title: Radio receiver

text: This circuit had two advantages. One was that by using the correct turns ratio, the impedance of the antenna could be matched to the impedance of the receiver, to transfer maximum RF power to the receiver. Impedance matching was important to achieve maximum receiving range in the unamplified receivers of this era. The coils usually had taps which could be selected by a multiposition switch. The second advantage was that due to "loose coupling" it had a much narrower bandwidth than a simple tuned circuit, and the bandwidth could be adjusted. Unlike in an ordinary transformer, the two coils were "loosely coupled"; separated physically so not all the magnetic field from the primary passed through the secondary, reducing the mutual inductance. This gave the coupled tuned circuits much "sharper" tuning, a narrower bandwidth than a single tuned circuit. In the "Navy type" loose coupler "(see picture)", widely used with crystal receivers, the smaller secondary coil was mounted on a rack which could be slid in or out of the primary coil, to vary the mutual inductance between the coils. When the operator encountered an interfering signal at a nearby frequency, the secondary could be slid further out of the primary, reducing the coupling, which narrowed the bandwidth, rejecting the interfering signal. A disadvantage was that all three adjustments in the loose coupler - primary tuning, secondary tuning, and coupling - were interactive; changing one changed the others. So tuning in a new station was a process of successive adjustments.


title: Radio receiver

text: Selectivity became more important as spark transmitters were replaced by continuous wave transmitters which transmitted on a narrow band of frequencies, and broadcasting led to a proliferation of closely spaced radio stations crowding the radio spectrum. Resonant transformers continued to be used as the bandpass filter in vacuum tube radios, and new forms such as the "variometer" were invented. Another advantage of the double-tuned transformer for AM reception was that when properly adjusted it had a "flat top" frequency response curve as opposed to the "peaked" response of a single tuned circuit. This allowed it to pass the sidebands of AM modulation on either side of the carrier with little distortion, unlike a single tuned circuit which attenuated the higher audio frequencies. Until recently the bandpass filters in the superheterodyne circuit used in all modern receivers were made with resonant transformers, called IF transformers.


title: Radio receiver

text: Marconi's initial radio system had relatively poor tuning limiting its range and adding to interference. To overcome this drawback he developed a four circuit system with tuned coils in ""syntony"" at both the transmitters and receivers. His 1900 British #7,777 (four sevens) patent for tuning filed in April 1900 and granted a year later opened the door to patents disputes since it infringed on the Syntonic patents of Oliver Lodge, first filed in May 1897, as well as patents filed by Ferdinand Braun. Marconi was able to obtain patents in the UK and France but the US version of his tuned four circuit patent, filed in November 1900, was initially rejected based on it being anticipated by Lodge's tuning system, and refiled versions were rejected because of the prior patents by Braun, and Lodge. A further clarification and re-submission was rejected because it infringed on parts of two prior patents Tesla had obtained for his wireless power transmission system. Marconi's lawyers managed to get a resubmitted patent reconsidered by another examiner who initially rejected it due to a pre-existing John Stone Stone tuning patent, but it was finally approved it in June 1904 based on it having a unique system of variable inductance tuning that was different from Stone who tuned by varying the length of the antenna. When Lodge's Syntonic patent was extended in 1911 for another 7 years the Marconi Company agreed to settle that patent dispute, purchasing Lodge's radio company with its patent in 1912, giving them the priority patent they needed. Other patent disputes would crop up over the years including a 1943 US Supreme Court ruling on the Marconi Company's ability to sue the US government over patent infringement during World War I. The Court rejected the Marconi Company's suit saying they could not sue for patent infringement when their own patents did not seem to have priority over the patents of Lodge, Stone, and Tesla.


title: Radio receiver

text: Although it was invented in 1904 in the wireless telegraphy era, the crystal radio receiver could also rectify AM transmissions and served as a bridge to the broadcast era. In addition to being the main type used in commercial stations during the wireless telegraphy era, it was the first receiver to be used widely by the public. During the first two decades of the 20th century, as radio stations began to transmit in AM voice (radiotelephony) instead of radiotelegraphy, radio listening became a popular hobby, and the crystal was the simplest, cheapest detector. The millions of people who purchased or homemade these inexpensive reliable receivers created the mass listening audience for the first radio broadcasts, which began around 1920. By the late 1920s the crystal receiver was superseded by vacuum tube receivers and became commercially obsolete. However it continued to be used by youth and the poor until World War II. Today these simple radio receivers are constructed by students as educational science projects.


title: Radio receiver

text: The crystal radio used a cat's whisker detector, invented by Harrison H. C. Dunwoody and Greenleaf Whittier Pickard in 1904, to extract the audio from the radio frequency signal. It consisted of a mineral crystal, usually galena, which was lightly touched by a fine springy wire (the "cat whisker") on an adjustable arm. The resulting crude semiconductor junction functioned as a Schottky barrier diode, conducting in only one direction. Only particular sites on the crystal surface worked as detector junctions, and the junction could be disrupted by the slightest vibration. So a usable site was found by trial and error before each use; the operator would drag the cat's whisker across the crystal until the radio began functioning. Frederick Seitz, a later semiconductor researcher, wrote:


title: Radio receiver

text: Such variability, bordering on what seemed the mystical, plagued the early history of crystal detectors and caused many of the vacuum tube experts of a later generation to regard the art of crystal rectification as being close to disreputable.


title: Radio receiver

text: The crystal radio was unamplified and ran off the power of the radio waves received from the radio station, so it had to be listened to with earphones; it could not drive a loudspeaker. It required a long wire antenna, and its sensitivity depended on how large the antenna was. During the wireless era it was used in commercial and military longwave stations with huge antennas to receive long distance radiotelegraphy traffic, even including transatlantic traffic. However, when used to receive broadcast stations a typical home crystal set had a more limited range of about 25 miles. In sophisticated crystal radios the "loose coupler" inductively coupled tuned circuit was used to increase the Q. However it still had poor selectivity compared to modern receivers.


title: Radio receiver

text: Beginning around 1905 continuous wave (CW) transmitters began to replace spark transmitters for radiotelegraphy because they had much greater range. The first continuous wave transmitters were the Poulsen arc invented in 1904 and the Alexanderson alternator developed 1906–1910, which were replaced by vacuum tube transmitters beginning around 1920.


title: Radio receiver

text: The continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals produced by these transmitters required a different method of reception. The radiotelegraphy signals produced by spark gap transmitters consisted of strings of damped waves repeating at an audio rate, so the "dots" and "dashes" of Morse code were audible as a tone or buzz in the receivers' earphones. However the new continuous wave radiotelegraph signals simply consisted of pulses of unmodulated carrier (sine waves). These were inaudible in the receiver headphones. To receive this new modulation type, the receiver had to produce some kind of tone during the pulses of carrier.


title: Radio receiver

text: In 1901 Reginald Fessenden had invented a better means of accomplishing this. In his "heterodyne receiver" an unmodulated sine wave radio signal at a frequency f" offset from the incoming radio wave carrier f" was applied to a rectifying detector such as a crystal detector or electrolytic detector, along with the radio signal from the antenna. In the detector the two signals mixed, creating two new "heterodyne" (beat) frequencies at the sum f" + f" and the difference f" − f" between these frequencies. By choosing f" correctly the lower heterodyne f" − "f" was in the audio frequency range, so it was audible as a tone in the earphone whenever the carrier was present. Thus the "dots" and "dashes" of Morse code were audible as musical "beeps". A major attraction of this method during this pre-amplification period was that the heterodyne receiver actually amplified the signal somewhat, the detector had "mixer gain".


title: Radio receiver

text: The receiver was ahead of its time, because when it was invented there was no oscillator capable of producing the radio frequency sine wave "f" with the required stability. Fessenden first used his large radio frequency alternator, but this wasn't practical for ordinary receivers. The heterodyne receiver remained a laboratory curiosity until a cheap compact source of continuous waves appeared, the vacuum tube electronic oscillator invented by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner in 1913. After this it became the standard method of receiving CW radiotelegraphy. The heterodyne oscillator is the ancestor of the "beat frequency oscillator" (BFO) which is used to receive radiotelegraphy in communications receivers today. The heterodyne oscillator had to be retuned each time the receiver was tuned to a new station, but in modern superheterodyne receivers the BFO signal beats with the fixed intermediate frequency, so the beat frequency oscillator can be a fixed frequency.


title: Radio receiver

text: The Audion (triode) vacuum tube invented by Lee De Forest in 1906 was the first practical amplifying device and revolutionized radio. Vacuum tube transmitters replaced spark transmitters and made possible four new types of modulation: continuous wave (CW) radiotelegraphy, amplitude modulation (AM) around 1915 which could carry audio (sound), frequency modulation (FM) around 1938 which had much improved audio quality, and single sideband (SSB).


title: Radio receiver

text: The amplifying vacuum tube used energy from a battery or electrical outlet to increase the power of the radio signal, so vacuum tube receivers could be more sensitive and have a greater reception range than the previous unamplified receivers. The increased audio output power also allowed them to drive loudspeakers instead of earphones, permitting more than one person to listen. The first loudspeakers were produced around 1915. These changes caused radio listening to evolve explosively from a solitary hobby to a popular social and family pastime. The development of amplitude modulation (AM) and vacuum-tube transmitters during World War I, and the availability of cheap receiving tubes after the war, set the stage for the start of AM broadcasting, which sprang up spontaneously around 1920.


title: Radio receiver

text: The advent of radio broadcasting increased the market for radio receivers greatly, and transformed them into a consumer product. At the beginning of the 1920s the radio receiver was a forbidding high-tech device, with many cryptic knobs and controls requiring technical skill to operate, housed in an unattractive black metal box, with a tinny-sounding horn loudspeaker. By the 1930s, the broadcast receiver had become a piece of furniture, housed in an attractive wooden case, with standardized controls anyone could use, which occupied a respected place in the home living room. In the early radios the multiple tuned circuits required multiple knobs to be adjusted to tune in a new station. One of the most important ease-of-use innovations was "single knob tuning", achieved by linking the tuning capacitors together mechanically. The dynamic cone loudspeaker invented in 1924 greatly improved audio frequency response over the previous horn speakers, allowing music to be reproduced with good fidelity. Convenience features like large lighted dials, tone controls, pushbutton tuning, tuning indicators and automatic gain control (AGC) were added. The receiver market was divided into the above "broadcast receivers" and "communications receivers", which were used for two-way radio communications such as shortwave radio.


title: Radio receiver

text: A vacuum-tube receiver required several power supplies at different voltages, which in early radios were supplied by separate batteries. By 1930 adequate rectifier tubes were developed, and the expensive batteries were replaced by a transformer power supply that worked off the house current.


title: Radio receiver

text: Vacuum tubes were bulky, expensive, had a limited lifetime, consumed a large amount of power and produced a lot of waste heat, so the number of tubes a receiver could economically have was a limiting factor. Therefore, a goal of tube receiver design was to get the most performance out of a limited number of tubes. The major radio receiver designs, listed below, were invented during the vacuum tube era.


title: Radio receiver

text: A defect in many early vacuum-tube receivers was that the amplifying stages could oscillate, act as an oscillator, producing unwanted radio frequency alternating currents. These parasitic oscillations mixed with the carrier of the radio signal in the detector tube, producing audible beat notes (heterodynes); annoying whistles, moans, and howls in the speaker. The oscillations were caused by feedback in the amplifiers; one major feedback path was the capacitance between the plate and grid in early triodes. This was solved by the Neutrodyne circuit, and later the development of the tetrode and pentode around 1930.


title: Radio receiver

text: Edwin Armstrong is one of the most important figures in radio receiver history, and during this period invented technology which continues to dominate radio communication. He was the first to give a correct explanation of how De Forest's triode tube worked. He invented the feedback oscillator, regenerative receiver, the superregenerative receiver, the superheterodyne receiver, and modern frequency modulation (FM).


title: Radio receiver

text: The first amplifying vacuum tube, the Audion, a crude triode, was invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest as a more sensitive detector for radio receivers, by adding a third electrode to the thermionic diode detector, the Fleming valve. It was not widely used until its amplifying ability was recognized around 1912. The first tube receivers, invented by De Forest and built by hobbyists until the mid-1920s, used a single Audion which functioned as a grid-leak detector which both rectified and amplified the radio signal. There was uncertainty about the operating principle of the Audion until Edwin Armstrong explained both its amplifying and demodulating functions in a 1914 paper. The grid-leak detector circuit was also used in regenerative, TRF, and early superheterodyne receivers "(below)" until the 1930s.


title: Radio receiver

text: To give enough output power to drive a loudspeaker, 2 or 3 additional vacuum tube stages were needed for audio amplification. Many early hobbyists could only afford a single tube receiver, and listened to the radio with earphones, so early tube amplifiers and speakers were sold as add-ons.


title: Radio receiver

text: In addition to very low gain of about 5 and a short lifetime of about 30 – 100 hours, the primitive Audion had erratic characteristics because it was incompletely evacuated. De Forest believed that ionization of residual air was key to Audion operation. This made it a more sensitive detector but also caused its electrical characteristics to vary during use. As the tube heated up, gas released from the metal elements would change the pressure in the tube, changing the plate current and other characteristics, so it required periodic bias adjustments to keep it at the correct operating point. Each Audion stage usually had a rheostat to adjust the filament current, and often a potentiometer or multiposition switch to control the plate voltage. The filament rheostat was also used as a volume control. The many controls made multitube Audion receivers complicated to operate.


title: Radio receiver

text: By 1914, Harold Arnold at Western Electric and Irving Langmuir at GE realized that the residual gas was not necessary; the Audion could operate on electron conduction alone. They evacuated tubes to a lower pressure of 10 atm, producing the first "hard vacuum" triodes. These more stable tubes did not require bias adjustments, so radios had fewer controls and were easier to operate. During World War I civilian radio use was prohibited, but by 1920 large-scale production of vacuum tube radios began. The "soft" incompletely evacuated tubes were used as detectors through the 1920s then became obsolete.


title: Radio receiver

text: The regenerative receiver, invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1913 when he was a 23-year-old college student, was used very widely until the late 1920s particularly by hobbyists who could only afford a single-tube radio. Today transistor versions of the circuit are still used in a few inexpensive applications like walkie-talkies. In the regenerative receiver the gain (amplification) of a vacuum tube or transistor is increased by using "regeneration" (positive feedback); some of the energy from the tube's output circuit is fed back into the input circuit with a feedback loop. The early vacuum tubes had very low gain (around 5). Regeneration could not only increase the gain of the tube enormously, by a factor of 15,000 or more, it also increased the Q factor of the tuned circuit, decreasing (sharpening) the bandwidth of the receiver by the same factor, improving selectivity greatly. The receiver had a control to adjust the feedback. The tube also acted as a grid-leak detector to rectify the AM signal.


title: Radio receiver

text: Another advantage of the circuit was that the tube could be made to oscillate, and thus a single tube could serve as both a beat frequency oscillator and a detector, functioning as a heterodyne receiver to make CW radiotelegraphy transmissions audible. This mode was called an autodyne receiver. To receive radiotelegraphy, the feedback was increased until the tube oscillated, then the oscillation frequency was tuned to one side of the transmitted signal. The incoming radio carrier signal and local oscillation signal mixed in the tube and produced an audible heterodyne (beat) tone at the difference between the frequencies.


title: Radio receiver

text: A widely used design was the Armstrong circuit, in which a "tickler" coil in the plate circuit was coupled to the tuning coil in the grid circuit, to provide the feedback. The feedback was controlled by a variable resistor, or alternately by moving the two windings physically closer together to increase loop gain, or apart to reduce it. This was done by an adjustable air core transformer called a variometer (variocoupler). Regenerative detectors were sometimes also used in TRF and superheterodyne receivers.


title: Radio receiver

text: One problem with the regenerative circuit was that when used with large amounts of regeneration the selectivity (Q) of the tuned circuit could be "too" sharp, attenuating the AM sidebands, thus distorting the audio modulation. This was usually the limiting factor on the amount of feedback that could be employed.


title: Radio receiver

text: A more serious drawback was that it could act as an inadvertent radio transmitter, producing interference (RFI) in nearby receivers. In AM reception, to get the most sensitivity the tube was operated very close to instability and could easily break into oscillation (and in CW reception "did" oscillate), and the resulting radio signal was radiated by its wire antenna. In nearby receivers, the regenerative's signal would beat with the signal of the station being received in the detector, creating annoying heterodynes, (beats), howls and whistles. Early regeneratives which oscillated easily were called "bloopers". One preventive measure was to use a stage of RF amplification before the regenerative detector, to isolate it from the antenna. But by the mid-1920s "regens" were no longer sold by the major radio manufacturers.


title: Radio receiver

text: This was a receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1922 which used regeneration in a more sophisticated way, to give greater gain. It was used in a few shortwave receivers in the 1930s, and is used today in a few cheap high frequency applications such as walkie-talkies and garage door openers.


title: Radio receiver

text: In the regenerative receiver the loop gain of the feedback loop was less than one, so the tube (or other amplifying device) did not oscillate but was close to oscillation, giving large gain. In the superregenerative receiver, the loop gain was made equal to one, so the amplifying device actually began to oscillate, but the oscillations were interrupted periodically. This allowed a single tube to produce gains of over 10.


title: Radio receiver

text: The tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver, invented in 1916 by Ernst Alexanderson, improved both sensitivity and selectivity by using several stages of amplification before the detector, each with a tuned circuit, all tuned to the frequency of the station.


title: Radio receiver

text: A major problem of early TRF receivers was that they were complicated to tune, because each resonant circuit had to be adjusted to the frequency of the station before the radio would work. In later TRF receivers the tuning capacitors were linked together mechanically ("ganged") on a common shaft so they could be adjusted with one knob, but in early receivers the frequencies of the tuned circuits could not be made to "track" well enough to allow this, and each tuned circuit had its own tuning knob. Therefore, the knobs had to be turned simultaneously. For this reason most TRF sets had no more than three tuned RF stages.


title: Radio receiver

text: A second problem was that the multiple radio frequency stages, all tuned to the same frequency, were prone to oscillate, and the parasitic oscillations mixed with the radio station's carrier in the detector, producing audible heterodynes (beat notes), whistles and moans, in the speaker. This was solved by the invention of the Neutrodyne circuit "(below)" and the development of the tetrode later around 1930, and better shielding between stages.


title: Radio receiver

text: Today the TRF design is used in a few integrated (IC) receiver chips. From the standpoint of modern receivers the disadvantage of the TRF is that the gain and bandwidth of the tuned RF stages are not constant but vary as the receiver is tuned to different frequencies. Since the bandwidth of a filter with a given Q is proportional to the frequency, as the receiver is tuned to higher frequencies its bandwidth increases.


title: Radio receiver

text: The Neutrodyne receiver, invented in 1922 by Louis Hazeltine, was a TRF receiver with a "neutralizing" circuit added to each radio amplification stage to cancel the feedback to prevent the oscillations which caused the annoying whistles in the TRF. In the neutralizing circuit a capacitor fed a feedback current from the plate circuit to the grid circuit which was 180° out of phase with the feedback which caused the oscillation, canceling it. The Neutrodyne was popular until the advent of cheap tetrode tubes around 1930.


title: Radio receiver

text: The reflex receiver, invented in 1914 by Wilhelm Schloemilch and Otto von Bronk, and rediscovered and extended to multiple tubes in 1917 by Marius Latour and William H. Priess, was a design used in some inexpensive radios of the 1920s which enjoyed a resurgence in small portable tube radios of the 1930s and again in a few of the first transistor radios in the 1950s. It is another example of an ingenious circuit invented to get the most out of a limited number of active devices. In the reflex receiver the RF signal from the tuned circuit is passed through one or more amplifying tubes or transistors, demodulated in a detector, then the resulting audio signal is passed "again" though the same amplifier stages for audio amplification. The separate radio and audio signals present simultaneously in the amplifier do not interfere with each other since they are at different frequencies, allowing the amplifying tubes to do "double duty". In addition to single tube reflex receivers, some TRF and superheterodyne receivers had several stages "reflexed". Reflex radios were prone to a defect called "play-through" which meant that the volume of audio did not go to zero when the volume control was turned down.


title: Radio receiver

text: The superheterodyne, invented in 1918 during World War I by Edwin Armstrong when he was in the Signal Corps, is the design used in almost all modern receivers, except a few specialized applications. It is a more complicated design than the other receivers above, and when it was invented required 6 - 9 vacuum tubes, putting it beyond the budget of most consumers, so it was initially used mainly in commercial and military communication stations. However, by the 1930s the "superhet" had replaced all the other receiver types above.


title: Radio receiver

text: In the superheterodyne, the "heterodyne" technique invented by Reginald Fessenden is used to shift the frequency of the radio signal down to a lower "intermediate frequency" (IF), before it is processed. Its operation and advantages over the other radio designs in this section are described above in The superheterodyne design


title: Radio receiver

text: By the 1940s the superheterodyne AM broadcast receiver was refined into a cheap-to-manufacture design called the "All American Five", because it only used five vacuum tubes: usually a converter (mixer/local oscillator), an IF amplifier, a detector/audio amplifier, audio power amplifier, and a rectifier. This design was used for virtually all commercial radio receivers until the transistor replaced the vacuum tube in the 1970s.


title: Radio receiver

text: The invention of the transistor in 1947 revolutionized radio technology, making truly portable receivers possible, beginning with transistor radios in the late 1950s. Although portable vacuum tube radios were made, tubes were bulky and inefficient, consuming large amounts of power and requiring several large batteries to produce the filament and plate voltage. Transistors did not require a heated filament, reducing power consumption, and were smaller and much less fragile than vacuum tubes.


title: Radio receiver

text: Companies first began manufacturing radios advertised as portables shortly after the start of commercial broadcasting in the early 1920s. The vast majority of tube radios of the era used batteries and could be set up and operated anywhere, but most did not have features designed for portability such as handles and built in speakers. Some of the earliest portable tube radios were the Winn "Portable Wireless Set No. 149" that appeared in 1920 and the Grebe Model KT-1 that followed a year later. Crystal sets such as the Westinghouse Aeriola Jr. and the RCA Radiola 1 were also advertised as portable radios.


title: Radio receiver

text: Thanks to miniaturized vacuum tubes first developed in 1940, smaller portable radios appeared on the market from manufacturers such as Zenith and General Electric. First introduced in 1942, Zenith's Trans-Oceanic line of portable radios were designed to provide entertainment broadcasts as well as being able to tune into weather, marine and international shortwave stations. By the 1950s, a "golden age" of tube portables included lunchbox-sized tube radios like the Emerson 560, that featured molded plastic cases. So-called "pocket portable" radios like the RCA BP10 had existed since the 1940s, but their actual size was compatible with only the largest of coat pockets.


title: Radio receiver

text: The development of the bipolar junction transistor in the early 1950s resulted in it being licensed to a number of electronics companies, such as Texas Instruments, who produced a limited run of transistorized radios as a sales tool. The Regency TR-1, made by the Regency Division of I.D.E.A. (Industrial Development Engineering Associates) of Indianapolis, Indiana, was launched in 1951. The era of true, shirt-pocket sized portable radios followed, with manufacturers such as Sony, Zenith, RCA, DeWald, and Crosley offering various models. The Sony TR-63 released in 1957 was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market penetration of transistor radios.


title: Radio receiver

text: The development of integrated circuit (IC) chips in the 1970s created another revolution, allowing an entire radio receiver to be put on an IC chip. IC chips reversed the economics of radio design used with vacuum-tube receivers. Since the marginal cost of adding additional amplifying devices (transistors) to the chip was essentially zero, the size and cost of the receiver was dependent not on how many active components were used, but on the passive components; inductors and capacitors, which could not be integrated easily on the chip. The development of RF CMOS chips, pioneered by Asad Ali Abidi at UCLA during the 1980s and 1990s, allowed low power wireless devices to be made.


title: Radio receiver

text: The current trend in receivers is to use digital circuitry on the chip to do functions that were formerly done by analog circuits which require passive components. In a digital receiver the IF signal is sampled and digitized, and the bandpass filtering and detection functions are performed by digital signal processing (DSP) on the chip. Another benefit of DSP is that the properties of the receiver; channel frequency, bandwidth, gain, etc. can be dynamically changed by software to react to changes in the environment; these systems are known as software-defined radios or cognitive radio.


title: Radio receiver

text: Many of the functions performed by analog electronics can be performed by software instead. The benefit is that software is not affected by temperature, physical variables, electronic noise and manufacturing defects.


title: Radio receiver

text: Digital signal processing permits signal processing techniques that would be cumbersome, costly, or otherwise infeasible with analog methods. A digital signal is essentially a stream or sequence of numbers that relay a message through some sort of medium such as a wire. DSP hardware can tailor the bandwidth of the receiver to current reception conditions and to the type of signal. A typical analog only receiver may have a limited number of fixed bandwidths, or only one, but a DSP receiver may have 40 or more individually selectable filters. DSP is used in cell phone systems to reduce the data rate required to transmit voice.


title: Radio receiver

text: In digital radio broadcasting systems such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), the analog audio signal is digitized and compressed, typically using a modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) audio coding format such as AAC+.


title: Radio receiver

text: "PC radios", or radios that are designed to be controlled by a standard PC are controlled by specialized PC software using a serial port connected to the radio. A "PC radio" may not have a front-panel at all, and may be designed exclusively for computer control, which reduces cost.


title: Radio receiver

text: Some PC radios have the great advantage of being field upgradable by the owner. New versions of the DSP firmware can be downloaded from the manufacturer's web site and uploaded into the flash memory of the radio. The manufacturer can then in effect add new features to the radio over time, such as adding new filters, DSP noise reduction, or simply to correct bugs.


title: Radio receiver

text: A full-featured radio control program allows for scanning and a host of other functions and, in particular, integration of databases in real-time, like a "TV-Guide" type capability. This is particularly helpful in locating all transmissions on all frequencies of a particular broadcaster, at any given time. Some control software designers have even integrated Google Earth to the shortwave databases, so it is possible to "fly" to a given transmitter site location with a click of a mouse. In many cases the user is able to see the transmitting antennas where the signal is originating from.


title: Radio receiver

text: Since the Graphical User Interface to the radio has considerable flexibility, new features can be added by the software designer. Features that can be found in advanced control software programs today include a band table, GUI controls corresponding to traditional radio controls, local time clock and a UTC clock, signal strength meter, a database for shortwave listening with lookup capability, scanning capability, or text-to-speech interface.


title: Radio receiver

text: The next level in integration is "software-defined radio", where all filtering, modulation and signal manipulation is done in software. This may be a PC soundcard or by a dedicated piece of DSP hardware. There will be a RF front-end to supply an intermediate frequency to the software defined radio. These systems can provide additional capability over "hardware" receivers. For example, they can record large swaths of the radio spectrum to a hard drive for "playback" at a later date. The same SDR that one minute is demodulating a simple AM broadcast may also be able to decode an HDTV broadcast in the next. An open-source project called GNU Radio is dedicated to evolving a high-performance SDR.


title: Radio receiver

text: All-digital radio transmitters and receivers present the possibility of advancing the capabilities of radio.


The Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film is an award presented at the annual Academy Awards ceremony. The award has existed, under various names, since 1957.


title: Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film

text: From 1936 until 1956 there were two separate awards, "Best Short Subject, One-reel" and "Best Short Subject, Two-reel", referring to the running time of the short: a standard reel of film is 1000 feet, or about 11 minutes of run time. A third category "Best Short Subject, color" was used only for 1936 and 1937. From the initiation of short subject awards for 1932 until 1935 the terms were "Best Short Subject, comedy" and "Best Short Subject, novelty".


text: These categories were merged starting with the 1957 awards, under the name "Short Subjects, Live Action Subjects", which was used until 1970. For the next three years after that, it was known as "Short Subjects, Live Action Films". The current name for the Academy Award for Live Action Short Film was introduced in 1974.


text: Current academy rules call for the award to be presented to "the individual person most directly responsible for the concept and the creative execution of the film. In the event that more than one individual has been directly and importantly involved in creative decisions, a second statuette may be awarded". The academy defines "short" as being "not more than 40 minutes, including all credits". Ten films are shortlisted before nominations are announced.


title: Bitmap

text: In computing, a bitmap is a mapping from some domain (for example, a range of integers) to bits. It is also called a bit array or bitmap index.


title: Bitmap

text: As a noun, the term "bitmap" is very often used to refer to a particular bitmapping application: the pix-map, which refers to a map of pixels, where each one may store more than two colors, thus using more than one bit per pixel. In such a case, the domain in question is the array of pixels which constitute a digital graphic output device (a screen or monitor). In some contexts, the term "bitmap" implies one bit per pixel, whereas "pixmap" is used for images with multiple bits per pixel.


title: Bitmap

text: A bitmap is a type of memory organization or image file format used to store digital images. The term "bitmap" comes from the computer programming terminology, meaning just a "map of bits", a spatially mapped array of bits. Now, along with "pixmap", it commonly refers to the similar concept of a spatially mapped array of pixels. Raster images in general may be referred to as bitmaps or pixmaps, whether synthetic or photographic, in files or memory.


title: Bitmap

text: Many graphical user interfaces use bitmaps in their built-in graphics subsystems; for example, the Microsoft Windows and OS/2 platforms' GDI subsystem, where the specific format used is the "Windows and OS/2 bitmap file format", usually named with the file extension of codice_1 (or codice_2 for "device-independent bitmap"). Besides BMP, other file formats that store literal bitmaps include InterLeaved Bitmap (ILBM), Portable Bitmap (PBM), X Bitmap (XBM), and Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap (WBMP). Similarly, most other image file formats, such as JPEG, TIFF, PNG, and GIF, also store bitmap images (as opposed to vector graphics), but they are not usually referred to as "bitmaps", since they use compressed formats internally.


title: Bitmap

text: In typical uncompressed bitmaps, image pixels are generally stored with a variable number of bits per pixel which identify its color, the color depth. Pixels of 8 bits and fewer can represent either grayscale or indexed color. An alpha channel (for transparency) may be stored in a separate bitmap, where it is similar to a grayscale bitmap, or in a fourth channel that, for example, converts 24-bit images to 32 bits per pixel.


title: Bitmap

text: The bits representing the bitmap pixels may be packed or unpacked (spaced out to byte or word boundaries), depending on the format or device requirements. Depending on the color depth, a pixel in the picture will occupy at least n/8 bytes, where n is the bit depth.


title: Bitmap

text: For an uncompressed, packed within rows, bitmap, such as is stored in Microsoft DIB or BMP file format, or in uncompressed TIFF format, a lower bound on storage size for a n-bit-per-pixel (2 colors) bitmap, in bytes, can be calculated as:


title: Bitmap

text: In the formula above, header size and color palette size, if any, are not included. Due to effects of row padding to align each row start to a storage unit boundary such as a word, additional bytes may be needed.


title: Bitmap

text: Microsoft has defined a particular representation of color bitmaps of different color depths, as an aid to exchanging bitmaps between devices and applications with a variety of internal representations. They called these device-independent bitmaps as DIBs, and the file format for them is called DIB file format or BMP file format. According to Microsoft support:


title: Bitmap

text: A device-independent bitmap (DIB) is a format used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another (hence, the device-independent part of the name). A DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object (created by an application...). A DIB is normally transported in metafiles (usually using the StretchDIBits() function), BMP files, and the Clipboard (CF_DIB data format).


title: Bitmap

text: Here, "device independent" refers to the format, or storage arrangement, and should not be confused with device-independent color.


title: Bitmap

text: The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, and XPM ("pixelmap") for color images. Numerous other uncompressed bitmap file formats are in use, though most not widely. For most purposes standardized compressed bitmap files such as GIF, PNG, TIFF, and JPEG are used; lossless compression in particular provides the same information as a bitmap in a smaller file size. TIFF and JPEG have various options. JPEG is usually lossy compression. TIFF is usually either uncompressed, or lossless Lempel-Ziv-Welch compressed like GIF. PNG uses deflate lossless compression, another Lempel-Ziv variant.


title: Bitmap

text: There are also a variety of "raw" image files, which store raw bitmaps with no other information; such raw files are just bitmaps in files, often with no header or size information (they are distinct from photographic raw image formats, which store raw unprocessed sensor data in a structured container such as TIFF format along with extensive image metadata).


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: Jawbreaker is a port of SameGame for the Pocket PC bundled with the Microsoft Windows Mobile 2003 operating system for PDAs. The operating system, and thus the game, was officially released on April 7, 2003. The game itself was developed by American studio oopdreams software, Inc. "Jawbreaker" is officially listed as one of the "Core Applications" of the Windows Mobile software family, in a paper released by Microsoft. In Windows Mobile 5.0 and Windows Mobile 6.0 it is called "Bubble Breaker". The original non-bundled version of the game is available from the developer itself as Bubblets.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: The game-board consists of a screen of differently-colored balls arranged in a matrix. There are five different colors: red, blue, green, yellow and purple. The player then clicks on any two or more connecting similarly-colored balls to eliminate them from the matrix, earning an appropriate number of points in the process. The more balls eliminated at once, the higher the points added to the player's score.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: "The scoring can be expressed in the formula "Y=X(X-1)". X represents the number of balls grouped together, Y is the resulting score. For example an elimination of 16 balls will result in 240 points (240=16(16-1))."


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: In the standard mode of the game, the game ends when the player has no more moves left; there are no more like-colored balls adjacent to each other. The screen immediately goes to the scoring screen, where statistics such as "Average Score", "Total Score" and "Games Played" can be seen, along with a button that the player can press in order to start a new game.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: The "Breaker Set" option allows the player to choose between "Colorful Breakers" and "Greyscale Breakers". The first option is the default and sets the game balls' colors to the standard five colors. Choosing the latter changes the color palette and instead of differently-colored balls, the balls are adorned with various unique greyscale patterns allowing players with monochromatic Pocket PCs to play the game, as well as players who may be colorblind and have trouble differentiating the colored balls from one another. Some of the patterns include lightly colored balls, dark grey balls and a white ball with a dark dot in the middle.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: The player has four unique game styles to choose from, including "Standard", which is described above. The other game styles are "Continuous", "Shifter" and "MegaShift".


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: Windows Mobile 2003 was Jawbreaker's first inclusion into a packaged handheld operating system. Pocket PC operating systems prior to Windows Mobile 2003, ending with Pocket PC 2002 did not include the game. It has since been bundled with succeeding Windows Mobile releases, including Windows Mobile 2003 SE (second edition) and Windows Mobile 5.0 & 6.0.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: Aside from being included in the Windows Mobile operating system, "Jawbreaker" is also distributed by Oopdreams Software, Inc. under another name, "Bubblets". Bubblets is almost-identical to Jawbreaker, with some slight visual and semantic differences. Instead of "balls", the player bursts "bubbles", thus the name.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: Bubblets in this form is available for a much broader range of operating systems than the Jawbreaker version. The game is officially distributed as shareware for Pocket PC 2002/Windows Mobile 2003, Palm OS, and the Handheld PC Pro platforms. Bubblets is also available for desktop PCs, with the official Windows version of Bubblets, also distributed as expiring shareware.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: As Bubblets, the game was a finalist for the "Best Puzzle Game" category of Pocket PC Magazine's "Pocket PC Award Winners" of 2001, won by another SameGame clone called PocketPop produced by PocketFun (http://www.pocketfun.co.uk/PocketPopRevenge.html ). It was given the "People's Choice Award" in the same event.


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: The Palm OS version of the game "Bubblet", was favorably reviewed by PDAStreet's Palm Boulevard. Geek.com gave Bubblets a perfect score on their review and was named a "Geek.com pick".


title: Jawbreaker (Windows Mobile game)

text: The game has also been distributed as freeware for mobiles since June 2008. The mobile phone version, also called "JawBreaker", was developed for those who did not have Jawbreaker-capable PDAs but had phones supporting Java ME. This iteration of the game could be run on mobile devices supporting Java ME CLDC 1.1/MIDP 2.0 with screen resolutions of 240×320 or 176×220.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Stereotypes of American people (here meaning citizens of the United States) can today be found in virtually all cultures. They are often manifest in America's own television and in the media's portrayal of the United States as seen in other countries, but can also be spread by literature, art, and public opinion. Not all of the stereotypes are equally popular, nor are they all restricted to Americans; and although most can be considered negative, a few assign neutral, positive or admiring qualities to the stereotypical U.S. citizen. Many of the ethnic stereotypes collide with otherwise unrelated political anti-Americanism.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: According to American William Bennett a positive stereotype of Americans is that they are very generous. The United States sends aid and supplies to many countries, and Americans may be seen as people who are charitable or volunteer. Alexis de Tocqueville first noted in 1835 the American attitude towards helping others in need. A 2010 Charities Aid Foundation study found that Americans were the fifth most willing to donate time and money in the world at 55%. Total charitable contributions in 2010 were higher in the US than in any other country.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Americans may be seen as very positive and optimistic people. Optimism is seen as the driving force behind achievement of the American Dream.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Traits such as engaging in risky exploration to secure food and territory favored early Americans, as well as the willingness to move one's life in pursuit of goals such as personal freedom and economic affluence. These traits may have distilled over time into an individualism characterized by toughness and self-reliance.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: The United States has a historical fondness for guns, and this is often portrayed in American media. A considerable percentage of Americans own firearms, and the United States has some of the developed world's highest death rates caused by firearms. A 2018 article attributed the high death rates to mass shootings or inner city violence, but the murder rate in America was then on a decline, and it appeared that suicide by firearm is a large contributor to the "gun-deaths" statistic. The international media often report American mass shootings, making these incidents well known internationally despite the fact that these kind of killings account for an extremely small portion of the firearms death rate. In 2007, the United States was ranked number one in gun ownership with a rate of 88.8 guns per 100 residents. In 2017, the United States again ranked number one in gun ownership with a rate of 120.5 guns per 100 citizens.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: A common stereotype of Americans is that of economic materialism and capitalism. They may be seen as caring most about money, judging all things by their economic value, and scorning those of lower socioeconomic status. However, the US has long been considered to be one of the most charitable nations in the world by a wide margin. Americans are extremely charitable by global standards: according to a 2016 study by the Charities Aid Foundation, Americans donated 1.44% of total GDP to charity, the highest in the world by a large margin.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Americans may be stereotyped as ignorant of countries and cultures beyond their own. This stereotype shows them as lacking intellectual curiosity, thus making them ignorant of other cultures, places, or lifestyles outside of the United States. The idea of American students dumbing down is attributed to the declining standards of American schools and curricula.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: American people in general may be portrayed as racist or racialist, often discriminating against their minorities. Racism had a significant presence in American history and is still relevant today. According to Albert Einstein, racism is America's "worst disease". In a 2017 survey, 58% of Americans said that racism is a "big problem in our society".


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Americans may be seen as reckless and imprudent people regarding the preservation of the environment. They may be portrayed as lavish, driving high polluting SUVs and unconcerned about climate change or global warming. The United States (whose population is 327 million) has the second-highest carbon dioxide emissions after China (whose population is 1.4 billion), is one of the few countries which did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol, and is one of just three countries to refuse to participate in the Paris Agreement after its withdrawal from the agreement in June 2017. In the context of stereotyping, it is perhaps more relevant to look at production per capita; the USA compares favorably with oil-producing nations in the Middle East, with Qatar at 40.3 metric tons per capita versus the United States' 17.6 metric tons per capita, though they are behind most European countries. Germany, for instance, emits only 9.1 metric tons per capita. However, the United States has reduced their energy-related greenhouse gas emissions by 12% from 2005 to 2018 while, in the same time period, the world's energy-related emissions have increased by 24%.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Americans are often stereotyped as arrogant people. They are frequently depicted in foreign media as excessively nationalistic and obnoxiously patriotic, believing the United States is better than all other countries and patronizing foreigners.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Americans may be seen by people of other countries as arrogant and egomaniacal. In 2009, then-U.S. President Barack Obama said that the United States has "shown arrogance and been dismissive, even derisive" towards its allies.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Another common stereotype is that Americans want to be "the world's policemen", believing that the entire world needs their help – even if this results in preemptive military intervention – because they are somehow exceptional. This relatively recent stereotype spawned from Cold War and post-Cold War military interventions such as the Vietnam War and Iraq War, which many people opposed.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: The United States is also stereotyped being a country with Hero syndrome in foreign media. The Hero syndrome manifests itself when the protagonist suffering the syndrome creates supposed, implied or ostensible crises only to eventually resolve them thereby becoming the savior of the day, the hero of the moment.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: While the stereotype of hard-working Americans is often a positive one, the United States has also been criticized in recent years as a workaholic culture. In "The Huffington Post", Tijana Milosevic, a Serbian who had traveled to Washington, D.C. for a degree, wrote, "In fact my family and friends had observed that I shouldn’t have chosen America, since I would probably feel better in Western Europe — where life is not as fast paced as in the US and capitalism still has a 'human face.'" She noted that "Americans still work nine full weeks (350 hours) longer than West Europeans do and paid vacation days across Western Europe are well above the US threshold." Researchers at Oxford Economics hired by the US Travel Association estimated that in 2014 "about 169m [vacation] days, equivalent to $52.4bn in lost benefits", went unused by American workers. Professor Gary L. Cooper argued Americans "have a great deal to learn from Europeans about getting better balance between work and life" and wrote:


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: The notion that working long hours and not taking holidays makes for a more productive workforce is, in my view, a managerial myth, with no foundation in organizational or psychological science. The human body is a biological machine, and like all machines can wear out. In addition, if employees don't invest personal disposal time in their relationships outside, with their family, loved ones and friends, they will be undermining the very social support systems they may need in difficult and stressful times.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Americans are seen to be over-reliant on personal automobiles. They are also seen to be easily confused by roundabouts.


title: Stereotypes of Americans

text: Along with many stereotypes, nations view the United States as one of the most powerful nations in the world. However, this view is often coupled with the view that the United States is corrupt, arrogant, cold and/or bloodthirsty. Peter Glick, co-author of "Anti-American Sentiment and America's Perceived Intent to Dominate: An 11-Nation Study", conducted research on 5,000 college students from eleven countries using the stereotype content model (SCM) and the image theory (IT) measure. "Consistent with the SCM and IT measure was the view that the United States is a nation intent on domination also with predicted perceptions that the nation is lacking warmth, and that the nation is arrogant, but out of incompetence." As a result of similar views, anti-American sentiment can develop, and the United States’ security can be put at risk. For example, one of the most infamous anti-American acts against the United States was the 9/11 attacks. American stereotypes were not the main proponent of these attacks, but stereotypes become self-fulfilling and normative. If America is seen as arrogant, power hungry, intrusive, etc., then it is perceived that most American individuals exhibit this behavior, at least to some degree, and that the nation as a whole involves itself in situations in which it may have no business interfering.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV () is a battery electric city car manufactured by SAIC-GM-Wuling since 2020. Retail deliveries began in China in July 2020. , sales since inception have passed 500,000 units, and the Mini EV has become the best-selling electric car in China.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: The Mini EV can seat four people, and standard features including air conditioning, power windows, stereo system, storage and compartments. Standard safety features of the Mini EV include anti-lock brakes, tire pressure monitoring sensors, and rear parking sensors. Early models did not include a driver airbag, but later models such as the Mini EV Macaron include the feature as standard.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: Power is produced by an electric motor making a peak and of torque with rear-wheel drive, propelling the car to a stated top speed of . The Mini EV is equipped with a 9.2 kWh battery capable of a NEDC range of or a 13.8kWh battery capable of a NEDC range of . Based on the NEDC driving cycle, the estimated energy consumption of the Mini EV is 8,1 kWh/100 km.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: A 26.5 kWh model is due for 2022, with (CLTC) estimated range, an optional more powerful motor, and an improved interior.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: In 2020, the Mini EV had a price starting at , and topped out at for a fully-loaded model, making it China's cheapest electric car. The car has attracted a cult following in China, with owners frequently modifying their vehicles. The popularity has been compared to that of kei car<nowiki>s</nowiki> in Japan. The vehicle has been such a success that it has inspired a number of copycats and competitors, including the Chery QQ Ice Cream, Dongfeng Fengguang MINI EV, and BAW S3.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: SAIC-GM-Wuling launched a variant of the regular Mini EV called the Mini EV Macaron in April 2021. The Macaron is a customized version that is available with three exclusive paint colors and more standard features. The Macaron is sold as a more premium and personalized variant that features redesigned darkened LED headlights, two-tone alloy wheels and exclusive body colors. The colors are Avocado Green, Lemon Yellow and White Peach Pink, which are the results of the collaboration of Wuling and Pantone Universe. The Macaron also receives more safety equipment compared to the previous base trim level, including low-speed pedestrian warning, a reversing camera with rear parking sonar and a driver-side airbag.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: The Macaron is equipped with a small electric motor that generates a more powerful and of torque compared to the previously launched base trim while range remains unchanged.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: A convertible concept version of the Mini EV called the Mini EV Cabrio with a folding soft top was unveiled during the 2021 Shanghai Auto Show, with the vehicle body design based on the Mini EV Macaron. The production version vehicle body design is based on Mini EV GameBoy Edition and was launched in September 2022.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: In 2021 Lithuanian company Nikrob UAB announced a rebadged version of the Mini EV called the FreZe Nikrob with knock-down assembly in Vilnius, Lithuania.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: The Mini EV GameBoy Edition was introduced in March 2022. Its exterior has been completely restyled with larger dimension, while the power remains to be unchanged and carried over from the standard Mini EV producing and or and , mated to a 9.2, 13.9, or 25.5 kWh battery.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: With six months in the market, the Mini EV sold 119,255 units in 2020, and ranked as China's and the world's second best selling plug-in car after the Tesla Model 3.


title: Wuling Hongguang Mini EV

text: In January 2021, according to the China Passenger Car Association (CPCA), the Mini EV topped new energy vehicles sales with 25,778 units, compared to the Tesla Model 3 with 13,843 units sold in China.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica, S.A. () is a Spanish multinational telecommunications company headquartered in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the largest telephone operators and mobile network providers in the world. It provides fixed and mobile telephony, broadband, and subscription television, operating in Europe and the Americas.


title: Telefónica

text: As well as the Telefónica brand, it also trades as Movistar, O2, and Vivo. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica is a 100% listed company with more than 1.5 million direct shareholders. Its share capital currently comprises 4.563.996.485 ordinary shares traded on the Spanish Stock Market (Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao and Valencia) and on those in London, New York, Lima, and Buenos Aires. The five major stockholders include:


title: Telefónica

text: In May 2022, Telefonica announced the acquisition of the European cloud-based services specialist and cloud Microsoft Dynamics partner BE-terna. The deal worth €350 million includes 1,000 staff, AI, extended service capabilities across Europe and a cybersecurity services division.The deal aimed to see Telefonica to increase its geographic scale and aid to its digital capabilities.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica is the second largest corporation in Spain, behind the Santander Group. It operates under the "movistar" and "O2" brands with the first being the largest broadband and phone (both mobile and landlines) provider in Spain.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica's FTTH network in Spain is the most extensive fibre-to-home network in Europe, as of April 2016, and the shut down plan for the legacy copper network is already in progress.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica was the parent of Telefónica Deutschland, which held two alternative IP carriers. The two ISPs, mediaWays and HighwayOne merged in January 2003 after having been purchased by Telefónica in 2001 and February 2002 respectively.


title: Telefónica

text: On 26 January 2006 Telefónica completed its £17.7 billion (€25.7 billion) acquisition of the UK-based operator O2 which also provided mobile phone services in Germany under the O2 brand. Following the purchase, Telefónica merged Telefónica Deutschland and O2 Germany to form the current business Telefónica Germany.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica Germany, purchased competitor E-Plus on 1 October 2014. As part of the purchase, Telefónica reduced its stake in its subsidiary to 62.1%. Integration continues as of August 2015, but the now merged network is Germany's largest in customers.


title: Telefónica

text: On 31 October 2005, O2 agreed to be taken over by Telefónica, with a cash offer of £17.7 billion, or £2 per share. According to the merger announcement, O2, which provided mobile phone services in the UK, Ireland, Germany and the Isle of Man (uniquely to the O2 group Manx Telecom also offered fixed-line services), retained its name and continued to be based in the United Kingdom, keeping both the brand and the management team. The merger became unconditional on 23 January 2006 and O2 became a wholly owned subsidiary of Telefónica. Manx Telecom was sold by Telefónica Europe in June 2010.


title: Telefónica

text: In January 2015, Li Ka-shing entered into talks with Telefónica to buy O2 for around £10.25 billion, aiming to merge it with his subsidiary Three. The acquisition was officially blocked by the European Commission on 11 May 2016, which argued that the merger would reduce consumer choice and lead to a higher cost of services Telefónica began to seek a stock market flotation of the business instead.


title: Telefónica

text: Announced on 7 May 2020, Liberty Global owner of Virgin Media and Telefónica owner of O2, have agreed to merge their U.K. businesses in a deal worth £31bn and form one of the UK's largest entertainment and telecommunication companies to rival the BT Group.


title: Telefónica

text: As of the 1 June 2021, Virgin Media and O2 UK Ltd officially merged to form Virgin Media O2, giving Telefónica a 50% stake in the new company, with the other 50% owned by Liberty Global.


title: Telefónica

text: In France, since 2011, Telefónica has a joint venture with the French telecommunications company Bouygues Telecom, part of the Bouygues group, to offer global telecommunication services packages to multinational companies. This cooperation was expanded in June 2015 through the creation of a separate joint venture company named Telefónica Global Solutions France, with its own marketing and sales teams offering Telefónica and Bouygues Telecom services packages to corporations.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica operates the Movistar mobile phone brand throughout Latin America and the Vivo in Brazil. In Mexico it occupies a distant second place and it is the largest in Chile, Venezuela, Brazil, and Peru. Telefónica plans to divest the majority of its Latin American business in order to focus on the core markets UK, Spain, Germany and Brazil and add €2 billion in revenue with this programme.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica owns "Telefónica de Argentina" which is the largest fixed-line operator in the country. It provides broadband, local and long-distance telephone services in southern part of the country as well as the Greater Buenos Aires area. The Telefónica Group has been in the country since 1990. The mobile business is run by Telefónica Móviles through Movistar, a local subsidiary.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica's largest fixed-line operation in South America is in Brazil, where it provides broadband, local and long-distance telephone services in the aforementioned state, which alone represents the highest GDP of South America. It also owns a majority stake in the Brazilian mobile operator Vivo, having agreed on 28 July 2010 to buy Portugal Telecom's stake in the firm for €7.5 billion, after increasing its original offer by €1.8 billion over three months of incident-rich negotiations. The Telefónica group has been in the country since 1996 when it acquired CRT, a fixed-line and mobile operator in the southern part of the country. The landline division is currently part of Oi. In July 1998 acquired Telesp, the telephony operator of the Telebrás system in the state of São Paulo, forming Telefônica Brasil.


title: Telefónica

text: In June 2009, after four big "blackouts" on Telefónica's broadband "Speedy", ANATEL ordered Telefónica to stop sales of its broadband service until improvements were made on the infrastructure to provide better-quality service. After the release of sales of broadband internet in August 2009, ANATEL expects the company's service investments to keep on par with the sales. On 24 July 2010 Telefónica announced that the number of Speedy subscribers had exceeded three million people.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica owns "Telefónica Chile", formerly CTC (Compañía de Telecomunicaciones de Chile, formerly known as Compañía de Teléfonos de Chile) which is the biggest fixed-line operator and internet service provider in the country. The Telefónica Group has been in the country since 1989. The mobile business is run by Telefónica Móviles through a local subsidiary. On 25 October 2009, Telefónica Chile changed its name to "Movistar", including cellphone, landline, satellite TV, and internet.


title: Telefónica

text: On 18 April 2006, Telefónica's president Cesar Alierta signed an agreement with the Colombian government to buy 50% and one share of the state-owned communications company, Colombia Telecomunicaciones (TELECOM). With this sale, Telefónica became the largest Colombian land-line operator, and also gained an important presence in the local, long-distance and broadband market. The mobile business is run by Telefónica Móviles through the brand movistar. It is unknown what will happen with their previous established subsidiary Telefónica Empresas, being most probable a merger with TELECOM. The company is now known as Telefónica - Telecom.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica signed a contract for 15 years (extendable for 10 additional years) on 12 May 2011 with the government of Costa Rica. It started operations in 2011 under its Movistar branding.


title: Telefónica

text: In 2000, Telefónica acquired a 26.5% stake in Tricom when it purchased part of the shares Motorola had obtained in 1993.


title: Telefónica

text: After acquiring 100% of OTECEL S.A. (Bellsouth), Telefónica Móviles Ecuador started its operations on 14 October 2004 as Movistar. It is one of only three mobile operators in Ecuador. Telefónica in Ecuador has started offering 3G service from the second half of 2009.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica started its operations in Panama in 2004 as Telefónica acquired 100% of Bellsouth Panama. Since then it has operated using the name Movistar for mobile services. It migrated from CDMA technology used by Bellsouth to GSM 850. It also offers 3G using UMTS 850 and UMTS 1900. In 2015 it launched LTE with coverage expanding in Panama City, Arraijan, Chorrera up to Buenaventura Beach.


title: Telefónica

text: The Telefónica Group has been in the country since 1994 and owns the largest fixed-line operator in the country. The local subsidiary offers local, long-distance, and broadband services nationwide. The mobile business is run by Telefónica Móviles through a local subsidiary. The mobile telephone business goes by the name Movistar and competes with major provider Claro. Their main offices are located in Santa Beatriz on Av. Arequipa 1155.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica in Puerto Rico has presence through Telefónica Empresas, Telefónica Larga Distancia - TLD, Telefónica International Wholesale Services - TIWS (formerly Emergia) and Atento. Telefónica Moviles, through its Movistar brand, had presence in Puerto Rico until mid-2007 but they sold the Puerto Rico network to a private equity group who renamed it Open Mobile.


title: Telefónica

text: In late 2004 Telefónica took over the operations of Telcel Bellsouth in Venezuela, the first and largest mobile operator in the South American country at the time. After re-branding as Movistar, its CDMA2000 EvDO was progressively replaced by a GSM UMTS 3G network. Telefónica is currently rolling out 4G LTE in the country.


title: Telefónica

text: Based in Miami, Florida, Telefónica USA, Inc. provides services to U.S.-based multinational companies that have operations in Latin America and Europe. Telefónica USA also operates the KeyCenter™, a data center in Miami built to withstand category 5 hurricanes, from where the company supports Business Continuity and IT services for Enterprise customers in South Florida.


title: Telefónica

text: In 2009, China Unicom agreed to a $1Bn cross-holding with Telefónica. In January 2011, the two partners agreed to a further $500 million tie-up in each other. Following completion in late 2011, Telefónica will hold a 9.7% stake in China Unicom, and China Unicom will own 1.4% of the Spanish firm.


title: Telefónica

text: In 2018, China Unicom and Telefónica establish a new partnership to combine their services and networks in the internet of things, so as to enable their clients to deploy IoT products and services in China, Europe and Latin America with a single global IoT SIM card.


title: Telefónica

text: In 2005, Telefónica bought "Český Telecom" (Czech Telecom), the former state-owned Czech phone operator which still dominates the Czech fixed-line market. As part of this deal Telefónica also gained its 100% subsidiary Eurotel, one of three mobile phone operators in the Czech Republic. Starting 1 July 2006, both companies were merged into one legal entity and renamed "Telefónica O2 Czech Republic". In 2011, the company was renamed "Telefónica Czech Republic" and in 2013, it was announced that Telefónica would sell its stake in the company to PPF. Under the terms of the sale, the company was allowed to continue to trade under the O2 brand for a maximum of four years. In August 2017, the brand license agreement was extended to 2022, with a 5-year extension to 2027 available.


title: Telefónica

text: During 2006, Telefónica won the tender to become the third mobile phone operator in Slovakia, under the O2 brand. It began providing services on 2 February 2007 under the name Telefónica O2 Slovakia, s.r.o. It initially launched providing only a prepaid service but in mid-2007 began to sell contract phones. The company was sold along with Telefónica Czech Republic to PPF.


title: Telefónica

text: O2 in Ireland was purchased by Telefónica as part of its acquisition of O2 plc in the UK in 2005. Telefónica Ireland has become the second largest mobile phone operator in Ireland, operating a GSM/EDGE and high-speed HSPA+ wireless broadband network to residential and business customers through its "O2" brand. Telefónica Ireland also provide fixed broadband to business customers.


title: Telefónica

text: It was announced on 24 June 2013 that Telefónica had agreed to sell its O2 Ireland mobile business for at least €780 million ($1 billion) in cash to Hutchison Whampoa's subsidiary 3. O2 was merged into Hutchison Whampoa's subsidiary Three Ireland in March 2015.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica currently owns 46% of Telco, the holding company that controls 22% of Telecom Italia, Italy's former government–owned telephone company. In late 2003, Telefónica announced its intention to acquire the entirety of Telco by January 2014, potentially becoming Telecom Italia's largest shareholder. The plan, was however challenged by the Brazilian competition authority since Telefónica and Telecom Italia, with Vivo and TIM Brasil respectively, are the two largest telephone companies competing in Brazil. Subsequently, Telefónica confirmed in September 2014 that it intended to sell its shares in Telecom Italia following the purchase of Global Village Telecom (GVT) in Brazil from Vivendi. Telefónica sold its shares in the business to Vivendi as part of the sale of GVT in June 2015.


title: Telefónica

text: After acquiring 100% of Paysandú S.A., Telefónica started its operations in Guatemala 1998 as Telefónica Movistar and just Telefónica for landlines. In 2004, acquired 100% of BellSouth Guatemala, relaunching mobile operations as movistar in 2005, with mobile services based on CDMA technology, in 2004 as Telefónica Movistar launch national service with GSM/GPRS technology, and CDMA 1x EV-DO for data. Telefónica Móviles Guatemala (renamed in 2005) offered services on UMTS/HSPA starting in June 2009, and it was the last operator to launch commercial services on this technology, with coverage in all major cities in Guatemala.


title: Telefónica

text: In January 24, 2019, América Móvil announced the that they will acquire both the Guatemalan and El Salvadorian operations of Telefónica for US$333 million and $315 million, respectively. The transaction would also acquire all Pay TV operations. The sale was eventually approved in Guatemala and would later become intergraded into Claro. However, the transaction for the El Salvadoran operations to be sold to América Móvil were scrapped due to regulatory hurdles.


title: Telefónica

text: In February 2019, Millicom announced the purchase of the Panamanian, Costa Rican and Nicaraguan operations of Telefónica for US$1,650 Million, with plans to phase out the Movistar brand from those markets within a year after purchase. The transaction was completed in August the same year. Telefónica had purchased the Panamanian, Ecuadorian and Guatemalan operations of BellSouth in 2004 for US$1665 Million, followed by a rebranding to Movistar in 2005. The purchase was intended to help Telefónica focus on its largest markets, alleviating its debt.


title: Telefónica

text: In football, Teléfonica is an official sponsor for several national teams such as Spain (Movistar+) in Europe, and Brazil (vivo), Mexico, Colombia, Peru, or Venezuela in the Americas.


title: Telefónica

text: Teléfonica, through Movistar, was the title sponsor of Yamaha Motor Racing from 2014 to 2018, a motorcycle racing team in MotoGP. It was also the title sponsor of Suzuki's factory team from 2000 to 2002 Sito Pons' Honda team from 1997 to 1999 and Fausto Gresini's Honda team from 2003 to 2005.


title: Telefónica

text: Within Formula One, Telefónica sponsored the Minardi F1 Team in 1999 and 2000, including title sponsorship in 2000, as well a major sponsor of the Renault F1 Team from 2004 to 2006 until Fernando Alonso's departure to McLaren in 2007, and were title sponsors of the Spanish Grand Prix from 2006 to 2010. Through its acquisition of O, Telefónica also indirectly sponsored the BMW Sauber F1 Team.


title: Telefónica

text: In the World Rally Championship, Telefónica sponsored the SEAT Sport WRC Team between 1998 and 2000, under both Movistar and Telefónica Movistar. Telefónica sponsored the Ford WRC Team in seasons 2000-2002 when Spanish rally driver Carlos Sainz drove for the team, and when Sainz moved to the Citroën WRC Team for 2003, Telefónica followed. The sponsorship was not continued into 2004, despite Sainz staying with the team.


title: Telefónica

text: In the 2000 CART season, PPI Motorsports raced the #96 Telefónica Toyota-Reynard, driven by Spanish rookie Oriol Servià. Oriol finished 15th in the standings with a best result of 3rd, and failed to win Rookie of the Year. Teammate da Matta in the #97 Pioneer Toyota-Reynard performed better with 10th and 1 win, however the team retired from open-wheel racing at the end of the season, and the sponsorship ended.


title: Telefónica

text: Movistar- and Telefónica-sponsored teams contested the round-the-world Volvo Ocean Race in the 2005–06, 2008–09, and 2011–12 events.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica is a supporter of the Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) initiative that is promoting and establishing an open European standard for hybrid set-top boxes for the reception of broadcast TV and broadband multimedia applications with a single user interface, and has run pilot HbbTV services in Spain.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica's Wayra subsidiary first launched in Latin America and Spain in 2011 to provide seed investment and mentoring to new companies. Since its inception, Wayra has backed over 300 companies including Trustev, Venddo, Cloudwear and NFWare.


title: Telefónica

text: As of 1 December 2014, the Firefox web browser includes the "Firefox Hello" WebRTC feature, that allows real-time voice and video online chats. "Firefox Hello" is powered by Telefónica and was also co-developed by Telefónica.


title: Telefónica

text: In September 2017, Nokia and Telefónica signed an agreement in order to evaluate technologies enabling an efficient network evolution to 5G in line with Telefónica's business objectives.


title: Telefónica

text: Telefónica has received several fines due to convictions over unfair competition, abuse of its position as dominant provider, and antitrust violations through the Commission of Telecommunications, European Commission, and Spanish tribunals. These fines include:


title: Telefónica

text: On 5 July 2007, the European Commission ordered Telefónica to pay a record antitrust fine of almost €152 million for activities in the Spanish broadband market which, according to European Union competition commissioner Neelie Kroes, "harmed Spanish consumers, Spanish businesses and the Spanish economy as a whole, and by extension Europe's economy."


title: Telefónica

text: Several consumer groups in Spain have reported unnecessary delays in cancelling Telefónica's ADSL service. These consumer groups also claim that services continue to be billed after being cancelled and that service cancellation requests are ignored.


title: Telefónica

text: This has led Spanish people to organize themselves in consumer groups such as the "Asociación de Internautas" and user communities like "Bandaancha" in order to defend themselves from Telefónica's abuses and to give support and help to each other in their various complaints about Telefónica's unfair practices.


title: Telefónica

text: These line cancellation procedures are justified by Telefónica as a way of "defending customers against hoaxes." Furthermore, in areas where ADSL lines are scarce, there are also reports of customers who claim to have had their service cancelled or inexplicably transferred to another customer although they have paid their bills.


title: Telefónica

text: This practice is considered by some to be used by Telefónica in certain areas of Spain where there are few broadband connections.


title: Telefónica

text: In February 2010, Telefónica CEO Cesar Alierta expressed in a meeting at Bilbao, Spain that his company intends to charge Google and other search engines for the use of their network. Alierta complained that such search engines were benefiting from the platform without contributing to the company's expenses and that such a trend will change in the near future. Additionally, he said that Telefónica will seek to push its own content.


title: Telefónica

text: In 2017, Telefónica announced the launch of OnLife Networks, intended to infuse innovation into the company.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: Todd Owen Cantwell (born 27 February 1998) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Norwich City.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: Cantwell was born in Dereham, Norfolk, and attended Northgate High School. He joined the Norwich City Academy at under-10 level. Cantwell was shortlisted for the Premier League Two player of the season award for the 2016–17 season. In October 2017, Cantwell was named as a substitute for two Norwich City matches, but did not make an appearance. Cantwell made his senior debut in January 2018 in an FA Cup match against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. In the same month, Cantwell was loaned to Fortuna Sittard for the rest of the season.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: Cantwell made his first start for Norwich City in the team's first round EFL Cup match against Stevenage on 14 August 2018. He made his Norwich City league debut in September 2018 against Reading. In December 2018, Cantwell scored his first senior goal in a 3–1 victory over Rotherham United.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: He had his contract extended by Norwich at the end of the 2018–19 season, after the club exercised a one-year option. On 17 August 2019, Cantwell assisted two Teemu Pukki goals, as Norwich beat Newcastle United 3–1.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: On 31 January 2022, Cantwell joined AFC Bournemouth on loan until the end of the season. Bournemouth chose not to buy Cantwell at the end of his loan deal, and so he returned to Norwich. He signed a one-year contract extension with Norwich for the 2022–23 season.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: Cantwell represented the England under-17 team at the 2014 Nordic tournament, making his debut against Iceland and scoring in a draw against Finland.


title: Todd Cantwell

text: On 30 August 2019, Cantwell was included in the England U21 squad for the first time and made his debut as a 61st-minute substitute for Morgan Gibbs-White during the 2021 U21 EURO 2–0 qualifying win over Kosovo at Hull City on 9 September 2019. In March 2021, Cantwell was included in the England U21 squad for the group stage matches of the 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. He was a late callup to replace Mason Greenwood who was ruled out by injury.


title: Bill Bellamy

text: William Bellamy (born April 7, 1965) is an American actor and stand-up comedian. Bellamy first gained national notoriety on HBO's Russell Simmons' "Def Comedy Jam", where he is credited for creating or coining the phrase "booty call", described as a late night call to a potential paramour with the intention of meeting strictly for sex.


title: Bill Bellamy

text: He attended Seton Hall Preparatory School in nearby South Orange, New Jersey (now located in West Orange). He majored in economics at Rutgers University.


title: Bill Bellamy

text: For many years, Bellamy was a staple on MTV, a VJ and the host of several MTV programs including "MTV Jamz" and "MTV Beach House". He went on to star in a number of movies, including "Fled", "Love Jones", "The Brothers", "How to Be a Player", "Getting Played" and "Any Given Sunday". He also appeared on two episodes of the TV show "Kenan and Kel". Additionally, he voiced Skeeter on the Nickelodeon television show "Cousin Skeeter".


title: Bill Bellamy

text: In 2002, Bellamy had a co-starring role in the Fox Network television show "Fastlane" alongside Peter Facinelli and Tiffani Thiessen. He also appeared frequently as a "roundtable" guest on the late night E! talk show "Chelsea Lately". Bellamy hosted seasons 5 and 6 of NBC's "Last Comic Standing" reality show (2007 and 2008). In 2014, he had a recurring role as Councilman Powell on the TV Land original series "Hot in Cleveland". He voiced Marcus Hill, a playable character in the 2005 updated version of the "NARC" video game.


title: Bill Bellamy

text: In 2016, Bellamy played FBI Agent Sanders, the partner of Dolph Lundgren's character, in "Kindergarten Cop 2".


title: Bill Bellamy

text: Bellamy hosted "Bill Bellamy's Who's Got Jokes?" on TV One. He was also an executive producer for it. In 2020, he starred in the Netflix miniseries "Self Made."


title: John Rutsey

text: John Howard Rutsey (July 23, 1952 – May 11, 2008) was a Canadian musician best known as a founding member and original drummer of Rush. He performed on the band's 1974 debut album, but left shortly after its release due to health problems which limited his ability to tour with the band. He was subsequently replaced by Neil Peart, who would remain the drummer of Rush on the band's future recordings and for the rest of its active history.


title: John Rutsey

text: Rutsey was the son of "Toronto Telegram" crime reporter Howard Rutsey. He had an older brother named Bill, and a younger brother named Mike who became a baseball writer. Following the death of their father by heart attack, the brothers were raised by their mother, Eva.


title: John Rutsey

text: Rutsey was a student at St. Patrick’s School, and it was there that he met Gary Weinrib and Alex Zivojinovich (who would later change their names to Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson respectively). Whereas Lee and Lifeson were listening to progressive rock bands such as Yes, Pink Floyd and Genesis at that time, Rutsey drew more inspiration from the harder styles of bands such as Bad Company.


title: John Rutsey

text: Rutsey and Lifeson became close friends while attending St. Paschals School, and the pair would play street hockey together in their neighborhood. Both were interested in rock music, and talked often about forming a band. Together, they initially were members of the bands The Projection with Bill Fitzgerald and "Doc" Cooper. Eventually another school friend, Lee, joined them and the earliest version of Rush was formed.


title: John Rutsey

text: Rutsey's commitment has been credited with providing the band's early direction, as it was he who took the band most seriously and he who would insist on regular practice sessions. According to Ian Grandy, a member of the band's early roadcrew, "I've said it before and I'll say it again: There would have been no 'Rush' without John." At Rutsey's suggestion, Rush was initially a glam rock band. "John led the guys as far as being 'glam rockers', with really flashy jackets and pants, and eight-inch high boots", according to Grandy. "One time, he was speaking to me at the Gasworks and I said, 'Didn't we used to be the same height (5'8")?' He laughed and said 'Well, maybe a long time ago!


title: John Rutsey

text: It was Rutsey's brother, Bill, who came up with the name Rush for the band during a rehearsal in the Rutsey family basement in mid 1968.


title: John Rutsey

text: The band formed with Rutsey on drums, Lifeson on guitars, and Jeff Jones on vocals and bass, but after their first concert Jones left and was succeeded by Lee. During these early years, Rutsey played on the "Not Fade Away"/"You Can't Fight It" single as well as the debut album.


title: John Rutsey

text: Lee and Lifeson have each acknowledged that during the writing and recording sessions for the band's debut album, Rutsey was given the role of chief lyricist. When the time came to start recording, however, he did not deliver any lyrics. In interviews, Lee and Lifeson have both said that Rutsey was dissatisfied with what he had written and had torn up the lyric sheets. Lee hastily wrote the lyrics to all the songs before recording the vocal tracks.


title: John Rutsey

text: Soon after Rush released its debut album, Rutsey left the band, due to musical differences, health concerns related to diabetes, and his general distaste for touring. Rutsey's final performance with the group was on July 25, 1974, at Centennial Hall in London, Ontario. He was replaced by Neil Peart.


title: John Rutsey

text: Lifeson stated in a 1989 interview that he still often had seen Rutsey, and after leaving the band Rutsey went into bodybuilding. Lifeson remarked, "He competed on an amateur level for a while, doing that for a few years, and has sort of been in and out of that, but he still works out, and I work out with him a few times a week at a local gym – at a Gold's, here in Toronto." In 2005, Lifeson said that he had not seen Rutsey since around 1990.


title: John Rutsey

text: On May 11, 2008, Rutsey died in his sleep of an apparent heart attack, related to complications from diabetes. Rutsey's family wished to keep the funeral a private affair, although donations would be sent to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation in Markham, Ontario.


title: John Rutsey

text: After Rutsey's death, Lee and Lifeson released this statement: "Our memories of the early years of Rush when John was in the band are very fond to us. Those years spent in our teens dreaming of one day doing what we continue to do decades later are special. Although our paths diverged many years ago, we smile today, thinking back on those exciting times and remembering John's wonderful sense of humour and impeccable timing. He will be deeply missed by all he touched."


title: John Rutsey

text: Rutsey's part in the band's early history is acknowledged in the 2010 documentary "". Tape-recorded comments from him are heard during the film, and the DVD release includes two performances with him on drums in its bonus features. A third performance is included as a bonus feature on the "" home video release.


title: Spanish peseta

text: The peseta (, ) was the currency of Spain between 1868 and 2002. Along with the French franc, it was also a "de facto" currency used in Andorra (which had no national currency with legal tender).


title: Spanish peseta

text: The name of the currency originally comes from "peceta", a Catalan diminutive form of the (Catalan) word "peça" (lit. "piece", i.e. a coin), not from the Spanish "peso" (lit. "weight"). The word "peseta" has been known as early as 1737 to colloquially refer to the coin worth 2 "reales provincial" or of a peso. Coins denominated in "pesetas" were briefly issued in 1808 in Barcelona under French occupation; see Catalan peseta.


title: Spanish peseta

text: Traditionally, there was never a single symbol or special character for the Spanish peseta. Common abbreviations were "Pta" (plural: "Pts), "Pt", and "Ptas". A common way of representing amounts of pesetas in print was using superior letters: "P" and "P".


title: Spanish peseta

text: Common Spanish models of mechanical typewriters had the expression "Pts" on a single type head, as a shorthand intended to fill a single type space () in tables instead of three ().


title: Spanish peseta

text: When the first IBM PC was designed in 1980, it included a "peseta symbol" "Pts" in the ROM of the Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) and Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) video output cards' hardware, with the code number 158. This original character set chart later became the MS-DOS code page 437. Some spreadsheet software for PC under MS-DOS, as Lotus 1-2-3, employed this character as the peseta symbol in their Spanish editions. Subsequent international MS-DOS code pages, like code page 850 and others, deprecated this character in favour of some other national characters.


title: Spanish peseta

text: In order to guarantee the interchange with previous encodings such as code page 437, the international standard Unicode includes this character as U+20A7 PESETA SIGN in its Currency Symbols block. Other than that, the use of the "peseta symbol" standalone is extremely rare, and has been outdated since the adoption of the euro in Spain.


title: Spanish peseta

text: In the version 1.0 of Unicode the character ₧ U+20A7 PESETA SIGN had two reference glyphs: a "Pts" ligature glyph as in IBM code page 437 and an erroneous P with stroke. In Unicode 2.0 the reference glyph P with stroke was erroneously displayed as the only symbol for peseta and was later corrected to the Pts ligature and a separate character code was added for the peso sign.


title: Spanish peseta

text: The peseta was subdivided into 100 "céntimos" or, informally, 4 "reales". The last coin of any value under one peseta was a 50 cts coin issued in 1980 to celebrate Spain's hosting of the 1982 FIFA World Cup. The last 25-céntimo coin (or real) was dated 1959, the ten céntimos also dated 1959; both coins bore the portrait of Franco. The 1-céntimo coin was last minted in 1913 and featured King Alfonso XIII. The -céntimo coin was last minted in 1868 and featured Queen Isabel II.


title: Spanish peseta

text: The peseta, previously not a monetary unit but a colloquial name for the coin worth of a peso, was formally introduced as a currency unit in 1868, at a time when Spain considered joining the Latin Monetary Union (LMU). Spain eventually decided not to formally join the LMU, although it did achieve alignment with the bloc. The Spanish Law of June 26, 1864 decreed that in preparation for joining the Latin Monetary Union (set up in 1865), the peseta became a subdivision of the Spanish peso with 1 "peso duro" = 5 "pesetas". The peseta replaced all previous currencies denominated in "silver escudos" and "reales de vellón" at a rate of 5 "pesetas" = 1 "peso duro" = 2 "silver escudos" = 20 "reales de vellón".


title: Spanish peseta

text: The peseta was equal to 4.5 grams of silver, or 0.290322 grams of gold, the standard used by all the currencies of the Latin Monetary Union. From 1873, only the gold standard applied.


title: Spanish peseta

text: In 1883 the peseta went off the gold standard and traded below parity with the gold French franc. However, as the free minting of silver was suspended to the general public, the peseta had a floating exchange rate between the value of the gold franc and the silver franc. The Spanish government captured all profits from minting "duros" (5-peseta coins) out of silver bought for less than Pts 5. While total issuance was limited to prevent the peseta from falling below the silver franc, the abundance of "duros" in circulation prevented the peseta from returning to par with the gold franc. Spain's system where the silver "duro" trades at a premium above its metallic value due to relative scarcity is called the "fiduciary standard".


title: Spanish peseta

text: The political turbulence of the early twentieth century (especially during the years after the World War I) caused the monetary union to break up, although it was not until 1927 that it officially ended.


title: Spanish peseta

text: During the Civil War (1936-1939), gold and silver coinage was withdrawn and copper-nickel coins were introduced. In 1959, Spain became part of the Bretton Woods System, pegging the peseta at a value of Pts 60 = US$1. In 1967, the peseta followed the devaluation of sterling, maintaining the exchange rate of Pts 168 = £1 stg. and establishing a new rate of Pts 70 = US$1.


title: Spanish peseta

text: High inflation was constant in Spain from the Civil War until the 1990s. After one century with the Pts 1,000 being the largest note, the Pts 5,000 note was introduced in 1976. A series of coins was issued to commemorate the 1982 FIFA World Cup held in Spain. All the fractional coinage was withdrawn in 1983; at the same time, Pts 2,000 and Pts 10,000 notes were introduced.


title: Spanish peseta

text: Pts 200 and Pts 500 notes were withdrawn in 1992 and replaced by coins, leaving Pts 1,000 as the smallest note. Coins ranged from Pta 1 to Pts 500. In that year, a series of coins commemorating 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona and Expo '92 in Seville were issued. Spain was hit heavily by the early 1990s recession and the peseta was devalued three times, the first of them being just after Black Wednesday, plummeting from Pts 100 to Pts 130 per US$1.


title: Spanish peseta

text: All Franco era coinage was withdrawn in 1997. The peseta linked its value with the euro coin on 1 January 1999, and hit rock bottom that year when Pts 200 were required to buy US$1. At the time Euro became a material coin, Pts 185.29 were needed to buy US$1, that is, 1.1743 euros.


title: Spanish peseta

text: The peseta was replaced by the euro in 2002, following the establishment of the euro in 1999. The exchange rate was €1 = Pts 166.386.


title: Spanish peseta

text: From 1868 to 1982, a unique dating system for Spanish coins was employed. This would be adopted and sometimes abandoned intermittently during various times, and continued through to be used through the first years of Juan Carlos I's reign. Although a common "authorization date" will be found on virtually all coins of this period on the obverse (front) of each coin, the actual date for many coins can be found inside a small six pointed star, typically on the reverse (back) of each coin, but sometimes the front. Therefore, the obverse date does not always reflect the actual date of mintage but rather a restriking of older obverse coin die designs. So, if the coin date shows 1959 up front but a tiny "64" is depicted in the six pointed star on the back, then the actual date of issue is in fact 1964 rather than the date depicted in front. This dating system would be abandoned in the early 1980s anticipating a one-by-one redesign of each coin denomination.


title: Spanish peseta

text: In 1869 and 1870, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 céntimos, and Pta 1, Pts 2, and Pts 5. The lowest four denominations were struck in copper (replaced by bronze from 1877), with the 20 cts, 50 cts, Pta 1 and Pts 2 struck in .835 silver and the Pts 5 struck in .900 silver. 5 cts and 10 cts coins were quickly nicknamed "perra chica" (small dog) and "perra gorda" (fat dog) respectively, as people then were unable to recognize the shape of the lion in them, mistaking it for a dog. The Pts 5 coin was nicknamed "duro" (hard), referencing the old "peso duro". Pts 5 coins were called "duros" by every generation until the withdrawal of the peseta in 2002, and Spaniards would often informally account in that unit (e.g. using '20 duros' for Pts 100).