title: Geomorphology

text: In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific and/or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such as moraines, eskers, and proglacial lakes, as well as glacial erosional features, to build chronologies of both small glaciers and large ice sheets and understand their motions and effects upon the landscape. Fluvial geomorphologists focus on rivers, how they transport sediment, migrate across the landscape, cut into bedrock, respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study how hillslopes form and change. Still others investigate the relationships between ecology and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.


title: Geomorphology

text: Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on geochronology, using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface. Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earth's surface, and include differential GPS, remotely sensed digital terrain models and laser scanning, to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps.


title: Geomorphology

text: Practical applications of geomorphology include hazard assessment (such as landslide prediction and mitigation), river control and stream restoration, and coastal protection. Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of wind, fluvial, glacial, mass wasting, meteor impact, tectonics and volcanic processes are studied. This effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use Earth analogues to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets.


title: Geomorphology

text: Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the earth sciences in the mid-19th century. This section provides a very brief outline of some of the major figures and events in its development.


title: Geomorphology

text: The study of landforms and the evolution of the Earth's surface can be dated back to scholars of Classical Greece. In the 5th century BC, Greek historian Herodotus argued from observations of soils that the Nile delta was actively growing into the Mediterranean Sea, and estimated its age. In the 4th century BC, Greek philosopher Aristotle speculated that due to sediment transport into the sea, eventually those seas would fill while the land lowered. He claimed that this would mean that land and water would eventually swap places, whereupon the process would begin again in an endless cycle. The "Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity" published in Arabic at Basra during the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into the sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents. The medieval Persian Muslim scholar Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048), after observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers, hypothesized that the Indian Ocean once covered all of India. In his "De Natura Fossilium" of 1546, German metallurgist and mineralogist Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) wrote about erosion and natural weathering.


title: Geomorphology

text: Another early theory of geomorphology was devised by Song dynasty Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). This was based on his observation of marine fossil shells in a geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean. Noticing bivalve shells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by soil erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt, after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains and the Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou. Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual climate change over centuries of time once ancient petrified bamboos were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of "Yanzhou", which is now modern day Yan'an, Shaanxi province. Previous Chinese authors also presented ideas about changing landforms. Scholar-official Du Yu (222–285) of the Western Jin dynasty predicted that two monumental stelae recording his achievements, one buried at the foot of a mountain and the other erected at the top, would eventually change their relative positions over time as would hills and valleys. Daoist alchemist Ge Hong (284–364) created a fictional dialogue where the immortal Magu explained that the territory of the East China Sea was once a land filled with mulberry trees.


title: Geomorphology

text: The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by Laumann in an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use in English, German and French after John Wesley Powell and W. J. McGee used it during the International Geological Conference of 1891. John Edward Marr in his The Scientific Study of Scenery considered his book as, 'an Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the union of Geology and Geography'.


title: Geomorphology

text: An early popular geomorphic model was the "geographical cycle" or "cycle of erosion" model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by William Morris Davis between 1884 and 1899. It was an elaboration of the uniformitarianism theory that had first been proposed by James Hutton (1726–1797). With regard to valley forms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an increasingly deep valley, until the side valleys eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought that tectonic uplift could then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian". Davis's ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature.


title: Geomorphology

text: In the 1920s, Walther Penck developed an alternative model to Davis's. Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay. He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck was German, and during his lifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English-speaking geomorphology community. His early death, Davis' dislike for his work, and his at-times-confusing writing style likely all contributed to this rejection.


title: Geomorphology

text: Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth's surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In the early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to local climate, and in particular to the specific effects of glaciation and periglacial processes. In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth's surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions.


title: Geomorphology

text: During the early 1900s, the study of regional-scale geomorphology was termed "physiography". Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of "physical" and "geography", and therefore synonymous with physical geography, and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized a concept of physiographic regions while a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology", separated from its geological heritage. In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term "geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.


title: Geomorphology

text: During the age of New Imperialism in the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology was foreshadowed by the work of Wladimir Köppen, Vasily Dokuchaev and Andreas Schimper. William Morris Davis, the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climate cycle of erosion with arid and glacial ones. Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reaction "against" Davisian geomorphology that was by the mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious. Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily in continental Europe while in the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on a periglacial cycle of erosion.


title: Geomorphology

text: Climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969 review article by process geomorphologist D.R. Stoddart. The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" sparking a decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century. Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked to Davisian geomorphology and by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe. In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true.


title: Geomorphology

text: Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work of Grove Karl Gilbert around the turn of the 20th century, a group of mainly American natural scientists, geologists and hydraulic engineers including William Walden Rubey, Ralph Alger Bagnold, Hans Albert Einstein, Frank Ahnert, John Hack, Luna Leopold, A. Shields, Thomas Maddock, Arthur Strahler, Stanley Schumm, and Ronald Shreve began to research the form of landscape elements such as rivers and hillslopes by taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them and investigating the scaling of these measurements. These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of "sleeping beauties") when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred.


title: Geomorphology

text: Quantitative geomorphology can involve fluid dynamics and solid mechanics, geomorphometry, laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and full landscape evolution modeling. These approaches are used to understand weathering and the formation of soils, sediment transport, landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.


title: Geomorphology

text: In Sweden Filip Hjulström's doctoral thesis, "The River Fyris" (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published. His students followed in the same vein, making quantitative studies of mass transport (Anders Rapp), fluvial transport (Åke Sundborg), delta deposition (Valter Axelsson), and coastal processes (John O. Norrman). This developed into "the Uppsala School of Physical Geography".


title: Geomorphology

text: Today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests. Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative "laws" that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include:


title: Geomorphology

text: According to Karna Lidmar-Bergström, regional geography is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies.


title: Geomorphology

text: Albeit having its importance diminished, climatic geomorphology continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. More recently concerns over global warming have led to a renewed interest in the field.


title: Geomorphology

text: Despite considerable criticism, the cycle of erosion model has remained part of the science of geomorphology. The model or theory has never been proved wrong, but neither has it been proven. The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines. In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish denudation chronologies, and is thus an important concept in the science of historical geology. While acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists Andrew Goudie and Karna Lidmar-Bergström have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively.


title: Geomorphology

text: (3) its eventual deposition. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass wasting, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonism, and volcanism. Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact.


title: Geomorphology

text: Aeolian processes pertain to the activity of the winds and more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments. Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts.


title: Geomorphology

text: The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or biogeomorphologic processes, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as Mars.


title: Geomorphology

text: Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment. The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bed load, suspended load or dissolved load. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's discharge. Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and creating new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments. Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape elements.


title: Geomorphology

text: As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a drainage system. These systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the underlying stratum is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components: drainage basin, alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms are alluvial fans, oxbow lakes, and fluvial terraces.


title: Geomorphology

text: Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour. The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a moraine. Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.


title: Geomorphology

text: The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of Plio-Pleistocene landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed paraglacial processes. This concept contrasts with periglacial processes, which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost.


title: Geomorphology

text: Soil, regolith, and rock move downslope under the force of gravity via creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls. Such mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth, Mars, Venus, Titan and Iapetus.


title: Geomorphology

text: Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the rates of those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas.


title: Geomorphology

text: On the Earth, biological processes such as burrowing or tree throw may play important roles in setting the rates of some hillslope processes.


title: Geomorphology

text: Both volcanic (eruptive) and plutonic (intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with lava and tephra, releasing pyroclastic material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.


title: Geomorphology

text: Tectonic effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlying bedrock fabric that more or less controls what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. Earthquakes can, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land creating new wetlands. Isostatic rebound can account for significant changes over hundreds to thousands of years, and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to orogenic belts, large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production.


title: Geomorphology

text: Features of deeper mantle dynamics such as plumes and delamination of the lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth's topography (see dynamic topography). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, less dense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the Earth.


title: Geomorphology

text: Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the seafloor. Mass wasting and submarine landsliding are also important processes for some aspects of marine geomorphology. Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans, deltas) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology.


title: Geomorphology

text: There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in sedimentology. Weathering is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by soil scientists and environmental chemists, but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. Civil and environmental engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to canals, slope stability (and natural hazards), water quality, coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and stream restoration. Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams; glaciology therefore is important in geomorphology.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Incirlik Air Base () is a Turkish air base of slightly more than 3320 ac (1335 ha), located in the İncirlik quarter of the city of Adana, Turkey. The base is within an urban area of 1.7 million people, east of the city core, and inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The United States Air Force and the Turkish Air Force are the primary users of the air base, although it is at times also used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Saudi Air Force. The base is also the home of the 74th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment (Patriot unit) of the Spanish Army.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Incirlik Air Base is the home of the 10th Air Wing ("Ana Jet Üssü" or "AJÜ") of the 2nd Air Force Command ("Hava Kuvvet Komutanlığı") of the Turkish Air Force ("Türk Hava Kuvvetleri"). Other wings of this command are located in Merzifon (LTAP), Malatya/Erhaç (LTAT) and Diyarbakır (LTCC).


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Incirlik Air Base has a U.S. Air Force (USAF) complement of about five thousand airmen, with several hundred airmen from the Royal Air Force and Turkish Air Force also present, as of late 2002. The primary unit stationed at Incirlik Air Base is the 39th Air Base Wing (39 ABW) of the U.S. Air Force. Incirlik Air Base has one -long runway, located among about 57 hardened aircraft shelters. Tactical nuclear weapons are stored at the base. Among them are "up to" 50 B61 nuclear bombs.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The decision to build the Incirlik Air Base was made during the Second Cairo Conference in December 1943, but construction only began after the end of the Second World War. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began the work in the spring of 1951. The U.S. Air Force initially planned to use the base as an emergency staging and recovery site for medium and heavy bombers. The Turkish General Staff and the U.S. Air Force signed a joint-use agreement for the new Air Base in December 1954. On 21 February 1955, the Air Base was officially named Adana Air Base, with the 7216th Air Base Squadron as the host unit. This Air Base was renamed the Incirlik Air Base on 28 February 1958.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The early years of its existence proved the value of the presence of the Incirlik Air Base in Turkey, not only in countering the threat of the Soviet Union during the Cold War, but also in responding to crises in the Middle East, such as in Lebanon and Israel.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Project 119L, a public U.S. Air Force weather balloon launching program served as a cover story (disinformation) for the true objective of the Incirlik Air Base: to mount strategic reconnaissance missions over the Soviet Union. Under the codename "GENETRIX", these balloon launches were carried out beginning in February 1956.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Following initial weather balloon operations, pilots began flying American Lockheed U-2 aircraft reconnaissance missions as part of "Operation Overflight" by late 1957. These included nonstop flights back and forth between Incirlik and the NATO Air Base at the Norwegian town of Bodø starting in 1958. In addition, U.S. Air Force Boeing RB-47H Stratojets and U.S. Navy P4M-1Q Mercator and A3D-1Q Skywarrior reconnaissance flights operated from Incirlik into Soviet-claimed air space over the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and as far east as Afghanistan.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The Incirlik Air Base was the main U-2 flight base in this entire region beginning in 1956. This lasted until 1 May 1960, when a volley of about 14 Soviet SA-2 surface-to-air missiles shot down the U-2 aircraft flown by the American CIA pilot Francis Gary Powers near Sverdlovsk, Russia, a test site in the Soviet Union's Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) program.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: In addition to the Cold War aerial reconnaissance mission, Incirlik acted as an operational and logistics hub for an array of communications transmission and signals intelligence detachments located at various mountain sites, the latter focused on Soviet and Warsaw Pact forces near Turkey's borders.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The Lebanon crisis of 1958 arose during the summer of 1958, prompting the President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States to order the U.S. Air Force Tactical Air Command "Composite Air Strike Force Bravo" (several squadrons) to fly immediately from the United States to Incirlik. This Composite Air Strike Force consisted of F-100 Super Sabres, B-57 Canberras, RF-101 Voodoos, B-66 Destroyers, along with the supporting WB-66 weather planes. These aircraft and their supporting airmen overwhelmed the facilities of the Incirlik Air Base – which were also supporting air transport planes that carried a U.S. Army infantry battalion from Germany to Lebanon. In the event, the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marine Corps were not involved in ground fighting. The U.S. Air Force warplanes flew non-combat missions to cover allied troop movements, to carry out a show-of-force flights over Lebanon, including over Beirut, aerial reconnaissance flights, and true news and propaganda leaflet drops on Lebanon.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: As a part of an effort to bring units with combat experience into the region of Turkey, the U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) inactivated the 7216th Air Base Squadron, which had been promoted to an Air Base Group, and activated the 39th Tactical Group in its place at Incirlik on 1 April 1966. This Air Base Group assumed control of the permanent Air Force support units there, and it hosted the rotational Air Force squadrons that conducted training operations, and also maintained a NATO deterrent air force at the Incirlik Air Base.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: After the Lebanon crisis, the Tactical Air Command deployed F-100 fighter squadrons on 100-day rotations to Incirlik from the United States. The flying mission at Incirlik further diversified in 1970 when the Turkish Air Force agreed to allow the U.S. Air Forces in Europe to use its air-to-ground missile testing range at 240 km northwest Konya, providing a suitable training area for the warplane squadrons deployed to Incirlik. These units also conducted training at Incirlik's offshore air-to-air missile range over the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, except during the Cyprus dispute, many types of U.S. Air Force warplanes, including F-4 Phantom IIs, F-15 Eagles, F-16 Fighting Falcons, F-111 Aardvarks, A-10 Thunderbolt IIs, and the C-130 Hercules completed temporary duty rotations at Incirlik, not least in support of the base's NATO/USAFE forward-deployed nuclear mission.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: In mid-1975, the Turkish government announced that all U.S. military bases in Turkey would be closed and transferred to the Turkish Air Force. This action was in response to an arms embargo that the United States Congress imposed on Turkey for using American-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. Only Incirlik Air Base and İzmir Air Base remained open due to their NATO responsibilities, but all non-NATO activities at these locations were suspended.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: After Congress lifted the embargo in September 1978, and also restored military and naval assistance to Turkey, normal operations resumed in Turkey, and the United States and Turkey signed the Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement (DECA) on 29 March 1980. After signing the DECA, the USAFE initiated the "Turkey Catch-up Plan" to improve the quality-of-life of airmen stationed at Incirlik. One of the major projects was a completely new base housing complex for airmen and officers.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: After Iraq's 1990 invasion of neighboring Kuwait, the 7440th Composite Wing (Provisional) assumed operational control of the 39th Tactical Group. The 7440th was the air component of Joint Task Force Proven Force, which eventually controlled 140 aircraft and opened a northern front, forcing Iraq to split its defenses between the north and the south, where the main thrust of coalition attacks originated as part of Operation "Desert Storm". Following the war, Incirlik hosted "Combined Task Force Provide Comfort", which oversaw Operation Provide Comfort (OPC), the effort to provide humanitarian relief to millions of Kurdish refugees in northern Iraq.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Between 1992 and 1997 Vickers VC10s from No. 101 Squadron RAF were based here for Operation Warden over Iraq.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The 39th TACG was redesignated the 39th Wing on 1 October 1993 and restructured as a standard Air Force objective wing.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The U.S. State Department's "Operation Quick Transit" evacuated thousands of Kurds from northern Iraq late in 1996. The wing provided logistical support in Turkey to this operation, which signaled the end of the humanitarian aspect of Operation Provide Comfort (OPC). OPC ended 31 December 1996, and Operation Northern Watch (ONW) took its place 1 January 1997 with the task to enforce the U.N.-sanctioned no-fly zone north of the 36th parallel in Iraq.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The 39th Air and Space Expeditionary Wing was activated at Incirlik AB on 15 September 1997, to support and command USAF assets deployed to Incirlik supporting ONW, while Incirlik's tent city, Hodja Village, became the USAF's largest such "temporary" facility.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: From 1994, the Turkish Air Force began receiving KC-135R-CRAG Stratotanker aerial refueling tankers. The seven aircraft are operated by the 101st Squadron, stationed at Incirlik.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks, Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) began in October 2001. Incirlik served as a main hub for missions in support for the war in Afghanistan, including humanitarian airlift operations, MC-130 special operations missions, KC-135 refueling missions, prisoner transport to Guantanamo Bay(swap from C-17 to C-141s) and sustainment operations for deployed forces. The aerial port managed a 6-fold increase in airflow during the height of OEF. When the main bases in Afghanistan (Bagram Airfield) and the Uzbekistan air base (Karshi-Khanabad Air Base) were in use the Incirlik's airflow supporting OEF decreased to a baseline sustainment level.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Operation Northern Watch (ONW) ended with the start of the Iraq War on 19 March 2003. ONW flew its last patrol on 17 March 2003, and closed a successful 12-year mission to contain the Iraqi military and inactivated 1 May 2003. The 39th ASEW was also inactivated, effective 1 May 2003. The wing was completely inactivated on 16 July 2003 and the 39th Air Base Group was activated in its place.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: On 19 August 2003, the first rotation of deployed KC-135 Stratotankers and airmen arrived at Incirlik to support various operations in response to the 11 September 2001 attacks as well as the post-invasion reconstruction of Iraq and the ensuing insurgency.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: On 6 January 2004, more than 300 U.S. Army soldiers of what would become thousands transited through Incirlik as the first stop back to their home post after spending almost a year in Iraq. Incirlik was part of what was described as the largest troop movement in U.S. history. Incirlik provided soldiers with a cot, warm location, entertainment and food for a few hours outside of a hostile war zone.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: On 12 March 2004, the 39th Air Base Group inactivated and the 39th Air Base Wing activated to provide the best mix of required support and, as new mission requirements emerge, to shoulder the burden and better contribute in the global war on terrorism.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Incirlik played a bridge role by providing support in the relief operation started after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake on 8 October 2005. With the help of Turkish and American airmen, five C-130 Hercules cargo planes from Air Bases in Italy, Britain, Greece, and France flew urgently needed supplies including 10,000 tents from the warehouse of UNHCR in İskenderun, Turkey to Afghanistan on 19 October.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: During the brief War between Hezbollah and Israel in July 2006, the Incirlik Air Base provided solace to Americans who had been evacuated by U.S. Navy warships from Beirut, Lebanon to Mersin, Turkey.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: In 2010, three Armenian Americans filed a lawsuit against the Republic of Turkey and two banks for compensation of of land in the Adana region of Turkey, where Incirlik Air Base currently stands. An American court accepted the case and granted Turkey 21 days to respond to the lawsuit. The defendant banks in Turkey requested the court extend the deadline for a response until September 2011. The court accepted the extension.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: U.S District Judge Dolly Gee dismissed the case in 2013, but the dismissal did not prevent the plaintiffs from using the U.S federal courts to hold Turkish banks accountable for seizing land from Armenians during the Armenian genocide. The plaintiffs filed an appeal brief on October. 21, 2013, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit heard the case 17 December 2018.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: On 13 October 2014, it was rumored that the Turkish government approved the use of Incirlik Air base to support operations against the so-called Islamic State but this was later denied. On 23 July 2015, it was confirmed that the Turkish Government would begin allowing USAF UAVs and USAF combat planes to fly combat sorties against ISIL in neighboring Syria out of Incirlik Air base. Ankara formally signed a deal 29 July 2015 with the United States over the use of Turkey's Incirlik air base in the U.S.-led coalition's campaign against the Islamic State, the Turkish Foreign Ministry said, Hurriyet reported. The agreement covers only the fight against the Islamic State and does not include air support for allied Kurdish fighters in northern Syria, a spokesman for the ministry said.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: On 25 April 2016, the German Federal Armed Forces announced they would commit 65 million Euro to establish a permanent presence at Incirlik, as part of Germany's commitment to the fight against ISIL. Funds will support the permanent basing of six Panavia Tornado and one Airbus A310 MRTT within six months. These will be supported by 200 troops. Separate command post (34 million Euro) and housing and recreational facilities (10 million and 4,5 million Euro respectively) will be built by the end of 2017. , due to diplomatic disagreements between Germany and Turkey, the German government is considering pulling German forces out of the base. In June 2017 the German Parliament voted to leave the Incirlik Air Base and in September the troops got transferred to the Muwaffaq Salti Air Base at Azraq in Jordan.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: As a result of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt and several Turkish tanker aircraft fueling rogue Turkish F-16's, external electrical power to the base was disconnected. A Turkish no fly order was also put into effect for US military aircraft in the area. Pentagon Press Secretary Peter Cook at the time stated that "U.S. facilities at Incirlik are operating on internal power sources." EUCOM spokesman Navy Capt. Danny Hernandez said: "All our assets in Turkey are fully under control and there was no attempt to challenge that status." and "There was no chaos at this base". The security level at base did however move to DELTA, the highest level, U.S. personnel are ordered restricted to base, and locals were denied access.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: By 17 July commercial electrical power remained disconnected but permission from Turkey to conduct US anti-ISIS air operations from Incirlik resumed; the Turkish base commander, General Bekir Ercan Van, was arrested by Turkish forces loyal to sitting president Erdoğan. General Van sought asylum from the United States but was denied.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Due to deteriorating relations with Turkey, German MPs and lawmakers have suggested withdrawing German troops and weaponry from the base, to possibly relocate them elsewhere. In September 2017 the Germans finally left Turkey and were redeployed at an airbase near Azraq in Jordan.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Incirlik, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location.


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: Laicie Heeley, a fellow with the Budgeting for Foreign Affairs and Defense program at the Stimson Center said in 2016:


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: During the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, tensions between Turkey and the US moved the B61 nuclear bombs, stored by the US at the İncirlik airbase, back into focus. A removal was again debated, but Vipin Narang from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology pointed out, that the process of moving them under these circumstances poses risks and the weapons "could be vulnerable to accidents, theft or attack".


title: Incirlik Air Base

text: The 39th Civil Engineer Squadron is responsible for pest management on base. That includes wildlife management such as bee control, and frequent live trappping of cats, dogs, and foxes.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo (, ; ) is a municipality in Wallonia, located in the province of Walloon Brabant, Belgium, which in 2011 had a population of 29,706 and an area of . Waterloo lies a short distance south of Brussels, and immediately north-east of the larger town of Braine-l'Alleud. It is the site of the Battle of Waterloo, where the resurgent Napoleon was defeated for the final time in 1815. Waterloo lies immediately south of the official language border between Flanders and Wallonia.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: From Middle Dutch, composed of water (water, watery) + loo (forest, clearing in a forest, marsh, bog).


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: The name of Waterloo was mentioned for the first time in 1102 designating a small hamlet at the limit of what is today known as the Sonian Forest, along a major road linking Brussels, Genappe and a coal mine to the south. Waterloo was located at the intersection of the main road and a path leading to a small farming settlement in what is now Cense. The crossing can still be found today as the intersection of the Chaussée de Bruxelles with Boulevard de la Cense. Waterloo was a place where travellers and merchants, particularly those carrying coal from the mine to the south, could find rest and protection from bandits.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo was located in the Duchy of Brabant created in 1183 with Leuven as the capital city. The Duchy of Brabant extended from Luttre to 's-Hertogenbosch in 1477. Brussels became the capital city of the Duchy of Brabant in 1267 and the capital city of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1430.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo started to develop during the 17th century. A royal chapel was built in 1687 in Petit-Waterloo, and was extended in 1826, becoming the Church of Saint Joseph of Waterloo.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: During the late 18th century, whilst the region was under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, a period of unrest marked the wake of the 1789 French Revolution. Reforms designed to quell those agitating to bring enlightenment ideas to the region were unsuccessful. In 1794, the French invaded, bringing an end to the region's Ancien Régime, encompassing the monasteries, their official record-keeping, and the privileges of the nobility.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Up until 1796, Waterloo was divided into two parts, Grand-Waterloo and Petit-Waterloo, depending, respectively, of the parishes of Braine-l'Alleud (Bishopric of Namur) and of Sint-Genesius-Rode (Bishopric of Mechelen). A new system based on municipalities was established under French rule. The municipality of Waterloo was created from Petit-Waterloo detached from Sint-Genesius-Rode and three former hamlets (Grand-Waterloo, Joli-Bois, Mont-Saint-Jean) detached from Braine-l’Alleud.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1813, half of the hamlet of Chenois was detached from Braine-l’Alleud and became part of Waterloo. In 1824, Waterloo grew again as the areas Roussart and Sainte-Gertrude from the Sonian Forest became part of the municipality. Waterloo had 1,571 inhabitants in 1801 and 3,202 in 1846.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1795, the invaded territories were divided into nine departments. Some municipalities, including Waterloo, became part of the Dyle department, which became the province of Brabant Méridional in 1815 under Dutch rule, following the defeat of Napoleon. Upon Belgian independence in 1830, it became part of the province of Brabant.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1977, the second half of the hamlet of Chenois was detached from Braine-l’Alleud and became part of Waterloo together with a part of the hamlet next to the Lion.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1995, the province of Brabant was divided to match the limits of the administrative regions of Wallonia, Brussels and Flanders created in 1980. The part in which Waterloo is situated became the province of Walloon Brabant.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: The Battle of Waterloo took place near Waterloo on 18 June 1815 between the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Seventh Coalition (troops from Prussia, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick and Nassau), under the main allied commanders, the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo is divided into six districts: Faubourg Ouest (north-west of Chaussée de Bruxelles), Faubourg Est (north-east of Chaussée de Bruxelles), Chenois (west of the railway), Centre, Joli-Bois (south of centre) and Mont-St-Jean (north of the Waterloo battle field).


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Nearly one-fifth of the current registered population (5,640 inhabitants) is non-Belgian; many such residents work for institutions or companies in Brussels, a political centre of the European Union. These numbers were released by the municipality of Waterloo. The most common non-Belgian nationalities are the following: French (1,237 people), Italian (537), British (503), American (445) and Swedish (425).


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo is home to the European headquarters of Mastercard. There is a Carrefour hypermarket in Mont-Saint-Jean, a Delhaize store, an Ibis Hotel, several BNP Paribas Fortis branches, office parks to the east of the town.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: A row of shops, called ' is situated on the ' (which becomes "Chaussée de Waterloo", or " when leaving Waterloo in the north and nearing Brussels).


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: The Argenteuil estate is host to a number of international and local educational establishments, including; the Scandinavian School of Brussels, the European School of Bruxelles-Argenteuil, "Den norske skolen i Brussel", and the Queen Elisabeth Music Chapel.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: The Lion's Mound is a monument to the casualties of the 1815 Battle of Waterloo, located on the spot where a musket ball hit the shoulder of William II of the Netherlands (the Prince of Orange) and knocked him from his horse during the battle. A statue of a lion, looking towards France, standing upon a stone-block pedestal surmounts the hill. Visitors can climb the 226 steps to the top of the hill for a panoramic vista of the battlefield.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Other attractions nearby related to the battle are the Battle Panorama Mural, Wellington Museum, and the Roman Catholic Church of St. Joseph, where Wellington is said to have prayed before going into battle and where British and Dutch plaques commemorating the fallen are now to be seen.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1831, approximately 250 hectares of land in the Sonian Forest was acquired by Ferdinand De Meeus, a member of the Belgian nobility, who bestowed the name "Argenteuil" to the estate. The first "Château d'Argenteuil", built in 1835 was destroyed by a fire in 1847, and rebuilt between 1856 and 1858 using a design by Belgian architect, Jean-Pierre Cluysenaar, and extensive landscaping of the surrounding lands by Édouard Keilig. In the 1920s the De Meeûs family incorporated the estate into the "Domaine d'Argenteuil SA", and in 1929 sold 145 hectares of the land to American businessman, William Hallam Tuck. Tuck and his wife, Belgian heiress, Hilda Bunge, commissioned New York architect, William Delano, to design the second major residence on the Argenteuil estate, the "Château Bellevue". Whilst the couple occupied the property, it became known commonly as the "Château Tuck".


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1940, the Château d'Argenteuil, 20 hectares of its surrounding lands and a farm were sold to a community of Carmelite Sisters in exchange for their properties in Uccle, Brussels. However, the château was not suited to their needs, and they moved out in 1947. The Belgian government acquired the Château d'Argenteuil in 1949. In 1950, as part of preparations for the 1958 Brussels World’s Fair, the Belgian government used the chateau to relocate the French-speaking section of the ", an all-female normal school, from Laeken, the site of the exhibition. The château's bedrooms were refitted for boarders. The Belgian government later used the site for various Belgian state school establishments, building dedicated buildings for classrooms on the grounds of the château. In 1990, the Scandinavian School of Brussels, Queen Astrid School, purchased the Château d'Argenteuil and its grounds, and relocated there in 1992. From September 2016, the European School of Bruxelles-Argenteuil began operating on the same site.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1949, the Belgian government acquired the Château Bellevue, originally for use by the Belgian national rail company, the SNCB. In 1958 it was used as residence for distinguished visitors to the 1958 World's Fair in Brussels. From 1961 it was the official residence of the Belgian royal family, King Leopold III and his wife Princess Lilian, up until her death in 2003. During discussions on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe there were proposals to turn the château into a residence for the mooted position of the President of the European Union. However, the Belgian government sold the Chateau Bellevue in September 2004.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In 1960, Count Ludovic de Meeûs d'Argenteuil sold thirty hectares of the Argenteuil estate to the Dames de Berlaymont, who had to vacate their properties in Brussels following their acquisition by the Belgian state for the purpose of building a headquarters for the European Commission. The nuns established a new convent and boarding school on the site.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: The Château Cheval stood at the crossing of the main routes between Charleroi and Brussels, and Nivelles and Leuven. It was originally built in 1895 as the home of a French industrialist who had made his fortune in Mont-Saint-Jean, Waterloo following the opening of a chemical fertiliser plant in 1875. The château, with its four towers and ninety-nine windows, was too extravagant for the tastes of its owner, who found himself only able to sleep there once per week. Chelval gave it to his only daughter who occupied it with her husband until his death in 1962. The exorbitant costs associated with running the property led to its demolition in 1966.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo railway station was opened on 1 February 1874, with the simultaneous opening of the railway line between Waterloo and Brussels. An extension of the line southwards to Nivelles, and then Luttre was opened on 1 June 1874, permitting travel onwards to Charleroi, along an existing line opened in 1843.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Today, Waterloo is served by local passenger trains on the Nivelles to Aalst line, with at least one train in each direction per hour. Non-stopping services between Waterloo and Brussels operate during peak times.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: Waterloo is also home of Watducks Hockey Club, multiple Belgium champions of field hockey and European Champions in 2019 (EHL).


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: In September 1959 the Missionary Dominican Sisters of Our Lady of Fichermont, headquartered in Waterloo, became the home of Jeannine Deckers, who took the name Sister Luc-Gabrielle, and who would later become famous as The Singing Nun.


title: Waterloo, Belgium

text: On 2 February 2018, the Belgian commune of Waterloo confirmed that former Catalonia president Carles Puigdemont had rented a villa and planned to establish his official residence there.


title: James Wolk

text: James Wolk (born March 22, 1985) is an American actor. He is known for his starring roles in the CBS comedy series "The Crazy Ones" (2013–2014), the AMC period drama series "Mad Men" (2013–2014), the CBS drama thriller series "Zoo" (2015–2017), the CBS All Access psychological thriller series "Tell Me a Story" (2018–2019), and the HBO superhero limited series "Watchmen" (2019).


title: James Wolk

text: Wolk also had starring roles in the films "You Again" (2010), "For a Good Time, Call..." (2012), "The Stanford Prison Experiment" (2015), and "Mercy" (2016).


title: James Wolk

text: Wolk was born in Farmington Hills, Michigan, the son of Edie, an art teacher, and Robert Wolk, a shoe store owner (Sundance Shoes West Bloomfield & Birmingham MI). His family is Jewish, and Wolk was raised in Reform Judaism. During his teenage years, Wolk worked as an emcee (MC) at Bar and Bat Mitzvahs. He graduated North Farmington High School in 2003 and from the University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance in 2007.


title: James Wolk

text: In 2008, Wolk landed his first starring television role in Hallmark Hall of Fame's drama film "Front of the Class", as Brad Cohen. He subsequently played the title character in the 2009 ABC pilot "Solving Charlie". In 2010, Wolk was cast as the lead in the Fox drama series "Lone Star", as Robert "Bob" Allen, a Texas con man married to the daughter of one of his targets while simultaneously maintaining a relationship in another town. Fox canceled the series after two episodes.


title: James Wolk

text: In 2010, Wolk had a role as Will in the romantic comedy film "You Again". He played a presidential speechwriter named Andrew Pierce in "Georgetown", a 2011 ABC pilot which did not go to air.


title: James Wolk

text: In the fall of 2011, Wolk joined the second season cast of the Showtime dramedy series "Shameless", in the recurring role of Adam. The second season premiered January 8, 2012. Wolk played the recurring role of Grant in three episodes of the ABC comedy series "Happy Endings", beginning with the first installment on February 8, 2012. In 2012, Wolk starred in the USA Network miniseries "Political Animals", co-starring Sigourney Weaver and Ciarán Hinds. Wolk played Douglas Hammond, the "good" son of a former President of the United States (Hinds) and the current Secretary of State (Weaver).


title: James Wolk

text: In 2013, Wolk joined the sixth-season cast of the AMC period drama series "Mad Men", playing mysterious junior account man Bob Benson. As the season progressed, Benson became one of the most talked-about characters on the show, and Wolk received a Satellite Award nomination. In the 2013-14 television season, Wolk was part of the cast of the CBS sitcom "The Crazy Ones", starring Robin Williams and Sarah Michelle Gellar. He played a womanizing creative at the Chicago ad agency headed by Williams and Gellar, his second role as an ad agency worker after "Mad Men".


title: James Wolk

text: In November 2014, Wolk was cast as the lead in the CBS drama thriller series "Zoo", based on the novel by James Patterson and Michael Ledwidge. "Zoo" premiered in June 2015 and aired for three seasons. Wolk also starred as Craig in the 2014 comedy film "Are You Joking?", as Noah Bernstein in the 2014 comedy-drama film "There's Always Woodstock", and as Mike Penny in the 2015 drama thriller film "The Stanford Prison Experiment". He also starred as Philip in the independent comedy film "This Is Happening", which focuses on an estranged brother and sister who go on a road trip to find their runaway grandmother.


title: James Wolk

text: In 2016, Wolk starred as Brad in the thriller film "Mercy", which was written and directed by Chris Sparling. In 2017, he guest-starred as Craig Heidecker, an innovative young tech billionaire, in multiple episodes of the Showtime drama series "Billions". In 2018, Wolk guest-starred as FBI Special Agent Jeff Clayton in the Amazon drama series "Goliath". He starred in the first season of the CBS All Access psychological thriller series "Tell Me a Story", an anthology series adapting classic fairy tales with a modern horror spin. In late 2018, Wolk was cast as Senator Joe Keene Jr. in the HBO superhero limited series "Watchmen", based on the DC Comics series of the same name. The series debuted on October 20, 2019, to universal acclaim.


title: James Wolk

text: In 2021, Wolk began to play the lead role of Joe Kimbreau in the NBC drama "Ordinary Joe", which is developed and executive-produced by Russel Friend and Garrett Lerner.


title: James Wolk

text: Wolk is on the Board of Directors of the Brad Cohen Tourette Foundation. From 2009 to 2012, he also volunteered at Camp Twitch and Shout, which is a camp in Winder, Georgia, for children, ages 7 to 17, who have Tourette syndrome.


title: James Wolk

text: Wolk met Elizabeth Jae Lynch, a schoolteacher, while the two of them were volunteering at Camp Twitch and Shout. In June 2015, the two were married in a ceremony that was held at Crossroads Estate, Firestone Winery in Los Olivos, California. They welcomed their first child, a boy, in early 2017, and also have a daughter.


title: Philately

text: Philately (; ) is the study of postage stamps and postal history. It also refers to the collection and appreciation of stamps and other philatelic products. Philately involves more than just stamp collecting or the study of postage; it is possible to be a philatelist without owning any stamps. For instance, the stamps being studied may be very rare or reside only in museums.


title: Philately

text: The word "philately" is the English transliteration of the French "", coined by Georges Herpin in 1864. Herpin stated that stamps had been collected and studied for the previous six or seven years and a better name was required for the new hobby than "timbromanie" (roughly "stamp quest"), which was disliked. The alternative terms "timbromania", "timbrophily", and "timbrology" gradually fell out of use as "philately" gained acceptance during the 1860s. Herpin took the Greek root word φιλ(ο)- "phil(o)-", meaning "an attraction or affinity for something", and "ateleia", meaning "exempt from duties and taxes", to form the neologism "philatélie".


title: Philately

text: As a collection field, philately appeared after the introduction of the postage stamps in 1840, but did not gain large attraction until the mid-1850s. In the U.S., early collectors of stamps were known as 'stamp gatherers'. The United States Postal Service re-issued stamps in 1875 due to public demand for 'old stamps', including those from before the American Civil War. Some authors believe that the first philatelist appeared on the day of the release of the world's first postage stamp, dated to 6 May 1840, when the Liverson, Denby and Lavie London law office sent a letter to Scotland franked with ten uncut Penny Blacks, stamped with the postmark "LS.6MY6. 1840." In 1992 at an auction in Zurich, this envelope was sold for 690,000 francs.


title: Philately

text: Already in 1846, cases of collecting stamps in large numbers were known in England. However, without reason for collection, stamps at this time were used for pasting wallpaper. The first philatelist is considered to be a postmaster going by the name Mansen, who lived in Paris, and in 1855 had sold his collection, which contained almost all the postage stamps issued by that time. The stamp merchant and second-hand book dealer Edard de Laplante bought it, recognizing the definitive collector's worth of the postage stamp. Due to the boom in popularity and news of this transaction, stamp merchants like Laplante began to emerge.


title: Philately

text: Towards the end of the 19th century stamp collecting reached hundreds of thousands of people of all classes. Even some states had collections of postage stamps, for example, England, Germany, France, Bavaria, and Bulgaria. In countries who held national collections, museums were built to dedicate that nation's history with philately, and the first such appeared in Germany, France, and Bulgaria. Allegedly, the first of these museums housed the collection of the British Museum, curated by MP Thomas Tapling and bequeathed to the Museum in 1891. The Museum für Kommunikation Berlin also had an extensive collection of stamps. The largest collection of the time belonged to Baron Philipp von Ferrary in Paris.


title: Philately

text: As the number of postage stamp issues increased every year, collection became progressively difficult. Therefore, from the early 1880s, "collector experts" appeared, specializing their collection to only one part of the world, a group of nations, or even only one.


title: Philately

text: Philately as one of the most popular types of collecting continued to develop in the 20th century. Along with the "Scott", "Stanley Gibbons", and "Yvert et Tellier" catalogs, the "Zumstein" (first published in Switzerland, 1909), and the "Michel" (first published in Germany, 1910) catalogs began publication.


title: Philately

text: In 1934, the idea to celebrate an annual Postage Stamp Day was suggested by Hans von Rudolphi, a German philatelist. The idea was adopted rapidly in Germany, and gained later adoption in other countries. Stamp Day is a memorial day established by the postal administration of a country and annually celebrated, which is designed to attract public attention to, popularize the use of, and expand the reach of postal correspondence, and contribute to the development of philately. In 1968, Cuba dedicated a postage stamp for Stamp Day with an image of G. Sciltian's "El filatelista".


title: Philately

text: In 1926, the Fédération Internationale de Philatélie (FIP) was founded, where international philatelic exhibitions have been regularly organized since 1929. The first World Philatelic Exhibition in Prague was held between August and September 1962; in 1976, the FIP brought together national societies from 57 countries, which held over 100 exhibitions, and in 1987, over 60 countries entered the FIP.


title: Philately

text: Since the middle of the 20th century, philately has become the most widespread field of amateur collecting, which was facilitated by:


title: Philately

text: Philately magazines, at this time, were published as far east as Poland, and as far west as North America. In Canada, "Canadian Stamp News" was established in 1976 as an off-shoot to "Canadian Coin News", which was launched about a decade earlier.


title: Philately

text: Philately was largely advanced by the USSR and nations within its sphere of influence, and the United States, France, the UK, and Austria. The British Library Philatelic Collections and the postal museums in Stockholm, Paris, and Bern had unique national philately collections at that time, and among the famous private collections are those of the Royal Philatelic Collection, F. Ferrari (Austria), M. Burrus (Switzerland), A. Lichtenstein, A. Hind, J. Boker (U.S.), and H. Kanai (Japan).


title: Philately

text: In the mid-1970s, national philately organizations and associations existed in most countries, and 150-200 million people were involved in philately during meetings established.


title: Philately

text: From 28 August to 1 September 2004, the World Stamp Championship was held for the first time in the history of world philately in Singapore.


title: Philately

text: Traditional philately is the study of the technical aspects of stamp production and stamp identification, including:


title: Philately

text: Philately uses several tools, including stamp tongs (a specialized form of tweezers) to safely handle the stamps, a strong magnifying glass and a perforation gauge (odontometer) to measure the perforation gauge of the stamp.


title: Philately

text: The identification of watermarks is equally important and may be done with the naked eye by turning the stamp over or holding it up to the light. If this fails then "watermark fluid" may be used, which "wets" the stamp to reveal the mark.


title: Philately

text: Philatelic organizations sprang up soon after people started collecting and studying stamps. They include local, national and international clubs and societies where collectors come together to share the various aspects of their hobby.


title: Philately

text: The world's oldest philatelic society is the Royal Philatelic Society London, which was founded on 10 April 1869, as the Philatelic Society. In North America, the major national societies include the American Philatelic Society; the Royal Philatelic Society of Canada; and the Mexico-Elmhurst Philatelic Society, International.


title: Philately

text: Local clubs and societies have been established in many cities of the world. The International Philatelic Federation was formed in 1926 which is originally based in Zurich, Switzerland but is now known to be the world federation for philately.


title: Chase Sui Wonders

text: Chase Charmayne Sui Wonders (born May 21, 1996) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Riley in the 2021 dramedy television series "Generation" and as Emma in the 2022 horror-comedy "Bodies Bodies Bodies".


title: Chase Sui Wonders

text: Wonders was born in Detroit, Michigan. Her father is of Chinese ancestry and her mother is of European ancestry. They are both American in nationality. She is a niece of American fashion designer Anna Sui. She graduated from Harvard University "magna cum laude", majoring in film studies and production, where she wrote for the college humor publication, "The Harvard Lampoon".


title: Chase Sui Wonders

text: Wonders started her film career as the protagonist, co-director, and lead screenwriter in the 2009 film "A Trivial Exclusion". She also directed and wrote a feature-length film "Last Migration" in 2015. In 2019, she starred as Makayla in the psychological horror film "Daniel Isn't Real". Wonders starred in a small role in 2020 comedy-drama film "On the Rocks", directed by Sofia Coppola.


title: Chase Sui Wonders

text: In 2021, Wonders joined the main cast of HBO Max's dramedy television series "Generation" as Riley, an independent and self-possessed mature high school student. In 2022, Wonders teamed up with "Vogue China" magazine to write and direct a short film titled "Wake" starring herself and Charles Melton.


title: Chase Sui Wonders

text: On May 11, 2021, Wonders joined the cast of the satirical slasher film "Bodies, Bodies, Bodies", directed by Halina Reijn. The film premiered at the 2022 South by Southwest, on March 14, and began a wide release theater run in August. In October 2021, she was cast in Neil LaBute's "Out of the Blue", alongside Diane Kruger and Hank Azaria. In January 2022, it was announced that she is set to star as Samantha, the lead character of Apple TV+'s "City on Fire", series based on the book of the same name.


title: Chase Sui Wonders

text: As a model, she appeared in a fashion collaboration campaign between her aunt, Anna Sui and Batsheva Hay in 2021.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: An anime television series adaptation ran from October 2013 to March 2016. An anime adaptation of "Ace of Diamond Act II" aired from April 2019 to March 2020.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: As of August 2021, the manga had over 40 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series. In 2008, "Ace of Diamond" received the 53rd Shogakukan Manga Award for the "shōnen" category. In 2010, it won the 34th Kodansha Manga Award for best "shōnen" manga.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: The series follows Eijun Sawamura, a baseball pitcher with an unusual pitching style that naturally causes the ball to move unpredictably at the plate. Sawamura plans to go with his friends to a local high school and play baseball to the best of their abilities. However, one scout from the prestigious Seido High School approaches him and offers him a scholarship and a chance to make it to the nationals. Sawamura decides to pay a visit to the school, and it changes his entire outlook on the future. Seido and their main rivals attempt to help the upperclassmen make it to nationals during the summer tournament. Once the summer tournament ends, the upperclassmen will be forced to retire, but Sawamura will help them to success, despite his lack of control. Some time later, Sawamura and his teammates, Furuya Satoru, Kominato Haruichi and Miyuki Kazuya, lead a new team, along with a few returning faces, through the fall tournament. Their overly ambitious goal is to go to nationals during the fall tournament and convince Coach Kataoka that he does not have to resign.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: "Ace of Diamond Act II" continues to follow Sawamura and the team as they prepare to compete for the summer tournament. With a new year, new faces appear and join the Seido baseball club. Sawamura and Furuya compete with national level teams, being able to identify their own strengths and weaknesses and further mature their pitching style, all the while they are competing with each other to earn the coveted ace title. Simultaneously, the Seido batters are improving themselves to become as fearsome as the batting talent of their previous year's first-string team. With all of these preparations, Seido is aiming to win the summer tournament before the upperclassman have to graduate.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: "Ace of Diamond" is written and illustrated by Yuji Terajima. It was serialized in Kodansha's "Weekly Shōnen Magazine" from 15 May 2006 to 14 January 2015. Kodansha collected the chapters into forty-seven "tankōbon" volumes, published from 15 September 2006 to 17 August 2015.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: Kodansha USA has licensed the series for a digital release in English under the title "Ace of the Diamond", and has been publishing the volumes since 7 March 2017. The series is licensed in Indonesia by Elex Media Komputindo.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: A sequel manga, titled "Ace of Diamond Act II" was serialized in the same magazine from 19 August 2015, to 26 October 2022. Kodansha released the first "tankōbon" volume on 17 November 2015. As of March 2022, thirty volumes have been released.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: A comedic spin-off, titled "Daiya no B!", about the same characters, at the same school, but in a brass high school band, was published on Kodansha's "Magazine Pocket" web platform from 2015 to 2016. It was collected in three volumes, released from 17 November 2015 to 17 August 2016.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: Another spin-off manga, titled "Cat of Diamond", by Terajima's wife Yuki Okada, started on "Magazine Pocket" app and website on 12 January 2022.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: The TV series was produced by Madhouse and Production I.G and began airing on 6 October 2013, on TX Network stations and later on AT-X. The episodes were simulcast in the US, Canada, UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Central and South America, Spain, Brazil, and Portugal by Crunchyroll with English and German subtitles. The series was initially planned to be 52 episodes but was extended and ended in March 2015. A second season started airing soon after on 6 April 2015 on TX Network stations and later on AT-X. Like its predecessor the episodes were simulcast in the aforementioned countries by Crunchyroll with English and German subtitles. Two original animation DVDs were bundled with the fourth and fifth volumes of the "Ace of Diamond Act II" manga; the first was released on 15 July 2016 and the second was released on 16 September 2016.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: An anime adaptation of "Ace of Diamond Act II" was announced in November 2018, and it premiered on 2 April 2019. The cast and staff reprised their roles from the previous series, with Madhouse returning for animation production. The series ran for 52 episodes.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: "Ace of Diamond" received the 53rd Shogakukan Manga Award for the "shōnen" category in 2008. It also won the 34th Kodansha Manga Award for the "shōnen" category in 2010.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: As of March 2015, the first 45 volumes of the series have sold over 22 million copies. As of November 2015, the manga had over 25 million copies in print. As of August 2021, the manga had over 40 million copies in print.


title: Ace of Diamond

text: "Ace of Diamond" was the 25th best selling manga in 2011, with 1,711,607 copies sold. "Nikkei Entertainment" magazine published a list of top 50 manga creators by sales since January 2010, in its September 2011 issue; Yuji Terajima, the author of "Ace of Diamond" was ranked 20th, with 2,792,000 copies sold. It was the 27th best selling manga in 2012, with 1,685,194 copies sold. In 2013 "Ace of Diamond" became the 23rd best selling manga, with 2,010,045 copies sold.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: V Corps (), formerly known as the Fifth Corps, is a regular corps of the United States Army at Fort Knox. It was previously active during World War I, World War II, the Cold War, the Kosovo War, and the War on Terrorism.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: The corps's shoulder patch, a pentagon whose points lie on an imaginary circle 2 1/8 inches (5.40 cm) in diameter whose edges are white lines 3/16-inch (.48 cm) in width and whose radial lines are white 1/8-inch (.32 cm) in width, was approved on 3 December 1918. The triangles thus outlined in white are flag blue. The pentagon represents the number of the Corps, while blue and white are the colors associated with Corps flags.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: V Corps was organized 7–12 July 1918 in the Regular Army in France, as part of the American Expeditionary Forces. By the end of World War I, the Corps had fought in three named campaigns.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: Headquarters Company, V Corps was withdrawn from the Organized Reserve on 1 October 1933 and allotted to the Regular Army. At the same time, the Corps HQ was partially activated at Fort Hayes, OH, with Regular personnel from HQ, Fifth Corps Area, and Reserve personnel from the corps area at large. Though an Regular Army, Inactive, unit from 1927 to 1940, the Corps HQ was organized provisionally for short periods using its assigned Reserve officers and staff officers from HQ, Fifth Corps Area. These periods of provisional Active Duty were generally for command post exercises and major maneuvers. HQ, V Corps was fully activated on 20 October 1940, less Reserve personnel, at Camp Beauregard, LA.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: After Nazi Germany declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941, the corps deployed (January 1942) the first American soldiers to the European Theater of Operations, United States Army. That initial deployment was known as the U.S. Army Northern Ireland Force or MAGNET. On 6 June 1944, V Corps assaulted Omaha Beach, Normandy. Corps soldiers then broke out from the beachhead, liberated Paris and Sedan, Ardennes, and raced to the German border. After liberating Luxembourg, V Corps fought in the Battle of the Bulge, captured Leipzig, made first contact with the Red Army at Torgau, and, south in Czechoslovakia, liberated Plzeň by May 1945.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: In March 1947, United States European Command directed that its combat forces were to convert to "Occupation duties." On 1 December 1950, due to concern of a Soviet threat to Western Europe during the Korean War, Seventh Army was activated as a field army in Europe. Seventh Army absorbed the two main Occupation Duty forces then in Germany, namely the 1st Infantry Division and the United States Constabulary.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: In December, 1950 President Truman declared a National Emergency due to the Korean War, and four divisions were dispatched to reinforce U.S. forces in Europe, including the National Guard's 28th and 43rd Infantry Divisions. In May 1951 the 4th Infantry Division arrived in United States Army Europe (USAREUR) in Germany, and on 3 August 1951, V Corps was reactivated and assigned to the Seventh Army in USAREUR. In July the 2d Armored Division arrived in Germany, and on 25 August 1951 the 4th Infantry Division (HQ: Frankfurt) and 2d Armored Division (HQ: Bad Kreuznach) were assigned as V Corps divisions.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: The Constabulary was inactivated upon the arrival of the four U.S. division augmentation forces to Germany. V Corps was assigned to the northern area of the U.S. Occupation Zone of Germany (which included the Fulda Gap), and the VII Corps was assigned to the southern area of the U.S. Zone (one of the National Guard divisions (the 43rd) was stationed in the Munich area, and the other (the 28th) was between Munich and Stuttgart). Several years later the newly forming West German Army displaced the GDP positions of some of the U.S. units stationed in the far southern area of West Germany. As a consequence, the U.S. units' GDP positions were moved further north, as was the U.S. VII Corps' wartime southern boundary line (even though the U.S. units remained in their original kasernes). This shifting action likely coincided with the same time frame as the Summer and Fall conversion of all Seventh Army units to the ROAD organization.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: Although, as referenced above, in 1951 the 1st Infantry Division was assigned to the newly activated VII Corps, the significance of the V Corps assigned Fulda Gap and Meiningen Gap (AKA Grabfeld Gap) defense influenced not only the reassignment of the Wuerzburg-headquartered 1st Infantry Division to V Corps on 2 February 1952, but also the 1 October 1953 assignment of the newly formed 19th Armor Group, headquartered at Frankfurt, to V Corps.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: As of June 1954, the main unit assignments to V Corps were 1st Infantry Division, 4th Infantry Division, 2d Armored Division, and 19th Armor Group (19th AG was the size of a large brigade, with 3 tank battalions and one mech. infantry battalion stationed from Mannheim to Wildflecken). The first U.S. armored division to be stationed east of the Rhine River in the Cold War, namely V Corps' 3d Armored Division, arrived in May/June 1956. (The 3d Armored Div. replaced the 4th Infantry Div.; later, the 2d Armored Div. was replaced by the Bad Kreuznach arriving 8th Infantry Div.) The 19th Armor Group (HQ Frankfurt) was replaced by the 4th Armor Group on 1 July 1955 (the 4th AG was approximately the size of the replaced 19th AG); the 4th Armor Group was deactivated in the 1963 ROAD conversion. In 1955 the 1st Infantry Division gyroscoped to CONUS, and was replaced in V Corps by the 10th Infantry Division from CONUS. In 1958 the 3rd Infantry Division gyroscoped from CONUS and the 10th Infantry Division gyroscoped to CONUS.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: After the Cold War collapse of the Warsaw Pact, V Corps soldiers deployed both units and individuals to Saudi Arabia for the Gulf War; and to other operations in Kuwait, northern Iraq, Croatia, Somalia, Republic of Macedonia, Rwanda, and Zaire.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: In December 1994, as part of the realignment of United States Armed Forces, V Corps moved from the IG Farben Building to Campbell Barracks in Heidelberg, severing a forty-three-year tie with Frankfurt. The corps reached out to the armed forces of eastern Europe with numerous initiatives to foster closer ties and better understanding. Maintaining the NATO commitment, V Corps in 1994 created two bi-national corps with Germany. For Command Component Land Heidelberg missions, the corps commanded the 13th (German) Armored Infantry Division, while II (German) Corps commanded the 1st Armored Division.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: In December 1995, V Corps deployed 1st Armored Division and elements of six separate brigades for the Implementation Force (IFOR). The corps headquarters and Headquarters Company, the 3d Support Command, and the separate brigades helped form the National Support Element headquartered in Hungary for United States Armed Forces in Bosnia. Brigades of the two divisions rotated in the peace enforcement mission for a number of years in Bosnia. Headquarters and Headquarters Company, V Corps, was decorated with the Army Superior Unit Award in 1998 in recognition of the unit's performance in Implementation Force (IFOR). In April 1999, V Corps deployed the headquarters and subordinate units to Albania as Task Force Hawk, a force involved in the ongoing crisis in Kosovo. The 1st Infantry Division served in Kosovo twice and the 1st Armored Division served once, in addition to V Corps separate brigades.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: At the end of 2002, V Corps deployed to Kuwait under United States Central Command for the Iraq War. The United States-led coalition brought about a regime change in Iraq and satisfied international concerns about Iraq and weapons of mass destruction. The corps and its maneuver brigades crossed into Iraq on 21 March 2003 as the main effort. In sixteen days of fighting, V Corps advanced more than 540 miles straight-line distance from Kuwait to Baghdad, decisively defeated the Iraqi Armed Forces, and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: On 15 June 2003, the corps formed Combined Joint Task Force 7, based in Baghdad, and continued military operations to pacify the remainder of Iraq, rebuild the country, and create democratic institutions. As part of Combined Joint Task Force 7 mission, V Corps soldiers sought out and arrested or killed the major figures in the previous Iraqi regime, culminating in the arrest of Saddam Hussein himself. On 1 February 2004, V Corps was succeeded in Combined Joint Task Force 7 by III Corps and redeployed to its home station in Heidelberg, Germany. In recognition of its combat achievements in Iraq, the Department of the Army, in 2004, awarded the Headquarters and Headquarters Company the Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army).


title: V Corps (United States)

text: In January 2006, the corps, deployed to Iraq and replaced XVIII Airborne Corps as the command and control element for Multi-National Corps–Iraq. During its second year-long deployment, which ended on 14 December 2006, V Corps continued to lead coalition forces and made great strides battling a widespread insurgency, and conducting a massive rebuilding effort.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: From 2012 to 2013, V Corps served in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, providing command and control of all U.S. ground forces stationed there. On 16 February 2012, it was announced that Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion, V Corps would inactivate upon redeployment from Afghanistan per guidance issued by the Department of the Army earlier that same year. On 12 June 2013, V Corps was awarded an Army Superior Unit Award, a Meritorious Unit Commendation, then ceremonially inactivated at Biebrich Palace, Wiesbaden, Germany.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: On 11 February 2020, the United States Department of the Army announced the activation of corps headquarters (V Corps). V Corps Headquarters will have approximately 635 soldiers, with approximately 200 who will support an operational command post in Europe. The Corps Headquarters is projected to be operational by autumn 2020.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: On 12 February 2020, the Army announced that V Corps' new headquarters would be located at Fort Knox, Kentucky.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: United States Army Chief of Staff, General James McConville stated:"The activation of an additional Corps headquarters provides the needed level of command and control focused on synchronizing U.S. Army, allied, and partner nation tactical formations operating in Europe. It will enhance U.S. Army Europe and U.S. European Command as they work alongside allies and partners to promote regional stability and security."The establishment of V Corps supports United States European Command's request for increased command and control capability.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: In May 2020, MG John Kolasheski, commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division was nominated to command the newly reactivated V Corps. Once confirmed by the Senate he would receive a third star. Kolasheski was confirmed to the rank of lieutenant general on 21 May 2020. He was promoted by Army Chief of Staff James C. McConville on 4 August 2020 in Kraków, Poland. McConville announced that V Corps forward headquarters would be established in Poland after the next fiscal year starts on 1 October 2020. 200 of the expected 630 headquarters staff members would be stationed in Poznan on a rotational basis. The forward headquarters will "conduct operational planning, mission command and oversight of the rotational forces in Europe", and work alongside allies and partners to build readiness and enhance interoperability.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: On 21 July 2021 MG Jeffery Broadwater was announced as DCG, V Corps. (In May of 2021, MG Matthew Van Wagenen was appointed as DCG-Manoeuvre to be based in Poznan, Poland, but who presently serves as a DCG for the Army component of SHAPE.)


title: V Corps (United States)

text: On 7 March 2022 a V Corps headquarters element deployed to Germany, joining the forward element already in Europe, to "provide additional command and control of U.S. Army forces in Europe." The headquarters is also tasked to "provide a more robust presence in Europe and enable the Corps to synchronize current contingency operations, support the ongoing mission to reinforce NATO’s eastern flank and coordinate multinational exercises across the continent." This deployment is in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: V Corps (United States)

text: At the 29 June 2022 NATO summit in Madrid US President Joe Biden announced that a permanent military base would be established in Poland that would serve as the new headquarters of V Corps and "strengthen the US-NATO interoperability across the entire eastern flank," in further response to the Russian campaign in Ukraine. On 30 July 2022 the headquarters of V Corps (Forward) in Poznan was renamed Camp Kosciuszko.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift is a family of containerization software products developed by Red Hat. Its flagship product is the OpenShift Container Platform — a hybrid cloud platform as a service built around Linux containers orchestrated and managed by Kubernetes on a foundation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux. The family's other products provide this platform through different environments: OKD serves as the community-driven upstream (akin to the way that Fedora is upstream of Red Hat Enterprise Linux), Several deployment methods are available including self-managed, cloud native under ROSA, ARO and RHOIC on AWS, Azure, and IBM Cloud respectively, OpenShift Online as software as a service, and OpenShift Dedicated as a managed service.


title: OpenShift

text: The OpenShift Console has developer and administrator oriented views. Administrator views allow one to monitor container resources and container health, manage users, work with operators, etc. Developer views are oriented around working with application resources within a namespace. OpenShift also provides a CLI that supports a superset of the actions that the Kubernetes CLI provides.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift originally came from Red Hat's acquisition of Makara, a company marketing a platform as a service (PaaS) based on Linux containers, in November 2010.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift was announced in May 2011 as proprietary technology and did not become open-source until May of 2012. Up until v3, the container technology and container orchestration technology used custom developed technologies. This changed in v3 with the adoption of Docker as the container technology, and Kubernetes as the container orchestration technology. The v4 product has many other architectural changes - a prominent one being a shift to using CRI-O, as the container runtime (and Podman for interacting with pods and containers), and Buildah as the container build tool, thus breaking the exclusive dependency on Docker.


title: OpenShift

text: The main difference between OpenShift and vanilla Kubernetes is the concept of build-related artifacts. In OpenShift, such artifacts are considered first class Kubernetes resources upon which standard Kubernetes operations can apply. OpenShift's client program, "oc", offers a superset of the standard capabilities bundled in the mainline "kubectl" client program of Kubernetes. Using this client, one can directly interact with the build-related resources using sub-commands (such as "new-build" or "start-build"). In addition to this, an OpenShift-native pod builds technology called Source-to-Image (S2I) is available out of the box, though this is slowly being phased out in favor of Tekton — which is a cloud native way of building and deploying to Kubernetes. For the OpenShift platform, this provides capabilities equivalent to what Jenkins can do.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift v4 tightly controls the operating systems used. The "master" components have to be running Red Hat CoreOS. This level of control enables the cluster to support upgrades and patches of the master nodes with minimal effort. The worker Nodes can be running other variants of Linux or even Windows.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift introduced the concept of routes - points of traffic ingress into the Kubernetes cluster. The Kubernetes ingress concept was modeled after this.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift includes other software such as application runtimes as well as infrastructure components from the Kubernetes ecosystem. For example, for observability needs, Prometheus, Hawkular, and Istio (and their dependencies) are included. The Red Hat branding of Istio is called Red Hat Service Mesh, and is based on an opensource project called Maistra, that aligns base Istio to the needs of opensource OpenShift.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift Container Platform (formerly known as OpenShift Enterprise) is Red Hat's on-premises private platform as a service product, built around application containers powered by CRI-O, with orchestration and management provided by Kubernetes, on Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS.


title: OpenShift

text: OKD, known until August 2018 as OpenShift Origin (Origin Community Distribution) is the upstream community project used in OpenShift Online, OpenShift Dedicated, and OpenShift Container Platform. Built around a core of Docker container packaging and Kubernetes container cluster management, OKD is augmented by application lifecycle management functionality and DevOps tooling. OKD provides an open source application container platform. All source code for the OKD project is available under the Apache License (Version 2.0) on GitHub.


title: OpenShift

text: Red Hat OpenShift Online (RHOO) is Red Hat's public cloud application development and hosting service which runs on AWS and IBM Cloud.


title: OpenShift

text: Online offered version 2 of the OKD project source code, which is also available under the Apache License Version 2.0. This version supported a variety of languages, frameworks, and databases via pre-built "cartridges" running under resource-quota "gears". Developers could add other languages, databases, or components via the OpenShift Cartridge application programming interface. This was deprecated in favour of OpenShift 3, and was withdrawn on 30 September 2017 for non-paying customers and 31 December 2017 for paying customers.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift 3 is built around Kubernetes. It can run any Docker-based container, but Openshift Online is limited to running containers that do not require root.


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift Dedicated (OSD) is Red Hat's managed private cluster offering, built around a core of application containers powered by Docker, with orchestration and management provided by Kubernetes, on a foundation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux. It is available on the Amazon Web Services (AWS), IBM Cloud, Google Cloud Platform (GCP) marketplaces since December 2016. A managed private cluster offering is also offered on Microsoft Azure under the name Azure Red Hat Openshift (ARO).


title: OpenShift

text: OpenShift Data Foundation (ODF) provides cloud native storage, data management and data protection for applications running with OpenShift Container platform in the cloud, on-prem, and in hybrid/multi-cloud environments.


title: OpenShift

text: Red Hat OpenShift Database Access (RHODA) is a capability in managed OpenShift Kubernetes environments enabling administrators to set up connections to database-as-a-service offerings from different providers. RHODA is an add-on service to OSD and Red Hat OpenShift Service on AWS (ROSA). RHODA's initial alpha release included support for MongoDB Atlas for MongoDB and Crunchy Bridge for PostgreSQL.


title: David Carpenter

text: David Joseph Carpenter (born May 6, 1930), a.k.a. The Trailside Killer, is an American serial killer and serial rapist known for stalking and murdering a variety of individuals on hiking trails in state parks near San Francisco, California. He attacked at least ten individuals, with two attempted victims, Steven Haertle and Lois Rinna (mother of television personality Lisa Rinna) surviving. Carpenter used a .38 caliber handgun in all but one of the killings; a .44 caliber handgun was used in the killing of Edda Kane on Mount Tamalpais.


title: David Carpenter

text: David Carpenter, a native of San Francisco, was physically abused as a child by his alcoholic father and domineering mother. As a boy he had a severe stutter, a persistent bed-wetting problem and exhibited cruelty to animals. At age 13, Carpenter was incarcerated for molesting two of his cousins.


title: David Carpenter

text: Carpenter’s first attempted murder occurred in 1960, for which he spent seven years in prison. This was committed against Lois Rinna, the mother of future television personality Lisa Rinna. He was arrested for kidnapping in 1970 and spent another seven years behind bars. After his release, Carpenter became a suspect in the Zodiac murders, although he was eventually cleared.


title: David Carpenter

text: From 1979 to 1981, Carpenter raped and murdered five women in Santa Cruz County and Marin County. On May 10, 1988, a San Diego jury convicted him on five counts of first-degree murder in the deaths of Richard Stowers, Cynthia Moreland, Shauna May, Diane O'Connell, and Anne Alderson. He also was found guilty of raping two of the women and attempting to rape a third. Carpenter was sentenced to die in the gas chamber and remains on death row in San Quentin State Prison.


title: David Carpenter

text: Following his conviction for the Marin County murders, Carpenter was tried, and subsequently convicted, by a Santa Cruz jury for the murders of Ellen Hansen and Heather Scaggs. The same jury also found him guilty of the attempted murder of Hansen's hiking companion, Steven Haertle; the attempted rape of Hansen; and the rape of Scaggs. Hansen, who was a University of California-Davis student, has a memorial scholarship created in honor of her courage during the attack, which allowed Haertle to escape alive. In 1995, the Santa Cruz convictions were overturned due to juror misconduct. The California Supreme Court later reinstated the Santa Cruz convictions.


title: David Carpenter

text: In December 2009, the San Francisco Police Department reexamined evidence from October 21, 1979, murder of Mary Frances Bennett, who was jogging at Lands End when she was attacked and stabbed to death. A DNA sample obtained from the evidence was matched to Carpenter through state Department of Justice files. In February 2010, police confirmed the match with a recently obtained sample from Carpenter. Carpenter is still a suspect in the murders of Edda Kane and Barbara Schwartz.


title: David Carpenter

text: The Trailside killings provide the context for Joyce Maynard's 2013 novel "After Her". On television, both "The New Detectives" and "Born to Kill?" made an episode about the case.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Plymouth Valiant (first appearing in 1959 as simply the Valiant) is an automobile which was marketed by the Plymouth division of the Chrysler Corporation in the United States from the model years of 1960 through 1976. It was created to give the company an entry in the compact car market emerging in the late 1950s. The Valiant was also built and marketed, without the Plymouth brand, worldwide in countries including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Finland, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland, as well as other countries in South America and Western Europe. It became well known for its excellent durability and reliability, and was one of Chrysler's best-selling automobiles during the 1960s and 1970s, helping to keep the company solvent during an economic downturn.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In May 1957, Chrysler president Lester Lum "Tex" Colbert established a committee to develop a competitor in the burgeoning compact car market which included the popular VW Beetle, the new American Motors Rambler and upcoming entries from GM, Ford and Studebaker. Design chief Virgil Exner created a car that was smaller and lighter than a full-size car without sacrificing passenger and luggage space. Originally named the "Falcon" after Exner's 1955 Chrysler Falcon concept car, the vehicle was renamed the "Valiant" (which means "having or showing courage or valor") honoring Henry Ford II's request to use the name for the Ford Falcon. The Valiant debuted at the 44th British International Motor Show in London on October 26, 1959. It was introduced as a 1960 model and was officially considered a distinct brand, advertised with the tagline "Nobody's kid brother, this one stands on its own four tires." For the 1961 model year, the Valiant was classified as a Plymouth model. The 1961–62 Dodge Lancer was essentially a rebadged Valiant with different trim and styling details. For the 1962 model year, the Valiant returned without Plymouth branding but was sold only in Plymouth Chrysler, Chrysler Dodge, or the rare standalone Plymouth dealerships. For model year 1964 and onwards the car was sold in the United States only as a Plymouth Valiant.