title: Crow people

text: In the spring of 1878, 700 Crow tipis were pitched at the confluence of Bighorn River and Yellowstone River. Together with Colonel Nelson A. Miles, an Army leader in the Great Sioux War, the big camp celebrated the victory over the Sioux.


title: Crow people

text: The main food source for the Crow was the American bison which was hunted in a variety of ways. Before the use of horses the bison were hunted on foot and required hunters to stalk close to the bison, often with a wolf-pelt disguise, then pursue the animals quickly on foot before killing them with arrows or lances. The horse allowed the Crow to hunt bison more easily as well as hunt more at one time. Riders would panic the herd into a stampede and shoot the targeted animals with arrows or bullets from horseback or lance them through the heart. In addition to bison the Crow also hunted bighorn sheep, mountain goats, deer, elk, bear, and other game. Buffalo meat was often roasted or boiled in a stew with prairie turnips. The rump, tongue, liver, heart, and kidneys all were considered delicacies. Dried bison meat was ground with fat and berries to make "pemmican". In addition to meat, wild edibles were gathered and eaten such as elderberries, wild turnip, and Saskatoon berries.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow often hunted bison by utilizing buffalo jumps. "Where Buffaloes are Driven Over Cliffs at Long Ridge" was a favorite spot for meat procurement by the Crow Indians for over a century, from 1700 to around 1870 when modern weapons were introduced. The Crow used this place annually in the autumn, a place of multiple cliffs along a ridge that eventually sloped to the creek. Early in the morning the day of the jump a medicine man would stand on the edge of the upper cliff, facing up the ridge. He would take a pair of bison hindquarters and pointing the feet along the lines of stones he would sing his sacred songs and call upon the Great Spirit to make the operation a success. After this invocation the medicine man would give the two head drivers a pouch of incense. As the two head drivers and their helpers headed up the ridge and the long line of stones they would stop and burn incense on the ground repeating this process four times. The ritual was intended to make the animals come to the line where the incense was burned, then bolt back to the ridge area.


title: Crow people

text: The traditional Crow shelter is the tipi or skin lodge made with bison hides stretched over wooden poles. The Crow are historically known to construct some of the largest tipis. Tipi poles were harvested from the lodgepole pine which acquired its name from its use as support for tipis. Inside the tipi, mattresses and buffalo-hide seats were arranged around the edge, with a fireplace in the center. The smoke from the fire escaped through a hole or smoke-flap in the top of the tipi. At least one entrance hole with collapsible flap allowed entry into the tipi. Often hide paintings adorned the outside and inside of tipis with specific meanings attached to the images. Often specific tipi designs were unique to the individual owner, family, or society that resided in the tipi. Tipis are easily raised and collapsed and are lightweight, which is ideal for nomadic people like the Crow who move frequently and quickly. Once collapsed, the tipi poles are used to create a travois. Travois are a horse-pulled frame structure used by plains Indians to carry and pull belongings as well as small children. Many Crow families still own and use the tipi, especially when traveling. The annual Crow Fair has been described as the largest gathering of tipis in the world.


title: Crow people

text: The most widely used form of transportation used by the Crow was the horse. Horses were acquired through raiding and trading with other Plains nations. People of the northern plains like the Crow mostly got their horses from people from the southern plains such as the Comanche and Kiowa who originally got their horses from the Spanish and southwestern Indians such as the various Pueblo people. The Crow had large horse herds which were among the largest owned by Plains Indians; in 1914 they had approximately thirty to forty thousand head. By 1921 the number of mounts had dwindled to just one thousand. Like other plains people the horse was central to the Crow economy and were a highly valuable trade item and were frequently stolen from other tribes to gain wealth and prestige as a warrior. The horse allowed the Crow to become powerful and skilled mounted warriors, being able to perform daring maneuvers during battle including hanging underneath a galloping horse and shooting arrows by holding onto its mane. They also had many dogs; one source counted five to six hundred. Dogs were used as guards and pack animals to carry belongings and pull travois. The introduction of horses into Crow society allowed them to pull heavier loads faster, greatly reducing the number of dogs used as pack animals.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow wore clothing distinguished by gender. Women wore dresses made of deer and buffalo hide, decorated with elk teeth or shells. They covered their legs with leggings during winter and their feet with moccasins. Crow women wore their hair in two braids. Male clothing usually consisted of a shirt, trimmed leggings with a belt, a long breechcloth, and moccasins. Robes made from the furred hide of a bison were often worn in winter. Leggings were either made of animal hide which the Crow made for themselves or made of wool which were highly valued trade items made specifically for Indians in Europe. Their hair was worn long, in some cases reaching the ground. The Crow are famous for often wearing their hair in a pompadour which was often colored white with paint. Crow men were notable for wearing two hair pipes made from beads on both sides of their hair. Men often wore their hair in two braids wrapped in the fur of beavers or otters. Bear grease was used to give shine to hair. Stuffed birds were often worn in the hair of warriors and medicine men. Like other plains Indians the Crow wore feathers from eagles, crows, owls, and other birds in their hair for symbolic reasons. The Crow wore a variety of headdresses including the famous eagle feather headdress, bison scalp headdress with horns and beaded rim, and split horn headdress. The split horn headdress is made from a single bison horn split in half and polished into two nearly identical horns which were attached to a leather cap and decorated with feathers and beadwork. Traditional clothing worn by the Crow is still worn today with varying degrees of regularity.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow People are well known for their intercut beadwork. They adorned basically every aspect of their lives with these beads, giving special attention to ceremonial and ornamental items. Their clothing, horses, cradles, ornamental and ceremonial gear, in addition to leather cases of all shapes, sizes and uses were decorated in beadwork. They gave reverence to the animals they ate by using as much of it as they could. The leather for their clothing, robes and pouches were created from the skin of buffalo, deer and elk. The work was done by the tribeswomen, with some being considered experts and were often sought by the younger, less experienced women for design and symbolic advice. The Crow are an innovative people and are credited with developing their own style of stitch-work for adhering beads. This stitch, which is now called the overlay, is still also known as the "Crow Stitch". In their beadwork, geometric shapes were primarily used with triangles, diamonds and hour-glass structures being the most prevalent. A wide range of colors were utilized by the Crow, but blues and various shades of pink were the most dominantly used. To intensify or to draw out a certain color or shape, they would surround that figure or color in a white outline.


title: Crow people

text: The colors chosen were not just merely used to be aesthetically pleasing, but rather had a deeper symbolic meaning. Pinks represented the various shades of the rising sun with yellow being the East the origin of the sun's arrival. Blues are symbolic of the sky; red represented the setting sun or the West; green symbolizing mother earth, black the slaying of an enemy and white representing clouds, rain or sleet. Although most colors had a common symbolism, each piece's symbolic significance was fairly subjective to its creator, especially when in reference to the individual shapes. One person's triangle might symbolize a teepee, a spear head to a different individual or a range of mountains to yet another. Regardless of the individual significance of each piece, the Crow People give reverence to the land and sky with the symbolic references found in the various colors and shapes found on their ornamental gear and even clothing.


title: Crow people

text: Some of the clothing that the Crow People decorated with beads included robes, vests, pants, shirts, moccasins and various forms of celebratory and ceremonial gear. In addition to creating a connection with the land, from which they are a part, the various shapes and colors reflected one's standing and achievements. For example, if a warrior were to slay, wound or disarm an enemy, he would return with a blackened face. The black color would then be incorporated in the clothing of that man, most likely in his war attire. A beaded robe, which was often given to a bride to be, could take over a year to produce and was usually created by the bride's mother-in-law or another female relative-in-law. These robes were often characterized by a series of parallel horizontal lines, usually consisting of light blue. The lines represented the young women's new role as a wife and mother; also the new bride was encouraged to wear the robe at the next ceremonial gathering to symbolize her addition and welcoming to a new family. In modern times the Crow still often decorate their clothing with intricate bead designs for powwow and everyday clothing.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow had a matrilineal system. After marriage, the couple was matrilocal (the husband moved to the wife's mother's house upon marriage). Women held a significant role within the tribe.


title: Crow people

text: Crow kinship is a system used to describe and define family members. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family", the Crow system is one of the six major types which he described: Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Crow, Omaha, and Sudanese.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow historically had a status for male-bodied two-spirits, termed "baté"/"badé", such as Osh-Tisch.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow Indian Reservation in south-central Montana is a large reservation covering approximately of land area, the fifth-largest Indian reservation in the United States. The reservation is primarily in Big Horn and Yellowstone counties with ceded lands in Rosebud, Carbon, and Treasure counties. The Crow Indian Reservation's eastern border is the 107th meridian line, except along the border line of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation.


title: Crow people

text: The southern border is from the 107th meridian line west to the east bank of the Big Horn River. The line travels downstream to Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area and west to the Pryor Mountains and north-easterly to Billings. The northern border travels east and through Hardin, Montana, to the 107th meridian line. The 2000 census reported a total population of 6,894 on reservation lands. Its largest community is Crow Agency.


title: Crow people

text: Prior to the 2001 Constitution, the Crow Tribe of Montana was governed by its 1948 constitution. The former constitution organized the tribe as a general council (tribal council). The general council held the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of the government and included all enrolled, adult members of the Crow Tribe, provided that women were 18 years or older and men were 21 or older. The general council was a direct democracy, comparable to that the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow Tribe of Montana established a three-branch government at a 2001 council meeting with its 2001 constitution. The general council remains the governing body of the tribe; however, the powers were distributed to three separate branches within the government. In theory, the general council is still the governing body of the Crow Tribe, yet in reality the general council has not convened since the establishment of the 2001 constitution.


title: Crow people

text: The executive branch has four officials. These officials are known as the Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, Secretary, and Vice-Secretary. The Executive Branch officials are also the officials within the Crow Tribal General Council, which has not met since 15 July 2001.


title: Crow people

text: The Legislative Branch consists of three members from each district on the Crow Indian Reservation. The Crow Indian Reservation is divided into six districts known as The Valley of the Chiefs, Reno, Black Lodge, Mighty Few, Big Horn, and Pryor Districts. The Valley of the Chiefs District is the largest district by population.


title: Crow people

text: The Judicial Branch consists of all courts established by the Crow Law and Order Code and in accordance with the 2001 Constitution. The Judicial Branch has jurisdiction over all matters defined in the Crow Law and Order Code. The Judicial Branch attempts to be a separate and distinct branch of government from the Legislative and Executive Branches of Crow Tribal Government. The Judicial Branch consists of an elected Chief Judge and two Associate Judges. The Crow Court of Appeals, similar to State Court of Appeals, receives all appeals from the lower courts. The Chief Judge of the Crow Tribe is Julie Yarlott.


title: Crow people

text: According to the 1948 Constitution, Resolution 63-01 (Please note: in a letter of communication from Phileo Nash, then Commissioner of Indian Affairs, to the B.I.A. Area Director, as stated in the letter and confirmed that 63-01 is an Ordinance in said letter) all constitutional amendments must be voted on by secret ballot or referendum vote. In 2001, major actions were taken by the former Chairperson Birdinground without complying with those requirements. The quarterly council meeting on 15 July 2001 passed all resolutions by voice vote, including the measure to repeal the current constitution and approve a new constitution.


title: Crow people

text: Critics contend the new constitution is contrary to the spirit of the Crow Tribe, as it provides authority for the US Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to approve Crow legislation and decisions. The Crow people have guarded their sovereignty and Treaty Rights. The alleged New Constitution was not voted on to add it to the agenda of the Tribal Council. The former constitution mandated that constitutional changes be conducted by referendum vote, using the secret ballot election method and criteria. In addition, a constitutional change can only be conducted in a specially called election, which was never approved by council action for the 2001 Constitution. The agenda was not voted on or accepted at the council.


title: Crow people

text: The only vote taken at the council was whether to conduct the voting by voice vote or walking through the line. Critics say the Chairman ignored and suppressed attempts to discuss the Constitution. This council and constitutional change was never ratified by any subsequent council action. The Tribal Secretary, who was removed from office by the BirdinGround Administration, was the leader of the opposition. All activity occurred without his signature.


title: Crow people

text: When the opposition challenged, citing the violation of the Constitutional Process and the Right to Vote, the Birdinground Administration sought the approval of the United States Department of the Interior (USDOI), Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). The latter stated it could not interfere in an internal tribal affair The federal court also ruled that the constitutional change was an internal tribal matter.


title: Crow people

text: The Crow Tribe historically elected a chairperson of tribal council biennially; however, in 2001, the term of office was extended to four years. The previous chairperson was Carl Venne. The chairperson serves as chief executive officer, speaker of the council, and majority leader of the Crow Tribal Council. The constitutional changes of 2001 created a three-branch government. The chairperson serves as the head of the executive branch, which includes the offices of vice-chairperson, secretary, vice-secretary, and the tribal offices and departments of the Crow Tribal Administration. Notable chairs include Clara Nomee, Edison Real Bird, and Robert "Robie" Yellowtail.


title: Crow people

text: On 19 May 2008, Hartford and Mary Black Eagle of the Crow Tribe adopted US Senator (later President) Barack Obama into the tribe on the date of the first visit of a US presidential candidate to the nation. Crow representatives also took part in President Obama's inaugural parade. In 2009 Dr. Joseph Medicine Crow was one of 16 people awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.


title: Crow people

text: During the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, the Crow Tribe furloughed 316 employees and suspended programs providing health care, bus services and improvements to irrigation.


title: Crow people

text: In 2020, the Tribal Chairman AJ Not Afraid Jr. endorsed President Donald Trump's reelection, along with endorsing Republicans Steve Daines for the Senate, Greg Gianforte for Governor and Matt Rosendale for the U.S. House.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Trooping the Colour is a ceremony performed every year in London, United Kingdom, by regiments of the British Army. Similar events are held in other countries of the Commonwealth. Trooping the Colour has been a tradition of British infantry regiments since the 17th century, and since 1748 has marked the official birthday of the British sovereign, although its roots go back much earlier.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Each year, one of the five Foot Guards regiments of the Household Division is selected to troop (carry) its colours through the ranks of guards. The colours were once used on the battlefield as a rallying point.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: During the ceremony, the monarch travels down the Mall from Buckingham Palace to Horse Guards Parade in a royal procession with a sovereign's escort of Household Cavalry (mounted troops or horse guards). After receiving a royal salute, the monarch inspects his troops of the Household Division and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The entire Household Division assembly then conducts a march past the monarch. Parading with its guns, the King's Troop takes precedence as the mounted troops perform a walk-march and trot-past. Music is provided by the massed bands of the Foot Guards and the mounted Band of the Household Cavalry, together with a Corps of Drums, and occasionally pipers, totalling approximately 400 musicians.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Returning to Buckingham Palace, the monarch watches a further march-past from outside the gates. Following a 41-gun salute by the King's Troop in Green Park, the royal family make an appearance on the palace balcony for a Royal Air Force flypast.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In the United Kingdom, Trooping the Colour is also known as the King's Birthday Parade. First performed during the reign of King Charles II (1660–1685), in 1748 it was decided that the parade of Trooping the Colour should mark the official birthday of the Sovereign. In 1760, after the accession of King George III, it became an annual event.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In 1892, the only member of the royal family to attend was Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, due to court mourning for the death of Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. Queen Victoria herself only attended Trooping the Colour once, in 1895, when it was held at Windsor Castle. Although some elements of the parade have remained fairly constant, the ceremonial seen today was not fixed until 1889.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: It was Edward VII who moved Trooping the Colour to its June date, because of the vagaries of British weather (his actual birthday being in November). It is held annually on the second Saturday in June, coinciding with publication of the Birthday Honours List, and usually takes place at Horse Guards Parade by St James's Park, London. It is followed by a 41-gun salute at noon in Green Park, and a flypast over Buckingham Palace, watched by the royal family from the Palace balcony.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Since 1959, it has been held on a Saturday in June. From 1979 to 2017 it was always held on the Saturday falling between 11 and 17 June; however, in 2018 it was held on 9 June and in 2019 on 8 June. During 2020 and 2021, a modified ceremony took place at Windsor Castle due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In 2022, Trooping the Colour was held on a Thursday, the date of 2 June coinciding with the anniversary of the Queen Elizabeth II's coronation on 2 June 1953.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The parade is witnessed by a global TV audience of many millions. Over the years, commentary for the annual live broadcast in the UK by BBC1 has been provided by Huw Edwards and also by Clare Balding, together with expert guests and interviews with some of the personnel involved. The BBC's live broadcast has become accessible to an international audience via live streaming on BritBox in both the United States and Canada. The BBC also streams it live on YouTube beginning with the 2019 edition.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: For the Platinum Jubilee in 2022, additional live videos commentary of the parade for international viewers were provided by Sky News UK and the Telegraph newspaper's YouTube channels.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Queen Elizabeth II attended Trooping the Colour in every year of her reign, except in 1955 when the event was cancelled due to a national rail strike. Riding her mare Burmese (horse) between 1969 and 1986, The Queen rode in a carriage from 1987 onward. On 13 June 1981, she and her horse were startled by an unemployed youth, Marcus Sarjeant, who fired six blank rounds from a starting revolver.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In her years attending on horseback, the Queen, as Colonel-in-Chief, wore a biretta and a Guards Regiment uniform with the medals she was awarded before becoming Queen (Order of the Crown of India; Defence Medal; War Medal 1939–1945; King George V Silver Jubilee Medal; King George VI Coronation Medal; Canadian Forces Decoration) and the riband and star of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle or a combination of those orders, depending which regiment was trooping its colour. From 1987 onward she did not wear uniform, but wore the Brigade of Guards badge.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Her 80th birthday in 2006 was marked by a large flypast of 40 planes led by the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and culminating with the Red Arrows. It was followed by the first feu de joie ("fire of joy") fired in her presence during her reign, a second being fired at her Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012. In 2008, a flypast of 55 aircraft commemorated the RAF's 90th anniversary.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: On the day of Trooping the Colour, the Royal Standard is flown from Buckingham Palace and from Horse Guards Building.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The information for the ensuing section is drawn from the visuals and music, plus the annual commentary and analysis on the BBC's live broadcast, as well as the annual programme for the event.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: "Nos. 1–6 Guards" – six companies of Foot Guards, each comprising 3 officers and 71 other ranks - line two sides of the perimeter of Horse Guards Parade in an extended "L" shape. This recalls the defensive formation known as the "hollow square."


title: Trooping the Colour

text: All six companies are collectively commanded as "Guards..." and individually by company number, e.g., "No. 3 Guard..." Up to eight Guards have taken part, the number varying over the years. The most Guards ever seen on parade was 11, as seen on the 1919 parade held in Hyde Park.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The battalion trooping its colour in any given year is No. 1 Guard. During the parade, they are referred to as 'Escort FOR the Colour' (and, once they have collected their colour during the ceremony, as 'Escort TO the Colour'). At the outset, the colour is held by the Colour Party – a colour sergeant and two other guardsmen of No. 1 Guard, standing well-spaced on the northern side of Horse Guards Parade. Once obtained by the Regimental Sergeant Major of No. 1 Guard, the colour is borne through the ranks of Nos. 2–6 Guards by an Ensign of No. 1 Guard.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Lining the edge of St. James's Park are the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment – the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals – as well as the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In the Royal Procession, the Household Cavalry are termed "Sovereign's Escort". Two divisions ride before the King mounted on horseback and two behind, and the Life Guards and Blues and Royals alternate these positions each year.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Three mounted officers drawn from No. 1 Guard give drill commands during the parade. The most senior is the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting (rank of Lieutenant Colonel), assisted by the Major of the Parade. The Field Officer occupies a central position on the parade ground. The third mounted officer is the Adjutant.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Garrison Sergeant Major of London District, who is not mounted, coordinates the whole event on the parade ground and the approach road from The Mall.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: With almost 400 musicians on the field, led by the Massed Bands of the Household Division, the music forms an integral part of the day. The massed bands of the Foot Guards number over 200 musicians. Joining them, since 2014, is the Mounted Band of the Household Cavalry. The musicians of all these bands are all members of the Royal Corps of Army Music. There is also a Corps of Drums from several of the regiments and, on some occasions, pipe bands of the Scots Guards and Irish Guards. As per divisional tradition, the Corps of Drums and Pipe Bands form up behind the Massed Bands. As per Queen Elizabeth II's request, during a Scots or Irish Guards troop, the Pipers would march to the front of the Massed Bands to play the regimental quick marches of the Scots and Irish Guards as their Guards march past in quick time.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The entire parade is best understood as an exercise of several elements carried out in slow and quick march time, with the Trooping the Colour phase forming the centrepiece.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The entire parade is supervised by the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting (sometimes shortened to "Field Officer"), with the assistance of the Brigade Major and the Adjutant, all on horseback, and joined by the London District Garrison Sergeant Major, who is unmounted and coordinates the proceedings of the ceremony.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: A detail of guardsmen bearing marker flags marches on, to mark the positions of Nos. 1-6 Guards. (These marker flags are the respective company colours from each regiment.)


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Preceded by their regimental bands, Nos. 1-6 Guards march into position. No. 1 Guard is "Escort for the Colour."


title: Trooping the Colour

text: With the foot guards in their home service order and the mounted band in state dress uniform, the assembled ranks of Household Division make a colourful spectacle.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Guards half-companies line up on the road to Horse Guards Parade to provide security to the Royal Family that will arrive later and to the marching and mounted contingents.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Preceding the sovereign, senior members of the royal family arrive in barouches to view the ceremony from a central first floor window in the Duke of Wellington's former office in Horse Guards Building. This procession turns at the Guards Memorial, and No. 3 Guard has opened ranks to allow their carriages to pass through.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Preceded by the Sovereign's Escort, the King (Colonel-in-Chief) will journey from Buckingham Palace down the Mall, on horseback. Directly behind the King in the Royal Procession ride the Royal Colonels—the Prince of Wales (Welsh Guards) and (Irish Guards), the Duke of Kent (Scots Guards), the Princess Royal (Blues and Royals), Colonel of the Grenadier Guards (currently vacant)—who are followed by the non-royal Colonels of Regiments (those of the Coldstream Guards and the Life Guards). Other officers of the Household Division and of the Royal Household follow, all mounted, including the Master of the Horse, the Major-General commanding the Household Division with his chief of staff and aide-de-camp, Silver Stick-in-Waiting, the regimental adjutants and a number of the King's equerries.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: As the King arrives, the Royal Standard is prepared to be released and flown from the roof of Horse Guards. The King will salute the Queen Consort who is at a window above Horseguards and then will alight at the Saluting Base to start the ceremonies.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The field officer commences the parade with the command: "Guards - Royal Salute - Present Arms!" and the national anthem (God Save The King) is played by the Household Division's Foot Guards Massed Bands, led by the senior director of music of the Household Division. Simultaneously, the Royal Standard is formally released and flies from the Horse Guards flagpole.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The King then rides off from the saluting base before and behind the long line of assembled guards, with the Royal Colonels following. BBC television commentaries every year emphasise the King's knowledge of the attributes of his guards, and single out "steadiness" as a highly prized quality for a guardsman.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The accompanying marches always carry a flavour of the regiment whose colour is being trooped on the day, lending the royal inspection a unique atmosphere. For example, if the Welsh Guards are trooping their colour, the music will include their traditional regimental march, "Men of Harlech". While the King passes the six companies of foot guards on his left, a slow march or air is played. Once the phaeton turns around the rear of No. 6 Guard, the music changes to a quick march. The King travels back up the line, passing the Household Cavalry and King's Troop stationed on his right, with the head coachman saluting the Sovereign's Standard of the Household Cavalry and the lead gun of the King's Troop in quick succession with a whip. The inspection completed, the music ceases, and he is conveyed back to the saluting base.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: With the monarch once more mounted at the saluting base, the command "Troop!" is given by the Field Officer. This is not to be confused with the trooping of the colour itself, which occurs later in the ceremony. Three strikes on a bass drum give the signal for the Massed Bands to start their march.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Guards, after standing at attention, change arms. Under the command of the Senior Drum Major, the Massed Bands march and countermarch on Horse Guards Parade in slow and quick time. The slow march music is traditionally the Waltz from "Les Huguenots". During the quick march, a lone drummer from the Corps of Drums breaks away from the massed bands, marching to two paces to the right of No. 1 Guard to take his post while the band marches on, stopping just near the colour party.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Trooping of the Colour phase of the ceremony is initiated by the lone drummer's eight-bar "Drummer's Call", signalling the Captain of No. 1 Guard to cede his command to the Subaltern of No.1 Guard and move to take his new position at the right of No.2 Guard. It slopes arms, while the Field Officer directs the other companies present to change arms and stand at ease. The call having been sounded, the lone drummer returns to the Massed Bands.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: An orderly takes the pace stick from the Regimental Sergeant-Major (RSM), positioned behind the Escort for the Colour, thus freeing the RSM to draw his sword - the only time a British Army infantry warrant officer ever does so on parade. The Subaltern then commands No. 1 Guard to move into close order, and then dresses it. Then, led by the Subaltern with the Ensign following, and with the Regimental Sergeant-Major marching behind the company, the Escort for the Colour quick marches onto the field to "The British Grenadiers". (This tune is always used irrespective of which regiment's colour is being trooped, because the right flank of every battalion used to be a grenadier company.) A guardsman behind the colour party marches forward towards the Colour Sergeant of the colour party at the same time during the Escort approaching then hands over the rifle to the Colour Sergeant, salutes the colour and leaves the parade ground. The Escort marks time while the Massed Bands "clear the line of march" and move to the front of the Guards and mark time. Fifteen steps away from the Colour Party, the music halts and four paces later, the 'Escort for the Colour' halts in place, and is ordered to open ranks and dressed, followed by the Massed Bands making an about turn.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The guards are then called to attention and then change and slope arms under the direction of the Field Officer, while the Household Cavalry are also called to attention by the commander of the Sovereign's Escort.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The RSM marches around to the front of the Escort and, followed by the Ensign, approaches the Colour Party. Having saluted the colour with his sword, the Sergeant-Major takes it from the Colour Sergeant, freeing him to change and then slope arms. The RSM turns, marches to the Ensign, and presents the colour to him. The Ensign salutes the colour with his sword, sheathes the sword without taking his eyes off the colour, and takes possession of it.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Having obtained their colour, No. 1 Guard (formerly known as "Escort "for" the Colour") is now termed "Escort "to" the Colour." By then, the massed bands, now with the line cleared, face front, with the Corps of Drums, pipe bands and the senior director of music leading.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: To the first six bars of "God Save the King", the Escort to the Colour presents arms. Simultaneously, turning outward at an angle of 45°, the NCOs (non-commissioned officers) at the four corners (or flanks) of the Escort port arms, described in annual television commentary and analysis as "protection" for the colour.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Escort to the Colour and Colour Party slope arms. The Colour Sergeant marches to the right and to the rear of the Escort. Once the Colour Party, Ensign and Regimental Sergeant-Major have joined the Escort, the RSM repositions himself to the left of and behind the Escort. The Subaltern then orders the Escort to change arms and orders the slow march. The Massed Bands turn about.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: As the Escort to the Colour slow-marches down the field towards No. 6 Guard to begin their colour trooping, the massed bands perform their unique anti-clockwise "spinwheel" manoeuvre. This, a 90° turn in restricted space, is performed while playing the slow march "Escort to the Colour."


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The celebrated spinwheel is largely individual and instinctive: A 'wheel' is not an easy manoeuvre with even a small body of troops, and with a block of 400 men the normal wheel is impossible. The massed band therefore pivots on its own centre, so that certain outer ranks and files march long distances in a hurry while the centre and inner ranks loiter with extreme intent, or merely mark time. Yet others not only step sideways but backwards as well. This highly complex movement is called a 'spin-wheel', the details of which can be found in no drill book or manual of ceremonial. Its complexity defies description, and if the truth were known, many of the participants know not whither they go or, on arrival, how they got there. The spin-wheel is almost an art form and each performance of it, although similar in essentials, is different in detail. Most of the performers are adjusting their actions to suit the needs of the spin-wheel of the moment, having adjusted their movements quite otherwise on other occasions.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Once the Escort reaches the edge of No. 6 Guard, the music stops, and the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting orders the entire parade (except the Escort) to present arms as the trooping proper starts. The music changes to "The Grenadiers' Slow March."


title: Trooping the Colour

text: To the strains of the Grenadiers Slow March, the Escort to the Colour then troops the colour down the long line of Nos. 6-2 Guards. The colour itself is borne by the Ensign in front of the line of guards, but the ranks of the Escort interweave with their ranks. For Nos. 6-2 Guards, who maintain the 'present arms' position, the long trooping, especially on a hot day, requires stamina. As this is done the Massed Bands move back in slow time to their original places.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Eventually the Escort arrives back at its original position as No. 1 Guard - from where it first marched off in quick time. Their Captain, who had temporarily ceded his command to the Subaltern, resumes his command over No. 1 Guard by ordering them to present arms, thus bringing the Escort back in line with Nos. 2-6 Guards. The entire parade is now ordered by the Field Officer to slope arms, thus concluding the trooping phase.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The trooping phase is followed by the march-past in slow and quick time of the foot guards and then the Household Cavalry and King's Troop, also in slow and quick time.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Field Officer gives the command, "Officers, take post." Nos. 1 to 5 Guard then "retire", about-turning and right-forming into review formation, following which the Adjutant commands "Guides, steady", giving signal to the company guides to resume their positions. Nos. 1 to 5 Guard then about-turn again as the Corps of Drums play. Since No. 6 Guard is already standing at right angles to the other five companies it does not need to execute this movement, but instead it moves close-order position then to the right in threes after Nos. 1 to 5 Guards turn back to advance position.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Once intervals are established, the Field Officer salutes the King and informs him that the foot guards are ready to march past, then after turning about, commands, "Guards will march past in slow and quick time... Slow march!" No. 6 Guard will then left turn to be advance and then form two ranks on marching after the parade has started to execute the slow march.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: No. 1 Guard - the Escort - leads the six companies for two circuits of Horse Guards Parade, saluting the King as they pass. The corners of the field are negotiated with the complex Left Form manoeuvre. Commands of "Change direction - left!" are then followed by the Left Guide (or Right Guide) of each Guard signalling "Right Sir!" to the Captain that the company has reached the position, the Captain will immediately orders "Left...Form!"


title: Trooping the Colour

text: At the end of both the slow and quick march-past, the Field Officer rides out to salute the King with his sword, telling him that His Majesty's Guards have ended their march-past.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Neutral slow marches start and conclude this section as the Massed Bands march into the centre of the field to take their places. The guards are preceded past the saluting base by the Field Officer and the Major of the Parade, who salute the King with their swords and eyes right.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: To the strains of their regimental slow marches, each of Nos. 1-6 Guards passes before the King with their eyes right, their regimental officers saluting with swords. The leading company, No. 1 Guard - the Escort to the Colour - has a particular honour. The Ensign lowers the colour - the 'flourish'. The King acknowledges it with a bow of the head, and the Royal Colonels salute the colour. Once past the saluting base, the colour is raised again - the 'recover' - and "eyes front" is ordered.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: For this circuit, the colour is at the rear of the Escort (No. 1 Guard), protected by the Colour Party. Their regimental quick marches are played as each guard passes before the King with eyes right. However, this being a quick march, the officers do not salute with swords, but only with the eyes right instead. As with the slow march-past, neutral marches start and conclude this section, and the Colour is marched on past the saluting base as the King, Queen consort and Royal Colonels salute it.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The massed bands, led by the Corps of Drums and the pipes and drums, march away to allow the mounted bands on to the ground. By then, the foot guards have ended their march, and are now back in place and dressed.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The now sole Mounted Band of the Household Cavalry in state dress, led by the two drum horses representing the two constituent regiments of the Household Cavalry, and the Director of Music of the Household Cavalry, ride slowly on to the field, traditionally to the tune "Preobrajensky."


title: Trooping the Colour

text: It is the turn of Household Cavalry and King's Troop to complete two circuits of Horse Guards Parade. For the horses, slow and quick time correspond to a walk-march and a sitting-trot, respectively. Since 1997, the mounted contingent is led by the commander of the King's Troop and then by the Sovereign's Escort commander.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In both turns of the ride past the Foot Guards present arms as per the Field Officer's orders. The order of march past follows the arrangement of the Sovereign's Escort for the year.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Salutes are again given to the King, and returned by him, the Queen consort, and the Royal Colonels to the colours as they pass by.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Royal Horse Artillery, marching to the "Royal Artillery Slow March" and then the "March from "Aida"", is first, taking precedence over all other units when on parade with its guns. When the King's Troop passes the saluting base, the King acknowledges the leading gun as the colour.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Life Guards, in red jackets and white plumes, are next, followed by the Blues and Royals, in blue jackets and red plumes. The sequence of regimental marches is: "Life Guards' Slow March", followed by "Blues and Royals' Slow March", and then "The Royals."


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Riding at the rear of the Household Cavalry are the farriers, one for each regiment, carrying their glinting axes and flanked by a soldier of each regiment. (The Life Guards farrier wears a black plume rather than the usual regimental white.)


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The two Household Cavalry regiments take turns to parade and the job of parading the King's Cavalry Standard of either of the two regiments alternates yearly between the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals. As the standard passes by, it is flourished (dipped), in the presence of the King, Queen consort and the Royal Colonels and after walking past them is recovered.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: A state trumpeter of either of the two Household Cavalry regiments plays "The Trot" to signal the beginning of the sitting trot-past. "The Keel Row" is traditionally played, and much dust is raised by the horses. Both the King's Troop's lead gun and the King's Cavalry Standard (not dipped) are trotted in the presence of the King and the Royal Colonels as they salute them.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: As the trot-past ends the mounted band salutes the King, the drumhorse riders crossing their drumsticks above their heads. They then proceed back to the east side of Horse Guards Parade and halt in place.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Their director of music turns inwards on his horse as a signal to the Field Officer that the Household Cavalry and the King's Troop are now in position to formally end the proceedings under the command of the Field Officer.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: During the final Royal Salute, as the parade renders their birthday wishes from all 7 regiments of the Household Division to their colonel-in-chief, the colour of No. 1 Guard is lowered to the ground by the Ensign while "God Save the King" is played by the Massed Bands. Forming divisions once more, accompanied by the Corps of Drums, the guards prepare to march off, and the Household Cavalry and the King's Troop leave the field. The Field Officer, after forming the parade for the march-off, then rides towards the saluting base, informing the King that the guards are ready to march off the field while the RSM of the Escort returns his sword into his scabbard as an orderly returns to him his pace stick.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, leaves Horse Guards Parade and proceeds to Green Park (adjacent to Buckingham Palace) to formally commence the royal 41-gun salute. At the same time in the Tower of London, the Honourable Artillery Company takes its positions in the tower grounds for the special 62-gun salute that will be happen when the King arrives. This gun salute is only done by the HAC during royal anniversaries.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Led by the massed bands, the King places himself at the head of his foot guards. The entire parade of 1,000 soldiers and 400 musicians marches up the Mall towards Buckingham Palace. The Markers then march off the grounds carrying the regimental company colours on the marker flags. The King's Troop and the HAC, now in place, get ready to commence firing their respective gun salutes during the Royal Family's arrival at the palace. At the same time, the old and new King's Guards, now performing the Changing of the Guard in the palace forecourt at the same time as the ceremony being done, also prepare for the royal carriages' arrival and to salute the King on horseback when he arrives.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: When the King returns to Buckingham Palace, the first division of the Escort to the Colour forms into two detachments of the new guard and enters the forecourt, opposite the old guard; but unlike the usual Changing of the Guard, the Regimental Sergeant Major participates in the ceremony. The remainder of the guards perform a march-past outside the gateway, in quick time instead of the usual slow time, with the King, positioned before the central gateway, receiving their salute. As the guards march past, their regimental marches are played by the massed and mounted bands respectively. The rest of the royal family observes the march-past from the balcony.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The King passes into the palace between the Old and New Guards, with both guards saluting him and the Royal Colonels. The usual semi-daily Changing of the Guard continues on the forecourt of the palace.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The gun salutes begin on the arrival of the King at Buckingham Palace, with the King's Troop firing a 41-gun royal salute in Green Park and the Honourable Artillery Company firing a 62-gun royal salute from the Tower of London grounds.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Finally, the King and the royal family on the palace balcony witness a flypast by the Royal Air Force, often featuring the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and the Red Arrows. This is once again followed by the National Anthem and in special years, a feu de joie followed by the shouting of the three cheers to the King on behalf of the entire Household Division.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Since only one colour can be trooped down the ranks at a time, each year a single battalion of the five Foot Guards regiments is selected to troop its colours.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Since 1993, the 2nd Battalions of the Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards and Scots Guards have been in "suspended animation" - they are represented in the parade by the three incremental companies. Incremental companies, however, serve for their respective 3rd Battalions, as well as for the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Irish and Welsh Guards, respectively.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The number of soldiers participating in Trooping the Colour in London has declined over the years due to defence budget cuts in Household Division battalions as well as the battalions' commitments to military and peacekeeping operations overseas. This gives some of the units little time to practise ceremonial functions. However, the format of the ceremony has remained the same over the centuries following routines of old battle formations used in the era of musket warfare.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In Australia the Trooping the King's Colour takes place annually on the King's Birthday Holiday by the staff cadets of Royal Military College, Duntroon, in Canberra, formerly at the RMC parade grounds and now at Rod Point at the shores of Lake Burley Griffin. The Queen's colour was trooped there for the first time on the Queen's Birthday Parade in 1956, a practice which has continued since then. Colours were first presented to the Corps of Staff Cadets by King George VI when, as Duke of York, he visited Australia in 1927. These colours are now lodged in the college's Patterson Hall. Colours were again presented by Queen Elizabeth II on 10 May 1988 and most recently on 22 October 2011 during a brief visit to Australia, coinciding with RMC Duntroon's centenary year.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Champion Company of the Corps of Staff Cadets is named after the Sovereign's Company and it carries the Queen Elizabeth II's banner, which was first presented to the Corps of Staff Cadets by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother on 26 February 1958. The Sovereign's Company is entitled to carry the banner on all ceremonial parades as well as escorting the Queen's colour during the Trooping the Colour. The Governor-General of Australia, being the King's representative in the Commonwealth, is the reviewing officer of the parade, and since the move to Rod Field has been attended by the public as well.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Trooping of the Colour in Hamilton is held on Front Street by troops of the Royal Bermuda Regiment (who make up No. 1 Guard), as well as supporting units of the Bermuda Police Service and the Bermuda Junior Leaders (RBR). The presiding officer of the ceremony is the Governor of Bermuda, who inspects the units at the start. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the guards conduct a "Feu de joie", followed by a 21-gun salute and three cheers to the Sovereign.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In Canada the Trooping the Colour ceremony on Parliament Hill takes place, with a trooping of the King's Colour, only for the King, members of the royal family, the governor general, or a lieutenant-governor, on Remembrance Day, or in honour of the King's Birthday, on Victoria Day. Trooping the Colour ceremonies have also taken place at Rideau Hall. New colours may also be trooped when they are presented. Colours are also trooped during unit anniversaries. In Ottawa, should any of the above be absent for the ceremony, the salute is taken by the Minister of National Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff, and the Regimental Colour is trooped instead. The ceremony was first performed on a national scale in Canada in 1939, during the royal tour that year. Earlier versions of the event were held in relation to the regiment, with one of the first to occur since the Confederation of Canada taking place over two weeks later on 18 July 1867, with The Royal Canadian Regiment trooping on the Champ de Mars in Montreal. The first major ceremony since 1939 took place in 1953 during the coronation day ceremonies in front of Centre Block that included the Trooping of the Colour in front of Governor General Vincent Massey. In 1958, it became a regular event on Dominion Day.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In Ghana, the traditional Trooping the Colour ceremony is held annually during the Independence Day celebrations on March 6. The escort for the colour is mounted by the Ghana Army and has the task of retrieving the ceremonial colours of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, alongside the Flag of Ghana. After the escort presents arms to "God Bless Our Homeland Ghana", the escort for the colour then marches off to the tune of the British grenadier guards in slow time. The ceremony takes place on Black Star Square, where the national salute is taken by the President of Ghana in his, or her, position as commander in chief of the GAF. Musical accompaniment is provided by the combined massed bands of the Ghana Armed Forces Central Band and school marching bands.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Before the First World War and the partition of Ireland, Trooping the Colour was performed annually on 17 March, Saint Patrick's Day, by the garrison battalions in the Upper Castle Yard at Dublin Castle, in the presence of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Jordan hosted its first Trooping the Colour - the first in the Middle East - in June 2016 celebrating the centenary of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. The Parade was the official celebrations of the centennial of the Great Arab Revolt () or Arab Revolt Parade on coverage online. In 2017, the Trooping of the Colour (officially known as the Flag Parade) was moved to September and is held annually. Around 1,000 troops take part in the parade, which is held in Amman, the national capital. Al Rayah Square (Square of the Emblem) was specially built for this occasion near the royal court. It stands on an area of 6,300 square metres and can host up to 5,000 people. In the parade, the King awards the Colours of the Arab Revolt to one of the army's battalions which holds it until the next Trooping the Colour.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: In 2016, the colours went to the 28th prince Hussein bin Abdullah II Rangers Brigade. In 2017, the colours were awarded to the 39th Ja'far bin Abi Talib Infantry Battalion. In 2018, the colours were in the possession of the 9th Prince Mohammed Mechanised Battalion.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Kenya is one of three African countries that still practises the traditional British ceremony of Trooping the Colour.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: This takes place every 12 December on Jamhuri Day (the day when Kenya became an independent nation and later a republic), but unlike the British one all the three services of the Kenya Defence Forces takes part in the Trooping the colour. The service branch whose battalion is trooping the colour provides number one and number two guards.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The ceremony normally begins at 11:30 after the arrival of the President of Kenya, who takes the national salute as the national anthem and the anthem of the East African Community are played by the massed bands. After finishing his inspection of the parade, the bands play a slow march followed with a quick march, during which the lone drummer then breaks away to take his position beside number one guard to play the drummers call, signalling the officers of No.1 Guard to take positions to receive the colour and the Guard's RSM removing his pace stick and then unsheathing his sword. The escort for the colour then marches off to collect the colour as the massed KDF band play either "The British Grenadiers" or a locally composed march, after which the escort halts in position. After the hand over and as the Escort presents arms the first verse of the Kenya national anthem is played, then the escort to the colour marches off in a slow march to the tune of "The Grenadiers' Slow March". The first tune normally played during the march in slow time is always 'By land and sea'.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Also part of the Commonwealth, Malaysia performs Trooping the Colours every first Saturday in June, days after the official birthday of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the elected Malaysian King, on the first Monday, in front of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the Raja Permaisuri Agong, the Prime Minister of Malaysia, the Deputy Prime Minister, and other officials of the Government, and officers of the Malaysian Armed Forces, of which the King is the Commander-in-Chief as prescribed by the Malaysian Constitution of 1957 as amended.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Malaysian trooping follows the publication of an Honours List for the King's Birthday on the same week. It also incorporates many elements of the British Trooping ceremony, including a Royal Procession before and after the parade, The Sovereign's Escort provided by the Royal Armored Corps, Saluting Base at Merdeka Square, National Heroes' Square or at the Merdeka Stadium, Royal Inspection, the duties of Field Officer, Major of the Parade and Adjutant officers and the NCO duties of Regt. Sergeant Majors and Colour Sergeants, the Royal Salute, 21-gun salutes by the Royal Regiment of Artillery, and flypasts (flying the Malaysian flag and the flags of the Armed forces). It is conducted in Malay and includes prayers, in the Islamic traditions of the Malaysian Armed Forces. Motorized vehicles are used in the Royal Procession from the Royal Malaysian Police. The main differences are that five colours are trooped, covering all three branches of the Armed Forces, and some of marches played are locally composed. This threefold representation is reflected in the composition of the Colours Party, the Escort for/to the Colours and the Massed Military Bands in attendance.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The 2014 event was held on Friday, 13 June, at Kem Perdana, Sungai Besi, which was a departure from normal tradition of the Saturday troopings. This was the very first time in Malaysian history that Trooping the Colour was held on the Friday in June closest to the King's Birthday, rather than the traditional first Saturday of the month. In an old tradition which resumed in 2016 at the National Heroes' Square, Putrajaya, if the celebrations fall on Ramadan, then the birthday parade is held on the Friday before 31 July, Heroes' Day.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: For the first time in history, the traditional Trooping the Colours was held on 19 September 2017, the Tuesday after Malaysia Day, in National Heroes' Square, Putrajaya, given the decision to move the King's Birthday to the Monday following Hari Merdeka. With the move to September the Trooping the Colours in Putrajaya ends more than a month of national celebrations in honour of the anniversary of Malaysian independence in 1957 and the formation of the armed forces in 1932.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: Given Malta's history as a former British dominion, the Armed Forces of Malta performs Trooping the Colour every 13 December in celebration of Republic Day at St. George’s Square in Valletta, the national capital. The salute is taken by the President of Malta, who is the commander in chief of the AFM.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The units that provide the colour and official band are from the 1st Regiment, Armed Forces of Malta, and the Armed Forces of Malta Band.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: On 25 April 1954, a date which was later designated as "Tanlwe Chaung Day", the Rhodesian African Rifles


title: Trooping the Colour

text: performed the first ever Trooping of the Colour in Southern Rhodesia in the presence of Governor General


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Rhodesian Light Infantry trooped their Colour for the only time on 27 July 1970 at Cranborne Barracks, with the Mayor of Salisbury (now Harare), the Minister of Defence Jack Howman, Prime Minister Ian Smith and the commanding officer of the Rhodesian African Rifles in attendance. Regimental Sergeant Major Robin Tarr began the proceedings at 10:35, after which the Rhodesian African Rifles Band and Drums began playing the RLI's slow march, "The Incredibles", as the RLI troopers marched onto the parade square. The regimental colour was then trooped before finally the RLI men performed a march-past in slow and quick time.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Singapore Armed Forces performs Trooping the Colours annually in the SAF Day Parade on 1 July. It is toned down as compared to the British version and is done after the awarding of the State Colours to the Best units of the Army, Navy and Air Force. If new Colours have been consecrated on SAF day, they are usually included in the Trooping, but if otherwise, are Trooped on a separate day. The Escorts to the Colour (No.1 Guard) are usually formed by the Singapore Armed Forces Military Police Command, while Nos. 2-4 Guards are composed of personnel from the SAF National Day Parade Guard of Honour Companies. Unlike the British parade, it has supporting contingents that march past as well.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The salute is taken by the President of Singapore, the Prime Minister of Singapore, and the Chief of Defence Force, while the band in attendance is either the SAF Central Band or the SAF Ceremonial Band A (both from the Singapore Armed Forces Bands).


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The No.2 Guard is usually made up of personnel from the Singapore Army's Best Army Unit Competition winner for the current year, typically the 1st Commando Battalion, Singapore Armed Forces Commando Formation. Of Nos. 3 and 4 Guards, these are, as of recent NDPs, formed up of the Naval Diving Unit and the Air Power Generation Command.


title: Trooping the Colour

text: The Ugandan Armed Forces performs a Trooping the Colour on Independence Day on Kololo Ceremonial Grounds in the national capital, with salute being taken by the President of Uganda.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from the effects of antimicrobials. All classes of microbes can evolve resistance. Fungi evolve antifungal resistance. Viruses evolve antiviral resistance. Protozoa evolve antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria evolve antibiotic resistance. Those bacteria that are considered extensively drug resistant (XDR) or totally drug-resistant (TDR) are sometimes called "superbugs". Although antimicrobial resistance is a naturally-occurring process, it is often the result of improper usage of the drugs and management of the infections.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antibiotic resistance is a major subset of AMR, that applies specifically to bacteria that become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance in bacteria can arise naturally by genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of random mutations. However, extended use of antimicrobials appears to encourage selection for mutations which can render antimicrobials ineffective.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Clinical conditions due to AMR cause millions of deaths each year. Infections caused by resistant microbes are more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of antimicrobial drugs, or alternative medications which may prove more toxic. These approaches may also be more expensive. Microbes resistant to multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant (MDR).


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The prevention of antibiotic misuse, which can lead to antibiotic resistance, includes taking antibiotics only when prescribed. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance, as well as side effects. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Rising drug resistance is caused mainly by use of antimicrobials in humans and other animals, and spread of resistant strains between the two. Growing resistance has also been linked to releasing inadequately treated effluents from the pharmaceutical industry, especially in countries where bulk drugs are manufactured. Antibiotics increase selective pressure in bacterial populations, causing vulnerable bacteria to die; this increases the percentage of resistant bacteria which continue growing. Even at very low levels of antibiotic, resistant bacteria can have a growth advantage and grow faster than vulnerable bacteria. As resistance to antibiotics becomes more common there is greater need for alternative treatments. Calls for new antibiotic therapies have been issued, but new drug development is becoming rarer.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antimicrobial resistance is increasing globally due to increased prescription and dispensing of antibiotic drugs in developing countries. Estimates are that 700,000 to several million deaths result per year and continues to pose a major public health threat worldwide. Each year in the United States, at least 2.8 million people become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics and at least 35,000 people die and US$55 billion in increased health care costs and lost productivity. According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, 350 million deaths could be caused by AMR by 2050. By then, the yearly death toll will be 10 million, according to a United Nations report.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: There are public calls for global collective action to address the threat that include proposals for international treaties on antimicrobial resistance. Worldwide antibiotic resistance is not completely identified, but poorer countries with weaker healthcare systems are more affected. During the COVID-19 pandemic, action against antimicrobial resistance slowed due to scientists focusing more on SARS-CoV-2 research.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance as a microorganism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism. A person cannot become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe. All types of microbes can develop drug resistance. Thus, there are antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral and antiparasitic resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antibiotic resistance is a subset of antimicrobial resistance. This more specified resistance is linked to pathogenic bacteria and thus broken down into two further subsets, microbiological and clinical. Resistance linked microbiologically is the most common and occurs from genes, mutated or inherited, that allow the bacteria to resist the mechanism associated with certain antibiotics. Clinical resistance is shown through the failure of many therapeutic techniques where the bacteria that are normally susceptible to a treatment become resistant after surviving the outcome of the treatment. In both cases of acquired resistance, the bacteria can pass the genetic catalyst for resistance through conjugation, transduction, or transformation. This allows the resistance to spread across the same pathogen or even similar bacterial pathogens.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: WHO report released April 2014 stated, "this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country. Antibiotic resistance—when bacteria change so antibiotics no longer work in people who need them to treat infections—is now a major threat to public health."


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Global deaths attributable to AMR numbered 1.27 million in 2019. That year, AMR may have contributed to 5 million deaths and one in five people who died due to AMR were children under five years old.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In 2018, WHO considered antibiotic resistance to be one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. Deaths attributable to AMR vary by area:


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control calculated that in 2015 there were 671,689 infections in the EU and European Economic Area caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resulting in 33,110 deaths. Most were acquired in healthcare settings.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antimicrobial resistance is mainly caused by the overuse of antimicrobials. This leads to microbes either evolving a defense against drugs used to treat them, or certain strains of microbes that have a natural resistance to antimicrobials becoming much more prevalent than the ones that are easily defeated with medication. While antimicrobial resistance does occur naturally over time, the use of antimicrobial agents in a variety of settings both within the healthcare industry and outside of has led to antimicrobial resistance becoming increasingly more prevalent.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antimicrobial resistance can evolve naturally due to continued exposure to antimicrobials. Natural selection means that organisms that are able to adapt to their environment, survive, and continue to produce offspring. As a result, the types of microorganisms that are able to survive over time with continued attack by certain antimicrobial agents will naturally become more prevalent in the environment, and those without this resistance will become obsolete.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Some contemporary antibiotic resistances have also evolved naturally before the use of antibiotics or human clinical use of respective antimicrobials. For instance, methicillin-resistance evolved in a pathogen of hedgehogs, possibly as a co-evolutionary adaptation of the pathogen to hedgehogs that are infected by a dermatophyte that naturally produces antibiotics. Also, many soil fungi and bacteria are natural competitors and the original antibiotic Penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming rapidly lost clinical effectiveness in treating humans and, furthermore, none of the other natural penicillins (F, K, N, X, O, U1 or U6) are currently in clinical use.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Over time, most of the strains of bacteria and infections present will be the type resistant to the antimicrobial agent being used to treat them, making this agent now ineffective to defeat most microbes. With the increased use of antimicrobial agents, there is a speeding up of this natural process.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Self-medication by consumers is defined as "the taking of medicines on one's own initiative or on another person's suggestion, who is not a certified medical professional", and it has been identified as one of the primary reasons for the evolution of antimicrobial resistance. In an effort to manage their own illness, patients take the advice of sometimes false media sources, friends, and family causing them to take antimicrobials unnecessarily or in excess. Many people resort to this out of necessity, when access to a physician is rationed or temporarily unavailable due to lockdowns or GP surgery closures, or when the patients have a limited amount of time or money to see a prescribing doctor, or, especially in many developing countries with growing populations but a poorly developed economy which lack cheap, convenient access to clinical professionals. In these situations, governments naturally allow the sale of antimicrobials as over the counter medications. This increased access makes it extremely easy to obtain antimicrobials without any targeting (which would enhance utility) or restriction via time and cost, and as a result many antimicrobials are taken incorrectly leading to resistant microbial strains. One major example of a place that faces these challenges is India, where in the state of Punjab 73% of the population resorted to treating their minor health issues and chronic illnesses through self-medication.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Two significant issues with self-medication are the lack of knowledge of the public on, firstly, the dangerous effects of certain antimicrobials (for example Ciprofloxacin causing tendonitis and tendon rupture) and, secondly, broad microbial resistance. In order to determine the public's knowledge and preconceived notions on antibiotic resistance, a major type of antimicrobial resistance, a screening of 3537 articles published in Europe, Asia, and North America was done. Of the 55,225 total people surveyed, 70% had heard of antibiotic resistance previously, but 88% of those people thought it referred to some type of physical change in the body. With so many people around the world with the ability to self-medicate using antibiotics, and a vast majority unaware of what antimicrobial resistance is, it makes the increase of antimicrobial resistance much more likely.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Clinical misuse by healthcare professionals is another cause leading to increased antimicrobial resistance. Studies done by the CDC show that the indication for treatment of antibiotics, choice of the agent used, and the duration of therapy was incorrect in up to 50% of the cases studied. In another study done in an intensive care unit in a major hospital in France, it was shown that 30% to 60% of prescribed antibiotics were unnecessary. These inappropriate uses of antimicrobial agents promote the evolution of antimicrobial resistance by supporting the bacteria in developing genetic alterations that lead to resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In a study done by the "American Journal of Infection Control" aimed to evaluate physicians' attitudes and knowledge on antimicrobial resistance in ambulatory settings, only 63% of those surveyed reported antibiotic resistance as a problem in their local practices, while 23% reported the aggressive prescription of antibiotics as necessary to avoid failing to provide adequate care. This demonstrates how a majority of doctors underestimate the impact that their own prescribing habits have on antimicrobial resistance as a whole. It also confirms that some physicians may be overly cautious and prescribe antibiotics for both medical or legal reasons, even when clinical indications for use for these medications are not always confirmed. This can lead to unnecessary antimicrobial use, a pattern which may have worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Studies have shown that common misconceptions about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Increased antibiotic use during the COVID-19 pandemic may exacerbate this global health challenge. Moreover, pandemic burdens on some healthcare systems may contribute to antibiotic-resistant infections. On the other hand, a study suggests that "increased hand hygiene, decreased international travel, and decreased elective hospital procedures may reduce AMR pathogen selection and spread in the short term". Disinfectants such as in various forms of use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and antiseptic hand wash may also have the potential to increase antimicrobial resistance. According to a study, "Extensive disinfectant use leads to mutations that induce antimicrobial resistance".


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Untreated effluents from pharmaceutical manufacturing industries, hospitals and clinics, and inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication can expose microbes in the environment to antibiotics and trigger the evolution of resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The antimicrobial resistance crisis also extends to the food industry, specifically with food producing animals. Antibiotics are fed to livestock to act as growth supplements, and a preventative measure to decrease the likelihood of infections. This results in the transfer of resistant bacterial strains into the food that humans eat, causing potentially fatal transfer of disease. While this practice does result in better yields and meat products, it is a major issue in terms of preventing antimicrobial resistance. Though the evidence linking antimicrobial usage in livestock to antimicrobial resistance is limited, the World Health Organization Advisory Group on Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance strongly recommended the reduction of use of medically important antimicrobials in livestock. Additionally, the Advisory Group stated that such antimicrobials should be expressly prohibited for both growth promotion and disease prevention.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In a study published by the National Academy of Sciences mapping antimicrobial consumption in livestock globally, it was predicted that in the 228 countries studied, there would be a total 67% increase in consumption of antibiotics by livestock by 2030. In some countries such as Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa it is predicted that a 99% increase will occur. Several countries have restricted the use of antibiotics in livestock, including Canada, China, Japan, and the US. These restrictions are sometimes associated with a reduction of the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in humans.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Most pesticides protect crops against insects and plants, but in some cases antimicrobial pesticides are used to protect against various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The overuse of many pesticides in an effort to have a higher yield of crops has resulted in many of these microbes evolving a tolerance against these antimicrobial agents. Currently there are over 4000 antimicrobial pesticides registered with the EPA and sold to market, showing the widespread use of these agents. It is estimated that for every single meal a person consumes, 0.3 g of pesticides is used, as 90% of all pesticide use is used on agriculture. A majority of these products are used to help defend against the spread of infectious diseases, and hopefully protect public health. But out of the large amount of pesticides used, it is also estimated that less than 0.1% of those antimicrobial agents, actually reach their targets. That leaves over 99% of all pesticides used available to contaminate other resources. In soil, air, and water these antimicrobial agents are able to spread, coming in contact with more microorganisms and leading to these microbes evolving mechanisms to tolerate and further resist pesticides.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: There have been increasing public calls for global collective action to address the threat, including a proposal for international treaty on antimicrobial resistance. Further detail and attention is still needed in order to recognize and measure trends in resistance on the international level; the idea of a global tracking system has been suggested but implementation has yet to occur. A system of this nature would provide insight to areas of high resistance as well as information necessary for evaluating programs and other changes made to fight or reverse antibiotic resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antibiotic treatment duration should be based on the infection and other health problems a person may have. For many infections once a person has improved there is little evidence that stopping treatment causes more resistance. Some, therefore, feel that stopping early may be reasonable in some cases. Other infections, however, do require long courses regardless of whether a person feels better.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: There are multiple national and international monitoring programs for drug-resistant threats, including methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant "S. aureus" (VRSA), extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), vancomycin-resistant "Enterococcus" (VRE), and multidrug-resistant "Acinetobacter baumannii" (MRAB).


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: ResistanceOpen is an online global map of antimicrobial resistance developed by HealthMap which displays aggregated data on antimicrobial resistance from publicly available and user submitted data. The website can display data for a radius from a location. Users may submit data from antibiograms for individual hospitals or laboratories. European data is from the EARS-Net (European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network), part of the ECDC.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: ResistanceMap is a website by the Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy and provides data on antimicrobial resistance on a global level.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance. The antibiotic stewardship program will also provide pharmacists with the knowledge to educate patients that antibiotics will not work for a virus.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Excessive antibiotic use has become one of the top contributors to the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Since the beginning of the antibiotic era, antibiotics have been used to treat a wide range of disease. Overuse of antibiotics has become the primary cause of rising levels of antibiotic resistance. The main problem is that doctors are willing to prescribe antibiotics to ill-informed individuals who believe that antibiotics can cure nearly all illnesses, including viral infections like the common cold. In an analysis of drug prescriptions, 36% of individuals with a cold or an upper respiratory infection (both viral in origin) were given prescriptions for antibiotics. These prescriptions accomplished nothing other than increasing the risk of further evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Using antibiotics without prescription is another driving force leading to the overuse of antibiotics to self-treat diseases like the common cold, cough, fever, and dysentery resulting in an epidemic of antibiotic resistance in countries like Bangladesh, risking its spread around the globe. Introducing strict antibiotic stewardship in the outpatient setting may reduce the emerging bacterial resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: It is established that the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry can give rise to AMR resistances in bacteria found in food animals to the antibiotics being administered (through injections or medicated feeds). For this reason only antimicrobials that are deemed "not-clinically relevant" are used in these practices.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Recent studies have shown that the prophylactic use of "non-priority" or "non-clinically relevant" antimicrobials in feeds can potentially, under certain conditions, lead to co-selection of environmental AMR bacteria with resistance to medically important antibiotics. The possibility for co-selection of AMR resistances in the food chain pipeline may have far-reaching implications for human health.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Given the volume of care provided in primary care (General Practice), recent strategies have focused on reducing unnecessary antibiotic prescribing in this setting. Simple interventions, such as written information explaining the futility of antibiotics for common infections such as upper respiratory tract infections, have been shown to reduce antibiotic prescribing.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The prescriber should closely adhere to the five rights of drug administration: the right patient, the right drug, the right dose, the right route, and the right time.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: About a third of antibiotic prescriptions written in outpatient settings in the United States were not appropriate in 2010 and 2011. Doctors in the U.S. wrote 506 annual antibiotic scripts for every 1,000 people, with 353 being medically necessary.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Health workers and pharmacists can help tackle resistance by: enhancing infection prevention and control; only prescribing and dispensing antibiotics when they are truly needed; prescribing and dispensing the right antibiotic(s) to treat the illness.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: People can help tackle resistance by using antibiotics only when prescribed by a doctor; completing the full prescription, even if they feel better; never sharing antibiotics with others or using leftover prescriptions.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Infectious disease control through improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure needs to be included in the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) agenda. The "Interagency Coordination Group on Antimicrobial Resistance" stated in 2018 that "the spread of pathogens through unsafe water results in a high burden of gastrointestinal disease, increasing even further the need for antibiotic treatment." This is particularly a problem in developing countries where the spread of infectious diseases caused by inadequate WASH standards is a major driver of antibiotic demand. Growing usage of antibiotics together with persistent infectious disease levels have led to a dangerous cycle in which reliance on antimicrobials increases while the efficacy of drugs diminishes. The proper use of infrastructure for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) can result in a 47–72 percent decrease of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics depending on the type of intervention and its effectiveness. A reduction of the diarrhea disease burden through improved infrastructure would result in large decreases in the number of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics. This was estimated as ranging from 5 million in Brazil to up to 590 million in India by the year 2030. The strong link between increased consumption and resistance indicates that this will directly mitigate the accelerating spread of AMR. Sanitation and water for all by 2030 is Goal Number 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: An increase in hand washing compliance by hospital staff results in decreased rates of resistant organisms.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in health facilities offer significant co-benefits for combatting AMR, and investment should be increased. There is much room for improvement: WHO and UNICEF estimated in 2015 that globally 38% of health facilities did not have a source of water, nearly 19% had no toilets and 35% had no water and soap or alcohol-based hand rub for handwashing.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Manufacturers of antimicrobials need to improve the treatment of their wastewater (by using industrial wastewater treatment processes) to reduce the release of residues into the environment.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In 1997, European Union health ministers voted to ban avoparcin and four additional antibiotics used to promote animal growth in 1999. In 2006 a ban on the use of antibiotics in European feed, with the exception of two antibiotics in poultry feeds, became effective. In Scandinavia, there is evidence that the ban has led to a lower prevalence of antibiotic resistance in (nonhazardous) animal bacterial populations. As of 2004, several European countries established a decline of antimicrobial resistance in humans through limiting the use of antimicrobials in agriculture and food industries without jeopardizing animal health or economic cost.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collect data on antibiotic use in humans and in a more limited fashion in animals. The FDA first determined in 1977 that there is evidence of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains in livestock. The long-established practice of permitting OTC sales of antibiotics (including penicillin and other drugs) to lay animal owners for administration to their own animals nonetheless continued in all states.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In 2000, the FDA announced their intention to revoke approval of fluoroquinolone use in poultry production because of substantial evidence linking it to the emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant "Campylobacter" infections in humans. Legal challenges from the food animal and pharmaceutical industries delayed the final decision to do so until 2006. Fluroquinolones have been banned from extra-label use in food animals in the USA since 2007. However, they remain widely used in companion and exotic animals.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The increasing interconnectedness of the world and the fact that new classes of antibiotics have not been developed and approved for more than 25 years highlight the extent to which antimicrobial resistance is a global health challenge. A global action plan to tackle the growing problem of resistance to antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines was endorsed at the Sixty-eighth World Health Assembly in May 2015. One of the key objectives of the plan is to improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education and training. This global action plan developed by the World Health Organization was created to combat the issue of antimicrobial resistance and was guided by the advice of countries and key stakeholders. The WHO's global action plan is composed of five key objectives that can be targeted through different means, and represents countries coming together to solve a major problem that can have future health consequences. These objectives are as follows:


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The World Health Organization has promoted the first World Antibiotic Awareness Week running from 16 to 22 November 2015. The aim of the week is to increase global awareness of antibiotic resistance. It also wants to promote the correct usage of antibiotics across all fields in order to prevent further instances of antibiotic resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: World Antibiotic Awareness Week has been held every November since 2015. For 2017, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) are together calling for responsible use of antibiotics in humans and animals to reduce the emergence of antibiotic resistance.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In 2016 the Secretary-General of the United Nations convened the Interagency Coordination Group (IACG) on Antimicrobial Resistance. The IACG worked with international organizations and experts in human, animal, and plant health to create a plan to fight antimicrobial resistance. Their report released in April 2019 highlights the seriousness of antimicrobial resistance and the threat it poses to world health. It suggests five recommendations for member states to follow in order to tackle this increasing threat. The IACG recommendations are as follows:


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: The six pathogens causing most deaths associated with resistance are "Escherichia coli", "Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii", and "Pseudomonas aeruginosa". They were responsible for 929,000 deaths attributable to resistance and 3.57 million deaths associated with resistance in 2019.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Penicillinase-producing "Neisseria gonorrhoeae" developed a resistance to penicillin in 1976. Another example is Azithromycin-resistant "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", which developed a resistance to azithromycin in 2011.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In gram-negative bacteria, plasmid-mediated resistance genes produce proteins that can bind to DNA gyrase, protecting it from the action of quinolones. Finally, mutations at key sites in DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV can decrease their binding affinity to quinolones, decreasing the drug's effectiveness.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, with spontaneous mutations in the pathogen genome occurring at a rate of about 1 in 10 to 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication, the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. However, chromosomal mutations also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but may result in slower growth rate. Moreover, some adaptive mutations can propagate not only through inheritance but also through horizontal gene transfer. The most common mechanism of horizontal gene transfer is the transferring of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria of the same or different species via conjugation. However, bacteria can also acquire resistance through transformation, as in "Streptococcus pneumoniae" uptaking of naked fragments of extracellular DNA that contain antibiotic resistance genes to streptomycin, through transduction, as in the bacteriophage-mediated transfer of tetracycline resistance genes between strains of "S. pyogenes", or through gene transfer agents, which are particles produced by the host cell that resemble bacteriophage structures and are capable of transferring DNA.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antibiotic resistance can be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Recent findings show no necessity of large populations of bacteria for the appearance of antibiotic resistance. Small populations of "Escherichia coli" in an antibiotic gradient can become resistant. Any heterogeneous environment with respect to nutrient and antibiotic gradients may facilitate antibiotic resistance in small bacterial populations. Researchers hypothesize that the mechanism of resistance evolution is based on four SNP mutations in the genome of "E. coli" produced by the gradient of antibiotic.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In one study, which has implications for space microbiology, a non-pathogenic strain "E. coli" MG1655 was exposed to trace levels of the broad spectrum antibiotic chloramphenicol, under simulated microgravity (LSMMG, or Low Shear Modeled Microgravity) over 1000 generations. The adapted strain acquired resistance to not only chloramphenicol, but also cross-resistance to other antibiotics; this was in contrast to the observation on the same strain, which was adapted to over 1000 generations under LSMMG, but without any antibiotic exposure; the strain in this case did not acquire any such resistance. Thus, irrespective of where they are used, the use of an antibiotic would likely result in persistent resistance to that antibiotic, as well as cross-resistance to other antimicrobials.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: In recent years, the emergence and spread of β-lactamases called carbapenemases has become a major health crisis. One such carbapenemase is New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1 (NDM-1), an enzyme that makes bacteria resistant to a broad range of beta-lactam antibiotics. The most common bacteria that make this enzyme are gram-negative such as "E. coli" and "Klebsiella pneumoniae", but the gene for NDM-1 can spread from one strain of bacteria to another by horizontal gene transfer.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Specific antiviral drugs are used to treat some viral infections. These drugs prevent viruses from reproducing by inhibiting essential stages of the virus's replication cycle in infected cells. Antivirals are used to treat HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, influenza, herpes viruses including varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus and Epstein–Barr virus. With each virus, some strains have become resistant to the administered drugs.


title: Antimicrobial resistance

text: Antiviral drugs typically target key components of viral reproduction; for example, oseltamivir targets influenza neuraminidase, while guanosine analogs inhibit viral DNA polymerase. Resistance to antivirals is thus acquired through mutations in the genes that encode the protein targets of the drugs.