title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Social entrepreneurship is an approach by individuals, groups, start-up companies or entrepreneurs, in which they develop, fund and implement solutions to social, cultural, or environmental issues. This concept may be applied to a wide range of organizations, which vary in size, aims, and beliefs. For-profit entrepreneurs typically measure performance using business metrics like profit, revenues and increases in stock prices. Social entrepreneurs, however, are either non-profits, or they blend for-profit goals with generating a positive "return to society". Therefore, they use different metrics. Social entrepreneurship typically attempts to further broad social, cultural and environmental goals often associated with the voluntary sector in areas such as poverty alleviation, health care and community development.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: At times, profit-making social enterprises may be established to support the social or cultural goals of the organization but not as an end in themselves. For example, an organization that aims to provide housing and employment to the homeless may operate a restaurant, both to raise money and to provide employment for the homeless.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: In 2010, social entrepreneurship was facilitated by the use of the Internet, particularly social networking and social media websites. These websites enable social entrepreneurs to reach numerous people who are not geographically close yet who share the same goals and encourage them to collaborate online, learn about the issues, disseminate information about the group's events and activities, and raise funds through crowdfunding.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: In recent years, researchers have been calling for a better understanding of the ecosystem in which social entrepreneurship exists and social ventures operate. This will help them formulate better strategy and help achieve their double bottom line objective.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: The concept of social entrepreneurship emerged in the 1980s and since then has been gaining more momentum. Despite this, after decades of efforts to find a common ground to define the concept, no consensus has been reached. The dynamic nature of the object and the multiplicity of the conceptual lens used by researchers has made it impossible to capture it, to such an extent that scholars have compared it with a mythological beast.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Scholars have different backgrounds, generating a great disparity of conceptualizations. These should be arranged in 5 clusters of meaning, according to the focus given and the conceptual framework assumed by the researcher. The first group of authors focuses on the person of the entrepreneur, being the mainstream definition. J. G. Dees argues that social entrepreneurship is the result and the creation of an especially creative and innovative leader.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Social entrepreneurs can include a range of career types and professional backgrounds, ranging from social work and community development to entrepreneurship and environmental science. For this reason, it is difficult to determine who is a social entrepreneur. David Bornstein has even used the term "social innovator" interchangeably with social entrepreneur, due to the creative, non-traditional strategies that many social entrepreneurs use. For a clearer definition of what social entrepreneurship entails, it is necessary to set the function of social entrepreneurship apart from other voluntary sector and charity-oriented activities and identify the boundaries within which social entrepreneurs operate. Some scholars have advocated restricting the term to founders of organizations that primarily rely on earned income (meaning income earned directly from paying consumers), rather than income from donations or grants. Others have extended this to include contracted work for public authorities, while still others include grants and donations.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Social entrepreneurship in modern society offers an altruistic form of entrepreneurship that focuses on the benefits that society may reap. If a person's behaviour or motives are altruistic, they show concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for themselves. Simply put, entrepreneurship becomes a social endeavor when it transforms social capital in a way that affects society positively. It is viewed as advantageous because the success of social entrepreneurship depends on many factors related to social impact that traditional corporate businesses do not prioritize. Social entrepreneurs recognize immediate social problems, but also seek to understand the broader context of an issue that crosses disciplines, fields, and theories. Gaining a larger understanding of how an issue relates to society allows social entrepreneurs to develop innovative solutions and mobilize available resources to affect the greater global society. Unlike traditional corporate businesses, social entrepreneurship ventures focus on maximizing gains in social satisfaction, rather than maximizing profit gains. Both private and public agencies worldwide have had billion-dollar initiatives to empower deprived communities and individuals. Such support from organizations in society, such as government-aid agencies or private firms, may catalyze innovative ideas to reach a larger audience.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Prominent individuals associated with social entrepreneurship include Pakistani Akhter Hameed Khan and Bangladeshi Muhammad Yunus, a leader of social entrepreneurship in South Asia. Yunus was the founder of Grameen Bank, which pioneered the concept of microcredit for supporting innovators in multiple developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. He received a Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. Others, such as former Indianapolis mayor Stephen Goldsmith, addressed social efforts on a local level by using the private sector to provide city services.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Bill Drayton founded Ashoka in 1980, an organization which supports local social entrepreneurs. Drayton tells his employees to look for four qualities: creativity, entrepreneurial quality, social impact of the idea, and ethical fiber. Creativity has two parts: goal-setting and problem-solving. Social entrepreneurs are creative enough to have a vision of what they want to happen and how to make that vision happen. In their book "The Power of Unreasonable People," John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan identify why social entrepreneurs are, as they put it, unreasonable. They argue that these men and women seek profit in social output where others would not expect profit. They also ignore evidence suggesting that their enterprises will fail and attempt to measure results which no one is equipped to measure. About this, the Schwab Foundation says that entrepreneurs have "A zeal to measure and monitor their impact. Entrepreneurs have high standards, particularly in relation to their own organization's efforts and in response to the communities with which they engage. Data, both quantitative and qualitative, are their key tools, guiding continuous feedback and improvement." Ashoka operates in multiple countries.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Entrepreneurial quality builds from creativity. Not only do entrepreneurs have an idea that they must implement, they know how to implement it and are realistic in the vision of implementing it. Drayton says that, "Entrepreneurs have in their heads the vision of how society will be different when their idea is at work, and they can't stop until that idea is not only at work in one place, but is at work across the whole society." This manifests through a clear idea of what they believe the future will look like and a drive to make this come true. Besides this, entrepreneurs are not happy with the status quo: they want healthy change. This changemaking process has been described as the creation of market disequilibria through the conversion of antagonistic assets into complementarities.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Social impact measures whether the idea itself will be able to cause change after the original founder is gone. If an idea has intrinsic worth, once implemented it will cause change even without the charismatic leadership of the first entrepreneur. One reason that these entrepreneurs are unreasonable is that they are unqualified for the task they take on. Most entrepreneurs have not studied the skills needed to implement their ideas. Instead, they bring a team of qualified people around themselves. It is the idea that draws this team.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Ethical fiber is important because leaders who are about to change the world must be trustworthy. Drayton described this to his employees by suggesting that they picture a situation that frightens them and then place the candidate in the situation with them. If they feel comfortable in this scenario, the entrepreneur has ethical fiber. One distinguishing attribute of entrepreneurs is that they rarely take credit for making change. They insist that the change they have brought about is due to everyone around them. They also tend to be driven by emotion; they are not trying primarily to make a profit but to address suffering. Muhammad Yunus says about this characteristic, "He (or she) competes in the marketplace with all other competitors but is inspired by a set of social objectives. This is the basic reason for being in the business."


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Because the world of social entrepreneurship is relatively new, there are many challenges facing those who delve into the field. First, social entrepreneurs are trying to predict, address and creatively respond to future problems and often face difficulties in identifying the right problems to solve. Unlike most business entrepreneurs, who address current market deficiencies, social entrepreneurs tackle hypothetical, unseen or often less-researched issues, such as overpopulation, unsustainable energy sources, food shortages. Founding successful social businesses on merely potential solutions can be nearly impossible as investors are much less willing to support risky ventures.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: The lack of eager investors leads to the second problem in social entrepreneurship: the pay gap. Elkington and Hartigan note that "the salary gap between commercial and social enterprises… remains the elephant in the room, curtailing the capacity of [social enterprises] to achieve long-term success and viability." Social entrepreneurs and their employees are often given diminutive or non-existent salaries, especially at the onset of their ventures. Thus, their enterprises struggle to maintain qualified, committed employees. Though social entrepreneurs are tackling the world's most pressing issues, they must also confront skepticism and stinginess from the very society they seek to serve.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Another reason social entrepreneurs are often unsuccessful is because they typically offer help for those least able to pay for it. Capitalism is founded upon the exchange of capital (most obviously, money) for goods and services. However, social entrepreneurs must find new business models that do not rely on standard exchange of capital in order to make their organizations sustainable. This self-sustainability is what distinguishes social businesses from charities, who rely almost entirely on donations and outside funding.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Social entrepreneurship is distinct from the concept of entrepreneurship, yet still shares several similarities with its business cousin. Jean-Baptiste Say (1767–1832), a French economist, defined an entrepreneur as a person who "undertakes" an idea and shifts perspectives in a way that it alters the effect that an idea has on society. An entrepreneur is further defined by Say as someone who "shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield." The difference between "entrepreneurship" and "social entrepreneurship", however, stems from the purpose of a creation. Social entrepreneurs seek to transform societies at large, rather than transforming their profit margin, as classic entrepreneurs typically seek to do. Social entrepreneurs use a variety of resources to bring societies into a better state of well-being.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: The concept of "social entrepreneurship" is not a novel idea, but in the 2000s, it has become more popular among society and academic research, notably after the publication of "The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur" by Charles Leadbeater. Many activities related to community development and higher social purpose fall within the modern definition of social entrepreneurship. Despite the established definition nowadays, social entrepreneurship remains a difficult concept to define, since it may be manifested in multiple forms. A broad definition of the concept allows interdisciplinary research efforts to understand and challenge the notions behind social entrepreneurship. No matter in which sector of society certain organizations are (i.e. corporations or unincorporated associations, societies, associations or cooperatives), social entrepreneurship focuses on the social impact that an endeavor aims at. Whether social entrepreneurship is altruistic or not is less important than the effect it has on society.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: The terms "social entrepreneur" and "social entrepreneurship" were used first in the literature in 1953 by H. Bowen in his book "Social Responsibilities of the Businessman". The terms came into widespread use in the 1980s and 1990s, promoted by Bill Drayton, Charles Leadbeater, and others. From the 1950s to the 1990s, the politician Michael Young was a leading promoter of social entrepreneurship and in the 1980s, he was described by Professor Daniel Bell at Harvard University as the "world's most successful entrepreneur of social enterprises". Young created more than sixty new organizations worldwide, including the School for Social Entrepreneurs (SSE) which exists in the UK, Australia, and Canada and which supports individuals to realize their potential and to establish, scale, and sustain, social enterprises and social businesses. Another notable British social entrepreneur is Andrew Mawson OBE, who was given a peerage in 2007 because of his urban regeneration work including the Bromley by Bow Centre in East London. Although the terms are relatively new, social entrepreneurs and social entrepreneurship may be found throughout history. A list of a few noteworthy people whose work exemplifies the modern definition of "social entrepreneurship" includes Florence Nightingale, founder of the first nursing school and developer of modern nursing practices; Robert Owen, founder of the cooperative movement; and Vinoba Bhave, founder of India's Land Gift Movement. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries some of the most successful social entrepreneurs straddled the civic, governmental and business worlds. These pioneers promoted new ideas that were taken up by mainstream public services in welfare, schools and health care.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: The ecosystem framework can be very useful for social entrepreneurs in formulating their strategy. The need for understanding the ecosystem of social enterprises has been increasingly supported as researchers emphasize on the importance of contextual factors supporting and constraining social ventures. Researcher note that there is a need to understand the ecosystems of social enterprises, as they often operate in a context which is highly localized, interacting with small, local actors, but may also be intimately connected to other systems operating at a broader (regional, country level or even global) level which influence their immediate environment.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Many researchers such as P. N. Bloom and J. G. Dees attempted to develop an ecosystem model for social entrepreneurs. The ecosystem model proposed by them comprises all the actors operating in the ecosystem, as well as the larger environment the laws, policies, social norms, demographic trends, and cultural institutions within which the actors play. Similarly, Dees "et al." (2008) developed a framework to describe the key elements of the social entrepreneurship ecosystem in which they organized the elements into two broad categories – capital infrastructure and context-setting factors.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: More recently in 2020, Debapratim Purkayastha, T. Tripathy and B. Das extended the business ecosystem literature to the social policy and social entrepreneurship arena. They developed a comprehensive ecosystem model in the context of the Indian microfinance sector that can be also used by other social enterprises as a framework to understand their own ecosystem and formulate their strategy. The researchers define the ecosystem as consisting of "the complex and evolving network of the focal organization (social enterprise) and all other individuals and organizations that the focal organization interact with including competitors, suppliers, complementors, customers, beneficiaries, regulators, resource providers, etc. that directly or indirectly influence each other; their interactions, as also the immediate and the broader environment (economic, social, political, etc.) the organization is influenced by and reside in". The model helps identify all the actors in the complex ecosystem, the capital infrastructure and the context-setting factors.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Groups focused on social entrepreneurship may be divided into several categories: community-based enterprises, socially responsible enterprises, social services industry professionals, and socio-economic enterprises. Community-based enterprises are based on the social ventures aimed at and involving an entire community. These enterprises build on the community's culture and capital (e.g., volunteer resources, financing, in-kind donations, etc.) to empower the enterprise and the community. Socially responsible enterprises focus on creating sustainable development through their inside organization acts that focus mostly on creating societal gains for the community. Social service industry professionals such as social workers and public health nurses work in social services, either for a government or a non-profit organization. They aim to expand social capital for individuals, communities, and organizations. Socio-economic enterprises include corporations that balance earning profits with nonprofit goals, such as seeking social change for communities. Some social entrepreneurship organizations are not enterprises in a business sense; instead, they may be charities, non-profit organizations or voluntary sector organizations.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: In addition, there are support organizations dedicated to empowering social entrepreneurs, connecting them with mentors, strengthening their enterprise models, and preparing them for capital investments. These incubators and accelerator organizations provide office and meeting space (often free), mentoring and coaching for social enterprise founders and leaders to help them develop their enterprises by improving the effectiveness of their business model, marketing, and strategy. Some accelerator organizations help social entrepreneur leaders to scale up their organization, either by taking it from a local scale to a national scale or from a national scale to a global scale. Some entrepreneurship support organizations also provide mentoring and coaching to social entrepreneurs.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: One well-known social entrepreneur from South Asia is Muhammad Yunus, who founded the Grameen Bank in 1976. He is known as the "father of microcredit," and established the microfinance movement, which aims to help millions of people rural communities to access small loans. For his work, he was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2006. The work that Yunus did through Grameen Bank has been described as a major influence on later social entrepreneurs. Larger countries in Europe and South America have tended to work more closely with public organizations at both the national and local level.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: In "The Power of Unreasonable People", John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan describe social entrepreneurs' business structures as falling under three different models, applicable in different situations and economic climates:


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: There are also a broader range of hybrid profit models, where a conventional business invests some portion of its profits on socially, culturally or environmentally beneficial activities. The term "Philanthropreneurship" has been applied to this type of activity. Corporate employees can also engage in social entrepreneurship, which may or may not be officially sanctioned by the company. This has been described as corporate social entrepreneurship.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: One private foundation has staked the ground of more precise lexicon following the Newman's Own model having coined the phrase "Commercial Philanthropy" where commercial businesses are held and operated with all net proceeds going to serve social service needs.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Organizations such as the Skoll Foundation, the Omidyar Network, the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship, Tasamy, Athgo, New Profit Inc., National Social Entrepreneurship Forum, Echoing Green, and the Global Social Benefit Institute among others, promote and providing resources to advance the initiatives of social entrepreneurs. The North American organizations tend to have a strongly individualistic stance focused on a handful of exceptional leaders. For example, The Skoll Foundation, created by eBay's first president, Jeff Skoll, makes capacity-building "mezzanine level" grants to social entrepreneurial organizations that already have reached a certain level of effectiveness.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: The Internet, social networking websites and social media have been pivotal resources for the success and collaboration of many social entrepreneurs. In the 2000s, the Internet has become especially useful in disseminating information to a wide range of like-minded supporters in short amounts of time, even if these individuals are geographically dispersed. In addition, the Internet allows for the pooling of design resources using open source principles. Using wiki models or crowdsourcing approaches, for example, a social entrepreneur organization can get hundreds of people from across a country (or from multiple countries) to collaborate on joint online projects (e.g., developing a business plan or a marketing strategy for a social entrepreneurship venture). These websites help social entrepreneurs to disseminate their ideas to broader audiences, help with the formation and maintenance of networks of like-minded people and help to link up potential investors, donors or volunteers with the organization. This enables social entrepreneurs to achieve their goals with little or no start-up capital and little or no "brick and mortar" facilities (e.g., rented office space). For example, the rise of open-source appropriate technology as a sustainable development paradigm enables people all over the world to collaborate on solving local problems, just as open source software development leverages collaboration from software experts from around the world.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Many initiatives carried out with social entrepreneurs while innovative, have had problems becoming sustainable and effective initiatives that ultimately were able to branch out and reach the larger society as a whole (versus a small community or a group of people). Compromises in social initiatives were developed, which often did not reach large audiences or help larger communities. Since the concept of social entrepreneurship has been popularized in the 2000s, some advocates suggest that there needs to be some standardization of the process in scaling up social endeavors to increase the impact of these ventures across the globe.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Policymakers around the globe may need to learn more about social initiatives, to increase the sustainability, effectiveness, and efficiency of these projects. Involvement and collaboration between private corporations and government agencies allows for increased support for carrying out social entrepreneurship initiatives, increased accountability on both ends, and increased connections with communities, individuals, or agencies in need. For example, private organizations or nonprofit organizations have tackled unemployment issues in communities. One challenge is that in some cases, social entrepreneurs may only propose short-term solutions, or that they are unable to scale up their virtual, online organization to a larger degree to maximize the number of people who are helped. Government programs are able to tackle large issues; however, there is often little collaboration between governments and social entrepreneurs, which may have limited the effectiveness of social entrepreneurship. This lack of inter-sectoral collaboration may lead to stagnation, if the motives and goals of social enterprises and of those in policy-making and programs are not aligned. Those in policy-making and the development of delivery of government programs tend to have different priorities than social entrepreneurs, resulting in slow growth and expansion of social initiatives.


title: Social entrepreneurship

text: Since social entrepreneurship has only started to gain momentum in the 2000s, current social entrepreneurs are encouraging social advocates and activists to develop into innovative social entrepreneurs. Increasing the scope and scale of social entrepreneurship may increase the likelihood of an efficient, sustainable, and effective initiative; although it may also render social entrepreneurship more challenging. Increased participation draws more attention to social entrepreneurship ventures from policymakers and privately owned corporations. The increased involvement of corporations and governments may help to strengthen social entrepreneurship, as it may lead to policy changes and to the development of training programs and leadership development programs for social entrepreneurs. Simultaneously, research shows that as social entrepreneurs attempt to widen their impact and scale their efforts, external institutions will have a key role to play in their success.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The Capture of Rome () on 20 September 1870 was the final event of the unification of Italy ("Risorgimento"), marking both the final defeat of the Papal States under Pope Pius IX and the unification of the Italian Peninsula (except San Marino) under the Kingdom of Italy.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The capture of Rome by the Italian Army brought an end to the Papal States, which had existed since 756, and the temporal power of the Holy See, and led to the establishment of Rome as the capital of unified Italy. It is today widely commemorated throughout Italy, with the "Via XX Settembre" street name in a considerable number of localities.


title: Capture of Rome

text: During the Second Italian War of Independence, much of the Papal States had been conquered by the Kingdom of Sardinia under King Victor Emmanuel II, who became King of Italy upon the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861. The new state still had not incorporated Latium, the region around Rome, which remained part of Papal States, and Veneto, which was ruled by Austria as a crown land and would only be annexed in 1866, after the Third War of Independence.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The first Prime Minister of Italy, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, died soon after the proclamation of Italian national unity, leaving to his successors the solution of the knotty Venetian and Roman problems. Cavour had firmly believed that without Rome as the capital, Italy's unification would be incomplete. "To go to Rome", said his successor, Bettino Ricasoli, "is not merely a right; it is an inexorable necessity." In regard to the future relations between church and state, Cavour's famous dictum was, "A free Church in a free State"; by which he meant that the former should be entirely free to exercise her spiritual powers and leave politics entirely to the latter.


title: Capture of Rome

text: On 27 March 1861, the new Italian Parliament met in Turin and declared Rome the capital of Italy. However, the Italian government could not take its seat in Rome because it did not control the territory. Also, a French garrison was maintained in the city by Emperor Napoleon III in support of Pope Pius IX, who was determined not to hand over temporal power in the State of the Church.


title: Capture of Rome

text: In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began, and by early August, Napoleon III recalled his garrison from Rome. The French not only needed the troops to defend their homeland, but were concerned that Italy might use the French presence in Rome as a pretext to join the war against France. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Italy had allied with Prussia, and Italian public opinion favored the Prussian side at the start of the Franco-Prussian War. The removal of the French garrison allowed Italy to remain neutral and eased tensions between France and Italy.


title: Capture of Rome

text: It was only after the surrender of Napoleon and his army at the Battle of Sedan that the situation changed radically. The French Emperor was deposed and forced into exile. The best French units had been captured by the Prussians, who quickly followed up their success at Sedan by marching on Paris. Faced with a pressing need to defend its capital with its remaining forces, the provisional government of the new French Republic was clearly not in a military position to retaliate against Italy. In any case, the republican government was far less sympathetic to the Holy See than the Empire and did not possess the political will to protect the pope's position.


title: Capture of Rome

text: In July 1870, at the last moment of the papacy's rule over Rome, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility.


title: Capture of Rome

text: In early September 1870, King Victor Emmanuel II sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pope Pius IX offering a face-saving proposal that agreed to the peaceful entry of the Italian army into Rome, under the guise of protecting the pope. Along with this letter, Ponza carried a list of provisions by Italian Prime Minister Giovanni Lanza, setting out ten articles as the basis of an agreement between Italy and the Holy See.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The Pope would retain his sovereign inviolability and prerogatives. The Leonine City would remain "under the full jurisdiction and sovereignty of the Pontiff". The Italian state would guarantee the pope's freedom to communicate with the Catholic world, as well as diplomatic immunity both for papal nuncios and envoys in foreign lands and for foreign diplomats at the Holy See. The government would supply a permanent annual fund for the pope and the cardinals, equal to the amount currently assigned to them by the budget of the pontifical state, and would assume all papal civil servants and soldiers onto the state payroll, with full pensions as long as they were Italian.


title: Capture of Rome

text: Ponza then informed Lanza of the pope's refusal of the ultimatum. The next day, 11 September, Italian troops led by General Raffaele Cadorna crossed into the Papal States with the objective of taking Rome, occupying the port city of Civitavecchia on 16 September. The papal garrisons had retreated from Orvieto, Viterbo, Alatri, Frosinone and other strongholds in Latium. Under instructions from the Italian government, which still hoped to avoid seizing the capital by force, Cadorna sent a final appeal to the papal government later the same day for the peaceful surrender of Rome. In a letter addressed to General Hermann Kanzler, commander of the papal troops in Rome, he highlighted "the strength of the forces involved in the attack compared to those on the defense", and renewed the request that the papal army offered no resistance. Kanzler refused, responding to Cadorna that he and the Italian government would be responsible, "before God and before the tribunal of history", for any casualties that would result from an attack.


title: Capture of Rome

text: On 18 September, Minister of War Cesare Ricotti-Magnani gave Cadorna the order to attack Rome but informed that the Leonine City, which would be reserved for the pope, should be spared, while also advising moderation. The plan of attack was left entirely up to him. When the Italian army approached the Aurelian Walls that defended the city, the papal force, commanded by General Kanzler, was composed of the Swiss Guards and the Papal Zouaves—volunteers from France, Austria, the Netherlands, Spain, and other countries—for a total of 13,157 defenders against some 50,000 Italians. The American consul in Rome, Maitland Armstrong, described the civilian population as unwilling to defend the pope's rule, and only two hundred people in the whole city answered the papacy's call for volunteers.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The Italian army reached the Aurelian Walls on September 19 and placed Rome under siege. Pius IX decided that the surrender of the city would be granted only after his troops had put up enough resistance in order to make it plain that the Italian takeover was achieved through force and not freely accepted. At 5 a.m. on September 20, the Italian troops began firing cannons at the city walls. Cadorna commanded the major line of assault, while troops on the other side of the city, charged with creating a distraction, were led by General Nino Bixio. After a few hours the Italian army had breached the Aurelian Walls near Porta Pia, through where the troops flooded onto Rome. 49 Italian soldiers and 19 Papal soldiers died in the fighting. According to slightly different figures in a 2011 history of the Vatican military, the defence of Rome was far from bloodless, leaving 12 dead and 47 wounded amongst the Papal forces and 32 dead plus 145 wounded of the regular Italian troops.


title: Capture of Rome

text: By 6 a.m., one hour after the attack began, foreign envoys began to arrive at the Vatican to meet the pope, including the ambassadors of France, Austria-Hungary and Prussia. Pius, members of his entourage, and the diplomatic corps later gathered at his library, where, around 9 a.m., he received the news from Kanzler's chief of staff of the opening of the breach near Porta Pia. Shortly afterwards, the terms of the Act of Capitulation were presented by Cadorna and signed by Kanzler at Villa Albani, by which all of Rome, excluding the Leonine City, came under control of the Royal Italian Army. A white flag was hoisted from the dome of St. Peter's Basilica, and the defeated papal forces were escorted to St. Peter's Square by Italian troops.


title: Capture of Rome

text: As part of the terms of surrender, the Papal Army was disbanded and its foreign soldiers were immediately repatriated. The pope was allowed to retain the Swiss, Noble, and Palatine guard units. With most of the papal military demobilized, protests against Pius took place in the Leonine City the day after the attack.


title: Capture of Rome

text: In order to legitimize the city's annexation, Prime Minister Lanza scheduled a in Rome for 2 October 1870. Out of 167,548 eligible voters, an overwhelming majority of 133,681 voted in favor of union with Italy, with 1,507 votes against. On 9 October, a royal decree confirmed the incorporation of Rome and the surrounding region of Lazio into the Kingdom of Italy. Pius protested the plebiscite, denouncing instances of electoral violence employed to secure it. The pope issued the encyclical "Respicientes" on 1 November, in which he proclaimed a mass excommunication of the invaders.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The Italian government promised Pius sovereignty over the Leonine City and gave him assurances of his inviolability, but the pope still would not agree to give up his claims to a broader territory, and claimed that since his army had been disbanded, apart from a few guards, he was unable to ensure public order even in such a small area. On 13 May 1871, the Italian Parliament passed the Law of Guarantees, which granted the pope extensive prerogatives, such as independence on foreign affairs and an annual grant from the Italian government. While these measures satisfied the international community, including the Catholic countries, Pius refused to accept the law, proclaiming himself a "prisoner in the Vatican".


title: Capture of Rome

text: For nearly sixty years thereafter, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the Pope became known as the "Roman Question".


title: Capture of Rome

text: Negotiations for the settlement of the Roman Question began in 1926 between the government of Fascist Italy and the Holy See, and culminated in the Lateran Pacts, signed—the Treaty says—for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Benito Mussolini, Prime Minister and Head of Government, and for Pope Pius XI by Pietro Gasparri, Cardinal Secretary of State, on February 11, 1929. The agreements were signed in the Lateran Palace, from which they take their name. In the subsequent Lateran Treaty of 1929, the Holy See renounced its claims over most of the city of Rome in return for Italy's recognition of the Vatican City.


title: Capture of Rome

text: The Via Pia, the road departing from Porta Pia, was rechristened Via XX Settembre (September 20). Subsequently, in numerous Italian cities the name Venti Settembre was given to the main road leading to the local cathedral.


title: Religious conversion

text: Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliating with another. This might be from one to another denomination within the same religion, for example, from Baptist to Catholic Christianity or from Sunni Islam to Shi’a Islam. In some cases, religious conversion "marks a transformation of religious identity and is symbolized by special rituals".


title: Religious conversion

text: People convert to a different religion for various reasons, including active conversion by free choice due to a change in beliefs, secondary conversion, deathbed conversion, conversion for convenience, marital conversion, and forced conversion.


title: Religious conversion

text: Proselytism is the act of attempting to convert by persuasion another individual from a different religion or belief system. Apostate is a term used by members of a religion or denomination to refer to someone who has left that religion or denomination.


title: Religious conversion

text: In sharing their faith with others, Baháʼís are cautioned to "obtain a hearing" – meaning to make sure the person they are proposing to teach is open to hearing what they have to say. "Baháʼí pioneers", rather than attempting to supplant the cultural underpinnings of the people in their adopted communities, are encouraged to integrate into the society and apply Baháʼí principles in living and working with their neighbors.


title: Religious conversion

text: Baháʼís recognize the divine origins of all revealed religion, and believe that these religions occurred sequentially as part of a divine plan (see Progressive revelation), with each new revelation superseding and fulfilling that of its predecessors. Baháʼís regard their own faith as the most recent (but not the last), and believe its teachings – which are centered around the principle of the oneness of humanity – are most suited to meeting the needs of a global community.


title: Religious conversion

text: In most countries conversion is a simple matter of filling out a card stating a declaration of belief. This includes acknowledgement of Bahá'u'llah – the Founder of the Faith – as the Messenger of God for this age, awareness and acceptance of his teachings, and intention to be obedient to the institutions and laws he established.


title: Religious conversion

text: Conversion to the Baháʼí Faith carries with it an explicit belief in the common foundation of all revealed religion, a commitment to the unity of mankind, and active service to the community at large, especially in areas that will foster unity and concord. Since the Baháʼí Faith has no clergy, converts are encouraged to be active in all aspects of community life. Even a recent convert may be elected to serve on a local Spiritual Assembly – the guiding Baháʼí institution at the community level.


title: Religious conversion

text: Within Christianity conversion refers variously to three different phenomena: a person becoming Christian who was previously not Christian; a Christian moving from one Christian denomination to another; a particular spiritual development, sometimes called the "second conversion", or "the conversion of the baptised".


title: Religious conversion

text: Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person to some form of Christianity. Some Christian sects require full conversion for new members regardless of any history in other Christian sects, or from certain other sects. The exact requirements vary between different churches and denominations. Baptism is traditionally seen as a sacrament of admission to Christianity. Christian baptism has some parallels with Jewish immersion by "mikvah".


title: Religious conversion

text: In the New Testament, Jesus commanded his disciples in the Great Commission to "go and make disciples of all nations" . Evangelization – sharing the Gospel message or "Good News" in deed and word, is an expectation of Christians.


title: Religious conversion

text: Much of the theology of Latter Day Saint baptism was established during the early Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. According to this theology, baptism must be by immersion, for the remission of sins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. Mormon baptism does not purport to remit any sins other than personal ones, as adherents do not believe in original sin. Latter Day Saints baptisms also occur only after an "age of accountability" which is defined as the age of eight years. The theology thus rejects infant baptism.


title: Religious conversion

text: In addition, Latter Day Saint theology requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with priesthood authority. Because the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement operate under a lay priesthood, children raised in a Mormon family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend or family member who has achieved the office of priest, which is conferred upon worthy male members at least 16 years old in the LDS Church.


title: Religious conversion

text: Baptism is seen as symbolic both of Jesus' death, burial and resurrection and is also symbolic of the baptized individual putting off of the natural or sinful man and becoming spiritually reborn as a disciple of Jesus.


title: Religious conversion

text: Membership into a Latter Day Saint church is granted only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the church. Latter Day Saint churches do not recognize baptisms of other faiths as valid because they believe baptisms must be performed under the church's unique authority. Thus, all who come into one of the Latter Day Saint faiths as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith.


title: Religious conversion

text: When performing a Baptism, Latter Day Saints say the following prayer before performing the ordinance:


title: Religious conversion

text: Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a baptistry, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two members of the church witness the baptism to ensure that it is performed properly.


title: Religious conversion

text: Following baptism, Latter Day Saints receive the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands of a Melchizedek Priesthood holder.


title: Religious conversion

text: Latter Day Saints hold that one may be baptized after death through the vicarious act of a living individual, and holders of the Melchezidek Priesthood practice baptism for the dead as a missionary ritual. This doctrine answers the question of the righteous non-believer and the unevangelized by providing a post-mortem means of repentance and salvation.


title: Religious conversion

text: Converting to Islam requires one to declare the "shahādah", the Muslim profession of faith ("there is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah"). In the Islamic religion, it is believed that everyone is Muslim at birth. In Islam, circumcision is considered a "sunnah" custom and is never mentioned in the Quran. The majority of clerical opinions holds that circumcision is not required upon entering the Muslim faith.


title: Religious conversion

text: Conversion to Judaism is the religious conversion of non-Jews to become members of the Jewish religion and Jewish ethnoreligious community. The procedure and requirements for conversion depend on the sponsoring denomination. A conversion in accordance with the process of a denomination is not a guarantee of recognition by another denomination. A formal conversion is also sometimes undertaken by individuals whose Jewish ancestry is questioned, even if they were raised Jewish, but may not actually be considered Jews according to traditional Jewish law.


title: Religious conversion

text: As late as the 6th century, the Eastern Roman empire and Caliph Umar ibn Khattab were issuing decrees against conversion to Judaism, implying that this was still occurring.


title: Religious conversion

text: In some cases, a person may forgo a formal conversion to Judaism and adopt some or all beliefs and practices of Judaism. However, without a formal conversion, many highly observant Jews will reject a convert's Jewish status.


title: Religious conversion

text: There are no rituals or dogmas, nor any sort of procedures in conversion to Spiritism. The doctrine is first considered as science, then philosophy and lastly as a religion. Allan Kardec's codification of Spiritism occurred between the years 1857 and 1868. Currently there are 25 to 60 million people studying Spiritism in various countries, mainly in Brazil, through its essential books, which include "The Spirits Book", "The Book on Mediums", "The Gospel According to Spiritism", "Heaven and Hell" and "The Genesis According to Spiritism".


title: Religious conversion

text: The consensus in Spiritism is that God, the Great Creator, is above everything, including all human things such as rituals, dogmas, denominations or any other thing.


title: Religious conversion

text: Persons newly adhering to Buddhism traditionally "Taking Three Refuge" (express faith in the Three Jewels – Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha) before a monk, nun, or similar representative, with often the sangha, the community of practitioners, also in ritual attendance.


title: Religious conversion

text: Throughout the timeline of Buddhism, conversions of entire countries and regions to Buddhism were frequent, as Buddhism spread throughout Asia. For example, in the 11th century in Burma, king Anoratha converted his entire country to Theravada Buddhism. At the end of the 12th century, Jayavarman VII set the stage for conversion of the Khmer people to Theravada Buddhism. Mass conversions of areas and communities to Buddhism occur up to the present day, for example, in the Dalit Buddhist movement in India there have been organized mass conversions.


title: Religious conversion

text: Exceptions to encouraging conversion may occur in some Buddhist movements. In Tibetan Buddhism, for example, the current Dalai Lama discourages active attempts to win converts.


title: Religious conversion

text: Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, and atheism among others. Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no universally accepted governing body, no binding holy book nor any mandatory prayer attendance requirements. In its diffuse and open structure, numerous schools and sects of Hinduism have developed and spun off in India with help from its ascetic scholars, since the Vedic age. The six Astika and two Nastika schools of Hindu philosophy, in its history, did not develop a missionary or proselytization methodology, and they co-existed with each other. Most Hindu sub-schools and sects do not actively seek converts. Individuals have had a choice to enter, leave or change their god(s), spiritual convictions, accept or discard any rituals and practices, and pursue spiritual knowledge and liberation (moksha) in different ways. However, various schools of Hinduism do have some core common beliefs, such as the belief that all living beings have Atman (soul), a belief in karma theory, spirituality, ahimsa (non-violence) as the greatest dharma or virtue, and others.


title: Religious conversion

text: Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in Indonesia, Champa, Cambodia and Burma. Some sects of Hindus, particularly of the Bhakti schools began seeking or accepting converts in early to mid 20th century. For example, groups like the International Society for Krishna Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow their sects of Hinduism and have their own religious conversion procedure.


title: Religious conversion

text: Since 1800 CE, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject within Hinduism. Some have suggested that the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is contrary to the precepts of Hinduism. Religious leaders of some of Hinduism sects such as Brahmo Samaj have seen Hinduism as a non-missionary religion yet welcomed new members, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that with the arrival of missionary Islam and Christianity in India, the view that "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" must be re-examined.


title: Religious conversion

text: In recent decades, mainstream Hinduism schools have attempted to systematize ways to accept religious converts, with an increase in inter-religious mixed marriages. The steps involved in becoming a Hindu have variously included a period where the interested person gets an informal "ardha-Hindu" name and studies ancient literature on spiritual path and practices (English translations of Upanishads, Agama, Itihasa, ethics in Sutra, Hindu festivals, yoga). If after a period of study, the individual still wants to convert, a "Namakarana Samskara" ceremony is held, where the individual adopts a traditional Hindu name. The initiation ceremony may also include "Yajna" (i.e., fire ritual with Sanskrit hymns) under guidance of a local Hindu priest. Some of these places are "mathas" and "asramas" (hermitage, monastery), where one or more "gurus" (spiritual guide) conduct the conversion and offer spiritual discussions. Some schools encourage the new convert to learn and participate in community activities such as festivals (Diwali etc.), read and discuss ancient literature, learn and engage in rites of passages (ceremonies of birth, first feeding, first learning day, age of majority, wedding, cremation and others).


title: Religious conversion

text: Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the religion. There is no specific ritual for becoming a Jain. One does not need to ask any authorities for admission. One becomes a Jain on one's own by observing the five vows ("vratas") The five main vows as mentioned in the ancient Jain texts like Tattvarthasutra are:


title: Religious conversion

text: Following the five vows is the main requirement in Jainism. All other aspects such as visiting temples are secondary. Jain monks and nuns are required to observe these five vows strictly.


title: Religious conversion

text: Sikhism is not known to openly proselytize conversions, however it is open and accepting to anyone wanting to take on the Sikh faith.


title: Religious conversion

text: In the second half of the 20th century, the rapid growth of new religious movements (NRMs) led some psychologists and other scholars to propose that these groups were using "brainwashing" or "mind control" techniques to gain converts. This theory was publicized by the popular news media but disputed by other scholars, including some sociologists of religion.


title: Religious conversion

text: In the 1960s sociologist John Lofland lived with Unification Church missionary Young Oon Kim and a small group of American church members in California and studied their activities in trying to promote their beliefs and win converts to their church. Lofland noted that most of their efforts were ineffective and that most of the people who joined did so because of personal relationships – often family relationships – with existing members. Lofland summarised his findings in 1964 in a doctoral thesis entitled "The World Savers: A Field Study of Cult Processes", and in 1966 in book form (published by Prentice-Hall) as "". It is considered to be one of the most important and widely cited studies of the process of religious conversion, and one of the first modern sociological studies of a new religious movement.


title: Religious conversion

text: The Church of Scientology attempts to gain converts by offering "free stress tests". It has also used the celebrity status of some of its members (most notably that of the American actor Tom Cruise) to attract converts. The Church of Scientology requires that all converts sign a legal waiver which covers their relationship with the Church of Scientology before engaging in Scientology services.


title: Religious conversion

text: Research in the United States and in the Netherlands has shown a positive correlation between areas lacking mainstream churches and the percentage of people who are members of a new religious movement. This applies also for the presence of New Age centres.


title: Religious conversion

text: On the other end of the proselytising scale are religions that do not accept any converts, or do so very rarely. Often these are relatively small, close-knit minority religions that are ethnically based such as the Yazidis, Druze, and Mandaeans. The Parsis, a Zoroastrianism group based in India, classically does not accept converts, but this issue became controversial in the 20th century due to a rapid decline in membership. Chinese traditional religion lacks clear criteria for membership, and hence for conversion. However, Taoism does have its own religious conversion ceremony which seems to be adopted and modified from Chinese Buddhist refuge-taking ceremonies. The Shakers and some Indian eunuch brotherhoods do not allow procreation, so that every member is a convert.


title: Religious conversion

text: Different factors and circumstances may operate and interact to persuade individuals of groups to convert and adopt a new set of religious doctrines and habits.


title: Religious conversion

text: Religious enthusiasm for proselytism can play a role. For example, the New Testament chronicles the personal activities of the Apostles and their followers in inspired preaching, miracle-working and the subsequent gathering of followers. Freshly-converted Irish and Anglo-Saxon priests spread their new-found faith among pagan British and Germanic peoples. Missions of the 19th century spread against a background of North Atlantic revivalism with its emotionalism and mass-meeting crowd psychological behaviours.


title: Religious conversion

text: Messianism may prepare groups for the coming of a Messiah or of a saviour. Thus the 1st-century Levant, steeped in expectations of overturning the political situation, provided fertile ground for nascent Christianity and other Jewish messianic sects, such as the Zealots.


title: Religious conversion

text: Some religious traditions, rather than stressing emotion in the conversion process, emphasise the importance of philosophical thought as a pathway to adopting a new religion. Saint Paul in Athens fits here, as do some of the Indic religions (such as Buddhism – insofar as it ranks as a religion – and Jainism). The historical God-fearers may represent a philosophical bridge between Hellenism and Abrahamic faith.


title: Religious conversion

text: A religious creed which can capture the ear and support of secular power can become a prestige movement, encouraging the mass of a people to follow its tenets. Christianity grew after becoming the state religion in Armenia, in the Roman Empire, and in Ethiopia. Eastern Orthodoxy expanded when it gained official sanction in Kievan Rus'.


title: Religious conversion

text: Some people convert under the influence of other social conditions. Early Christianity attracted followers by offering community material support and enhanced status for disadvantaged groups such as women and slaves. Islam allegedly spread in North Africa through just administration, and in the Balkans by integrating new believers with improved tax conditions and social prestige. Colonial missions since the 19th century have attracted people to an implied nexus of material well-being, civilisation, and European-style religion.


title: Religious conversion

text: Force can – at least apparently – coerce people into adopting different ideas. Religious police in (for example) Iran and Saudi Arabia answer for the correct religious expression of those in their purview. The Inquisition in France and in Iberia worked to convert heretics – with varying success. Frankish armies spread Roman Catholicism eastwards in the Middle Ages. Religious wars and suppression shaped the histories of the Baltic tribes, the Hussites and the Huguenots.


title: Religious conversion

text: On the other hand, persecution can drive religious faith and practice underground and strengthen the resolve of oppressed adherents – as in the cases of the Waldenses or the Baháʼí Faith.


title: Religious conversion

text: The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines religious conversion as a human right: "Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief" (Article 18). Despite this UN-declared human right, some groups forbid or restrict religious conversion (see below).


title: Religious conversion

text: Based on the declaration the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) drafted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a legally binding treaty. It states that "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice" (Article 18.1). "No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice" (Article 18.2).


title: Religious conversion

text: The UNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in 1993: "The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, "including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another" or to adopt atheistic views ... Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief "or to convert"." (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, General Comment No. 22.; emphasis added)


title: Religious conversion

text: Some countries distinguish voluntary, motivated conversion from organized proselytism, attempting to restrict the latter. The boundary between them is not easily defined: what one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness-bearing, another may consider intrusive and improper. Illustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an article by Dr. C. Davis, published in Cleveland State University's "Journal of Law and Health": "According to the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Jews for Jesus and Hebrew Christians constitute two of the most dangerous cults, and its members are appropriate candidates for deprogramming. Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that 'aggressiveness and proselytizing ... are basic to authentic Christianity,' and that Jews for Jesus and Campus Crusade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Furthermore, certain Hassidic groups who physically attacked a meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers of Reverend Moon, by none other than the President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis."


title: Religious conversion

text: Since the collapse of the former Soviet Union the Russian Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it takes exception to what it considers illegitimate proselytizing by the Roman Catholic Church, the Salvation Army, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other religious movements in what it refers to as its "canonical territory".


title: Religious conversion

text: Greece has a long history of conflict, mostly with Jehovah's Witnesses, but also with some Pentecostals, over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a law passed in the 1930s by the dictator Ioannis Metaxas. A Jehovah's Witness, Minos Kokkinakis, won the equivalent of $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after being arrested for trying to preach his faith from door to door. In another case, "Larissis v. Greece", a member of the Pentecostal church also won a case in the European Court of Human Rights.


title: Radio Garden

text: Radio Garden is a non-profit Dutch radio and digital research project developed from 2013 to 2016, by the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision (under the supervision of Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg's Golo Föllmer), by the Transnational Radio Knowledge Platform and five other European universities. According to the service, the idea is to narrow the boundaries from the radio.


title: Radio Garden

text: It gained popularity in 2016 when it surpassed the 8,000 registered station mark and, as announced at The Radio Conference 2016: Transnational Encounters, went viral.


title: Radio Garden

text: The site interface is a three-dimensional geolocation, where the user navigates through a representation of the globe, listening to broadcasts of local radio stations, referring in some way to the technology of shortwave radios, long distances, but in this case the means of propagation of the radio edition is by data packets (streaming).


title: Radio Garden

text: The homepage, titled Live, allows the user to explore the world in real time, listening to what the local radios are broadcasting. To do this, it is just necessary to simply rotate the globe. It also provides information on the country where the signal is being transmitted.


title: Radio Garden

text: Within Radio Garden, radios are arranged by geolocation and grouped by cities. According to specialized websites, the design is formed by greenish spheres superimposed on the map, which increases in size as the region's number of broadcasters available.


title: Radio Garden

text: This idea was developed by the companies Studio Puckey and Studio Moniker in partnership with the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision.


title: Radio Garden

text: Radios are available at locations such as Aleppo, Havana, Sri Lanka, London, South Korea, in addition to New York, Lisbon, Kyiv etc.


title: Radio Garden

text: The site adopted the generic .garden Top-level domain, which was originally intended for gardening professionals and, as noted on specialized websites, the interface is all responsive and fits any browser and resolution.


title: Radio Garden

text: For transmission, the signal generated by the broadcaster must be converted from radio to streaming editing. The service requires an Internet connection to function. Supported conversion formats for streaming are MP3, Ogg and AAC.


title: Radio Garden

text: Radio Garden has been banned in Turkey since January 2022 upon the request of Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK). RTÜK, ordering Radio Garden to pay the license fee or to terminate their service in Turkey.


title: Radio Garden

text: In late September/early October 2022 Radio Garden limited UK listeners to UK only channels. The message "Stations outside the UK temporarily unavailable" can be seen at the bottom left of the screen. No official reason for this limitation appears to have been made yet (23/10/2022).


title: Quantum dot display

text: A quantum dot display is a display device that uses quantum dots (QD), semiconductor nanocrystals which can produce pure monochromatic red, green, and blue light.


title: Quantum dot display

text: "Photo-emissive" quantum dot particles are used in LCD backlights and/or display color filters. Quantum dots are excited by the blue light from the display panel to emit pure basic colors, which reduces light losses and color crosstalk in color filters, improving display brightness and color gamut. Light travels through QD layer film and traditional RGB filters made from color pigments, or through QD filters with red/green QD color converters and blue passthrough. Although the QD color filter technology is primarily used in LED-backlit LCDs, it is applicable to other display technologies which use color filters, such as blue/UV AMOLED/QNED/MicroLED display panels. LED-backlit LCDs are the main application of photo-emissive quantum dots, though blue OLED panels with QD color filters are being researched.


title: Quantum dot display

text: "Electro-emissive" or "electroluminiscent" quantum dot displays are an experimental type of display based on quantum-dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED; also EL-QLED, ELQD, QDEL). These displays are similar to active-matrix organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) and MicroLED displays, in that light would be produced directly in each pixel by applying electric current to inorganic nano-particles. Manufacturers asserted that QD-LED displays could support large, flexible displays and would not degrade as readily as OLEDs, making them good candidates for flat-panel TV screens, digital cameras, mobile phones and handheld game consoles.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Quantum dot displays are capable of displaying wider color gamuts, with some devices approaching full coverage of the BT.2020 color gamut. QD-OLED and QD-LED displays can achieve the same contrast as OLED/MicroLED displays with "perfect" black levels in the off state, unlike LED-backlit LCDs.


title: Quantum dot display

text: The idea of using quantum dots as a light source emerged in the 1990s. Early applications included imaging using QD infrared photodetectors, light emitting diodes and single-color light emitting devices. Starting in the early 2000s, scientists started to realize the potential of developing quantum dots for light sources and displays.


title: Quantum dot display

text: QDs are either "photo-emissive" (photoluminescent) or "electro-emissive" (electroluminescent) allowing them to be readily incorporated into new emissive display architectures. Quantum dots naturally produce monochromatic light, so they are more efficient than white light sources when color filtered and allow more saturated colors that reach nearly 100% of Rec. 2020 color gamut.


title: Quantum dot display

text: A widespread practical application is using quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF) layer to improve the LED backlighting in LCD TVs. Light from a blue LED backlight is converted by QDs to relatively pure red and green, so that this combination of blue, green and red light incurs less blue-green crosstalk and light absorption in the color filters after the LCD screen, thereby increasing useful light throughput and providing a better color gamut.


title: Quantum dot display

text: The first manufacturer shipping TVs of this kind was Sony in 2013 as "Triluminos", Sony's trademark for the technology. At the Consumer Electronics Show 2015, Samsung Electronics, LG Electronics, TCL Corporation and Sony showed QD-enhanced LED-backlighting of LCD TVs. At the CES 2017, Samsung rebranded their 'SUHD' TVs as 'QLED'; later in April 2017, Samsung formed the QLED Alliance with Hisense and TCL to produce and market QD-enhanced TVs.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Quantum dot on glass (QDOG) replaces QD film with a thin QD layer coated on top of the light-guide plate (LGP), reducing costs and improving efficiency.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Traditional white LED backlights that use blue LEDs with on-chip or on-rail red-green QD structures are being researched, though high operating temperatures negatively affect their lifespan.


title: Quantum dot display

text: QD color converter (QDCC) LED-backlit LCDs would use QD film or ink-printed QD layer with red/green sub-pixel patterned (i.e. aligned to precisely match the red and green subpixels) quantum dots to produce pure red/green light; blue subpixels can be transparent to pass through the pure blue LED backlight, or can be made with blue patterned quantum dots in case of UV-LED backlight. This configuration effectively replaces passive color filters, which incur substantial losses by filtering out 2/3 of passing light, with photo-emissive QD structures, improving power efficiency and/or peak brightness, and enhancing color purity. Because quantum dots depolarize the light, output polarizer (the analyzer) needs to be moved behind the color converter and embedded in-cell of the LCD glass; this would improve viewing angles as well. In-cell arrangement of the analyzer and/or the polarizer would also reduce depolarization effects in the LC layer, increasing contrast ratio. To reduce self-excitement of QD film and to improve efficiency, the ambient light can be blocked using traditional color filters, and reflective polarizers can direct light from the QDCC towards the viewer. As only blue or UV light passes through the liquid crystal layer, it can be made thinner, resulting in faster pixel response times.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Nanosys made presentations of their photo-emissive color converter technology during 2017; commercial products were expected by 2019, though in-cell polarizer remained a major challenge. As of December 2019, issues with in-cell polarizer remain unresolved and no LCDs with QD color converter appeared on the market since then.


title: Quantum dot display

text: QD color converters can be used with OLED or micro-LED panels, improving their efficiency and color gamut. QD-OLED panels with blue emitters and red-green color converters are researched by Samsung and TCL; as of May 2019, Samsung intends to start production in 2021. In October 2019, Samsung Display announced an investment of $10.8 billion in both research and production, with the aim to convert all their 8G panel factories to QD-OLED production during 2019–2025. Samsung Display presented 55" and 65" QD-OLED panels at CES 2022, with TVs from Samsung Electronics and Sony to be released later in 2022. QD-OLED displays show better color volume, covering 90% of Rec.2020 color gamut with peak brightness of 1500 nits, while current OLED and LCD TVs cover 70–75% of Rec.2020 (95–100% of DCI-P3).


title: Quantum dot display

text: A further development of QD-OLED displays is quantum dot nanorod emitting diode (QNED) display which replaces blue OLED layer with InGaN/GaN blue nanorod LEDs. Nanorods have a larger emitting surface compared to planar LED, allowing increased efficiency and higher light emission. Nanorod solution is ink-printed on the substrate, then subpixels are aligned in-place by electric current, and QD color convertors are placed on top of red/green subpixels. Samsung Display was expected to begin test production of QNED panels in 2021,


title: Quantum dot display

text: Self-emissive quantum dot displays will use electroluminescent QD nanoparticles functioning as Quantum-dot-based LEDs (QD-LEDs or QLEDs) arranged in either active matrix or passive matrix array. Rather than requiring a separate LED backlight for illumination and TFT LCD to control the brightness of color primaries, these QLED displays would natively control the light emitted by individual color subpixels, greatly reducing pixel response times by eliminating the liquid crystal layer. This technology has also been called true QLED display, and Electroluminescent quantum dots (ELQD, QDLE, QDEL, EL-QLED).


title: Quantum dot display

text: The structure of a QD-LED is similar to the basic design of an OLED. The major difference is that the light emitting devices are quantum dots, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanocrystals. A layer of quantum dots is sandwiched between layers of electron-transporting and hole-transporting organic materials. An applied electric field causes electrons and holes to move into the quantum dot layer, where they are captured in the quantum dot and recombine, emitting photons. The demonstrated color gamut from QD-LEDs exceeds the performance of both LCD and OLED display technologies.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Mass production of active-matrix QLED displays using ink-jet printing is expected to begin in 2020–2021. As cadmium-based materials cannot be used in lighting applications due to their environmental impact, InP (indium phosphide) ink-jet solutions are being researched by Nanosys, Nanoco, Nanophotonica, OSRAM OLED, Fraunhofer IAP, Merck, and Seoul National University, among others. As of 2019, InP based materials are still not yet ready for commercial production due to limited lifetime.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Performance of QDs is determined by the size and/or composition of the QD structures. Unlike simple atomic structures, a quantum dot structure has the unusual property that energy levels are strongly dependent on the structure's size. For example, CdSe quantum dot light emission can be tuned from red (5 nm diameter) to the violet region (1.5 nm dot). The physical reason for QD coloration is the quantum confinement effect and is directly related to their energy levels. The bandgap energy that determines the energy (and hence color) of the fluorescent light is inversely proportional to the square of the size of quantum dot. Larger QDs have more energy levels that are more closely spaced, allowing the QD to emit (or absorb) photons of lower energy (redder color). In other words, the emitted photon energy increases as the dot size decreases, because greater energy is required to confine the semiconductor excitation to a smaller volume.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Newer quantum dot structures employ indium instead of cadmium, as the latter is not exempted for use in lighting by the European Commission RoHS directive, and also because of cadmium's toxicity.


title: Quantum dot display

text: QD-LEDs are characterized by pure and saturated emission colors with narrow bandwidth, with FWHM (full width at half maximum) in the range of 20–40 nm. Their emission wavelength is easily tuned by changing the size of the quantum dots. Moreover, QD-LED offer high color purity and durability combined with the efficiency, flexibility, and low processing cost of comparable organic light-emitting devices. QD-LED structure can be tuned over the entire visible wavelength range from 460 nm (blue) to 650 nm (red) (the human eye can detect light from 380 to 750 nm). The emission wavelengths have been continuously extended to UV and NIR range by tailoring the chemical composition of the QDs and device structure.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Quantum dots are solution processable and suitable for wet processing techniques. The two major fabrication techniques for QD-LED are called phase separation and contact-printing.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Phase separation is suitable for forming large-area ordered QD monolayers. A single QD layer is formed by spin casting a mixed solution of QD and an organic semiconductor such as TPD (N,N′-Bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-diphenylbenzidine). This process simultaneously yields QD monolayers self-assembled into hexagonally close-packed arrays and places this monolayer on top of a co-deposited contact. During solvent drying, the QDs phase separate from the organic under-layer material (TPD) and rise towards the film's surface. The resulting QD structure is affected by many parameters: solution concentration, solvent ration, QD size distribution and QD aspect ratio. Also important is QD solution and organic solvent purity.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Although phase separation is relatively simple, it is not suitable for display device applications. Since spin-casting does not allow lateral patterning of different sized QDs (RGB), phase separation cannot create a multi-color QD-LED. Moreover, it is not ideal to have an organic under-layer material for a QD-LED; an organic under-layer must be homogeneous, a constraint which limits the number of applicable device designs.


title: Quantum dot display

text: The contact printing process for forming QD thin films is a solvent-free water-based suspension method, which is simple and cost efficient with high throughput. During the process, the device structure is not exposed to solvents. Since charge transport layers in QD-LED structures are solvent-sensitive organic thin films, avoiding solvent during the process is a major benefit. This method can produce RGB patterned electroluminescent structures with 1000 ppi (pixels-per-inch) resolution.


title: Quantum dot display

text: The array of quantum dots is manufactured by self-assembly in a process known as spin casting: a solution of quantum dots in an organic material is poured onto a substrate, which is then set spinning to spread the solution evenly.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Contact printing allows fabrication of multi-color QD-LEDs. A QD-LED was fabricated with an emissive layer consisting of 25-µm wide stripes of red, green and blue QD monolayers. Contact printing methods also minimize the amount of QD required, reducing costs.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Nanocrystal displays would render as much as a 30% increase in the visible spectrum, while using 30 to 50% less power than LCDs, in large part because nanocrystal displays wouldn't need backlighting. QD LEDs are 50–100 times brighter than CRT and LC displays, emitting 40,000 nits (cd/m). QDs are dispersable in both aqueous and non-aqueous solvents, which provides for printable and flexible displays of all sizes, including large area TVs. QDs can be inorganic, offering the potential for improved lifetimes compared to OLED (however, since many parts of QD-LED are often made of organic materials, further development is required to improve the functional lifetime.) In addition to OLED displays, pick-and-place microLED displays are emerging as competing technologies to nanocrystal displays. Samsung has developed a method for making self-emissive quantum dot diodes with a lifetime of 1 million hours.


title: Quantum dot display

text: Other advantages include better saturated green colors, manufacturability on polymers, thinner display and the use of the same material to generate different colors.


title: Quantum dot display

text: One disadvantage is that blue quantum dots require highly precise timing control during the reaction, because blue quantum dots are just slightly above the minimum size. Since sunlight contains roughly equal luminosities of red, green and blue across the entire spectrum, a display also needs to produce roughly equal luminosities of red, green and blue to achieve pure white as defined by CIE Standard Illuminant D65. However, the blue component in the display can have relatively lower color purity and/or precision (dynamic range) in comparison to green and red, because the human eye is three to five times less sensitive to blue in daylight conditions according to CIE luminosity function.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts often used in the sciences and statistics relating to the uniformity of a substance or organism. A material or image that is homogeneous is uniform in composition or character (i.e. color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: The words "homogeneous" and "heterogeneous" come from Medieval Latin "homogeneus" and "heterogeneus", from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής ("homogenēs") and ἑτερογενής ("heterogenēs"), from ὁμός ("homos", “same”) and ἕτερος ("heteros", “other, another, different”) respectively, followed by γένος ("genos", “kind”); -ous is an adjectival suffix.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: Alternate spellings omitting the last "-e-" (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by "homologous". But use of "homogenous" to mean "homogeneous" has seen a rise since 2000 sufficient enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living organisms all share both a common or unique set of complexities.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: Hence, an element may be homogeneous on a larger scale, compared to being heterogeneous on a smaller scale. This is known as an effective medium approximation.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In chemistry, a heterogeneous mixture consists of either or both of 1) multiple states of matter or 2) hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances in one mixture; an example of the latter would be a mixture of water, octane, and silicone grease. Heterogeneous solids, liquids, and gases may be made homogeneous by melting, stirring, or by allowing time to pass for diffusion to distribute the molecules evenly. For example, adding dye to water will create a heterogeneous solution at first, but will become homogeneous over time. Entropy allows for heterogeneous substances to become homogeneous over time.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more compounds. Examples are: mixtures of sand and water or sand and iron filings, a conglomerate rock, water and oil, a salad, trail mix, and concrete (not cement). A mixture can be determined to be homogeneous when everything is settled and equal, and the liquid, gas, the object is one color or the same form. Various models have been proposed to model the concentrations in different phases. The phenomena to be considered are mass rates and reaction.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: Homogeneous reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants and products are in the same phase, while heterogeneous reactions have reactants in two or more phases. Reactions that take place on the surface of a catalyst of a different phase are also heterogeneous. A reaction between two gases or two miscible liquids is homogeneous. A reaction between a gas and a liquid, a gas and a solid or a liquid and a solid is heterogeneous.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: Earth is a heterogeneous substance in many aspects; for instance, rocks (geology) are inherently heterogeneous, usually occurring at the micro-scale and mini-scale.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: With information technology, heterogeneous computing occurs in a network comprising different types of computers, potentially with vastly differing memory sizes, processing power and even basic underlying architecture.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In the study of binary relations, a homogeneous relation "R" is on a single set ("R" ⊆ "X" × "X") while a heterogeneous relation concerns possibly distinct sets ("R" ⊆ "X" × "Y",  "X" = "Y" or "X" ≠ "Y").


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In statistical meta-analysis, study heterogeneity is when multiple studies on an effect are measuring somewhat different effects due to differences in subject population, intervention, choice of analysis, experimental design, etc.; this can cause problems in attempts to summarize the meaning of the studies.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In medicine and genetics, a genetic or allelic heterogeneous condition is one where the same disease or condition can be caused, or contributed to, by several factors, or in genetic terms, by varying or different genes or alleles.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In cancer research, cancer cell heterogeneity is thought to be one of the underlying reasons that make treatment of cancer difficult.


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In physics, "heterogeneous" is understood to mean "having physical properties that vary within the medium".


title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity

text: In sociology, "heterogeneous" may refer to a society or group that includes individuals of differing ethnicities, cultural backgrounds, sexes, or ages. Diverse is the more common synonym in the context.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Wadiyar dynasty (formerly spelt Wodeyer or Odeyer, also referred to as the Wadiyars of Mysore), is a late-medieval/early-modern South Indian Hindu royal family of former kings of Mysore from the Urs clan originally based in Mysore city.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: As Maharajas of Mysore, the Wadiyars ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from the late 1300s until 1950. Members of the Wadiyar dynasty and the Urs clan have also been royal advisers as Diwans to their reigning siblings, cousins, nephews, or distant relatives. Some members have also commanded army divisions as "dalvoys" (commander-in-chief) for their reigning monarch.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: During the late 14th century, the family was originally "poleygars" (Kannada for garrison) defending the regions in and around Mysore town for the Vijayanagara Empire, their feudal overlords. With the fall and decline of the empire in the 17th century, the Wadiyars declared independence when Raja Wadiyar seized the nearby town of Srirangapattana, the seat of Tirumala, Sriranga II's viceroy, in 1610. Between 1766 and 1799, when Hyder Ali and Tipu dictated the kingdom, the Wadiyar rulers as maharajas were largely nominal without any actual powers. After Tipu's execution in 1799, the British Crown which was ruling India at that time restored the kingdom back to the Wadiyars under a subsidiary alliance. After India's independence from the Crown, the ruling Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wadiyar ceded the kingdom into the newly formed Dominion of India.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: In Kannada, the common noun "odeyaru" (ಒಡೆಯರು; anglicised "wodeyar" or "wadiyar") is the plural form of the singular "odeya" (ಒಡೆಯ) which means "lord" or "lordship". The first poleygar and raja of Mysore, Yaduraya, assumed the term as his titular proper noun.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: In Kannada, the common noun "arasa" (ಅರಸ; anglicised "urs" or "ursu"; anglicised plural "ursus") means "ruler" or "king". Members of the Wadiyar dynasty hail from the Urs clan; upon incarnation or by heredity, they assume the title "Wadiyar" and their immediate family therewith, the latest instance of its happening with the present head of the Wadiyar family Yaduveer Wadiyar upon coronation in 2015.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Wadiyars trace their ancestry to Lord Krishna. Legend has it that they arrived from Dvārakā. However, historians like P. V. Nanjaraj Urs, Shyam Prasad, Nobuhiro Ota, David Leeming, and Aya Ikegame instead suggest that the Wadiyars were local feudal lords who adopted puranic legend to claim themselves as direct descendants of the legendary Lunar Dynasty.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Wadiyar dynasty started when Yaduraya, a garrison leader ("poleygar"), was made the prefect of Mysore and the surrounding regions his overlord Harihara II of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1399. With this, Yaduraya assumed the title Raja and the honorary surname Wadiyar. He and his successors ruled the fiefdom of Mysore as rajas under the vassalage of the Vijayanagara Empire until around 1553.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Vijayanagara Empire disintegrated in 1565. With the fall of the empire, Mysore became an independent kingdom, the first independent king being Timmaraja Wodeyar II, the great-great-great-grandson of the founding ruler Yaduraya. Thimmaraja's nephew Raja Wodeyar I expanded the borders of the kingdom. In 1610, he moved the capital from Mysore to nearby island town of Srirangapattana on the river Kaveri, which provided strategic protection against military attacks. Raja Wadiya's cousin and successor down the line Kanthirava Narasaraja I expanded the frontiers of the kingdom to Trichy in present-day Tamil Nadu. The kingdom reached its peak under Kanthirava's grand-nephew Devaraja Wodeyar II, who reformed the administration of the kingdom by dividing it into 18 departments (called "chavadis"); he also introduced a coherent system of taxation.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: From 1760 to 1799, the rule of the Wadiyar dynasty was essentially nominal, with real power firmly in the hands of the Commander-in-chief and later self-proclaimed sultan, Hyder Ali, and his son and successor Tipu. The two, ruling the sultanate from Srirangapattana, expanded the kingdom aggressively.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: After Tipu's execution at the end of the Battle of Srirangapattana during the Third Anglo-Mysore War led by Duke Arthur Wellesley in 1799, the Crown restored the Kingdom to Wadiyars under a subsidiary alliance requiring an annual pay as subsidy to the Crown. The capital was moved back to Mysore. The four-year-old boy Krishnaraja Wadiyar III, son of the last Wadiyar king, Chamaraja Wadiyar VIII, was anointed as the Maharaja of Mysore.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: In 1831, on a specious plea of non-payment by Krishnaraja Wadiyar III, the kingdom was placed under a British commission that lasted from 1831 to 1881. Mark Cubbon and L. B. Bowring are among the well-known commissioners of the period.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: In 1868, upon Krishnaraja Wadiyar III's demise, his five-year-old adopted son Chamaraja Wadiyar IX became the heir to the throne. When in 1881 he attained the age of majority, through an act of parliament, the British Parliament once again transferred power back to the Wadiyars. The maharaja changed the English spelling of their royal name from Wodeyar to Wadiyar and assumed the title "Bahadur". He established the Mysore Representative Assembly; for the first time in India, democratic experiments were being conducted in Mysore.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Chamaraja Wadiyar IX's son and successor Maharaja Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV earned great fame as a saintly king ("rajarishi"), and his kingdom was hailed as "Ramarajya" by Mahatma Gandhi–as an ideal kingdom comparable to the one ruled by the Lord Rama.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV's nephew, successor, and the last reigning king of the Wadiyar dynasty, Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar, ruled from 1940 until 1950. Upon India's independence from the British crown in 1947, Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar ceded his kingdom into the new temporary Dominion of India but continued as Maharajah until India became a Republic in 1950.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar became the rajapramukh of the renamed Mysore State from 1950 to 1956. After the reorganisation of Indian states on a linguistic basis in 1956, he was appointed Governor of the integrated Mysore State (present Karnataka State), a post which he held until 1964. He was then appointed Governor of Madras (now Tamil Nadu) for two years.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Indian Constitution continued to recognise him as the Maharajah of Mysore until 1971, when titles and privy purses of maharajas were abolished by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi. The maharajah died in 1974.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: His only son Srikantadatta Narasimharaja Wadiyar became the head of the family; he was a member of the Indian Parliament.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Upon Srikantadatta Wadiyar's demise 2013, his widowed wife Devi Pramoda Wadiyar adopted Yaduveer Wadiyar, who was anointed as the maharaja of Mysore and the head of the family in 2015.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Mysore Palace has been the official residence of the Wadiyars for most of the family's recorded history. Briefly, Srirangapattana was also the seat of the Wadiyars. By the early 1900s, Bangalore had seen significant infrastructural development and had become a secondary residence for the Wadiyars at the Bangalore Palace.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: With a declining Vijayanagara Empire, in 1610 Raja Wadiyar conquered the fort of Srirangapattana from Tirumala, the Vijayanagara viceroy stationed there. Tirumala is said to have retired to the nearby town of Talakadu with his two wives. At about the same time, Tirumala suffered from a terminal disease; his condition deteriorated and he eventually died.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: One of his wives was Alamelamma, a staunch devotee of Ranganayaki, the consort of Lord Ranganatha, the presiding deity of the famous Adi-Ranga temple in the island fortress of Srirangapatna. Alamelamma had a large amount of jewellery, including a fine nose ring studded with a large pearl. As a widow, customs forbade jewellery on her. She frequently lent the jewels to the temple of Ranganayaki. Every Tuesdays and Fridays, Ranaganayaki's idol would be decorated with the jewellery, returned to Alamelamma's safe custody for rest of the week.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: On one instance, the temple requested the king's soldiers to fetch the jewels from Alamelamma as has become a practice. An approaching king's emissaries, headed by Chief Courtier Ramanath Molahalli, seems to have scared her off. To escape an ill-presumed imminent wrath of the king, she ran over to a cliff overlooking the Kaveri river into the whirlpool and cursed before plunging to her own death, "may Talakadu become a barren expanse of land, Malangi turn into a whirlpool, and may kings of Mysore never beget children to all eternity" (Kannada: ತಲಕಾಡು ಮರಳಾಗಲಿ, ಮಾಲಂಗಿ ಮಡುವಾಗಲಿ, ಮೈಸೂರು ದೊರೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಮಕ್ಕಳಿಲ್ಲದೆ ಹೋಗಲಿ; transliteration: talakāḍu maral̤āgali, mālaṃgi maḍuvāgali, maisūru dŏrĕgal̤igĕ makkal̤illadĕ hogali).


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Learning of this accident, the king felt repentant and had an idol of Alamelamma made in gold, installed it in the palace, and worshipped it as a deity. To this day, the idol can be found in Mysore Palace. The king's only surviving son, Narasaraja Wadiyar, died (believed to be an effect of the curse in folklore).


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Dasara festivities inside the palace end on the evening of Navarathri with a formal pooja to Alamelamma. Another interesting part of the story is that the Alamelamma temple is under the care of her legal heirs. Strangely, these priests/caretakers appear to be cursed by the same curse, following the same pattern afflicting the Wadiyars.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: Talakadu and Malangi are two small towns near Tirumakudalu Narasipura on the banks of the Kaveri where the river takes a bend. To date, most parts of Talakadu lie under sand, and the village of Malangi is slowly eroding due to whirlpools. Talakadu's temples lie buried in a vast expanse of sand and are dug up and exposed every 12 years. At Malangi, on the other hand, the river is at its deepest. Whether these phenomena appeared only after Alamelamma's curse in 1610 is a matter of conjecture.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: From Raja Wadiyar's death in 1617 to that of Maharaja Devaraja Wodeyar II in 1704 (there were four rulers in between), the kingdom was ruled by the surviving descendants of Raja Yaduraya, but none could beget an heir. The sole exception to the curse was Devaraja Wodeyar II's deaf and mute son Maharaja Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II. He was succeeded by his son Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar I, who ruled from 1714 to 1732. With him, Yaduraya’s direct lineage came to an end. Since the incident, a reigning Mysore king never had a child and has since adopted his nephew, cousin, or a relative.


title: Wadiyar dynasty

text: The Wadiyars were patrons of fine arts, fostering a number of famous musicians, writers and painters. Their contributions to music and literature has rendered the city of Mysore a cultural centre of Karnataka.


title: Histidine

text: Histidine (symbol His or H) is an essential amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated –NH form under biological conditions), a carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated –COO form under biological conditions), and an imidazole side chain (which is partially protonated), classifying it as a positively charged amino acid at physiological pH. Initially thought essential only for infants, it has now been shown in longer-term studies to be essential for adults also. It is encoded by the codons CAU and CAC.


title: Histidine

text: Histidine was first isolated by Albrecht Kossel and Sven Gustaf Hedin in 1896. It is also a precursor to histamine, a vital inflammatory agent in immune responses. The acyl radical is histidyl.