. With a second set of 10-foot-tall tires attached, the truck stands 15 feet, six inches high, measures 20 feet, 5 inches across, and weighs over 38,000 pounds.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: The fledgling all-sports television network ESPN also took note of the popularity of monster trucks in the 1980s and began showing events promoted by the United States Hot Rod Association and TNT Motorsports on a regular basis. With the frequent broadcasts of monster truck races, the next logical step was to create a championship series of monster truck races. TNT began the first recognized series in 1988, and was dominated by Bigfoot for much of the season. However, upstart rookie Rod Litzau, driving the USA-1 truck, gained momentum and passed Bigfoot in the standings going into the last weekend of the season in Louisville, Kentucky. With the way the points system and elimination brackets had been structured, Bigfoot (driven by Rich Hooser) and USA-1 met in the semifinal round with USA-1 clinching the points championship if it beat Bigfoot. USA-1 won the race in spectacular fashion, rolling over in the process, and took the championship. After losing the championship, the Bigfoot team made the decision to shift their focus less on competition and more on research and development in 1989, as well as running frequent events for the USHRA and USA Motorsports and a limited TNT Schedule.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: During this time, Chandler began working with computer-aided design (CAD) programs, and using technology he had learned from professional off-road racing, designed a tubular frame for his next Bigfoot truck, along with a nitrogen suspension system sporting 24 inches of travel. This innovation allowed Bigfoot to possess four times as much suspension travel as those used by nearly all previous monster trucks. Chandler would be awarded a patent for his designs. After testing the vehicle for three months, driver Andy Brass debuted the eighth incarnation of Bigfoot, with the new frame and suspension, in late 1989. It officially made its debut at the Indiana State Fairgrounds in Indianapolis, Indiana at the Four Wheel and Off Road Jamboree in a special 5,000th show for Bigfoot (where every Bigfoot vehicle gathered in one place for the first time). It made its debut in competition at a USHRA race in the Astrodome in Houston, Texas, reaching the final round of competition before rolling over against Jack Willman's Taurus.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: The following year, after running the USHRA races in Anaheim, California, and Pontiac, Michigan, the truck debuted on the TNT Motorsports Monster Truck Challenge points circuit in Memphis, Tennessee. The Bigfoot 8 chassis was briefly banned from the circuit on April 5, 1990, due to a rule clarification that only allowed leaf, coil, and coil-over suspensions to be run. Although TNT stated that safety was the primary reason for the clarification, they also admitted that another reason was that Bigfoot 8 was simply too technologically advanced and was upsetting the competitive balance of the series. Former BMX racer John Piant, piloting Bigfoot 4 raced in place of Bigfoot 8 in multiple events, and Andy Brass drove Bigfoot 4 to victory at the Louisville Motor Speedway. Bigfoot 8 returned to the TNT circuit after the temporary ban had been lifted. Chandler also took legal action against TNT.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Team Bigfoot ended up winning 24 events that season and took the 1990 TNT points championship over Greg Holbrook in Gary Cook's Equalizer and Gary Porter's Carolina Crusher, the first racing championship for the Bigfoot team. Also that year, Piant took the Special Events Triple Crown Championship, in addition to placing third in the USHRA's new point series. After not winning any championships in 1991, Team Bigfoot would go on a 12-year stretch from 1992 to 2003 of winning at least one championship a year, taking a total of 16 series championship victories during that span.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot continues to be in demand. Sponsorships include Firestone, Summit Racing and Vi-Cor. In December 2005, Bigfoot's sponsorship with Ford ended, though was not announced officially until 2007.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot ceased running events for the Monster Jam series in 1998 due to a dispute over involving licensing of video footage and pictures, and has not returned since. Bigfoot also appeared frequently for USA Motorsports and Motorsports Entertainment Group until those companies were purchased by the USHRA's parent company at the time, PACE Motorsports.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot still races for the Special Events Promotion Company, Chris Arel Motorsports, Toughest Monster Truck Tour, Monster Nation, Monster X Tour, Checkered Flag Promotions, and many others.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: In May 2006, Bigfoot signed former professional wrestler and Monster Jam driver Debrah Miceli. Miceli drove the "Bigfoot 10" chassis until the end of the 2007 Major League of Monster Trucks (MLMT) season. Miceli now drives Madusa for Feld Motorsports.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: In July 2010, Bigfoot sponsor Firestone, then a Major League Baseball sponsor, brought Bigfoot to the Major League Baseball All-Star Game as a show truck. In order to comply with MLB's official vehicle sponsorship while being used by Firestone, the Bigfoot 10 chassis featured a Chevrolet Silverado body. In March 2012, Bigfoot formed a partnership with Robby Gordon to promote both his SPEED Energy Drink and his new Stadium Super Trucks racing series. For the partnership, a chassis initially built for Gordon himself was dubbed Bigfoot 19. Despite a promotional picture depicting the body as being a Ford, this truck would also compete with a highly modified Silverado body.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: For his innovation of creating monster trucks, Bob Chandler has been inducted into multiple halls of fame. In 2006, he was inducted in the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame. In November 2011, he was inducted into the International Monster Truck Museum Hall of Fame with its inaugural class. Former driver Jim Kramer was inducted into the second class the following year. Also, in 2013, Chandler was inducted into the Off-road Motorsports Hall of Fame.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: On November 30, 2018, Bigfoot was announced as one of the participants in the new Hot Wheels Monster Trucks Live tour being coproduced by Hot Wheels owner Mattel and the Raycom-Legacy Content Company. This reunites a marketing relationship dating back to the 1980s.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: The following is a list of all the vehicles built or owned by Bigfoot 4×4, Inc. Bigfoot #13 was skipped due to superstition regarding the number 13.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: "Snake Bite" is an alternate name and appearance sometimes used when a second truck is scheduled to appear at the same event. The first Snake Bite (using Bigfoot 4's chassis) was originally driven by Gene Patterson, under the pseudonym of Colt Cobra. He wore a mask to hide his identity and came from the fictional town of Cobra Creek, Colorado. Other Bigfoot trucks and drivers have used the identities over the years.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot has been the focus of multiple video games. The first "Bigfoot" video game was released in 1990 by Acclaim Entertainment for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Bigfoot is also the featured truck in the "Monster Truck Madness" series by Microsoft from the 1990s. "" was released on multiple platforms in 2008. "Monster Truck Destruction", released on iOS and Android platforms in 2012, also features multiple Bigfoot trucks. "Bigfoot Crush" is a 2020 arcade game released by UNIS.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: The original Bigfoot appears in the 1981 film "Take This Job and Shove It", where it appears as the main character's personal truck. This was the first appearance of a monster truck in film. A virtual Bigfoot is used by the character Aech inside the virtual reality universe OASIS in the 2018 film "Ready Player One". Other appearances by Bigfoot trucks in film include "Cannonball Run 2", "", "Road House", "", "Tango & Cash", and "".


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot has also been a prominent part of animated TV series. "Bigfoot and the Muscle Machines" was a 1985 animated miniseries produced by Marvel Productions as part of their "Super Sunday" anthology series. A self-aware version of Bigfoot was one of the main characters of the animated series, "The Power Team"; it was included to advertise the NES game. A Discovery Kids TV series called "" was released in 2006.


title: Bigfoot (truck)

text: Bigfoot was listed by "Hot Rod" magazine as one of 100 most influential vehicles in the history of hot rodding for its February 2009 issue, it was ranked 69th.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The Boleyn Ground, often referred to as Upton Park, was a football stadium located in Upton Park, east London. It was the home of West Ham United from 1904 to 2016, and was briefly used by Charlton Athletic in the early 1990s during their years of financial difficulty. The seating capacity of the ground at closure was 35,016.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: From the 2016–17 season, West Ham United have played their home matches at the London Stadium in nearby Stratford. The last first-class match played at the Boleyn Ground was on 10 May 2016, a 3–2 West Ham United win in the Premier League against Manchester United.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: West Ham United took up tenancy of the Boleyn Ground from local club Boleyn Castle in 1904, after the two clubs amalgamated. West Ham rented Green Street House and grounds in East Ham from the Roman Catholic Church from around 1912. Green Street House was known locally as Boleyn Castle because of its imposing nature and an association with Anne Boleyn, who had either stayed at or, as some believe, owned the house. Hence the ground became known as the Boleyn Ground. The ground was also often referred to as Upton Park, after the Upton Park, London area where it is located.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: In August 1944, a V-1 flying bomb fell on the south-west corner of the pitch. This forced West Ham to play its matches at other grounds while repairs were undertaken, but it did not affect performances as West Ham managed nine consecutive victories. Upon their return to the ground in December 1944, they lost 1–0 to Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: By 1990, West Ham were required to convert Upton Park into an all-seater stadium for the 1994–95 season in order to comply with the requirements of the Taylor Report. The first stage of the redevelopment came in 1993, when the South Bank was replaced by a 9,000 seat, two-tier stand named in honour of former captain Bobby Moore, who had died earlier that year. The stand incorporated executive boxes as well as a digital clock. The North Bank was demolished in 1994 and a new 6,000 seat, two-tier stand named the "Centenary Stand" was opened on its site the following year; this was later renamed the "Sir Trevor Brooking Stand". The East Stand Lower was also converted into an all-seater stand.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The final change came in 2000, when the West Stand was replaced by a 15,000 seat, two-tier stand named the "Dr. Martens Stand". The stand incorporated executive boxes on two levels as well as the West Ham United Hotel. This gave the stadium a 35,000 all-seater capacity.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: There were plans to increase the capacity to approximately 40,500 through the building of a new larger East Stand, that would have used the spare space created when the Doctor Martens stand was built further West than the old West Stand. However, these plans never came to fruition.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: Through 2006, talk was rife of West Ham moving to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Summer Olympics, with speculation increasing after new club chairman Eggert Magnusson confirmed he was interested in a move there. However, talks broke down between the club and the Olympic Committee after it was announced the Stadium would be reduced to a 25,000 capacity all-seater after the Olympic Games, which was 10,000 less than the Boleyn Ground's capacity, and the stadium would be keeping its running track, leaving supporters further from the pitch and affecting the atmosphere within the stadium. Rumours suggested West Ham might move to a new stadium at the Parcelforce depot near to West Ham Underground/mainline station instead. Indeed, on 7 November 2007, Mayor of London Ken Livingstone announced a new site had been identified for West Ham's new stadium.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: However, in 2009, club CEO Scott Duxbury announced West Ham had obtained planning permission to expand the East Stand; this would have brought the stadium's capacity over 40,000.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: Then, in 2010, new club owners David Gold and David Sullivan announced West Ham would move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics after all. On 23 March 2010, the club announced it was working on a joint bid with Newham London Borough Council to move into the Olympic Stadium. On 30 September 2010, the club formally submitted its bid for the Olympic Stadium with a presentation at 10 Downing Street, and the world's largest live entertainment company Live Nation endorsed the club's Olympic Stadium plans on 8 October 2010. Three days after Live Nation's endorsement UK Athletics confirmed its formal support for West Ham United and Newham Council in their joint bid to take over the Olympic Stadium in legacy mode. In November 2010, West Ham commenced a search for potential developers for "informal discussions" about what would happen to the ground if it did take over the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Games.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: On 11 February 2011, the Olympic Park Legacy Committee selected West Ham as the preferred club to move into the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Games. The decision, in favour of West Ham's bid, was unanimous. On 3 March 2011, West Ham United's proposed move to the Olympic Stadium was approved by the British government and London mayor Boris Johnson; but due to ongoing legal challenges to the arrangement by Tottenham Hotspur and Leyton Orient, the deal to sell the Olympic Stadium to West Ham collapsed on 11 October 2011, West Ham announced plans to become tenants of the stadium and on 22 March 2013 after months of voting and negotiations, West Ham won the Olympic Stadium bidding. West Ham were offered a 99-year lease and hoped to move there in time for the 2016–17 season.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: In February 2014, West Ham announced the sale of the Boleyn Ground to the development company the Galliard Group, to be effected once the move to the Olympic Stadium was complete.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: When the Premier League fixtures were drawn-up at the start of the 2015–16 Premier League season, Swansea City were planned to be West Ham's final opponents at the Boleyn Ground, on 7 May 2016. However, due to Manchester United's involvement in the FA Cup on 23 April when they were due to play West Ham, the fixture was rearranged to 10 May 2016. The match was preceded by violence on Green Street when the coach carrying the players and staff of Manchester United was pelted with missiles resulting in broken windows. With the coach delayed, the players were late arriving at the ground and the scheduled 19:45 kick-off was moved to 20:15.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: In the 2,398th match played at the ground, with both sides looking to qualify for European football in the 2016–17 season, in front of a crowd of 34,907, West Ham took the lead in the tenth minute through Diafra Sakho, only for Manchester United to make the score 1–2 with two goals from Anthony Martial. However, Michail Antonio equalized for West Ham and Winston Reid scored a third in the 80th minute to make it 3–2, the final score. It was West Ham's 384th Premier League match, their 990th in the top division, and their 1,662nd ever league match at the ground, the win signifying 601 home Premier League points won there. Mark Noble was named Man of the Match. The match was followed by a 45-minute display on the pitch in celebration of the history of the ground. The following day, the club condemned the violence aimed at the Manchester United coach, vowing to ban for life any person convicted. Three people were arrested on the night of the game, two for pitch incursion and one for throwing a bottle at the police. The following day, the Metropolitan Police issued pictures of four men they hoped to identify in connection with the coach attack.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The sale of the Ground was completed on 15 July 2016, at a sale price of £40,000,000. The developer's plans include 838 new homes, retail outlets and leisure facilities which will be available by 2018. The possibility of a statue of Bobby Moore and a landscaped garden named after him has also been revealed. The plans caused controversy for only including 51 "affordable" homes and no social housing. In March 2016, plans were approved for 800 homes to be built on the site, 25% of which would be affordable housing. On 14 March 2016, the dismantling of the ground began with the removal of the John Lyall gates for transfer and reinstallation at the Olympic Stadium. By July 2016, the seats had been removed from the ground and it was boarded-up and handed over to developers for demolition and redevelopment. In August 2016, ownership of the site was transferred to Barratt London. In September 2016, the ground was used as a film-set for the film "Final Score" and on 27 September 2016 it hosted a charity match shortly before demolition commenced. 1,000 of 1,400 commemorative bricks were saved by Jonjo Heuerman when the wall they were in was taken down, and are available to be claimed by the fans who paid for them. The inscriptions have been reproduced in a pathway at the new ground.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The record attendance at the ground was 42,322, against Tottenham in an old Division One match on 17 October 1970, when the North and South Banks were terraced, as was the old "Chicken Run" at the front of the East Stand.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The Boleyn Ground became an all-seater stadium from the early 1990s because clubs had to meet new FA regulations for stadium safety after the Hillsborough Disaster in 1989. The record attendance after Upton Park became an all-seater was 35,550, on 21 September 2002 for a Premier League match against Manchester City. Before its closure, the ground had a total capacity of 35,016, all seated.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: Upton Park had four main stands, the Sir Trevor Brooking Stand, Bobby Moore Stand, East Stand and Betway Stand.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The Sir Trevor Brooking Stand (formerly the North Bank then the Centenary Stand) was built in 1995 which coincided with the club's 100th season, after being formed in 1895 as Thames Ironworks. Its name was changed from the Centenary Stand to the Sir Trevor Brooking Stand in July 2009.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The stand held around 6,000 seats, and had two tiers, with the upper-tier seating known as the family section, as supporters could only purchase tickets there if with a child. The lower tier behind the goal was split between home and away fans. West Ham initially gave around 2,500–3,000 tickets to away supporters, going from the furthest side to the left of the bottom tier right up to behind the goal.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: If the away side could not sell all their tickets, they were returned and re-sold to home supporters, as there was big demand from West Ham fans to purchase seats in the lower seating area. Home fans in the lower area generally preferred to stand during games and sing throughout. It was known as one of the more atmospheric sections of the stadium, especially with the two sets of supporters next to each other (separated by stewards and police). There was also one of two large LED video screens situated in the corner between the Sir Trevor Brooking Stand Stand and the East Stand.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The East Stand was situated on the far side of the Boleyn Ground, opposite the West Stand which housed the offices and dressing rooms. The stand was the oldest and smallest stand in the stadium, being built in 1969 and held only 5,000 seats due to its narrow width. The stand was known as the loudest and most intimidating stand at Upton Park. The stand was known as the 'Chicken Run', a name that had originally been applied to an earlier stand. This was an old wooden stand (standing room only) on the east side of the pitch. Unusually, the roof sloped down away from the pitch and it was surrounded by a similar sort of wire to that used on chicken runs, so when viewed from the opposite side of the ground it looked like a chicken run. The front of the stand was very close to the pitch. It was knocked down and rebuilt in 1969.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The stand at one point had the words "DAGENHAM MOTORS" written into the bottom tier through the seats, but was only changed during the 2006–07 season, despite the club splitting from their sponsorship with the car company back in 1997. The stand was also the only stand left at Upton Park to still have a small minority of wooden seats (at the time of demolition), in the middle of the upper tier. There were also plans to build a new East Stand soon after the Dr. Martens stand was completed in 2001, which would have seen the stadium's capacity rise from 35,345 to around 40,500, but the plans were put on hold after a combination of resistance from the local residents behind the stand and the club's relegation from the Premier League in 2003, which spiralled the club into debt at the time.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The Bobby Moore Stand (formerly the South Bank) was built in 1993 and held up to 9,000 spectators, all seated. The stand was built originally to comply with new stadium all-seater regulations, and the name of the stand was decided after the death of the club's legendary captain from the successful mid-1960s side in the same year of construction. The stand had two tiers, and spelt the words "WEST HAM UNITED" through the seats of both tiers. The lower tier of the Bobby Moore stand, like the Sir Trevor Brooking Stand, was well known for its supporters' passion and the atmosphere created through standing and singing. The stand had executive boxes situated between the upper and lower tiers, and a digital clock. The stand was renovated in 2001 after the construction of the new Dr. Martens Stands, with a second LED video screen in the stadium being introduced between the two stands and new seats added on the end of the stand to join with the new Dr. Martens Stand.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The West Stand was the newest and by far the largest stand inside Upton Park, holding up to 15,000 spectators and was renamed after Betway became West Ham's official sponsors. The stand was built in 2001 as the Dr. Martens Stand, bringing the stadium capacity up from around 26,000 to 35,647. The West Stand was the main stand in Upton Park, as it included two tiers for paying home supporters, separated by two tiers of executive boxes. The stand also hosted all the club's offices, board rooms, suites, dressing rooms, official shop, and the West Ham United Hotel. It was the largest single football stand in London.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The stand's main feature was seen from the exterior of the stadium, with two large turrets built onto the stand with the club badge embedded on both, going with the theme of the club's badge. The terrace also had two scoreboards at both corners joining with the Centenary and Bobby Moore Stands, displaying the score and time of the game in process. The stand was so large, it was visible from the A406 North Circular Road and from the A13 Newham Way, where people could clearly make out the roof of the stand over the tower blocks. The stand was officially opened by HM The Queen, where Her Majesty was introduced to the manager and captain at the time, Glenn Roeder and Joe Cole.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: In 2009, following the end of Dr. Martens sponsorship, the stand resumed the old name of the West Stand.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: In June 1989, evangelist Billy Graham hosted a three-day Christian mission to London to which free tickets were given away. He gave away more tickets than seats, not expecting them all to be used. In the event they were used and many were locked out. After negotiations between the club and Graham's representatives, the crowd were allowed to use the pitch.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: On 12 February 2003, England played Australia at the Boleyn Ground in an international friendly, with Australia winning 3–1. The match is best known for marking Wayne Rooney's international debut.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: On 9 May 2012, the Boleyn Ground was confirmed as the venue for the fight between David Haye and Derek Chisora, a fight sanctioned by the Luxembourg Boxing Federation on 14 July 2012. The fight caused controversy at the time as neither fighter held a license from the British Boxing Board of Control.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: On 12 November 2014, a friendly game between Argentina and Croatia was played at the Boleyn Ground. The match finished 2–1 to Argentina and saw the return of former West Ham striker Carlos Tevez to the Boleyn Ground.


title: Boleyn Ground

text: The stadium is the setting of the 2018 film "Final Score". An ex-soldier, played by Dave Bautista, is forced into action to defend the packed stadium when armed Russian terrorists take control of it.


title: London congestion charge

text: The London congestion charge is a fee charged on most cars and motor vehicles being driven within the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ) in Central London between 7:00 am and 6:00 pm Monday to Friday, and between 12:00 noon and 6:00 pm Saturday and Sunday.


title: London congestion charge

text: Inspired by Singapore's Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system after London officials had travelled to the country, the charge was first introduced on 17 February 2003. The London charge zone is one of the largest congestion charge zones in the world, despite the removal of the Western Extension which operated between February 2007 and January 2011. The charge not only helps to reduce high traffic flow in the city streets, but also reduces air and noise pollution in the central London area and raises investment funds for London's transport system.


title: London congestion charge

text: The standard charge is £15, every day from 7:00 am to 6:00 pm, for each non-exempt vehicle driven within the zone, with a penalty of between £65 and £195 levied for non-payment. The congestion charge does not operate on Christmas Day (25 December). In July 2013 the Ultra Low Emission Discount (ULED) introduced more stringent emission standards that limit the free access to the congestion charge zone to all-electric cars, some plug-in hybrids, and any vehicle that emits 75 g/km or less of CO and meets the for air quality. On 8 April 2019, the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) was introduced, which applies 24/7 to vehicles which do not meet the emissions standards: for petrol vehicles, and Euro 6 or VI for diesel and large vehicles. In October 2021, the ULEZ was expanded to cover the Inner London area within the North and South Circular Roads. The ULEZ replaced the T-charge (toxicity charge) which applied to vehicles below Euro 4 standard. Since 2021 the congestion charge exemption has applied only to pure electric vehicles and from 2025 there will be no discounts for electric vehicles.


title: London congestion charge

text: Enforcement is primarily based on automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR). Transport for London (TfL) is responsible for the charge which has been operated by IBM since 2009. During the first ten years since the introduction of the scheme, gross revenue reached about £2.6 billion up to the end of December 2013. From 2003 to 2013, about £1.2 billion has been invested in public transport, road and bridge improvement and walking and cycling schemes. Of these, a total of £960 million was invested on improvements to the bus network.


title: London congestion charge

text: The congestion charging scheme possibly facilitated a 10% reduction in traffic volumes from baseline conditions, and an overall reduction of 11% in vehicle kilometres in London between 2000 and 2012, though these changes cannot be causally attributed to the congestion charge. Despite these gains, traffic speeds have also been getting progressively slower over the past decade, particularly in central London. TfL explains that the historic decline in traffic speeds is most likely due to interventions that have reduced the effective capacity of the road network to improve the urban environment, increase road safety and prioritise public transport, pedestrian and cycle traffic, as well as an increase in road works by utilities and general development activity since 2006. TfL concluded in 2006 that, while levels of congestion in central London are close to levels before the congestion charge was implemented, its effectiveness in reducing traffic volumes means that conditions would be worse without the congestion charging scheme, though later studies emphasise that causality has not been established.


title: London congestion charge

text: The current congestion charge zone covers the area within the London Inner Ring Road which includes both the City of London, which is the main financial district, and also the West End, which is London's primary commercial and entertainment centre. Although primarily a commercial area, there are also 136,000 residents, out of a total Greater London population of almost 9,000,000. There is little heavy industry within the zone.


title: London congestion charge

text: Starting at the northernmost point and moving clockwise, the major roads defining the boundary are Pentonville Road, City Road, Old Street, Commercial Street, Mansell Street, Tower Bridge Road, New Kent Road, Elephant and Castle, Kennington Lane, Vauxhall Bridge Road, Park Lane, Edgware Road, Marylebone Road and Euston Road (other roads fill the small gaps between these roads). Signs were erected and symbols painted on the road to help drivers recognise the congestion charge area.


title: London congestion charge

text: The Western Extension, introduced in February 2007 and removed on 4 January 2011, included areas surrounded by the following roads starting from the north-westernmost point: Scrubs Lane, Harrow Road, Westway (part of the A40), Park Lane, Vauxhall Bridge Road, Grosvenor Road, Chelsea Embankment, Earl's Court Road and part of the West Cross Route (A3320), but the Westway itself was not part of the zone.


title: London congestion charge

text: In January 2013, Transport for London opened a public consultation to increase the standard charge by 15% by mid 2014, from £10 per day to £11.50, if paid in advance or on the day. The increase was expected to generate an estimated £84 million of additional revenue by the end of 2017/18. The consultation process ran from January 2014 to March 2014. According to TfL, the objective of the increase was to recoup inflation over the past three years and ensure the charge remains an effective deterrent to making unnecessary journeys in central London.


title: London congestion charge

text: On 15 May 2020, the Congestion Charge was re-implemented following a period of suspension during the COVID-19 pandemic. From 22 June 2020, it will temporarily run from 7:00 am to 10:00 pm seven days a week (as opposed to the previous 7:00 am to 6:00 pm on weekdays), and the daily charge will rise from £11.50 to £15 per day for a period of one year.


title: London congestion charge

text: The standard fee is £15 per day if paid in advance, by midnight on the day of travel, or if registered with Fleet Auto Pay or CC Autopay, an automated payment system which records the number of charging days a vehicle travels within the charging zone each month and bills the customer debit or credit card each month, or £17.50 if paid by midnight the third day after travel. Failure to pay after the third day after travel results in the issuance of a Penalty Charge Notice for £160, reduced to £80 if paid within 14 days, but increased to £240 if unpaid after 28 days.


title: London congestion charge

text: Refunds are available to people who pay monthly or annually in advance whose plans change; reimbursements are available to NHS patients assessed to be too ill to travel by public transport, NHS staff using vehicles on official business, and care home employees. Residents living within or very close to the zone are eligible for a 90% discount which is charged via CC Autopay.


title: London congestion charge

text: The system gives 100% discounts to registered cars which emit 75 g/km or less of carbon dioxide and meet the , vehicles with nine or more seats, motor-tricycles, two-wheeled motorcycles (and sidecars), mopeds, accredited breakdown companies, and roadside recovery vehicles. All-electric vehicles (BEVs) and eligible plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) qualify for a 100% congestion charge discount. A plug-in electric drive vehicle qualifies if the vehicle is registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) and has a fuel type of "electric", or alternatively, if the vehicle is a "plug-in hybrid" and is on the government's list of PHEVs eligible for the OLEV grant. , approved PHEVs include all extended-range vehicles such as the BMW i3 REx, and plug-in hybrids such as the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron, BMW i8, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (passenger and van variants), Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, and Volkswagen Golf GTE.


title: London congestion charge

text: Taxis and private hire vehicles (PHVs) were exempt from the charge but the PHV exemption ended in April 2019, except for PHVs which are wheelchair accessible vehicles.


title: London congestion charge

text: In November 2012, TfL presented a proposal to end the Greener Vehicle Discount that benefited mainly vehicles with small diesel engines, that avoid the charge because their engines produce emissions of less than 100 g/km of CO. The proposal was approved by Mayor Boris Johnson in April 2013 and the Ultra Low Emission Discount (ULED) went into effect on 1 July 2013. The ULED introduced more stringent emission standards that limit the free access to the congestion charge zone to all-electric cars, some plug-in hybrids, and any car or van that emits 75 g/km or less of CO and meets the Euro 5 emission standards for air quality. , there are no internal combustion-only vehicles that meet this criteria. The measure was designed to curb the growing number of diesel vehicles on London's roads. About 20,000 owners of vehicles registered for the Greener Vehicle Discount by June 2013 were granted a three-year sunset period before they have to pay the full congestion charge. Other changes were the removal of the option to pay the charge in shops, and the penalty charge was increased to £10. The sunset period ended on 24 June 2016. In December 2018, a further tightening of the standards was announced, in part to bring standards beyond that of the ULEZ. This means that since April 2019 only vehicles which are Euro 6, emit up to 75 g/km of and have a minimum 20 mile zero emission range have qualified for the discount. A further phase from October 2021 will mean that only zero-emission vehicles (pure electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles) can qualify, and the discount will be phased out completely from December 2025.


title: London congestion charge

text: A toxicity charge, known as T-charge, was introduced on 23 October 2017, operating for the same hours as the congestion charge (7:00 am to 6:00 pm on weekdays). Older and more polluting cars and vans that do not meet have to pay an extra £10 charge on top of the congestion charge to drive in central London, within the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ). The charge typically applies to diesel and petrol vehicles registered before 2006, and the levy affects up to 10,000 vehicles. The public consultation on the T-charge proposals began in July 2016.


title: London congestion charge

text: London Mayor Sadiq Khan announced the introduction of the scheme on 17 February 2017 after London achieved record air pollution levels in January 2017, and the city was put on very high pollution alert for the first time ever, as cold and stationary weather failed to clear toxic pollutants emitted mainly by diesel vehicles.


title: London congestion charge

text: In December 2017, TfL said that the charge had cut the number of these heavily polluting vehicles by around 1,000 per day, with the remaining 2,000 paying the £10 charge (a further 3,000 vehicles are eligible for discounts due to Blue Badges etc.).


title: London congestion charge

text: The T-charge has been replaced by the Ultra Low Emission Zone charge, except it is still levied on holders of the residents' discount.