title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: In September 2006 in the eastern RS town of Zvornik, the Saint Sava primary school launched the new school year with a religious ceremony chaired by a Serbian Orthodox priest in the presence of more than 100 Bosniak students and parents. The incident received strong condemnation from the Islamic community, Bosniak associations, and the RS Minister of Education and Culture, who called the decision "inappropriate." However, school officials saw no problem with the event and indicated that it was a 15-year tradition to begin the school year in this manner and that attendance was not obligatory.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: There were a number of controversial and highly politicized cases involving the illegal construction of religious buildings or monuments on private or government-owned land. In these cases the buildings or monuments were built to send a political message to minority believers about the dominance of the majority ethnic and religious group in that area, creating ethnic tensions and impeding the process of reconciliation.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: An illegally constructed Serbian Orthodox church remained on the land of a Bosniak returnee in the town of Konjevic Polje in the eastern RS, despite the RS Ministry of Urban Planning's 2004 decision that the church should be removed. On September 11, 2006, for the second consecutive year, the local Orthodox priest celebrated Mass in the church, which was attended by a large number of attendees singing songs and wearing traditional clothing. Local police were present, and there was no violence. In June 2007 RS and Serbian Orthodox Church officials agreed in principle to relocate the church but had not found an alternate location by the end of the period covered by this report. A wooden Serbian Orthodox church unlawfully built on private Bosniak owned land in the town of Kotorsko continued to be the source of legal and ethnic conflict. Although deadlines were set by authorities for removal of the church, no action had been taken by the end of the period covered by this report.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: The presence of a large stone cross and cement foundations for the eventual addition of more crosses in the ethnically divided town of Stolac in Herzegovina also remained contentious. In 2004 Federation authorities ordered the removal of the cross and foundations; however, the removal was delayed pending the outcome of a 2004 lawsuit on the legality of the Federation Government's decision. In September 2006 the Federation Constitutional Court upheld the constitutionality of the law, and the Federation Ministry of Spatial Planning was able again to launch an initiative for removal of the cross and foundations. While the Federation Ministry of Spatial Planning had the legal authority to undertake such an initiative, it was reluctant to do so out of concern that the action would increase inter-ethnic tensions during the election year. In May 2007 members of a Bosniak NGO illegally destroyed the additional foundations, but the cross remained.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: Traditional religious communities all had extensive claims for restitution of property that the communist government of the former Yugoslavia nationalized after World War II. The State Law on Religious Freedom provides religious communities the right to restitution of expropriated property throughout the country "in accordance with the law." A special multi-ethnic restitution commission completed its mandate and delivered a draft restitution law to the Council of Ministers in early 2007 for approval. However, as of mid-2007 no action had been taken, and many believed that the law would not be passed without changes. In the absence of any state legislation specifically governing restitution, return of former religious properties continued on an ad hoc basis at the discretion of municipal officials but was usually completed only in favor of the majority group.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: Many officials used property restitution cases as a tool of political patronage, rendering religious leaders dependent on politicians to regain property taken from religious communities. Other unresolved restitution claims were politically and legally complicated. For example, the Serbian Orthodox Church continued to seek the return of the building that housed the University of Sarajevo's Economic Faculty and compensation for the land on which the state parliament building is located. The Jewish and Muslim communities also asserted historic claims to many commercial and residential properties in Sarajevo. The Catholic community maintained a large number of similar claims in Banja Luka.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: In May 2007 the Islamic community began proceedings against the RS city of Banja Luka seeking damages of approximately $1.1 million (1.5 million Bosnian convertible marks) for the wartime destruction of all mosques in the city. The Islamic community filed the original lawsuit in 2000 but began proceedings again when an out-of-court settlement failed because the city would not make the requested admission of guilt.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: During the period covered by this report, the Federation municipality of Travnik partially complied with a 2003 decision by the Human Rights Chamber (renamed the Human Rights Commission of the Constitutional Court) ordering the municipal government to relocate a public school housed in a building formerly owned by the Catholic archdiocese. The municipality returned half the building to the archdiocese for use as part of its Catholic school center. However, the other half remained in use as a public school. The court ordered the public school to move out of the building by July 1, 2006, but by that date authorities had not allocated funding for a new school building, and the building remained in use as a public school.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: Minority religious communities also encountered difficulty in obtaining permits for new churches and mosques. The Catholic Church continued to seek permission, first solicited in 2000, to build a new church in the Sarajevo neighborhood of Grbavica, but complained that the local authorities, a Bosniak majority, refused to grant the permit.


title: Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees in the country, or of forced religious conversion.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Herschel Feibel Grynszpan (Yiddish: הערשל פײַבל גרינשפּאן; German: "Hermann Grünspan"; 28 March 1921 – last rumoured to be alive 1945, declared dead 1960) was a Polish-Jewish expatriate born and raised in Weimar Germany who shot the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath on 7 November 1938 in Paris. The Nazis used this assassination as a pretext to launch "Kristallnacht", the antisemitic pogrom of 9–10 November 1938. Grynszpan was seized by the Gestapo after the Fall of France and brought to Germany; his fate remains unknown. It is generally assumed that he did not survive World War II, and he was declared dead in 1960. A photograph of a man resembling Grynszpan was cited in 2016 as evidence to support the claim that he was still alive in Bamberg, Germany, on 3 July 1946.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan was born on 28 March 1921 in Hanover, Germany. His parents, Zindel and Rivka, were Polish Jews who had emigrated in 1911 and settled in Hanover. Zindel opened a tailor's shop, from which he earned a modest living. Because of the German Citizenship Law of 1913, based on the principles of "jus sanguinis", Grynszpan was never a German citizen despite his German birth. The family became Polish citizens after the First World War and retained that status during their years in Germany. Grynszpan was the youngest of six children, only three of whom survived childhood. His parents' first child was stillborn in 1912. Their second child, daughter Sophie Helena (born in 1914), died of scarlet fever in 1928. A daughter (Esther, also known as "Berta") was born on 31 January 1916 (she was murdered by the Nazis in 1942 or 1943), and a son (Mordechai) on 29 August 1919. A fifth child, Salomone, was born in 1920 and died in 1931 in a road accident.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: The Grynszpan family was known as "Ostjuden" ("Eastern Jews") by the Germans and many West European Jews. The "Ostjuden" usually spoke Yiddish and tended to be more religiously observant, impoverished, less educated, and less assimilated than German Jews. Given the Ostjuden situation in Germany, Grynszpan (unlike German Jews, who tended to see themselves as Germans first and Jews second) grew up with an intense sense of Jewishness. He dropped out of school at age 14. Grynszpan was considered by his teachers to be intelligent, if rather lazy, a student who never seemed to try to excel at his studies. He later complained that his teachers disliked him because he was an Ostjude, and he was treated as an outcast both by his German teachers and fellow students. As a child and a teenager, Grynszpan was known for his violent temper and his tendency to respond to antisemitic insults with his fists and was frequently suspended from school for fighting.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan attended a state primary school until 1935 (when he was 14) and later said that he left school because Jewish students were already facing discrimination. He was an intelligent, sensitive and easily-provoked youth whose few close friends found him too touchy. Grynszpan was an active member of the Jewish youth sports club, Bar-Kochba Hanover. When he left school, his parents decided that there was no future for him in Germany and tried to arrange for his emigration to the British Mandate of Palestine. With financial assistance from Hanover's Jewish community, Grynszpan was sent to a yeshiva (rabbinical seminary) in Frankfurt and studied Hebrew and the Torah; he was, by all accounts, more religious than his parents. After eleven months, he left the yeshiva, returned to Hanover and applied to emigrate to Palestine. The local Palestine emigration office told Grynszpan that he was too young and would have to wait a year. He and his parents decided that he should go to Paris and live with his uncle and aunt, Abraham and Chawa Grynszpan, instead. Grynszpan obtained a Polish passport and German residence permit and received permission to leave Germany for Belgium, where another uncle (Wolf Grynszpan) lived. He did not intend to remain in Belgium and entered France illegally in September 1936. (Grynszpan could not enter France legally because he had no financial support; Jews were not permitted to take money from Germany.)


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: In Paris, he lived in a small Yiddish-speaking enclave of Polish Orthodox Jews. Grynszpan met few people outside it, learning only a few words of French in two years. He initially lived a carefree, bohemian life as a "poet of the streets", spending his days aimlessly wandering and reciting Yiddish poems to himself. Grynszpan's two greatest interests, other than exploring Paris, were spending time in coffeehouses and going to the cinema. He spent this period unsuccessfully trying to become a legal resident of France, because he could not work nor study legally. Grynszpan's German re-entry permit expired in April 1937 and his Polish passport expired in January 1938, leaving him without papers. The Paris Police Prefecture ruled in July 1937 that he had no basis for remaining in France, and he was ordered to leave the following month. Grynszpan had no desire to return to Germany. In March 1938, Poland passed a law depriving Polish citizens who had lived continuously abroad for more than five years of their citizenship. Grynszpan became a stateless person as a result, and continued to live illegally in Paris. Lonely and living in poverty on the margins of French life as an illegal immigrant, with no real skills, he grew increasingly desperate and angry as his situation worsened.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan was afraid to accept a job because of his illegal-immigrant status and depended for support on his uncle Abraham, who was also extremely poor. His refusal to work caused tension with his uncle and aunt, who frequently told him that he was a drain on their finances and had to take a job despite the risk of deportation. Beginning in October 1938 Grynszpan was in hiding from the French police who sought to deport him, a stressful situation. The few who knew him in Paris described him as a shy, emotional teenager who often wept when he discussed the plight of Jews around the world, especially his beloved family in Germany. Grynszpan came from a close-knit, loving family, and often spoke about his love for his family and how much he missed them.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: The position of Grynszpan's family in Hanover was becoming increasingly precarious; his father's business was failing, and both of his siblings lost their jobs. German authorities announced in August 1938, in response to a Polish decree stripping Polish Jews living abroad of citizenship, that all residence permits for foreigners were being cancelled and would have to be renewed. On 26 October, a few days before the decree was to come into force, the Gestapo was ordered to arrest and deport all Polish Jews in Germany. The Grynszpan family was among the estimated 12,000 Polish Jews arrested, stripped of their property, and herded aboard trains headed for Poland. At the trial of Adolf Eichmann, Sendel Grynszpan recounted their deportation during the night of 27 October 1938: "Then they took us in police trucks, in prisoners' lorries, about 20 men in each truck, and they took us to the railway station. The streets were full of people shouting: ""Juden raus! Raus nach Palästina!"" (""Out with the Jews! Off to Palestine!"")


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: When the deportees reached the border, they were forced to walk to the Polish town of Zbąszyń (Bentschen in German). Poland refused to admit them at first, since the Sanation regime had no intention of accepting those whom it had just stripped of Polish citizenship. The "Polish operation" (German: "die Polenaktion") ended on 29 October, when the Polish government threatened to begin expelling German nationals from Poland. The Grynszpans and thousands of other Polish-Jewish deportees stranded at the border were fed by the Polish Red Cross.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Conditions for the refugees, trapped in the open on the German-Polish frontier, were extremely poor; according to a British woman who worked with the Red Cross, "I found thousands crowded together in pigsties. The old, the sick and children herded together in the most inhumane conditions ... some actually tried to escape "back" to Germany and were shot". On 3 November, Grynszpan received a postcard from his sister in Zbąszyn dated 31 October recounting what had happened and (in a line which was crossed out) apparently pleading for help. On 6 November 1938, Grynszpan asked his uncle Abraham to send money to his family. Abraham said he had little to spare and was incurring financial costs and legal risks by harbouring his nephew, an illegal immigrant and unemployed youth. After an argument, Grynszpan walked out of his uncle's house with about 300 francs (an average day's wage in Paris at the time) and spent the night in a cheap hotel. On the morning of 7 November, he wrote a farewell postcard to his parents and put it in his pocket. Grynszpan went to a gun shop in the Rue du Faubourg St Martin, where he bought a 6.35mm revolver and a box of 25 bullets for 235 francs. He caught the metro to the Solférino station and walked to the German embassy at 78 Rue de Lille. It is generally believed that Grynszpan wanted to assassinate Johannes von Welczeck, the German ambassador to France. As he entered the embassy Grynszpan walked past von Welczeck, who was leaving for his daily morning walk. At 9:45 am, Grynszpan identified himself as a German resident at the reception desk and asked to see an embassy official; he did not ask for anyone by name. He claimed to be a spy with important intelligence which he had to give to the most senior diplomat available, preferably the ambassador. Unaware that he had just walked past von Welczeck, Grynszpan asked if he could see "His Excellency, the ambassador" to hand over the "most important document" he claimed to have. The clerk on duty asked Ernst vom Rath, the junior of the two embassy officials available, to see him. When Grynszpan entered Rath's office, Rath asked to see the "most important document". Grynszpan pulled out his gun, and shot him five times in the abdomen. According to the French police account, he shouted right before pulling out his gun: ""You're a filthy ! In the name of 12,000 persecuted Jews, here is the document!""


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan made no attempt to resist or escape, and identified himself truthfully to the French police. He confessed to shooting Rath (who was in critical condition in a hospital), and repeated that his motive was to avenge the persecuted Jews. In his pocket was the postcard to his parents; it read, "With God's help. My dear parents, I could not do otherwise, may God forgive me, the heart bleeds when I hear of your tragedy and that of the 12,000 Jews. I must protest so that the whole world hears my protest, and that I will do. Forgive me. Hermann [his German name]".


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Despite the best efforts of French and German doctors (including Adolf Hitler's personal physician, Karl Brandt), the 29-year-old Rath died on 9 November. On 17 November, he received a much-publicized state funeral in Düsseldorf which was attended by Hitler and Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. In his eulogy, Ribbentrop called the shooting as an attack by Jews on the German people: "We understand the challenge, and we accept it". Rath's assassination was used to justify antisemitic pogroms in Germany. Rath died on the fifteenth anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, the greatest holiday of the Nazi calendar. That evening, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbelsafter consulting with Hitlermade an inflammatory speech at the Bürgerbräukeller beer hall in Munich (where the putsch had been organised) to an audience of veteran Nazis from throughout Germany. It would not be surprising, Goebbels said, if the German people were so outraged by the assassination of a German diplomat by a Jew that they took the law into their own hands and attacked Jewish businesses, community centres and synagogues.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Such "spontaneous outbursts" should not be openly organised by the Nazi Party or the SA, but should not be opposed or prevented either. That Rath's death was a pretext was indicated by Goebbels' diary entry for that day: "In the afternoon the death of the German diplomat vom Rath is announced. That's good ... I go to the Party reception in the old Rathaus. Terrific activity. I brief Hitler on the affair. He decides: allow the demonstrations to go on. Withdraw the police. The Jews should feel the people's fury. That's right. I issue appropriate instructions to the police and party. Then I give a brief speech on the subject to the Party's leadership. Thunderous applause. Everyone dashed to the telephone. Now the people will act".


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Within hours, Nazis began a pogrom against Jewish communities throughout Germany which became known as "Kristallnacht" (Night of Broken Glass) and lasted all night and into the following day. More than 90 Jews were killed; over 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps (where over a thousand died before the remainder were released, several months later), and thousands of Jewish shops, homes, offices and more than 200 synagogues were smashed or burned.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: More than one billion Reichsmark in property damage (about US$400 million at the time, or $6.7 billion in 2015 dollars) was reported. Although Jews were able to file insurance claims for their property losses, Hermann Göring (in charge of German economic planning) ruled that the claims would not be paid. "Kristallnacht" shocked the world, and helped end the climate of support for the appeasement of Hitler in Britain, France and the United States. It also triggered a new wave of Jewish emigration from Germany.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan was distraught when he learned that his action was used by the Nazis to justify further violent assaults on German Jews, although his family (having been deported to the Polish border) was safe from that particular manifestation of Nazi antisemitism. The Nazi government had been planning violence against the Jews for some time, and was waiting for a suitable pretext.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Rath's death and the horror of "Kristallnacht" brought Grynszpan international notoriety. Enjoying his celebrity status, he was frequently interviewed in his prison cell and wrote letters to celebrities around the world.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Dorothy Thompson, the American journalist, made an impassioned 14 November broadcast to an estimated five million listeners in defence of Grynszpan and noted that the Nazis had made heroes of the assassins of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss and German-Jewish Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau:


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Liberal and left-wing newspapers and commentators in a number of countries echoed Thompson's sentiments. Deploring Rath's assassination, they said that Grynszpan had been driven to his act by the Nazi persecution of German Jews in general and his family in particular. Jewish organizations were horrified by Grynszpan's action, which they condemned more severely than most non-Jewish liberals (while echoing the plea of extenuating circumstances and condemning the subsequent attacks on all German Jews in response to the act of an isolated individual). The World Jewish Congress "deplored the fatal shooting of an official of the German Embassy by a young Polish Jew of seventeen", but "protested energetically against the violent attacks in the German press against the whole of Judaism because of this act" and "reprisals taken against the German Jews". In France, the Alliance Israélite Universelle "rejected all forms of violence, regardless of author or victim" but "indignantly protested against the barbarous treatment inflicted on an entire innocent population."


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Several appeals were launched to raise money for Grynszpan's defence. In the United States, Thompson launched an appeal which raised more than $40,000 in a few weeks; she asked Jews not to donate to the fund, so the Nazis could not attribute Grynszpan's defence to a Jewish conspiracy. Jewish organizations also raised money. In the immediate aftermath of Rath's assassination, two Parisian Jewish lawyers (Szwarc and Vésinne-Larue) were retained by the Grynszpan family. When the case became internationally known, the family sought a well-known lawyer and retained Isidore Franckel (28 November 1893 – 16 February 1965) (one of Paris's leading advocates and president of the central committee of Hatzohar, the Union of Revisionist Zionists). Thompson would later intercede with President Roosevelt to help Franckel and his family (wife and two sons) to flee France to the United States in 1942.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Franckel wanted a well-known non-Jewish lawyer as co-counsel and engaged Vincent de Moro-Giafferi (a flamboyant Corsican, leading anti-fascist activist and former education minister in Édouard Herriot's Radical government), with Yiddish-speaking lawyer Serge Weill-Goudchaux as his associate. Legal fees and expenses were paid from Thompson's fund for Grynszpan's defence. Until Franckel and Moro-Giafferi took over his defence, it was accepted that Grynszpan went to the Embassy in a rage and shot the first German he saw as a political act to avenge the persecution of his family and all German Jews. His statements after his arrest supported this view; he told the Paris police, "Being a Jew is not a crime. I am not a dog. I have a right to live and the Jewish people have a right to exist on this earth. Wherever I have been, I have been chased like an animal." Franckel and Moro-Giafferi said that if Grynszpan was allowed to claim that he had shot vom Rath with such a motive, he would certainly be convicted and possibly executed (despite his being a minor); French law took a severe view of political assassination. If the crime could be shown to have a non-political motive, he might be acquitted or receive a lesser sentence; French law traditionally took a lenient view of crimes of passion. Moro-Gaifferi's legal strategy depoliticized Grynszpan's actions. Grynszpan was enraged by his lawyer's proposed "crime passionel" defense, insisting that he was not homosexual and had killed Rath as an act of political protest against the German government's antisemitic policies. The shy, socially-awkward Grynszpan confided to Moro-Giafferi that he had never had a girlfriend and was still a virgin, asking his lawyer to arrange a sexual encounter with a beautiful French girl in case he was sentenced to death. Grynszpan considered himself a hero who stood up to the Nazis, and believed that when his case went to trial his (preferred) "Jewish avenger" defense would acquit him. The outcome of the Schwartzbard trial in 1927, when Sholom Schwartzbard was acquitted for assassinating Symon Petliura in 1926 on the grounds that he was avenging pogroms by Ukrainian forces, was a major factor in Grynszpan's seeking the "Jewish avenger" defense (to Moro-Giafferi's chagrin).


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan was theorized to have been acquainted with Rath before the shooting. According to this theory, Rath was homosexual and had met Grynszpan in Le Boeuf sur le Toit (a Paris bar). It is unclear whether Grynszpan himself was alleged to be homosexual or simply using his youth and appearance to win an influential friend. According to the theory, Rath had promised to use his influence to legalize Grynszpan's French residency. When Rath reneged on his promise, Grynszpan went to the embassy and shot him. According to a 2001 article in "The Guardian", historian Hans-Jürgen Döscher planned to publish an updated edition of his "Reichskristallnacht" which indicated that Grynszpan and Rath had had a sexual relationship. Döscher quoted the diaries of French author André Gide, who wrote that Rath "had an exceptionally intimate relationship with the little Jew, his murderer": "The idea that such a highly thought-of representative of the Third Reich sinned twice according to the laws of his country is rather amusing." However, Swiss-Canadian writer Corinne Chaponnière wrote in a 2015 essay that the quotation was incorrectly attributed to Gide.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: No firm evidence exists that Rath and Grynszpan had met before the shooting. German embassy officials were certain that Grynszpan had not asked for Rath by name, and saw Rath only because he happened to be on duty at the time. In the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1941, Grynszpan told fellow inmates that he intended to falsely claim at his trial that he had had a homosexual relationship with Rath. Canadian historian Michael Marrus wrote,


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Further evidence is presented by Gerald Schwab in the form of a letter sent to Rath's brother in 1964 by Erich Wollenberg, a communist exile from Nazi Germany who claimed to be an associate of Moro-Giafferi:


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: On the eve of the 75th anniversary of "Kristallnacht", in November 2013, Dutch author Sidney Smeets published a book based on previously-inaccessible archival sources. The book, "De wanhoopsdaad: hoe een zeventienjarige jongen de Kristallnacht ontketende" ("An Act of Desperation"), delves into the court files of German journalist Michael Soltikow's defamation trials during the 1950s and 1960s. Soltikow was sued by Rath's surviving brother in 1952 for libeling his brother, and the evidence Soltikow presented to support his claims of a homosexual relationship between Rath and Grynszpan did not hold up in a court of law. All witnesses, even those quoted to the contrary by Soltikow, denied knowledge of the alleged relationship under oath. According to Smeets, Döscher's theory is untenable since it is based almost entirely on Soltikow's allegations; Grynszpan and Rath did not know each other, and there is no evidence that either was homosexual. However, the claim of homosexuality damaged Grynszpan's reputation.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: From November 1938 to June 1940, Grynszpan was imprisoned in the Fresnes Prison in Paris while legal arguments continued over the conduct of his trial. His defence team attempted to delay the trial as long as possible on procedural grounds in the hope that the publicity surrounding the Rath murder would subside (making the trial less politicized), with no opposition from the prosecution. Goebbels sent Wolfgang Diewerge, a lawyer and journalist who had joined the NSDAP in 1930, to represent the German government in Paris. (a prominent German lawyer and a professor of international law at the University of Münster) was also sent to Paris, ostensibly representing the Rath family, but was widely known to be an agent of Goebbels. Grimm tried to argue that Grynszpan should be extradited to Germany (although he was not a German citizen), but the French government would not agree to this. Grimn and Diewerge knew each other well, working closely together in the 1934 Cairo Jew Trial, and their efforts in Paris in 1938-39 largely repeated their work in Cairo. The Germans argued that Grynszpan had acted as the agent of a Jewish conspiracy, and their fruitless efforts to find evidence to support this further delayed the trial. Grimn and Diewerge, who were both antisemitic, were obsessed by the belief that Grynszpan had acted on behalf of unknown Jewish "Hintermänner" (supporters) who were also responsible for the assassination of Wilhelm Gustloff by David Frankfurter in 1936. Their attempts to find the "Hintermänner" and link Grynszpan to Frankfurter slowed the case; neither man would accept the contentions of the Paris police that the "Hintermänner" did not exist and the killings of Rath and Gustloff were unrelated. According to American historian Alan Steinweis, the lack of evidence for these "Hintermänner" did not lead Grimn and Diewerge to the conclusion that they did not exist; instead, they believed that the Jewish conspiracy against Germany was more insidious than they had realized (erasing all evidence of its existence).


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Moro-Giafferi changed tactics and demanded an immediate trial when war broke out, confident that anti-German sentiment and German inability to present evidence would result in Grynszpan's acquittal. The investigating judge had joined the army, however; the Ministry of Justice did not want the trial to proceed, and the Swiss lawyer engaged by the Germans employed a number of delaying tactics. The trial had not begun and Grynszpan was still in prison when the German army approached Paris in June 1940. French authorities evacuated the Parisian prisoners to the south in early June. Grynszpan was sent to Orléans and, by bus, to the prison at Bourges. En route, the convoy was attacked by German aircraft. Some prisoners were killed, and others escaped in the confusion. One was apparently Grynszpan, since he was not among the survivors who arrived in Bourges. However, he had not escaped; he had been left behind. Instead of escaping, he walked to Bourges and surrendered to the police. Grynszpan was sent to make his own way to Toulouse, where he was incarcerated. He had no money, knew no one in the region, and spoke little French.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: The Nazis were on Grynszpan's trail; Grimm, now an official in the German foreign ministry, and SS Sturmbannführer Karl Bömelburg arrived in Paris on 15 June with orders to find him. They followed him to Orléans and Bourges, where they learned that he had been sent to Toulouse (in Vichy France's unoccupied zone). France had surrendered on 22 June, and a term of the armistice gave the Germans the right to demand the surrender of all "Germans named by the German Government" to the occupation authorities. Although Grynszpan was not a German citizen, Germany was his last place of legal residence and the Vichy authorities did not object to Grimm's demand that he be handed over. Grynszpan was illegally extradited to Germany on 18 July 1940, and was interrogated by the Gestapo. He was delivered to Bömelburg (on the border of the occupied zone), driven to Paris, flown to Berlin and imprisoned at Gestapo headquarters on Prinz-Albrecht-Strasse.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan spent the rest of his life in German custody, at the Moabit prison in Berlin and in concentration camps at Sachsenhausen and Flossenbürg. At Sachsenhausen he was housed in the bunker reserved for special prisoners with Kurt Schuschnigg, the last pre-Anschluss chancellor of Austria. Grynszpan received relatively mild treatment because Goebbels intended him to be the subject of a show trial proving the complicity of "international Jewry" in the Rath killing. Grimm and Wolfgang Diewerge (an official in Goebbels' ministry) were put in charge of trial preparations, using files seized from Moro-Giafferi's Paris offices; Moro-Giafferi had escaped to Switzerland.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Goebbels found bringing Grynszpan to trial in Germany as difficult as it had been in France. Although the Nazis held unchallenged political power, the state bureaucracy retained its independence in many areas (and harboured the most effective networks of the German resistance). The Justice Ministry (still staffed by lawyers intent on upholding the letter of the law) argued that since Grynszpan was not a German citizen, he could not be tried in Germany for a murder he had committed outside Germany; a minor at the time, he could not face the death penalty. Arguments dragged on through 1940 and into 1941. The solution was to charge Grynszpan with high treason, for which he could be tried and executed. Persuading everyone concerned of its legality took some time, and he was not indicted until October 1941. The indictment stated that Grynszpan's objective in shooting Rath was to ""prevent through force of threats the Führer and Reichschancellor from the conduct of their constitutional functions"" at the behest of international Jewry.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: In November, Goebbels saw Hitler and obtained his approval for a show trial which would put "World Jewry in the dock". The trial was set for January 1942, with former French foreign minister Georges Bonnet scheduled to testify that "World Jewry" was responsible for dragging France into a war with Germany (its political objective).


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Expelled from Germany for her anti-Nazi reporting, Thompson viewed Grynszpan's deed into a heroic response to the Nazi persecution of Jews. She insisted that large donations to Grynszpan's legal defense come from non-Jews, so the Nazis could not smear her efforts.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: The trial did not begin in January 1942. The United States had entered the war the previous month, as German armies suffered a major setback on the Eastern Front before battling the Red Army near Moscow. The Riom Trial of Léon Blum and other French politicians was due to begin in February, and Goebbels did not want two show trials at once. There were also further legal difficulties; it was feared that Grynszpan would challenge the legality of his deportation from France, which the Justice Ministry officials felt had been "irregular". Most disturbing of all was the revelation that Grynszpan would claim that he had shot Rath because of a homosexual relationship. This was communicated to Grimm, Diewerge, and other officials by Justice Ministry state secretary Roland Freisler (later the head of the People's Court) on 22 January. Grynszpan, who had rejected the idea of using this defence when Moro-Giafferi suggested it in 1938, had apparently changed his mind. He told Heinrich Jagusch (one of his Gestapo interrogators) in mid-1941 that he intended using this defence but the Justice Ministry did not inform Goebbels, who was furious. He wrote in his diary:


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: The Justice Ministry indicted Grynszpan under Paragraph 175, and the infuriated Goebbels said that the additional indictment implied that Grynszpan and Rath had had a homosexual relationship. Goebbels again saw Hitler in March, and assured him that the trial would begin in May (without warning him about the possibility of a crime-of-passion defence). In April, he was still grappling with the problem:


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Acting Justice Minister Franz Schlegelberger wrote to Goebbels on 10 April demanding to know whether Hitler, when he had authorized the trial, had been aware that Grynszpan was planning to use a homosexual defence. What troubled the Justice Ministry was not the allegation that Rath had had a sexual relationship with Grynszpan; they knew it was false, and Grynszpan had said as much to some of his fellow inmates at Sachsenhausen. The problem was their belief that Rath was homosexual; Grynszpan had been given details of his personal life by Moro-Giafferi in Paris, and would reveal them in court. This would embarrass the Rath family and the Foreign Ministry; Rath's brother Gustav, a Wehrmacht officer, had been court-martialed for homosexuality. Gustav's homosexuality suggested, given the science and social paradigms of the time, the possibility that his brother may have been homosexual as well.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Hitler soon learned about the problem; from whom is unclear, but it probably reached the ears of Party Chancellery head (and Hitler's private secretary) Martin Bormann. Bormann would have thought it his duty to inform Hitler that Goebbels had not told him the whole story about the Grynszpan case. The Riom Trial was called off on 4 April, after Blum and the other defendants had used it as a platform to attack the Vichy regime, which probably decided Hitler against another risky show trial. By the beginning of May 1942, it was clear that Hitler did not favour a trial. Although the matter was raised on and off for several months, without Hitler's approval there would be no progress. Grynszpan was moved in September to the prison at Magdeburg, and his fate after September 1942 is unknown. Since his trial was never called off (it was postponed indefinitely), he was probably intended to be kept alive in case circumstances changed and a trial became possible. According to Adolf Eichmann, he may still have been alive in late 1943 or early 1944 at Gestapo headquarters in Berlin. Eichmann testified at his 1961 trial that he was ordered to examine Grynszpan in 1943 or 1944, but did not know his fate.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: One of Grynszpan's lawyers, Serge Weill-Goudchaux, said after World War II that Grynszpan had been executed in 1940; according to Fritz Dahms of the German foreign office, he died just before the end of the war. Unfounded rumours circulated after the war that he had survived and was living under another name in Paris. Several authorities believe that, according to evidence, Grynszpan died at Sachsenhausen sometime in late 1942; the historical consensus is that he did not survive the war. However, a 1946 photo emerged in 2016 of a man resembling Grynszpan in Germany.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: In April 1952, German Nazi journalist Michael von Soltikow published two articles claiming that Grynszpan was living in Paris and repeated the theoretical 'gay lover' motive for Rath's murder. "Graf von Soltikow", as he liked to call himself (his real name was Walter Bennecke, and he was not an aristocrat), was a self-promoting former SS officer who had specialized in writing anti-Semitic tracts in Nazi Germany; after the war he engaged in sensationalist journalism, usually claiming that he was boldly revealing "secrets" which no one else dared to. Soltikow wrote that he was doing a service to "World Jewry" by "proving" that Grynszpan killed Rath as the result of a homosexual relationship gone sour, rather than as the product of a world Jewish conspiracy.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: The theory that Grynszpan was living in Paris and not being prosecuted for Rath's murder, despite overwhelming evidence of his guilt, would have been attractive to many Germans after the war. During the 1950s, thousands of Germans who had been involved in the Holocaust had not been prosecuted for their crimes and were allowed to live out their days in peace. German historian Wolfram Wette wrote in 2002 that in the 1950s, "the vast majority of the population retained the nationalistic attitudes that had been inculcated in them earlier. Not only did they not accept the verdict that war crimes had been committed, but they also expressed solidarity with those who had been convicted, protected them and demanded their release, preferably in the form of a general amnesty". That the Jew who had murdered a German was not prosecuted for his crime by the French, despite (supposedly) living openly in Paris, was used as argument for not prosecuting Germans who were involved in the murder of Jews during the "Shoah".


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Soltikow was sued for defamation by the Rath family. In 2013, Dutch historian Sidney Smeets called Solitkow a con man whose allegations about Grynszpan and Rath were lies. During his trial in Munich, Soltikow claimed that Grynszpan was present during the previous day's court proceedings as a spectator. When the judge said that if that were true Grynszpan would have to be arrested for Rath's murder, an angry Soltikow claimed that Grynszpan would never show his face again.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: In 1957 an article by German historian Helmut Heiber claimed that Grynszpan was sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp and survived the war; another article by Egon Larsen, published two years later, said that Grynszpan had changed his name, was living in Paris and was working as a garage mechanic. Heiber's article was unmasked as based entirely on rumours that Grynszpan was alive and well in Paris. Larsen's report was based on talks with people who claimed to have met people who knew that Grynszpan was living in Paris; despite their claims about his survival, no one had ever actually seen Grynszpan. The only person who claimed to have seen Grynszpan was Soltikow; everyone else claimed to have talked with other people who supposedly met Grynszpan. Heiber retracted his 1957 article in 1981, saying that he now believed that Grynszpan died during the war.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: French doctor Alain Cuenot, who made the most extensive search for Grynszpan during the late 1950s, reported that he found no evidence that Grynszpan was alive; Cuenot found no references to Grynszpan in German documents after 1942, which strongly suggested that he had died that year: "If Grynszpan had survived the years 1943, 1944 and 1945, it would seem quite unusual that documents would not have been added to those already gathered". Cuenot noted that due to poor living conditions at Sachsenhausen, epidemics regularly killed thousands of inmates; he speculated that Grynszpan may have died in an epidemic, and SS camp officers would have a vested interest in covering up his death because he was supposed to be kept alive to be tried.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: According to American historian Alan E. Steinweis, Grynszpan was executed by the SS in 1942 when it became clear that he would not be tried for Rath's murder. Grynszpan was declared legally dead by the West German government in 1960 (with his date of death fixed as 8 May 1945) at the request of his parents, who said that they had heard nothing from him since the war. Since Grynszpan was extremely close to his parents and siblings (and was moved to assassinate Rath out of outrage at their treatment), it is unlikely that he would not contact his parents or his brother if he were alive after the war. During his two years in Paris (1936–1938), the lonely Grynszpan had written frequently to his family in Hanover about how much he missed them and how he wanted to see them again. The lack of communication with his family after 1945 would have been out of character. His parents, sending him to what they thought was safety in Paris while they and his siblings remained in Germany, survived the war. After their deportation to Poland they escaped in 1939 to the Soviet Union, where Grynszpan's sister Esther was murdered in 1942.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: After the war the remaining family members immigrated to the Palestine Mandate, which became Israel. Sendel Grynszpan was present at the 1952 Israeli premiere of "A Child of Our Time", Michael Tippett's oratorio about Grynszpan.


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: Grynszpan was widely shunned during his lifetime by Jewish communities around the world, who saw him as an irresponsible, immature teenager who (by recklessly killing a minor official like Rath) brought down the wrath of the Nazis in "Kristallnacht". Ron Roizen wrote that the frequent claims of Grynszpan's survival, despite all the evidence suggesting that he died sometime in late 1942, reflected the guilt of Jews who shunned Grynszpan during his lifetime; his "abandonment seems a little less problematic, too, once it is believed that the boy miraculously survived the war. Grynszpan alive permits us to avoid more easily the painful moral issues his case so profoundly symbolizes. Was Grynszpan's action that of a heroic martyr or a misguided pariah? Were the reactions to Grynszpan's action among those for whom it was carried out appropriate or inappropriate? Though nearly a half century has passed since Herschel Grynszpan's assassination of Ernst vom Rath, little or no progress has been made on these painful questions."


title: Herschel Grynszpan

text: In December 2016, a photograph found among a group of uncatalogued photos in the archives of the Jewish Museum Vienna by chief archivist, Christa Prokisch led to speculation that Grynszpan could have survived the war. The photograph, taken at a displaced persons camp in Bamberg, Bavaria on 3 July 1946, shows a man resembling Grynszpan participating in a demonstration by Holocaust survivors against British refusal to let them emigrate to the British mandate of Palestine. A facial recognition test indicated a 95% possibility, the highest possible score, that the man in the photo was Grynszpan.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The Cadillac CT6 (short for "Cadillac Touring 6") is a full-size luxury car manufactured by Cadillac. The CT6 was introduced at the 2015 New York International Auto Show and went on sale in the U.S. in March 2016. It is the first car to adopt the brand's revised naming strategy, as well as the first rear-wheel drive full-size Cadillac sedan since the Fleetwood was discontinued in 1996. It is built on a different platform than the smaller CTS and is engineered as a rear-wheel drive vehicle with optional all-wheel drive. In addition to its primary markets of North America and China, the CT6 was also offered in Europe, Korea, Japan, and the Middle East.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: General Motors discontinued the assembly of the Cadillac CT6 in the US in February 2020 due to poor sales and retooling of the Detroit/Hamtramck facility for electric vehicle production, beginning with the new GMC Hummer EV.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The CT6 is longer and wider than the XTS and offers more interior volume. It uses a mix of steel and aluminum making it lighter than other cars in its size class. It was brought to market as an addition to, not a replacement for, the now-discontinued XTS.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: Cadillac projected the CT6 would be the temporary flagship until it would bring a larger, more luxurious CT8 sedan to market. However, the CT8 did not come to fruition, and the CT6 remained the brand's flagship sedan.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: For the American market, the CT6 was manufactured at GM's Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant. On March 11, 2016, the first CT6 delivery took place, having been delivered to the winner of a 2015 auction for the first CT6 sold. The vehicle sold for $200,000 at the auction. The car was "Platinum" trim level and painted Stellar Black Metallic.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: Installed within the CT6 is the second generation CUE system, 4G LTE connectivity, and an 8 speaker Bose audio system, a Bose Centerpoint 10 speaker system included with the "Luxury" and "Premium Luxury" package, with a 34-speaker Bose Panaray audio system included with the top level "Platinum" package. Cadillac once again offers the Enhanced Night Vision which was discontinued as of 2004 on the DeVille. Available equipment includes Adaptive Cruise Control, as well as Magnetic Ride Control coupled with accident avoidance technologies. New with the CT6 is the Rear Camera Mirror, which uses streaming video from a camera that displays within the rear view mirror, which provides an enhanced view without obstructions from the "C-pillar" and passengers sitting in the rear area. The front seats can be adjusted 14 different ways, with an optional 16- or 20-way adjustment package that includes heated and cooled seat with a massage feature for both front and rear passengers. Rear seat passengers are also offered, retractable 10" LCD screens that extract up from the back of the front seat seatbacks, behind the front seat headrests that can play Blu-ray content for brought-in devices, that were introduced on the Cadillac Escala concept car.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: Cadillac has said that a new flagship, to be marketed as the Celestiq, is in development and will be a battery-powered liftback sedan.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The CT6 was initially available with a choice of three engines, a 4-cylinder 2.0-liter turbo (a first for a full-size Cadillac) and two V6 engines, a 3.6-liter and a 3.0-liter twin-turbocharged offering and together with cylinder deactivation. The CT6 will be available in both rear-wheel drive (standard on four-cylinder models) and all-wheel drive (standard on all six-cylinder models). A 4.2-liter twin-turbo V8 engine is available for the 2019 and 2020 models making in the CT6-V and in the V-Sport version. Torque for both engines is respectively. This is the most sophisticated V8 engine ever made by General Motors. It reportedly cost GM about $20,000 each to produce this engine. Production of the CT6-V was limited, and only 875 cars were made for 2019, and 600 for 2020 worldwide.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: A plug-in hybrid variant, the CT6 PHEV, debuted at the 2015 Shanghai Auto Show. The plug-in hybrid uses a similar powertrain as the current Chevrolet Volt (second generation). The powertrain combines a , 2.0L turbocharged 4-cylinder direct injected gasoline engine with a two motor, hybrid transmission and a liquid cooled 18.4 kWh lithium-ion battery pack, which is integrated into the car floor as well as an e-CVT. Total combined power is . The powertrain is manufactured in the United States and the vehicle's final assembled point is in Jinqiao, China (by Shanghai GM). The CT6 plug-in hybrid was released in the Chinese market in December 2016. Pricing in China started at (~), with a higher trim at (~ ) before any applicable government incentives. The CT6 PHEV went on sale in the U.S. in March 2017 in Premium Luxury trim level with a base price of US$75,095, also before applicable government incentives.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The CT6 PHEV has an EPA fuel economy rating of 62 MPGe (54 kWh per 100 miles) combined while running on full electric power, or 25 MPG combined in hybrid mode. The EPA-certified electric range is , while the total range of both the gasoline engine and hybrid electric motor combined is over . The CT6 PHEV is the first Cadillac product for the U.S. market to have its final assembly point in China.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The CT6 uses the Bose Panaray Surround-Sound System, using Dolby DTS Surround Sound Technology. The system consists of 34 speakers, including ones mounted in the front seat headrests, as well as a motorized center-channel speaker that retracts from the center of the instrument panel. The system uses Bose's automotive sound system technologies, as well as technologies from its Panaray line of professional speakers. The CT6 line comes standard with one of three Bose premium audio systems: an 8-speaker Bose Premium Sound System, a 10-speaker Bose Centerpoint Surround-Sound System, or the top-of-the-line 34-speaker Bose Panaray Surround-Sound System.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The CT6 uses a rear view mirror camera, which allows the driver to easily see what is behind them via a digital image projected onto the rearview mirror. This is the first vehicle to offer a rearview camera mounted in the rearview mirror.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: Starting in 2017, Cadillac Super Cruise became available for semi-autonomous highway driving. It is part of a $5,000 option package on CT6's Premium Luxury model and is standard on the top-of-the-line Platinum.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: Introduced as a high-performance version of the CT6, the CT6-V (formerly known as the V-Sport) was first revealed at the 2018 New York Auto Show. Powertrain improvements over the regular CT6 include a newly developed DOHC twin-turbocharged V8, code-named Blackwing, which produces at 5,700 rpm and of torque between 3,200 rpm and 4,000 rpm. This engine has an bore and stroke with a compression ratio of 9.8:1. In order to withstand the stress of a high-performance engine and reduce internal friction, Cadillac has used forged steel connecting rods and a special coating for piston pins. To improve efficiency, Cadillac employed cylinder deactivation on cylinders 2, 3, 5, and 8 while variable timing was used on all four camshafts (which can adjust 55 degrees on the exhaust and 70 degrees on the intake). When the engine is off, the intake cams are parked in the middle of their travel, preventing exhaust/intake valve overlap to allow for easier starting and smoother initial idle. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder at over of pressure. Cast stainless steel exhaust manifolds incorporate the housing within the engine bank for the twin-scroll Mitsubishi Heavy Industries turbochargers to allow for better response. Titanium aluminide turbine wheels spin up to 190,000 rpm, producing peak boost of which is relieved by electric wastegates. The intercooler is mounted just above each cylinder head, which reduces the charge air temperature by approximately before reaching the engine intake.


title: Cadillac CT6

text: The engines were hand-assembled and personally signed at the Bowling Green plant in Kentucky where each Chevrolet Corvette is also assembled. The engines are mated to a 10-speed automatic transmission, which uses Performance Algorithm Shift programming to achieve the ideal shifting patterns. The CT6-V also features an AWD system with optimized Transfer case, rear steering, and mechanical Limited Slip Differential (LSD). The AWD system will adjust according to the 3 different driving modes available. The standard torque bias remains 40:60 front to rear, but will adjust to a torque split of 10:90 for optimized track performance with minimum understeer. Furthermore, the front end and rear end are redesigned; the front features a new hood, headlamps, and grille while the rear features a new deck lid and tail lamps. The chassis is recalibrated with specific stabilizer bars, springs, and Magnetic Ride dampers.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: Trieste is a Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep-diving research bathyscaphe which reached a record depth of about in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench near Guam in the Pacific. On 23 January 1960, Jacques Piccard (son of the boat's designer Auguste Piccard) and US Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh achieved the goal of Project Nekton. It was the first crewed vessel to reach the bottom of the Challenger Deep.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: "Trieste" consisted of a float chamber filled with gasoline (petrol) for buoyancy, with a separate pressure sphere to hold the crew. This configuration (dubbed a "bathyscaphe" by the Piccards) allowed for a free dive, rather than the previous bathysphere designs in which a sphere was lowered to depth and raised again to the surface by a cable attached to a ship.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: "Trieste" was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard and originally built in Italy. His pressure sphere, composed of two sections, was built by Acciaierie Terni. The upper part was manufactured by the company Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico, in the Free Territory of Trieste (on the border between Italy and Yugoslavia, now in Italy); hence the name chosen for the bathyscaphe. The installation of the pressure sphere was done in the Cantiere navale di Castellammare di Stabia, near Naples. "Trieste" was launched on 26 August 1953 into the Mediterranean Sea near the Isle of Capri. The design was based on previous experience with the bathyscaphe "FNRS-2". "Trieste" was operated by the French Navy. After several years of operation in the Mediterranean Sea, the "Trieste" was purchased by the United States Navy in 1958 for $250,000 (equivalent to $ million today).


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: At the time of Project Nekton, "Trieste" was more than 15 m (50 ft) long. The majority of this was a series of floats filled with of gasoline, and water ballast tanks were included at either end of the vessel, as well as releasable iron ballast in two conical hoppers along the bottom, fore, and aft of the crew sphere. The crew occupied the 2.16 m (7.09 ft) pressure sphere, attached to the underside of the float and accessed from the vessel's deck by a vertical shaft that penetrated the float and continued down to the sphere hatch.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: The pressure sphere provided just enough room for two people. It provided completely independent life support, with a closed-circuit rebreather system similar to that used in modern spacecraft and spacesuits: oxygen was provided from pressure cylinders, and carbon dioxide was scrubbed from breathing air by being passed through canisters of soda-lime. Batteries provided power.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: "Trieste" was fitted with a new pressure sphere in winter of 1958, manufactured by the Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany, in three finely-machined sections (an equatorial ring and two caps), and by the Ateliers de Constructions Mécaniques de Vevey.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: To withstand the enormous pressure of 1.25 metric tons per cm (110 MPa) at the bottom of Challenger Deep, the sphere's walls were thick (it was overdesigned to withstand considerably more than the rated pressure). The sphere weighed in air and in water (giving it an average specific gravity of 13/(13−8) = 2.6 times that of seawater). The float was necessary because of the sphere's density: it was impossible to design a sphere large enough to hold a person that could withstand the necessary pressures and have metal walls thin enough for the sphere to be neutrally buoyant. Gasoline was chosen as the float fluid because it is less dense than water and also less compressible, thus retaining its buoyant properties and negating the need for thick, heavy walls for the float chamber.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: Observation of the sea outside the craft was conducted directly by eye, via a single, very tapered, cone-shaped block of acrylic glass (Plexiglas), the only transparent substance identified which would withstand the external pressure. Outside illumination for the craft was provided by quartz arc-light bulbs, which proved to be able to withstand the over (100 MPa) of pressure without any modification.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: Transported to the Naval Electronics Laboratory's facility in San Diego, California, "Trieste" was modified extensively by the Americans, and then used in a series of deep-submergence tests in the Pacific Ocean during the next few years, culminating in the dive to the bottom of the Challenger Deep during January 1960.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: "Trieste" departed San Diego on 5 October 1959 for Guam aboard the freighter "Santa Maria" to participate in "Project Nekton", a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: On 23 January 1960, she reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh. This was the first time a vessel, crewed or uncrewed, had reached the deepest known point of the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was revised later to ; fairly recently, more accurate measurements have found Challenger Deep to be between and deep.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: The descent to the ocean floor took 4 hours 47 minutes at a descent rate of . After passing , one of the outer Plexiglas window panes cracked, shaking the entire vessel. The two men spent twenty minutes on the ocean floor. The temperature in the cabin was 7 °C (45 °F) at the time. While at maximum depth, Piccard and Walsh unexpectedly regained the ability to communicate with the support ship, USS "Wandank" (ATA-204), using a sonar/hydrophone voice communications system. At a speed of almost – about five times the speed of sound in air – it took about seven seconds for a voice message to travel from the craft to the support ship and another seven seconds for answers to return.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: While at the bottom, Piccard and Walsh reported observing a number of sole and flounder (both flatfish). The accuracy of this observation has later been questioned and recent authorities do not recognize it as valid. The theoretical maximum depth for fish is at about , beyond which they would become hyperosmotic. Invertebrates such as sea cucumbers, some of which potentially could be mistaken for flatfish, have been confirmed at depths of and more. Walsh later said that their original observation could be mistaken as their knowledge of biology was limited. Piccard and Walsh noted that the floor of the Challenger Deep consisted of "diatomaceous ooze". The ascent took 3 hours and 15 minutes. The National Museum of the Navy commemorated the 60th anniversary of the dive in January 2020.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: The "Trieste" performed a number of deep dives in the Mediterranean prior to being purchased by the U.S. Navy in 1957. It conducted 48 dives exceeding between 1953 and 1957 as the "BATISCAFO TRIESTE".


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: Beginning in April 1963, "Trieste" was modified and used in the Atlantic Ocean to search for the missing nuclear submarine . "Trieste" was delivered to Boston Harbor by USS "Point Defiance" (LSD-31) under the command of Captain H. H. Haisten. In August 1963, "Trieste" found debris of the wreck off the coast of New England, below the surface after several dives. "Trieste"'s participation in the search earned her the Navy Unit Commendation.


title: Trieste (bathyscaphe)

text: Following the mission, "Trieste" was returned to San Diego and taken out of service in 1966. Between 1964 and 1966, "Trieste" was used to develop her replacement, the "Trieste II", with the original Terni pressure sphere reincorporated in her successor. In early 1980, she was transported to the Washington Navy Yard where she remains on exhibit today in the National Museum of the U.S. Navy, along with the Krupp pressure sphere.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: I'm Still Here is a 2010 American mockumentary spoof film directed by Casey Affleck, and written by Affleck and Joaquin Phoenix. The film follows the real life of Phoenix from the announcement of his retirement from acting through his transition into a career as a hip hop artist. Throughout the filming period, Phoenix remained in character for public appearances, giving many the impression that he was genuinely pursuing a new career.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: In 2008, while rehearsing for a charity event, actor Joaquin Phoenix, with Casey Affleck's camera filming, tells people he is quitting acting to pursue a career in rap music. Over the next year, Phoenix writes, rehearses, and performs to an audience. He approaches Sean Combs in hopes he will produce the record. We see Phoenix in his home: he parties, smokes, balls out with his two-man entourage, debates philosophy with Affleck, and rants about celebrity.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: The film premiered at the 67th Venice International Film Festival on September 6, 2010. It had a limited release in the United States on September 10, 2010 before being expanded to a wide release a week later on September 17. Although widely suspected to be a "mockumentary", the fact that the events of the film had been deliberately staged was not disclosed until after the film had been released.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: According to Phoenix, the film arose from his amazement that people believed reality television shows' claims of being unscripted. By claiming to retire from acting, he and his friend/brother-in-law Casey Affleck planned to make a film that "explored celebrity, and explored the relationship between the media and the consumers and the celebrities themselves" through their film.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: After surprising Hollywood by abruptly announcing his retirement in late 2008, allegedly in order to focus on his music, Phoenix and Affleck began filming the documentary, which followed Phoenix as he began a career making hip-hop music while allegedly managed by rap icon Sean "Diddy" Combs.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: In May 2010, the film was shown to potential buyers. The "Los Angeles Times" reported that the film featured "more male frontal nudity than you'd find in some gay porn films and a stomach-turning sequence in which someone feuding with Phoenix defecates on the actor while he's asleep". Also, the film is said to depict Phoenix "snorting cocaine, ordering call girls, having oral sex with a publicist, treating his assistants abusively and rapping badly." Reportedly, after seeing it, film buyers were uncertain whether it was a serious documentary or a mockumentary.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: , the film holds a 54% approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 130 reviews with an average rating of 5.48 out of 10. The site's critics consensus reads, "As unkempt and inscrutable as Joaquin Phoenix himself, "I'm Still Here" raises some interesting questions about its subject, as well as the nature of celebrity, but it fails to answer many of them convincingly." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Critics were divided on whether to interpret the film as documentary or performance art. Box Office Mojo reported a worldwide gross of $626,000 .


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: An article in the Relevant Magazine suggested that the title is a reference to Todd Haynes' "I'm Not There."


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: In 2010, two crew members from the film filed civil lawsuits against its director, Casey Affleck. Amanda White, one of the film's producers, sued Affleck for $2 million with multiple complaints including sexual harassment and breach of oral contract. She detailed numerous "uninvited and unwelcome sexual advances" in the workplace. White alleged that Affleck refused to honor the terms of the production agreement, including her fee, in retaliation.


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: The cinematographer, Magdalena Gorka, sued Affleck for $2.25 million with multiple complaints including intentional infliction of emotional distress and breach of oral contract. Gorka alleged that she had been subjected to "routine instances" of sexual harassment by crew members including Antony Langdon, "within the presence and with the active encouragement of Affleck."


title: I'm Still Here (2010 film)

text: In a 2018 interview with the Associated Press, Affleck discussed the lawsuits and allegations in light of the Me Too movement. He characterized his behavior at the time of the lawsuits as defensive and said he has since worked to understand his own culpability. He acknowledged that the set of "I'm Still Here" was "an unprofessional environment" and that "I contributed to that unprofessional environment and I tolerated that kind of behavior from other people and I wish that I hadn't. And I regret a lot of that . . . I behaved in a way and allowed others to behave in a way that was really unprofessional. And I'm sorry."


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Rana Ayyub is an Indian journalist and opinion columnist with "The Washington Post". She is author of the investigative book "".


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Rana Ayyub was born in Mumbai, India. Her father Mohammad Ayyub Waqif, was a writer with "Blitz," a Mumbai-based magazine, and an important member of the progressive writers movement. The city witnessed riots in 1992–93, during which time the family moved to the Muslim-dominant suburb of Deonar, which is where Rana largely grew up. Ayyub is a practising Muslim.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Rana's worked for "Tehelka" ("lit." "commotion/uproar"), a Delhi-based investigative and political news magazine. Rana has previously been critical of the BJP in general and Narendra Modi. By her own account, a report done by Rana Ayyub was instrumental in sending Amit Shah, a close associate of Narendra Modi, to jail for several months in 2010.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: At "Tehelka," Rana worked as an investigative journalist and her big assignment was to carry out the sting operation upon which her book "Gujarat Files" was based. At the end of the sting operation, the management of "Tehelka" refused to publish any story written by Rana or based on the data collected by her. Rana continued to work with "Tehelka" for several months more. In November 2013, her boss Tarun Tejpal, the editor-in-chief and major shareholder of "Tehelka," was accused of sexual harassment by one of his journalist subordinates. Rana Ayyub resigned from "Tehelka" in protest against the organisation's handling of the charge against Tejpal. She now works independently. In September 2019, "Washington Post" hired her as its contributing writer to the Global Opinions section.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In October 2020, HarperCollins India published an open letter written by Ayyub, to protest the controversial appointment of Actor Gajendra Chauhan as the Chairman of Film and Television Institute of India (FTII), as part of the book "Inquilab: A Decade of Protest" which contains speeches, lectures and letters said to "capture the most important events and issues of the past ten years."


title: Rana Ayyub

text: As an investigative journalist working with "Tehelka," Rana Ayyub took up a project to conduct a prolonged sting operation aimed at snaring politicians and government officials of Gujarat and get them to reveal any potential cover-ups regarding the Gujarat riots of 2002. Rana Posing as Maithili Tyagi, a filmmaker from the American Film Institute, and set about befriending her intended targets. She spent around ten months in disguise, and got paid a regular monthly salary from "Tehelka" during this period. However, at the end of the exercise, the management of "Tehelka" felt that the recordings which she had made over the months did not provide any new or sensational information, that the data gathered by her was of inadequate quality, and that they could not publish any story on the basis of the new data.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In her book "Gujarat Files: Anatomy of a Cover Up", Ayyub documented the verbatim transcripts of recordings, made using a concealed recording device, of many bureaucrats and police officers of Gujarat. The recordings were made in the course of an undercover investigation to reveal the views of bureaucrats and police officers on the post-2002 Gujarat riots and Police encounter killings. Ayyub had been posing as 'Maithili Tyagi', a student of the American Film Institute, having an ideological affinity for the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh's beliefs, to enable her to make the recordings.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Tarun Tejpal and Shoma Chaudhury have disputed Ayyub's claim that her story on fake encounters in Gujarat, which was the result of an eight-month long undercover investigation, was dropped by them. According to Tejpal, Ayyub's story was "incomplete". According to Chaudhury, Ayyub's story "did not meet the necessary editorial standards." Ayyub has responded to Tejpal and Chaudhury's assertions by noting that:


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Historian Ramachandra Guha had called Ayyub's "Gujarat Files" "a brave book." Jyoti Malhotra has noted that many journalists have privately applauded Ayyub's courage in authoring "Gujarat Files". Priya Ramani has commented: "The abuses from the paid foot soldiers on Twitter bounce off her spiral curls smoothly." Reflecting on the procedure used by Ayyub in composing "Gujarat Files", Nilanjan Mukhopadhyay has observed: "Going undercover and interviewing many who had been in the thick of gruesome extra-constitutional operations required bravado and this must be appreciated."


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Ayyub's investigation of the alleged Gujarat fake encounters has been listed by "Outlook" magazine as one of the twenty greatest magazine stories of all time across the world.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In 2018, Ayyub was awarded the "most Resilient Global journalist" by Dutch non-profit "Free Press Unlimited" for resisting attempts to stifle her work.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In the Haren Pandya murder case, the Supreme Court of India dismissed Rana Ayyub's book, stating that "it is based upon surmises, conjectures, and suppositions and has no evidentiary value.". Ayyub termed the court's comments "puzzling", stating that the CBI had used her work as evidence in other related cases, and noting that no officer or bureaucrat had denied her claims or taken her to court.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: Ayyub wrote an opinion piece on NDTV that Bollywood actor Shah Rukh Khan played three Muslim characters in Ae Dil Hai Mushkil, Dear Zindagi, and Raees to give a message, which was a rebellion. Shah Rukh Khan wrote another opinion piece on Indian Express, referring to the opinion piece by Rana Ayyub, that he did not know the name of the character he played in Karan Johar's film and he had no intention of making any statement by playing Muslim characters.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In February 2022, Ayyub received scrutiny after the Enforcement Directorate (ED) locked assets worth over ₹1.77 crore of hers. This was done in relation to a money laundering case filed against her, for allegedly embezzling funds she acquired from the public in the name of charity. ED stated that Ayyub had transferred those funds to other accounts for personal spendings.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: FIR was filed against Rana Ayyub in Dharwad due to her alleged comments against anti-hijab protestors as Hindu terrorists.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In 2018, Rana was at the receiving end of multiple death and rape threats on twitter. Her personal details were made public and a deepfake pornographic video was released. In April 2018 she filed a complaint with Delhi Police, who subsequently decided to close the case in August 2020 saying that "despite efforts the culprits could not be identified yet." The United Nations Human Rights office called on the authorities in India to "act urgently to protect" her from death threats following an online hate campaign. The US State department's 2020 Human Rights Report specifically mentions the online trolling and death threats faced by Ayyub. In its report documenting online attacks against journalists around the world, the international non-profit Reporters Without Borders discussed the hate speech unleashed against Ayyub and called on the government and Delhi police to protect her.


title: Rana Ayyub

text: In 2022, members of the Neo Nazi inspired alt right groups had created Bulli Bai, an app for fake online auction of Muslim women in India with intention to denigrate and harass the minorities. Ayyub and several prominent women journalists in India were targeted. They were also targeted with thousands of hate messages by the secret app Tek Fog used by the BJP supporters. The app was used to spread right wing propaganda online.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Jessica Ruth Mueller (born February 20, 1983) is an American actress and singer. She started her acting career in Chicago and won two Joseph Jefferson Awards in 2008 and 2011 for her roles as Carrie Pipperidge in "Carousel" and Amalia Balash in "She Loves Me". In 2011, she moved to New York City to star in a Broadway revival of musical "On a Clear Day You Can See Forever", for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. She won the 2014 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical for her performance as Carole King in "." She went on to receive two additional Best Actress in a Musical Tony Award nominations for her leading roles in "Waitress" (2016) and the Broadway revival of "Carousel" (2018).


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller was born to actors Jill (née Shellabarger) and Roger Mueller and was raised in Evanston, Illinois.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Her brothers, Andrew and Matt, and sister, Abby, are all actors and known for their work in Chicago, off-Broadway, and Broadway productions. As of 2019, three of the four Mueller siblings had appeared in Broadway productions.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller is Lutheran. She graduated from Evanston Township High School in 2001 and from Syracuse University in 2005.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: After graduation, Mueller returned to Chicago and acted for the Chicago Shakespeare Theater, traveling in 2006 to England to perform at the Swan Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon as Lady Mortimer in "Henry IV". She followed this with various roles in the Chicago area including Lizzie Fields in "Baby", the Lady-In-Waiting in "Once Upon a Mattress", and Esther in "Meet Me in St. Louis". At the Marriott Theatre in Lincolnshire, Illinois, she performed in "Shout! The Mod Musical", "Shenandoah", "Guys and Dolls" as Miss Adelaide, and "Fiddler on the Roof" as Tzeitel. In 2009 Mueller performed in two musicals at the Goodman Theatre, "Animal Crackers" as Grace/Mary and "A Christmas Carol" as Belle/Catherine.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: In 2011, she was named Actor of the Year by the "Chicago Tribune" and also was nominated for two Joseph Jefferson Awards, winning Best Lead Actress in a Musical for her performance as Amalia Balash in "She Loves Me".


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller made her Broadway debut in a revised revival of "On a Clear Day You Can See Forever" as Melinda Wells, a role originated by Barbara Harris."" The production opened in December 2011. Mueller received critical praise for her performance, with one reviewer commenting, "Her voice contains notes of Garland, but she's no diva — this is a star of supreme self-possession". For this role, Mueller was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical and the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller played Cinderella in The Public Theater's 2012 production of Stephen Sondheim's "Into the Woods" at the Delacorte Theater.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller next was cast in the role of Helena Landless / Miss Janet Conover in Roundabout Theatre Company's 2012 revival of "The Mystery of Edwin Drood", for which she was nominated for a Drama Desk Award. She then took over the role of Billie Bendix in "Nice Work If You Can Get It", from March 29, 2013, until the show closed on June 15, 2013. Also in 2013, she once again took on the role of Carrie Pipperidge in "Carousel" at Lincoln Center in a staged concert production backed by the New York Philharmonic. The show was filmed and aired on PBS' "Live from Lincoln Center".


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller starred in "", which opened on Broadway on January 12, 2014. She originated the title role of Carole King. She had performed this role in the try-out in San Francisco in 2013. Her performance won her the Drama Desk Award and Tony Award for Best Lead Actress in a Musical. She left the Broadway production on March 6, 2015. On February 8, 2015, Mueller won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album (shared with Carole King (music and lyrics) and producers Jason Howland, Steve Sidwell, and Billy Jay Stein).


title: Jessie Mueller

text: On April 27, 2015, Mueller was the recipient of the Sarah Siddons Society Award at the Marriott Theatre in Lincolnshire, Illinois.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller reprised her role as Jenna in the musical adaptation of the film "Waitress" on Broadway, having previously played the role in a workshop of the musical in late 2014. With music and lyrics by Sara Bareilles and direction by Diane Paulus, the musical began its out-of-town tryout at the American Repertory Theater in August 2015. "Waitress" opened on Broadway at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre on April 24, 2016. Mueller was nominated for awards including a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for her performance. Mueller also received critical praise for her performance. Charles Isherwood for the "New York Times" noted, "But it is when Ms. Mueller tears into the musical's climactic number, 'She Used to Be Mine,' that her talents are most fully and movingly harnessed... Ms. Mueller's vibrant performance of this gentle but wrenching song, featuring a melody that soars and then recedes in waves, is the high point of the show — and for that matter a high point of the Broadway season." Mueller left the production on March 26, 2017. Mueller's performance also earned her a 2016 Lilly Award for its message of female empowerment and safety.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: In April 2017, shortly after Mueller's departure from "Waitress", it was announced that she would play the lead role of Julie Jordan in a Broadway revival of "Carousel." The production began previews on February 28, 2018, at the Imperial Theatre and opened on April 12. The production closed on September 16, 2018.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Before beginning "Carousel" rehearsals, Mueller made her feature-film debut in Steven Spielberg's historical drama "The Post". Mueller portrayed real life advice columnist Judith Martin (a.k.a. Miss Manners) alongside a cast including Meryl Streep, Tom Hanks, Sarah Paulson, and Carrie Coon. The film was released in select theaters on December 22, 2017, before its general release on January 12, 2018.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Also in 2017, Mueller was nominated for a Chicago/Midwest Emmy Award for her performance in the Lyric Opera's Chicago Voices concert, which was filmed and aired on WTTW.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: In 2018, Mueller received three major nominations for her role as Julie Jordan, including her fifth Drama Desk nomination (and second win) and her fourth Tony Award nomination. She is the first actress in any Broadway production of "Carousel" to receive such nominations for the role.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: In early 2019, Mueller starred as Marian Paroo, opposite Norm Lewis, in the Kennedy Center's semi-staged concert production of "The Music Man". The production ran from February 6 through February 11. Later that year, Mueller portrayed country music legend Loretta Lynn in the Lifetime original movie "Patsy & Loretta", alongside Megan Hilty as Patsy Cline. The film began production on location in Nashville in March and premiered on October 19, 2019.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller is starring alongside Tracy Letts in the play "The Minutes" on Broadway. Previews began on February 25, 2020, at the Cort Theatre with the show originally scheduled open on March 15. However, the production, following a public mandate that closed all Broadway theaters, was halted due to the COVID-19 crisis. The show resumed previews in April 2022 at Studio 54 and officially opened on April 17.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: On July 15, 2021, she joined the cast of a new movie set to be released from Paramount Pictures next year titled "Secret Headquarters". Mueller also voiced the character Rider in the Netflix children's animated series "Centaurworld", which premiered July 30, 2021.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: In 2009, Mueller met and began a relationship with Andy Truschinski, an actor, film producer, and playwright, while performing opposite him in a Goodman Theatre production of "A Christmas Carol." The couple reside together in New York City.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller has worked frequently with the Broadway community to raise awareness and funds for various causes including LGBT+ rights, anti-gun violence, women's rights, and adoption. She supports Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS and has appeared on multiple volumes of their annual "Carols for a Cure" albums. In 2016, she was among numerous performers who teamed with Broadway personality Seth Rudetsky to record a cover of "What The World Needs Now" to support the LGBT Community of Central Florida after the Pulse nightclub shooting in Orlando; the movement included a benefit concert in Orlando as well as an appearance on "Maya & Marty". Later that year, Mueller would again work with Rudetsky and his husband, James Wesley, to formulate the idea for Concert for America, a series of concerts supporting various social justice organizations.


title: Jessie Mueller

text: Mueller is also known for her work supporting the arts and arts education. In 2014, Mueller performed at the launch of the FWD Theatre Project, a grassroots effort to support the creation of new musicals in the Chicago theatre community. In 2015, she performed with fellow "Beautiful" alum Jarrod Spector in a series of concerts benefitting various arts organizations. In 2016, she and partner Andy Truschinski were honored by the Alliance of Resident Theatres/New York with the Abe L. Blinder Award for Public Service and Arts Education. Mueller also recorded a song for the Museum of Modern Art's "Pop! Goes the Easel" album, a collection of children's songs inspired by works featured in the museum. In 2017, Mueller served as a mentor for students in Rosie's Theatre Kids, an organization started by actress and public personality Rosie O'Donnell to train and support youth in the performing arts. Mueller continues to support her own alma maters, performing at a benefit showcase for Evanston Township High School's YAMO theatre program in 2017 and providing opportunities for meetings and talkbacks with Syracuse University drama students. In her spare time, Mueller teaches master classes to young aspiring performers.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: , born Patrick Lafcadio Hearn (; , Irish: Pádraig Lafcadio O'hEarain), was an Irish-Greek-Japanese writer, translator, and teacher who introduced the culture and literature of Japan to the West. His writings offered unprecedented insight into Japanese culture, especially his collections of legends and ghost stories, such as "". Before moving to Japan and becoming a Japanese citizen, he worked as a journalist in the United States, primarily in Cincinnati and New Orleans. His writings about New Orleans, based on his decade-long stay there, are also well-known.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: Hearn was born on the Greek island of Lefkada, after which a complex series of conflicts and events led to his being moved to Dublin, where he was abandoned first by his mother, then his father, and finally by his father's aunt (who had been appointed his official guardian). At the age of 19, he emigrated to the United States, where he found work as a newspaper reporter, first in Cincinnati and later in New Orleans. From there, he was sent as a correspondent to the French West Indies, where he stayed for two years, and then to Japan, where he would remain for the rest of his life.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: In Japan, Hearn married a Japanese woman with whom he had four children. His writings about Japan offered the Western world a glimpse into a largely unknown but fascinating culture at the time.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: Patrick Lafcadio Hearn was born on the Greek Ionian Island of Lefkada on 27 June 1850, His mother was a Greek named Rosa Cassimati and she was a native of the Greek island of Kythira, while his father was a British Army officer of either Irish or mixed English-Irish descent, who was stationed in Lefkada during the British protectorate of the United States of the Ionian Islands. Throughout his life, Lafcadio boasted of his Greek blood and had a passionate leaning towards Greece. He was baptized Patrikios Lefcadios Hearn (Greek: Πατρίκιος Λευκάδιος Χερν) in the Greek Orthodox Church, but he seems to have been called "Patrick Lefcadio Kassimati Charles Hearn" in English; and, the middle name "Lafcadio" was given to him in honour of the island where he was born. Hearn's parents were married in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on 25 November 1849, several months after his mother had given birth to Hearn's older brother, George Robert Hearn, on 24 July 1849. George died on 17 August 1850, two months after Lafcadio's birth.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: Hearn's father Charles was promoted to Staff Surgeon Second Class and in 1850 was reassigned from Lefkada to the British West Indies. Since his family did not approve of the marriage, and because he was worried that his relationship might harm his career prospects, Charles did not inform his superiors of his son or pregnant wife and left his family behind. In 1852, he arranged to send his son and wife to live with his family in Dublin, where they received a cool reception. Hearn's Protestant mother, Elizabeth Holmes Hearn, had difficulty accepting Rosa's Greek Orthodox views and lack of education (she was illiterate and spoke no English). Rosa found it difficult to adapt to a foreign culture and the Protestantism of her husband's family, and was eventually taken under the wing of Elizabeth's sister, Sarah Holmes Brenane, a widow who had converted to Catholicism.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: Despite Sarah's efforts, Rosa suffered from homesickness. When her husband returned to Ireland on medical leave in 1853, it became clear that the couple had become estranged. Charles Hearn was assigned to the Crimean Peninsula, again leaving his pregnant wife and child in Ireland. When he came back in 1856, severely wounded and traumatized, Rosa had returned to her home island of Cerigo in Greece, where she gave birth to their third son, Daniel James Hearn. Lafcadio had been left in the care of Sarah Brenane.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: Charles petitioned to have the marriage with Rosa annulled, on the basis of her lack of signature on the marriage contract, which made it invalid under English law. After being informed of the annulment, Rosa almost immediately married Giovanni Cavallini, a Greek citizen of Italian ancestry who was later appointed by the British as governor of Cerigotto. Cavallini required as a condition of the marriage that Rosa give up custody of both Lafcadio and James. As a result, James was sent to his father in Dublin and Lafcadio remained in the care of Sarah, who had disinherited Charles because of the annulment. Neither Lafcadio nor James saw their mother again, who had four children with her second husband. Rosa was eventually committed to the National Mental Asylum on Corfu, where she died in 1882.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: Charles Hearn, who had left Lafcadio in the care of Sarah Brenane for the past four years, now appointed her as Lafcadio's permanent guardian. He married his childhood sweetheart, Alicia Goslin, in July 1857, and left with his new wife for a posting in Secunderabad, where they had three daughters prior to Alicia's death in 1861. Lafcadio never saw his father again: Charles Hearn died of malaria in the Gulf of Suez in 1866.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: In 1857, at age seven and despite the fact that both his parents were still alive, Hearn became the permanent ward of his great aunt, Sarah Brenane. She divided her residency between Dublin in the winter months, her husband's estate at Tramore, County Waterford, on the southern Irish coast, and a house at Bangor, North Wales. Brenane also engaged a tutor during the school year to provide basic instruction and the rudiments of Catholic dogma. Hearn began exploring Brenane's library and read extensively in Greek literature, especially myths.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: In 1861, Hearn's aunt, aware that Hearn was turning away from Catholicism, and at the urging of Henry Hearn Molyneux, a relative of her late husband and a distant cousin of Hearn, enrolled him at the "Institution Ecclésiastique", a Catholic church school in Yvetot, France. Hearn's experiences at the school confirmed his lifelong conviction that Catholic education consisted of "conventional dreariness and ugliness and dirty austerities and long faces and Jesuitry and infamous distortion of children's brains." Hearn became fluent in French and would later translate into English the works of Guy de Maupassant and Gustave Flaubert.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: In 1863, again at the suggestion of Molyneux, Hearn was enrolled at St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw, a Catholic seminary at what is now the University of Durham. In this environment, Hearn adopted the nickname "Paddy" to try to fit in better, and was the top student in English composition for three years. At age 16, while at Ushaw, Hearn injured his left eye in a schoolyard mishap. The eye became infected and, despite consultations with specialists in Dublin and London, and a year spent out of school convalescing, went blind. Hearn also suffered from severe myopia, so his injury left him permanently with poor vision, requiring him to carry a magnifying glass for close work and a pocket telescope to see anything beyond a short distance (Hearn avoided eyeglasses, believing they would gradually weaken his vision further). The iris was permanently discolored, and left Hearn self-conscious about his appearance for the rest of his life, causing him to cover his left eye while conversing and always posing for the camera in profile so that the left eye was not visible.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: In 1867, Henry Molyneux, who had become Sarah Brenane's financial manager, went bankrupt, along with Brenane. There was no money for tuition, and Hearn was sent to London's East End to live with Brenane's former maid. She and her husband had little time or money for Hearn, who wandered the streets, spent time in workhouses, and generally lived an aimless, rootless existence. His main intellectual activities consisted of visits to libraries and the British Museum.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: By 1869, Henry Molyneux had recovered some financial stability and Brenane, now 75, was infirm. Resolving to end his expenditures on the 19-year-old Hearn, he purchased a one-way ticket to New York and instructed Hearn to find his way to Cincinnati, to locate Molyneux's sister and her husband, Thomas Cullinan, and to obtain their assistance in making a living. Upon meeting Hearn in Cincinnati, the family had little assistance to offer: Cullinan gave him $5 and wished him luck in seeking his fortune. As Hearn would later write, "I was dropped moneyless on the pavement of an American city to begin life."


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: For a time, he was impoverished, living in stables or store rooms in exchange for menial labor. He eventually befriended the English printer and communalist Henry Watkin, who employed him in his printing business, helped find him various odd jobs, lent him books from his library, including utopianists Fourier, Dixon and Noyes, and gave Hearn a nickname which stuck with him for the rest of his life, The Raven, from the Poe poem. Hearn also frequented the Cincinnati Public Library, which at that time had an estimated 50,000 volumes. In the spring of 1871 a letter from Henry Molyneux informed him of Sarah Brenane's death and Molyneux's appointment as sole executor. Despite Brenane having named him as the beneficiary of an annuity when she became his guardian, Hearn received nothing from the estate and never heard from Molyneux again.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: By the strength of his talent as a writer, Hearn obtained a job as a reporter for the "Cincinnati Daily Enquirer", working for the newspaper from 1872 to 1875. Writing with creative freedom in one of Cincinnati's largest circulating newspapers, he became known for his lurid accounts of local murders, developing a reputation as the paper's premier sensational journalist, as well as the author of sensitive accounts of some of the disadvantaged people of Cincinnati. "The Library of America" selected one of these murder accounts, "Gibbeted," for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of "American True Crime", published in 2008. After one of his murder stories, the Tanyard Murder, had run for several months in 1874, Hearn established his reputation as Cincinnati's most audacious journalist, and the "Enquirer" raised his salary from $10 to $25 per week.


title: Lafcadio Hearn

text: In 1874, Hearn and the young Henry Farny, later a renowned painter of the American West, wrote, illustrated, and published an 8-page weekly journal of art, literature and satire entitled "Ye Giglampz." The Cincinnati Public Library reprinted a facsimile of all nine issues in 1983. The work was considered by a twentieth century critic to be "Perhaps the most fascinating sustained project he undertook as an editor."