title: Rye, New York

text: As of 2010, seventy-five percent of the acreage in Rye or the equivalent of 3,954 acres had been determined to be archaeologically sensitive with many Indigenous and First Nations contact sites. At least two villages have been determined to have existed, one on Manursing Island and the other on today's Milton Point.


title: Rye, New York

text: The presence of Indigenous people's activities has been noted in numerous locations where implements and bones were unearthed, including an "ancient Indian burial ground, site of the present Playland Casino" together with discoveries of artifacts along the shoreline, pottery, skeletons and relics along Milton Road, Disbrow Park and throughout today's Boston Post Road Historic District including Marshlands Conservancy.


title: Rye, New York

text: The presence of Indigenous people in Rye was more recently documented in a 2012 Phase IA archaeological investigation commissioned by Westchester County in connection with the construction of a bike path along the Playland Parkway in Rye. Within just one mile of the project site, the report noted a dozen archeologically sensitive areas. The publication included supporting data from files in the repositories of NYOPRHP and the NY State Museum; it further highlighted the existence of shell middens, evidence of camp sites and at least two burial grounds. One of these documented sites included the Blind Brook. Additional findings have been made at the Jay Estate in archaeological digs conducted by Dr. Eugene Boesch and submitted to the NY State Cultural Resource Information System (CRIS).


title: Rye, New York

text: As of the 2020 United States Census, there were 16,592 people living in the city. This is representative of approximately 5491 households. 74.8% have a college degree. 15.5% were over the age of 65 and 51.7% were women. 88.2% identified themselves as White alone. 1.3% identified as Black or African American alone. 6.7% identified as Hispanic or Latino. 5.6% identified as Asian alone.


title: Rye, New York

text: According to a 2018 "USA Today" article, Rye is ranked 30th among America's wealthiest towns based on the following data: the median household income was $162,394; the median house value was $1,107,000.


title: Rye, New York

text: Of the more than 2600 National Historic Landmark (NHL) sites in the country, Rye has two: the Boston Post Road Historic District and Playland Amusement Park


title: Rye, New York

text: Includes 5 historically significant parcels; much of the land was originally the ancestral home of American Founding Father John Jay. It is where he grew up and where he is buried.


title: Rye, New York

text: This 279-acre theme park is owned and operated by Westchester County and includes rides, games, an indoor skating rink or Ice Casino, beach, a boardwalk, and concession stands. It is one of only two amusement parks in the country with National Historic Landmark status, the other one being Kennywood in Pennsylvania. It has been a popular destination since it first opened in 1928. Its wooden roller coaster, the Dragon Coaster, built in 1929, is one of the last roller coaster rides built by engineer Frederick Church that is still operating. The Derby Racer, also built by Church, is one of only three rides of its kind remaining in the world. Glenn Close's and Ellen Latzen's characters ride the roller coaster in the 1980s thriller film, "Fatal Attraction". Airplane Coaster, Church's most acclaimed coaster, was removed in 1957. Playland is also the setting for several key scenes in the 1988 comedy film "Big", starring Tom Hanks


title: Rye, New York

text: Of the more than 88,000 sites in the country that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), Rye has 8.


title: Rye, New York

text: Of note are two 200 plus year old milestones labeled 24 and 25 on the Boston Post Road, oldest thoroughfare in the United States. The concept of mile markers to measure the distance from New York City was originated in 1763 by Benjamin Franklin during his term as Postmaster General. These sandstone markers likely date from 1802 when the Westchester Turnpike was configured.


title: Rye, New York

text: Rye is also home to a rare 1938 WPA mural by realist Guy Pene du Bois which is located within the city's Post Office lobby and titled "John Jay at His Home."


title: Rye, New York

text: Rye is home to two of the 14 sites on the African American Heritage Trail of Westchester County- The Rye African-American Cemetery and the Jay Estate.


title: Rye, New York

text: Rye has over 454 acres of green open space with multiple types of usage from active to passive recreation including walking, hiking, bird-watching and dog walking. It is also a significant coastal community. In 1991, the City of Rye authored a Local Waterfront Revitalization Program (LWRP) to provide clear guidance for addressing future water conservation and preservation issues


title: Rye, New York

text: Rye has numerous private country clubs, many of which were formed in the late 19th and early 20th century. The combined acreage of these clubs affords members and guests over 993 acres of recreation.


title: Rye, New York

text: Access to recreation in Rye is plentiful with numerous public, private and shared sports facilities from tennis, to ice hockey to boating.


title: Rye, New York

text: The Greenhaven and The Preserve at Rye neighborhoods of the City of Rye are served by the Rye Neck School District. Rye Neck High School and Middle School are on one campus also located partially in the City of Rye.


title: Rye, New York

text: Rye High School has been named a Gold Medal school and the 61st-best high school in the U.S., ninth-best in New York state, and best in New York state if test-in schools are disregarded, according to "U.S. News & World Report"s 2013 "Best High Schools". The annual Rye-Harrison football game has been played for more than 80 years and is a top high school football rivalry in Westchester County.


title: Rye, New York

text: Rye schools were recently ranked #18 in New York State with "A" ratings in all aspects except diversity.


title: Rye, New York

text: The Rye train station provides commuter rail service to Grand Central Terminal in New York City or Stamford and New Haven-Union Station via the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line. The Bee-Line Bus System provides bus service to Rye on routes 13 and 61 with additional seasonal service to Rye Playland on routes 75 and 91.


title: Rye, New York

text: The City of Rye police department has 36 sworn-in officers police officers and about six auxiliary police officers. They operate a fleet of Ford Crown Victorias, Chevrolet Tahoes, and one military-surplus truck used for emergency services. There is also one Toyota Prius for parking enforcement. The Rye Auxiliary Police is an all-volunteer force that provides assistance when needed. The Westchester County Police also patrols several areas of Rye, such as Playland Park, and The Marshlands. New York State Police patrols Interstate 95 and 287 while the MTA Police patrols the Rye Train station and property within the Metro North right-of-way.


title: Rye, New York

text: The City of Rye Fire Department is a combination department consisting of 100 volunteer firefighters (only 20 active) and 21 career firefighters of which 4–5 are on duty at all times. The department has two fire stations and man three engines, two ladders, two utility units, and two command vehicles. The Rye Fire Department responds to approximately 1,000 emergency calls annually and does not respond to medical calls.


title: Rye, New York

text: Emergency medical service is provided by Port Chester-Rye-Rye Brook EMS at the Advanced Life Support Level (ALS). They are a combination agency with 50 members (30 paid EMTs, 15 paramedics and five volunteers). They operate up to five ALS ambulances and three paramedic flycars from their station in Port Chester and responds to over 5,000 calls a year between Port Chester, Rye and Rye Brook.


title: Articles of association

text: In corporate governance, a company's articles of association (AoA, called articles of incorporation in some jurisdictions) is a document which, along with the memorandum of association (in cases where it exists) form the company's constitution, and defines the responsibilities of the directors, the kind of business to be undertaken, and the means by which the shareholders exert control over the board of directors.


title: Articles of association

text: Articles of association are very critical documents to corporate operations, as they may regulate both internal and external affairs.


title: Articles of association

text: Articles of incorporation, also referred to as the certificate of incorporation or the corporate charter, is a document or charter that establishes the existence of a corporation in the United States and Canada. They generally are filed with the Secretary of State in the U.S. State where the company is incorporated, or other company registrar. An equivalent term for limited liability companies (LLCs) in the United States is articles of organization.


title: Articles of association

text: The articles can cover a medley of topics, not all of which is required in a country's law. Although all terms are not discussed, they may cover:


title: Articles of association

text: A company is run by the directors, who are appointed by the shareholders. Usually, the shareholders elect a board of directors (BOD) at the annual general meeting (AGM), which may be statutory (e.g. India and the UK).


title: Articles of association

text: The number of directors depends on the size of the company and statutory requirements. The chairperson is generally a well-known outsider but they may be a working executive of the company, typically of an American company. The directors may, or may not, be employees of the company.


title: Articles of association

text: In present countries there are usually a few major shareholders who come together to form the company. Each usually holds the right to nominate, without objection of the other, a certain number of Directors who become nominees for the election by the shareholder body at the AGM. Shareholders may also elect Independent Directors (from the public). The Chair would be a person not associated with the promoters of the company, a person is generally a well-known outsider. Once elected, the BOD manages the company. The shareholders play no part till the next AGM/EGM.


title: Articles of association

text: The Objectives and the purpose of the company are determined in advance by the shareholders and the Memorandum of Association (MOA), if separate, which denotes the name of the company, its Head- Office, street address, and (founding) Directors and the main purposes of the company for public access. It cannot be changed except at an AGM or Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM) and statutory allowance. The MOA is generally filed with a Registrar of Companies who is an appointee of the Government of the country. For their assurance, the shareholders are permit of the Memorandum of Association. Any matter in the Articles of Association not within the scope of the Memorandum of Association of the company is void.


title: Articles of association

text: The Board meets several times each year. At each meeting there is an 'agenda' before it. A minimum number of Directors (a quorum) is required to meet. This is either determined by the by-laws or is a statutory requirement. It is presided over by the Chairperson, or in their absence, by the Vice-Chair. The Directors survey their area of responsibility. They may determine to make a 'Resolution' at the next AGM or if it is an urgent matter, at an EGM. The Directors who are the electives of one major shareholder, may present their view but this is not necessarily so - they may have to view the Objectives of the company and competitive position. The Chair may have to break the vote if there is a tie. At the AGM, the various Resolutions are put to vote.


title: Articles of association

text: The AGM is called with a notice sent to all shareholders with a clear interval. A certain quorum of shareholders is required to meet. If the quorum requirement is not met, it is cancelled and another Meeting called. If it at that too a quorum is not met, a Third Meeting may be called and the members present, unlimited by the quorum, take all decisions. There are variations to this among companies and countries.


title: Articles of association

text: Decisions are taken by a show of hands; the Chair is always present. Where decisions are made by a show of hands is challenged, it is met by a count of votes. Voting can be taken in person or by marking the paper sent by the company. A person who is not a shareholder of the company can vote if they has the 'proxy', an authorization from the shareholder. Each share carries the number of votes attached to it. Some votes maybe for the decision, others not.


title: Articles of association

text: A Special Resolution can be tabled at a Director's Meeting. The Ordinary Resolution requires the endorsement by a majority vote, sometimes easily met by partners' vote. The Special Resolution requires a 60, 70 or 80% of the vote as stipulated by the constitution of the company. Shareholders other than partners may vote. The matters which require the Ordinary and Special Resolution to be passed are enumerated in company or Corporate Law. Special Resolutions covering some topics may be a statutory requirement.


title: Articles of association

text: The articles of association of a company, or articles of incorporation, of an American or Canadian company, are often simply referred to as articles (and are often capitalized as an abbreviation for the full term). The Articles are a requirement for the establishment of a company under the law of India, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, Pakistan and many other countries. In 1955, Together with the memorandum of association, they are the constitution of a company. The equivalent term for an LLC is articles of organization. Roughly equivalent terms operate in other countries, such as "Gesellschaftsvertrag" in Germany, "statuts" in France, "statut" in Poland, "" (Romanization: ) in Ukraine, and "Jeong-gwan" in South Korea.


title: Articles of association

text: In South Africa, from the new Companies Act 2008 which commenced in 2011, articles and memoranda of association have been replaced by a "memorandum of incorporation" or "MoI". The MoI gives considerably more scope to vary how to the company is governed than the previous arrangement.


title: Articles of association

text: Articles of Incorporation are appended to a Certificate of Incorporation and become the legal document that governs the corporation. In Canada, the process of incorporation can be done either at the federal or provincial level. Companies which incorporate with the federal government will generally need to register extra-provincially in the province that they elect to do business. Similarly, a provincial corporation may need to register extra-provincially if they are to have offices outside of their home province. Incorporated Canadian companies can generally use either Corp., Corporation, Inc., Incorporated, Incorporée, Limited, Limitée, Ltd., Ltée, Société par actions de régime fédéral, S.A.R.F, in their name, but this may vary from province to province.


title: Articles of association

text: In the United Kingdom, model articles of association, known as Table A have been published since 1865. The articles of association of most companies incorporated prior to 1 October 2009 – particularly small companies – are Table A, or closely derived from it. However, a company is free to incorporate under different articles of association, or to amend its articles of association at any time by a special resolution of its shareholders, provided that they meet the requirements and restrictions of the Companies Acts. Such requirements tend to be more onerous for public companies than for private ones. In Hong Kong, the Companies Registry provides four samples of model Articles of Association, and they are known as Sample A, B, C, and D respectively. Sample A and B are both designed for a private company (the most common company type), Sample C for a public company, and Sample D for a company limited by guarantee.


title: Articles of association

text: The Companies Act 2006 received Royal Assent on 8 November 2006 and was fully implemented on 1 October 2009. It provides a new form of Model Articles for companies incorporated in the United Kingdom. Under the new legislation, the articles of association will become the single constitutional document for a UK company, and will subsume the majority of the role previously filled by the separate memorandum of association.


title: Articles of association

text: After fighting the American Revolution with Great Britain, the founders of the United States had a healthy fear of corporations after being exploited for years by those in England. As a result, they limited the role of corporations by only granting select corporate charters, mainly to those that were beneficial to society as a whole. For the better part of the first one hundred years of United States history, the power of corporations was severely limited as owners could not own any stock or property, make financial donations to a political party, and legislators could dissolve a corporation at any time relatively easily. Corporations did not have the same corporate veil of protection that are enjoyed today.


title: Articles of association

text: The shift towards corporations gaining more power and control happened as the United States progressed towards industrialization. The American Civil War wildly enriched corporations and with this new wealth came bribes to legislators and courts that allowed for increased liability protection and other corporate protections. The 1886 Supreme Court case "Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad" set the important legal precedent that corporations were “natural people” and as a result were protected under the 14th Amendment. In the century and a half to follow, corporations have gained more control and hardly resemble what the founders of the country had intended.


title: Articles of association

text: The articles of incorporation outline the governance of a corporation along with the corporate bylaws and the corporate statutes in the state where articles of incorporation are filed. To amend a corporate charter, the amendment must usually be approved by the company's board of directors and voted on by the company's shareholders.


title: Articles of association

text: The articles of incorporation typically include the name of the corporation, the type of corporate structure (e.g. profit corporation, nonprofit corporation, benefit corporation, professional corporation), the registered agent, the number of authorized shares, the effective date, the duration (perpetual by default), and the names and signatures of the incorporators.


title: Articles of association

text: The state fee to file articles of incorporation to incorporate a profit corporation range from $50 - $300, and to incorporate a nonprofit corporation range from $0 -$125.


title: Articles of association

text: The first step in filing articles of incorporation is for the owners to decide which state to incorporate the business in. Once the state has been chosen, the documents with all the corporation’s information have to be filled out, whether physically or virtually. Once completed, these documents will be reviewed by the secretary of state’s office, and upon approval from the state government and payment of a filing fee, the company has officially become a legal corporation.


title: Articles of association

text: Many corporations file in the state in which they are doing business, although this is not required by law. Corporations doing business in multiple states often file articles in the particular state that is the most lenient on corporations. A majority of public corporations in the United States file in Delaware or Nevada, although Wyoming is a popular choice as well.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Herod Agrippa (Roman name Marcus Julius Agrippa; born around 11–10 BC – in Caesarea), also known as Herod II or Agrippa I (), was a grandson of Herod the Great and King of Judea from AD 41 to 44. He was the father of Herod Agrippa II, the last king from the Herodian dynasty. He spent his childhood and youth at the imperial court in Ancient Rome where he befriended the imperial princes Claudius and Drusus, the son of Tiberius. He suffered a period of disgrace following the death of Drusus which forced him to return to live in Judea. Back in Rome around 35, Tiberius made him the guardian of his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and Agrippa approached the other designated heir, Caligula. The advent of the latter to the throne allowed him to become king of Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanea, Gaulanitis, Auranitis and Paneas in 37 by obtaining the old tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias, then Galilee and Perea in 40, following the disgrace of his uncle, Herod Antipas.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: After the assassination of Caligula, he played a leading role in Rome in the accession of Claudius to the head of the empire in 41 and he was endowed with the former territories of Archelaus – Idumea, Judea and Samaria – thus ruling over a territory as vast as the ancient kingdom of Herod the Great.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Carrying a dual Jewish and Roman identity, he played the role of intercessor on behalf of the Jews with the Roman authorities and, on the domestic level, gave hope to some of his Jewish subjects of the restoration of an independent kingdom. Pursuing the Herodian policy of euergetism through major works in several Greek cities of the Near East, he nevertheless alienated some of his Greek and Syrian subjects while his regional ambitions earned him the opposition of the imperial legate of the Roman province of Syria, Marsus. He died suddenly—possibly poisoned—in 44.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa is the son of Aristobulus IV, one of the children that Herod the Great, king of Judea had with Mariamne the Hasmonean. His mother is Berenice, daughter of Salome, daughter of Antipater and sister of Herod the Great, who is close to Antonia Minor, daughter of Marcus Antonius and Octavia, sister of Auguste. Herod the Great is therefore both the paternal grandfather and the maternal great-uncle of Agrippa, who was born around 11 or 10 BC. J.-C., probably in Judea. His parents mark the Roman status of this Jewish prince by giving him the name of a close collaborator of the Emperor Augustus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Herod the Great was a sovereign considered a cruel usurper by his subjects but devoted to the Roman imperial cause which he greatly favored in his kingdom. His reign is marked by numerous family intrigues - he had ten wives - and bloody. Thus, in 29 BC. J.-C., the king executes his wife Mariamne by jealousy, grandmother of Agrippa and, the following year, the mother of this one. In 7 BC, when Agrippa was only three years or four old, Herod had his father and his uncle Alexander executed following palace intrigues which also led to the execution, three years later, of Antipater — a son he had with Doris — as well as that of Costobarus, Agrippa's maternal grandfather. Herod also caused the disappearance of a large number of members of the Hasmonean dynasty and its supporters, which found itself almost annihilated. The king however spares the children of Aristobulus, the boys Agrippa, Herod and Aristobulus Minor as well as the girls Herodias and Mariamne.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa thus descends from both the Hasmonean and Herodian dynasties, but his father's death sentence for treason seems to set him aside from a logic of succession.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: In 5 BC, two years after the condemnation of his father, the young Agrippa was sent by Herod the Great to the imperial court of Rome in the company of his mother Berenice as well as his brothers and sisters. He is supported there by his mother's friend, Antonia Minor, sister-in-law of Tiberius - who will become emperor in 14 - and mother of the future emperor Claudius, as well as by Empress Livia, who is the friend of his grandmother. He was brought up there with the children of the imperial family, including Claudius, who was the same age as him, as well as Drusus, the young son of Tiberius, to whom he was particularly attached. He thus lived all his youth in the capital of the empire and personally knew almost all the members of the imperial family. Agrippa's future then seemed to be established by his privileged relationship with the heir apparent of Tiberius and, to deceive his hosts, he led the way like his friend who had an unfortunate reputation for prodigality, immorality and excess. He must soon go into debt to ensure this sumptuous life. But this future darkened with the death of Drusus in 23, isolating him and leaving him helpless in the face of his creditors, especially since his mother Berenice probably died at the same time. After the death of his son, Tiberius, upset, reacted by removing his friends from his court.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa squandered the rest of his fortune trying to win the favor of the freedmen of Tiberius and he hastily left Rome for the province of Judea. The following period saw him experience various adventures and scandals linked to the need to ensure his lifestyle without enjoying the corresponding income.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: He finds himself in a fort in Malatha of Idumea, in the company of his wife Cypros. He probably married around 26 this cousin, daughter of Phasael, brother of Herod the Great, who gave him a first son named Agrippa. He leads a modest existence far from the splendor of the imperial court and even thinks about suicide. However, his wife got along with Herodias, when she became the wife of Antipas.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Married to an uncle called Herod and known as Philip with whom, according Flavius Josephus, she has Salome as a child, Herodias has just agreed to leave her first husband "still alive" to marry another of her uncle, Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee. Indeed, Philip the Tetrarch “died childless” (33/34) and Antipas hoped both that the territories of his half-brother would be entrusted to him by Tiberius and that the latter this will give him the title of king. Marriage with Herodias, who descends from the legitimate Hasmonean dynasty, is part of this strategy.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Herodias leads Antipas to help Agrippa: he provides him with money, offers him to settle in Tiberias and entrusts him with the civic magistracy of agoranomos of the city – organizer of the markets of the agora – which provides him with a regular income. However, this situation is short-lived. Agrippa accepts at first, but he soon gives the impression of not being satisfied with what is given to him. He quickly finds this burden boring in a small provincial town devoid of the amenities of the Roman civilization that saw him grow up. He quarrels with his uncle Antipas during a banquet in Tyre and goes to Roman Syria, of which his friend Lucius Pomponius Flaccus is the legate. Shortly after, he was disgraced following an intervention by his own brother Aristobulus Minor, who denounced him to Flaccus for having received a bribe in order to defend the interests of Damascus against Sidon in a border dispute brought before his legate friend. He then decided to attempt a return to Rome where Tiberius, who must have mourned the death of Drusus, might agree to receive his son's old friends again.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa borrowed the sum of twenty thousand drachmas to embark at Anthedon for Alexandria, not without having been reminded by the Roman governor of Yavne, Herennius Capiton, for the debts contracted vis-à-vis the treasury of the Empire. The latter sent him the troop but, taking advantage of the night, Agrippa embarked and managed to reach Alexandria where he obtained new funding from the alabarch Alexander Lysimachus, brother of Philo and head of the Jewish community of Alexandria. This senior official, belonging to one of the very rare Jewish families of Roman citizens, was a large landowner and, like Agrippa, a friend of the future Emperor Claudius. Lysimachus refuses to lend the money directly to Agrippa, whose reputation for prodigality is well established, but deals with the latter's wife, whose devotion to her husband he admires. It was with this capital of two hundred thousand drachmas that Agrippa embarked for Italy in the spring of 36.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Tiberius, retired to Capri, received him and gave his son's former companion a warm welcome, a welcome soon tempered by a letter from the governor of Yabne about his debts. But Antonia Minor helps Agrippa to get out of this new embarrassment by advancing him the totality of the sum due — three hundred thousand drachmas — and he regains imperial favour. All these details are found in the second work of Flavius Josephus, the Antiquities of the Jews, published around 93/94, during the reign of Domitian, but in book II of The Jewish War, his first account, published between 75-79, Josephus was more direct. It was “to accuse the tetrarch” Herod Antipas, that Agrippa decided to go “to Tiberius”, in order to try to take his domain and it was because Agrippa had been ousted from his pretensions to obtain the tetrarchy of Antipas that he would have started plotting against the emperor. Like other information, in particular about Agrippa, these are not found in the Judaic Antiquities, where Josephus, however, expands much on the subject.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The emperor asks Agrippa to take charge of Drusus' son, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus, then a teenager and one of the two designated heirs of Tiberius with his grand-nephew Caius Caligula, grandson of the protector of Agrippa, Antonia. The latter undertakes to win the favors and friendship of Caius, imitated in this by another prince without a kingdom, Antiochos of Commagene, and manages to contract a loan of one million drachmas from a Samaritan freedman of the emperor to carry out his project with the rising star of Rome. Although we do not know precisely under what conditions the friendship between the two men was forged, it must have been worth such an investment.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: A flattery from Agrippa to Caligula will however cause him trouble: wishing in a conversation that the death of Tiberius would not be delayed any longer so that the young prince could succeed him, this remark is reported to Tiberius who orders the arrest of the dishonest. The latter, a friend of the probable next emperor, enjoyed a comfortable captivity and was released by Caligula shortly after the death of Tiberius on March 16, 37, when Pontius Pilate arrived in Rome.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The accession to the throne of his friend began Agrippa's fortune: the emperor, for his release, offered him a gold chain "of the same weight as the chain of his captivity". He grants him, in addition to the title of king and the diadem which is its sign, the territories of Philip, who died shortly before, tetrarch of Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanea, Gaulanitis, Auranitis and Paneas, located northeast of the lake of Tiberias. Caligula also conferred on him the praetorian ornaments, a dignity which allows certain non-senators to sit among them during public celebrations. “This completely exceptional reversal of the situation seems to have greatly impressed Agrippa's contemporaries”.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: According to Flavius Josephus, at the very moment when he placed the royal diadem on the head of Agrippa I, Caligula sent Marullus as "hipparch (ἱππάρχης) of Judea" to replace Pontius Pilate, who had been dismissed by Lucius Vitellius, and had just arrived in Rome. Agrippa therefore shows no eagerness to take charge of the affairs of his kingdom and it is only in the summer of 38 that he goes to Batanea for a short stay, because the networks of influence are woven more in Rome where resides often the real power.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: During his stay in Rome, several events take place in Palestine which create a very tense situation. Since 35, the Romans and the legate of Syria Lucius Vitellius are engaged in a decisive confrontation against the Parthians and their king Artabanus III about the control of the kingdom of Armenia. In 36, the armies of two kings who were clients of the Romans, Aretas IV and Herod Antipas, clashed around the territory of Gamla, causing a crushing defeat for the latter. According to Movses Khorenatsi, as well as several sources in Syriac and Armenian, the king of Edessa, Abgar V "provides auxiliaries" to the Nabataean king, Aretas IV, to wage war against Herod (Antipas) ». However, the historicity of this mention is disputed by Jean-Pierre Mahé. It is possible that Aretas took advantage of Antipas' participation in the great conference on the Euphrates, to conceal peace and the Roman victory over Artabanus III (autumn 36), to launch his offensive. Territorial claim of the Nabataeans was revived by Antipas' will to repudiate Phasaélis, the daughter of the king of Petra Aretas to marry Herodias, the sister of Agrippa I. Antipas' goal is only dynastic. It is a question of consolidating his position to be named by the emperor at the head of the tetrarchy of Philip who has just died or to be named king. At some point in this conflict, probably between 29 and 35, Antipas thinks of silencing his opposition by executing a Jewish preacher called John the Baptist. This execution seems to have had important repercussions on the political situation in the region for several years. Thus the defeat of Antipas is considered within the Jewish population as a divine revenge against Antipas to punish him for having put John to death and of which Aretas IV would have been only the instrument.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: According to Simon Claude Mimouni, the governorship of Pontius Pilate is one of the five high points of the troubles that Palestine experienced between the death of Herod the Great and the outbreak of the Great Jewish Revolt, punctuated by no less than six major incidents, to which must be added the execution of Jesus of Nazareth and possibly the sedition of Jesus Bar Abbas, whose popularity is reported in the synoptic gospels. However, for some historians, the two Jesuses are one, the evangelists using a literary device to describe two faces of Jesus, while exempting the Romans from their responsibility in this execution, so that the Gospels cannot be suspected of containing the slightest criticism of the authorities in power.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: In 36, Pontius Pilate quickly suppressed a gathering of Samaritans on Mount Gerizim, the most convinced of whom “took up arms”. The gathering had a messianic connotation whose leader—whom Flavius Josephus avoids naming—sought to appear as the eschatological prophet similar to Moses, one of the three messianic figures found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. A figure that has also been attributed to John the Baptist and Jesus the Nazorean. Certain Church fathers, as well as the Mandaean tradition and in particular one of their writings, the "Haran-Gawaita", provide indications according to which it could be Dositheos of Samaria who succeeded to the head of the movement of John the Baptist after his execution, for he was one of his thirty disciples. Pilate crucified their leaders and the most prominent personalities that he managed to capture.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: At the end of that same year, Vitellius used the complaints of the Council of Samaritans about this last incident as a pretext to dismiss the prefect of Judea Pontius Pilate at the end of a ten-year term, "so that he explains to the emperor what the Jews are accusing him of. » On the following Passover, he came in person to Jerusalem to dismiss the high priest Caiaphas, who was too closely linked to Pilate, and restored to the priests of the temple the supervision of the ceremonies of the great Jewish worship festivals. When the death of Tiberius was announced at Pentecost 37, Vitellius, very reluctant to support Antipas with his troops, interrupted the march of his two legions against Aretas IV, considering that he could no longer wage war without orders from the new emperor. He “makes the people swear loyalty to Caligula” and once again dismisses the high priest whom he had appointed 50 days earlier.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa returned to his territories in the summer of 38, after the situation had been clarified on the spot by Lucius Vitellius, probably assisted by Marullus, the new prefect of Judea. Flavius Josephus does not recount the conditions under which the Nabataeans troops withdrew from the former tetrarchy of Philip, which constitutes the bulk of the territories attributed to Agrippa. An agreement finally had to be reached between Aretas and the Romans represented on the spot by the legate of Syria. According to Nikos Kokkinos, Lindner showed that it was Caligula who transferred Damascus to Nabathean control. For him, since Caligula succeeded Tiberius who died on March 16, 37, the negotiations with Aretas could not have been completed before the summer of the same year.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: On the way to his new kingdom, Agrippa passed through Alexandria around July 38 where he probably lodged with the alabarch Alexandre Lysimaque, the brother of Philo of Alexandria and the father of Tiberius Alexander. whose daughter Berenice would marry the son Marcus Alexander a few years later. There was then an anti-Jewish atmosphere in the city that had lasted for some time. During festivities, the new king was the target of a popular anti-Jewish masquerade featuring an idiot nicknamed Karabas, foreshadowing the Jewish-Alexandrian conflict that agitated the city from 38 to 41. The Roman governor of Alexandria, Flaccus, seems to let the popular agitation unfold, hostile to Agrippa, whom he is jealous of, protected by an emperor into whose graces Flaccus does not manage to enter, whose confidence he senses is losing and who moreover had him executed shortly after.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: These troubles led the two parties—Jews and Alexandrian Greeks—to each send three delegates to the emperor to settle the deeper conflict between the two communities. Philo was one of the Jewish delegation.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The return of Agrippa I crowned with a royal title excites the jealousy of his sister Herodias who urges her husband Antipas to claim for himself the title of king in Rome. In 39, Antipas then resolves to go and meet Caligula to try to obtain this imperial favor, which will precipitate his loss. Informed of this trip, Agrippa I dispatched his most faithful freedman to Rome, bearing a letter for the emperor, followed soon after by Agrippa himself. He accuses Antipas of fomenting a plot with the Parthians and of having accumulated, without telling the Emperor, stocks of arms in his arsenals in Tiberias, probably with the intention of preparing his revenge against King Aretas IV who had defeated him a few years earlier. While the second accusation is probably true, the first is doubtful. However Caligula falls, banishes and exiles Herod Antipas in the south of Gaul where his wife freely accompanies him. As for Agrippa, he receives the territories of Antipas — Galilee and Peraea — as well as all the property confiscated from the tetrarch and his wife.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Following the clashes between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria, for confused reasons the delegation led by Philo of Alexandria to Caligula learned "with horror" of the Emperor's project to erect his own statue in the Temple of Jerusalem in gold under the guise of Zeus. According to Josephus, it is possible that the emperor was sensitive to the arguments of the delegation of Greeks from Alexandria led by Apion who, in the conflict between the two parties, complained of the "privileges" granted to the Jews. For Goodman, Caligula intends to develop the imperial cult and to place himself above the politics of mortals in his lifetime and has the idea of imposing his divine status on the empire, whatever the political consequences.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Caligula's initiative horrifies the Jewish subjects of the Empire and causes unrest in the diaspora in Rome, but also in Alexandria, Thessaloniki, Antioch and in Palestine, particularly in Galilee. Caligula enjoins the new proconsul of Syria, Publius Petronius, to place the statue willingly or by force in the "Holy of Holies" of the Temple of Jerusalem, violating Judaic aniconism in the holiest place of this religion. Petronius disposes necessary armed troops—two Roman legions and auxiliaries—which he barracks at Ptolemais, in Phoenicia, in the event of an uprising and his mission is to accompany the procession of the statue—being made in Sidon — through Judea, as far as Jerusalem. The population rushed in numbers to Ptolemais, supported by the Jewish religious authorities, then to Tiberias where the troubles continued for about forty days. Petronius goes there and meets the notables as well as Aristobulus brother of Agrippa - in the absence of the latter who is in Rome - in the presence and under the pressure of the crowd. Convinced of the imminence of a major revolt, Petronius tempered with the emperor by an exchange of letters exposing – at the risk of his life – the difficulties of the situation: the inhabitants of Galilee were close to the general revolt, as well as the Jews of Judea, the peasants risking setting fire to the crops just before harvesting, while preparing for war. The emperor's first response was fairly moderate, but some sources report a “furious” response from Caligula to Petronius, not considering any compromise.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: During these events, Agrippa was in Rome and it is possible that he learned of the affair from Caligula himself, which plunged him into a conflict between his two identities, Jewish and Roman. But, after a few days of reflection, he took the side and took the risk of helping his Jewish compatriots in the defense of the Temple threatened with desecration: for Josephus, it was a discussion during a banquet; for Philo, it is a request addressed to the emperor, the content of which he reports, although in terms that reveal a certain exaggeration of the role of Agrippa. Be that as it may, the approach does not lack courage for the adventurer he has been until then and Philo's text reflects the ideas that were to feature in the request, whatever its form: Agrippa notes there with gratitude all the benefits he has been the object on the part of the emperor but explains that he would gladly exchange them for one thing only: "that the ancestral institutions are not disturbed. For what of my reputation among my countrymen and other men? Either I must be considered a traitor to myself or I must cease to be counted among your friends; there is no other choice…”.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: At first, Caligula seemed to give in to his friend's pleas and instructed Petronius to suspend his action towards Jerusalem, while warning the Jewish populations not to take any action against the shrines, statues and altars erected in his honor, as a reproduction of Caligula's letter by Flavius Josephus seems to attest. But the emperor seemed to reconsider his decision and it was the murder of Caligula that seemed to put a definitive end to the enterprise and put an end to the desire for a popular uprising. Flavius Josephus still recounts how the emperor, suspecting Petronius of having been bribed to break his orders, ordered him to commit suicide, but this letter arrived after the announcement of Caligula's death, in which Josephus saw an effect of Providence.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: This even temporary success of Agrippa testifies to the close relations which bind him with the most important personalities of the Roman world, which will be confirmed during the succession of the assassinated emperor.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: On January 24, 41, Caligula was assassinated by a large-scale conspiracy, notably involving the praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea as well as several senators. The conspirators intend to return to a republic. Yet it was Claudius, Caligula's uncle, who was pushed to imperial power by the anti-republicans under curious conditions at the center of which Agrippa gravitated. Claudius is certainly erudite, but nevertheless excessively shy, afflicted with a physical handicap and without particular ambition. The omnipresent support of his childhood friend, as well as his maneuvers, seem to have been decisive in his seizure of power.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: If we are to believe Flavius Josephus and the Roman historian Cassius Dio, Agrippa indeed played a significant role in the choice of the new emperor. It was he who led a squad of the Praetorian Guard to the palace in search of Claudius, who had hidden there for fear of being assassinated. It was also at his instigation that the praetorians proclaimed Claudius emperor because without a sovereign, the guard lost its "raison d'être". He then went to the Capitol where the senators met in conclave and acted as intermediaries between them and Claudius. He inspires Claudius with a response to the latter, "in conformity with the dignity of his power" and he persuades them to wisely abandon their idea of a republic, arguing that a new emperor is acclaimed by the praetorians - of whom he points out that 'they surround the meeting" — and they expect nothing but their enthusiastic support. The senators proclaim Claudius emperor, and Agrippa recommends that he be lenient vis-à-vis the conspirators, except for the regicides Cassius Chaerea and Lupus.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: If these stories are to be believed, this episode made the new Emperor obligated by his childhood friend and this devotion earned him a sizeable reward: Agrippa saw his possessions increased by most of the ancient kingdom of Herod Archelaus — Judea, Idumea and Samaria — but also the city of Abila in Anti-Lebanon so that the sovereign now reigned over a territory as vast as that of his grandfather Herod the Great.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: According to Cassius Dio, Claudius also granted his friend consular rank and authorized him "to appear in the senate and express his gratitude in Greek". Finally, to mark the considerable status of the sovereign, a treaty was ratified with the Senate and the people of Rome on the Forum, which took up the old treaties of friendship and Judeo-Roman alliance. Agrippa is declared there "rex amicus et socius Populi Romani" - as his grandfather had been in 40 BC. — and the text is preserved on bronze tablets in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: These new charges decide Agrippa to consider that his place is henceforth on his territories and he embarks soon after for Judea. It was the same year that Berenice, daughter of Agrippa, united under the patronage of the emperor to Marcus, the son of the alabarch of Alexandria, Alexander Lysimachus whom Claudius had freed from the captivity to which the reduced Caligula.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Claudius' accession to the throne also marked the restoration of several other kingdoms in Asia Minor. Herod, Agrippa's brother also received a royal title, was granted the principality of Chalcis, previously attached to the kingdom of Iturea and was honored in Rome with the title of praetor. He would marry his niece, Bérénice, after the premature death of her young husband.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: An edict by Claudius recalls the privileges granted to Alexandrian Jews who can live according to their laws and whom nothing can rule out from the observance of the Torah, soon followed by a second edict which extends the Alexandrian privileges to the Jews of the diaspora throughout the whole empire.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa and his brother Herod of Chalcis also play the role of intercessors in favor of the Jews with the emperor. Their skills are not only recognized but also extended to all the Jewish communities of the Empire by the will of Claudius himself. They also have the status of censors of Jewish morals: they ensure respect for the Torah by the communities of the diaspora.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: A few months after the murder of Caligula, inhabitants of the Phoenician city of Dôra (south of Mount Carmel) introduced a statue of Claudius into the main synagogue of the city. For all those who stood up against Caligula's plan to erect his statue in the Temple of Herusalem, it is a real provocation. Agrippa intervenes immediately and asks for the application of the decree of Claudius. He acts here as an ethnarch of the Jews, since Dora is not located on his territory. Petronius, the proconsul of Syria immediately ordered the magistrates of Dora to remove the statue, referring to the edict of Claudius. However, this openness must be put into perspective, which is also reflected in the measures to limit worship against the Jews of Rome, as Dion Cassius reports (History, 60, 6, 6-7), perhaps in reaction to the agitation resulting from the rapid development of the movement of the followers of Jesus and which would be evoked by the Letter of Claudius to the Alexandrians. For François Blanchetière, the writing of Philo Legation to Caïus "constitutes an apology for Augustus, to be read a contrario as a criticism of the Judeophobic policy of Claudius (Legation to Caius 155-158). »


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Apart from the recognition he must feel towards him, Claudius probably also saw in the appointment of Agrippa, heir to the Herodians and the Hasmoneans but also attached to the Julio-Claudians by personal relations, a factor of stability which could rid the imperial administration of the management of a province with endemic troubles.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa clearly inherited his grandfather's splendor and his desire for recognition beyond his borders. Internally, he tried to satisfy both his Jewish and pagan subjects and was divided between his religious capital, Jerusalem, and his “little Rome”, Caesarea. He also undertook the major project of raising the ramparts of his historic capital and extending it to the new northern district thanks to funding from the Temple treasury, which gave some of his Jewish subjects hope for the restoration of an independent kingdom. or at least a rediscovered form of sovereignty.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: He continued the policy of euergetism external to Judea of Herod the Great by financing the construction of prestigious works (theatre, amphitheater and baths) in liberalities which mainly benefited the Roman colony of Berytus, without forgetting however the cities of Phoenicia and Syria. He also offered shows and games, notably with gladiators, even if this contravened Jewish prescriptions, which he got accepted by using condemned criminals.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: On a religious level, as soon as he arrived, Agrippa forged the reputation of a very pious man whom he knew how to maintain, as attested by the Mishnah, which recounts a finely orchestrated ceremony where the king was acclaimed and obtained the legitimacy of the priests in the Temple of Jerusalem while his grandfather Herod had never been admitted to the third court of the Temple. However, through his grandmother, Mariamne the Hasmonean, Agrippa belonged to a priestly family, which Herod did not. He is thus the first Herodo-Hasmonean to participate in a Temple office since the dismissal of the Hasmonean Antigonus II Mattathias, even if he does not sacrifice himself.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The Mishnah explained how the Jews of the Second Temple era interpreted the requirement of that the king read the Torah to the people. At the conclusion of the first day of Sukkot immediately after the conclusion of the seventh year in the cycle, they erected a wooden dais in the Temple court, upon which the king sat. The synagogue attendant took a Torah scroll and handed it to the synagogue president, who handed it to the High Priest's deputy, who handed it to the High Priest, who handed it to the king. The king stood and received it, and then read sitting. King Agrippa stood and received it and read standing, and the sages praised him for doing so. When Agrippa reached the commandment of that “you may not put a foreigner over you” as king, his eyes ran with tears, but they said to him, “Don’t fear, Agrippa, you are our brother, you are our brother!” The king would read from up through the shema (), and then the portion regarding tithes (), the portion of the king (), and the blessings and curses (). The king would recite the same blessings as the High Priest, except that the king would substitute a blessing for the festivals instead of one for the forgiveness of sin. (Mishnah Sotah 7:8; Babylonian Talmud Sotah 41a.)


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa used his prerogative to appoint the high priests of the Temple three times during his short reign, choosing alternately from the priestly dynasties of the Anan and the Boethos.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: His short administration was thus placed under the domination of Rome, of which he was an instrument of control, and the marks of honor given as sovereign by the Jews to the Temple testify to the "generalized clientelism in which personal friendships administrative relations throughout the Empire. Agrippa's reign, however, did not last long enough to determine its political direction in any meaningful way.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Vibius Marsus, the governor of Syria who succeeded Petronius, was much less favorable to him. He sent a series of letters to Claudius to express his fears of Agrippa's rising power, reflecting the jealousy of the prince's Roman compatriots in the region. For his part, Agrippa repeatedly asked the emperor to dismiss the legate.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The legate of Syria interrupts, on the orders of Claudius alerted, the fortification of Jerusalem and tempers the regional diplomatic ambitions of the latter. Indeed, Agrippa invites to Tiberias the kings Herod of Chalcis — his brother —, the king of Emesa Sampsigeramos — father-in-law of his brother Aristobulus — as well as three princes who had been his companions in Rome, Antiochos of Commagene, Cotys of Lesser Armenia and Polemon, king of Pontus. Marsus argues the possibility of a conspiracy. Although it is unlikely that Agrippa considered breaking with his close Roman protectors and familiars, the kings were enjoined to return to their respective kingdoms without delay.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa died unexpectedly in the year 44, after only three years of reign over Judea, during the Games of Caesarea in honor of the emperor. Patronizing the games, he appears there in a dazzling silver finery in front of the crowd who acclaim him and compare him to a god, a blasphemous remark for a Jew against which the king does not protest. Some of his contemporaries read as a divine punishment for this blasphemy the cause of his death which occurs shortly after: two days later, he is seized with violent abdominal pains and dies after five days of agony, at the age of fifty-three years. The precise causes of his death are unknown but from that time on, rumors of poisoning circulated. According to the Acts of the Apostles which appears in the New Testament, it would be an angel, come at the time of the declarations of the people who therefore compared him to a God, who would have struck him, then had him devoured by worms (Acts 12:20-23). Several researchers believe that the poisoning by the Romans worried about his excessive political ambitions is likely, even that it is a personal initiative of Marsus to attenuate the hostility of the neighboring Syrian populations.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The reign of Aggripa I thus did not last long enough to be able to significantly outline its political orientation. Nevertheless, the hopes of regained sovereignty aroused among the Jews of Palestine by his accession did not disappear with his death and were probably part of the causes that led to the Jewish revolt which broke out some twenty years later in the ancient kingdom.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The death of Agrippa is the pretext for the pagan populations of the kingdom to celebrations and rejoicings, in particular in Caesarea and Sebaste, which the sovereign had nevertheless largely favored. The hostility of the Syrian populations is also evident and the statues of the three king's daughters adorning the palace of Caesarea are outraged by Syrian auxiliaries.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Rather than entrusting the late king's kingdom to his son Agrippa II — an inexperienced young man who grew up at the imperial court, protected by the emperor — Claudius made it a Roman province but procuratorian which henceforth came under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria, but aware of Marsus' unpopularity with the Jews, the emperor reinstated a Roman official, Cuspius Fadus, to rule the ancient kingdom of Agrippa Ier, with the title of procurator. But these choices, as well as the lack of reaction vis-à-vis the infamous conduct of the Syrian auxiliaries, generated renewed unrest in Caesarea and elsewhere. The appointment of the priests and the control of the Temple of Jerusalem belong to Herod of Chalcis. It was also the latter who became the privileged intermediary between the Jews and the Romans until his own death in 48.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: For the Jews, this disappearance marked the end of hopes for Jewish independence, even symbolic, and it was then that intransigent factious movements with messianic and anti-Roman connotations appeared.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Half a century after Agrippa's sudden death, Flavius Josephus evokes the sovereign in these terms: “Agrippa's character was gentle and his benevolence was equal for all. He was full of humanity for people of foreign races and also showed them his liberality, but he was also helpful for his compatriots and showed them even more sympathy”. Josephus gave Agrippa a positive legacy and related that he was known in his time as "Agrippa the Great". In the rabbinical sources, Agrippa is presented as a pious man and his reign is described in a very positive way. Conversely, the pagan inhabitants of Caesarea and Sebaste organized rejoicings at his death.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: A significant number of critics follow the Christian tradition to identify Agrippa with "Herod the king" who, in the Acts of the Apostles, persecutes the community of Jesus' disciples in Jerusalem, then who has James the Great killed "with the sword" while that the apostle Peter, later arrested, owes his salvation only to the help of “an angel” who comes by night to help him escape from his prison. However, the Acts of the Apostles, also composed in the 80s and 90s from several sources, "have been the subject of devastating criticism for several decades, to the point of being denied by some, in whole or in part, any historical value” due to the “editorial activity” of its three successive authors. Thus, the entire Petrine document (hypothetical document) to which these episodes would have belonged seems to have been placed at the beginning of Acts by its first writer, following this account by the "Gesture of Paul" and it is the next writer - perhaps being the Luke the Evangelist — which would have been inserted between the two "Gestures" of Peter and Paul, the account of the death of Agrippa which gives the impression that all that precedes is dated before 44 and all that follows is later, adding a coming of Paul to Jerusalem which does not appear anywhere in Paul's accounts in his epistles. It is therefore possible that "Herod the king" does not designate Agrippa I, but his son Agrippa II. Indeed, in addition to these editorial elements, the chronological inconsistencies of the Acts have been well known for more than a century, in particular the speech of Gamaliel, delivered seven chapters before the account of the death of Agrippa to defend the apostles during a previous arrest, speaks of the death of Theudas intervened under the procurator Cuspius Fadus (44-46) and in the Gesture of Peter which constitutes the first part of the Acts, the murder of Jame the Great, then the arrest-escape of Peter are later of five chapters to this speech and precedes the account of the death of Agrippa (44).


title: Herod Agrippa

text: This account of the death of Agrippa, probably inserted by the second redactor of the Acts of the Apostles diverges from that of Flavius Josephus, but otherwise agrees with him on the divine origin of his mortal illness, occasioned by his impious refusal to reject the deification of which he is the object by the people, perhaps testifying to the use of a common Jewish source.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: From his union with Cypros, Agrippa has four children reaching adulthood, a son Agrippa, and three daughters, Berenice, Mariamne and Drusilla. Another son, Drusus, died in infancy


title: Herod Agrippa

text: Agrippa, born in 27/28, was raised at the court of Rome under the protection of Claudius but was not chosen by the latter to succeed his father, "which provoked renewed political agitation in the years that followed". It was not until 49 that the emperor granted him the tetrarchy of Chalcis together with the royal dignity one year after the death of his uncle Herod. Like his father, he also received the administration of the Temple of Jerusalem and the power to designate the high priests previously held by Herod of Chalcis, with the title of "epimelete" (administrator)113. In 53/54, he returned this territory in exchange for most of the ex-tetrarchy of Philip, to which were added the tetrarchies of Lysanias and Varus. Later (in 54-56 or 61), he receives from Nero territories in Galilee on the western shore of Lake Tiberias, as well as in Perea and around Abila and Livias. He was a prince close to the Romans, on whose side he sided during the Great Jewish Revolt of the years 66-70, he subsequently obtained various territories which concerned the history of Syria more than that of Palestine. Its territories are attached to the Roman province of Syria in 92/94. A large part of the critics believe that he died at this time, but other critics are based on the indication of Photios of Constantinople who in the ninth century placed this death in the third year of Trajan (100). He has no children or close heirs.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The unions of Agrippa's daughters are part of a matrimonial strategy consisting in allying with the most fortunate party possible which is not exempt from competition between the sisters. The first of the daughters, Berenice [b. AD 28-after 81] married Marcus Julius Alexander, son of Alexander the Alabarch of Alexandria, nephew of the philosopher Philo of Alexandria and brother of Tiberius Alexander, who was appointed procurator of Judea in 46 by Claudius. This first husband died shortly afterwards and Berenice was then united to her paternal uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, with whom she had two sons, Berenician and Hyrcan. After the death of Herod of Chalcis and the insistent rumors of incest with her brother Agrippa, she proposes to Marcus Antonius Polemo, client king of Cilicia (south of Cappadocia), to marry her. Polemon accepts because Berenice has the status of queen and especially according to Flavius Josephus, because she is very rich. On both sides, it is only an alliance to increase their power. Polemon however made a major concession, he converted to Judaism and had himself circumcised. But very quickly, she abandons him to return with her brother, “out of levity, they say” specifies Flavius Josephus. She finally becomes the famous mistress of Titus who dismisses her before he reaches the imperial office.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The second daughter, Mariamne [b. 34/35-], married Julius Archelaus son of an officer of the court of Agrippa named Chelkias They had a daughter Berenice (daughter of Mariamne) who lived with her mother in Alexandria, Egypt after her parents' divorce. Mariamne left her husband and married Demetrius of Alexandria, "the first of the Jews of Alexandria by birth and fortune who was then Alabarch” from the city.,and had a son from him named Agrippinus.


title: Herod Agrippa

text: The last, Drusilla, born around 38, was first promised to Gaius Epiphanes, son of Antiochus IV of Commagene, but the prince refused to be circumcised for the occasion. Drusilla is then united with Gaius Julius Azizus, King of Emesa, another oriental prince, whom she leaves to marry the procurator of Judaea Antonius Felix, around 50 who, according to Flavius Josephus, would have taken her away from her husband. The couple had a son called Agrippa (probably Marcus Antonius Agrippa) died in Pompeii or Herculaneum with his wife during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius en 79.


title: King of the Romans

text: King of the Romans (; ) was the title used by the king of Germany following his election by the princes from the reign of Henry II (1002–1024) onward.


title: King of the Romans

text: The title originally referred to any German king between his election until his being crowned Emperor by the Pope. The title was also used to designate the successor to the throne elected during the lifetime of a sitting Emperor. From the 16th century onwards, as German kings adopted the title of Emperor-elect and ceased to be crowned by the Pope, the title continued to be used solely for a elected successor to the throne during his predecessor's lifetime.


title: King of the Romans

text: The actual title varied over time. During the Ottonian period, it was King of the Franks (German: "König der Franken", Latin: "Rex Francorum"), from the late Salian period it was King of the Romans (German: "König der Römer", Lat.: "Rex Romanorum"). In the Modern Period, the title King in Germania (German: "König in Germanien", Lat.: "Germaniae Rex") came into use. Finally, modern German historiography established the term Roman-German King ("Römisch-deutscher König") to differentiate it both from the classical Roman Emperor as well as from the modern German Emperor.


title: King of the Romans

text: The territory of East Francia was not referred to as the Kingdom of Germany or "Regnum Teutonicum" by contemporary sources until the 11th century. During this time, the king's claim to coronation was increasingly contested by the papacy culminating in the fierce Investiture Controversy. After the Salian heir apparent Henry IV, a six-year-old minor, had been elected to rule the Empire in 1056 he adopted "Romanorum Rex" as a title to emphasize his sacred entitlement to be crowned Emperor by the Pope. Pope Gregory VII insisted on using the derogatory term "Teutonicorum Rex" ("King of the Germans") in order to imply that Henry's authority was merely local and did not extend over the whole Empire. Henry continued to regularly use the title "Romanorum Rex" until he finally was crowned Emperor by Antipope Clement III in 1084. Henry's successors imitated this practice, and were also called "Romanorum Rex" before and "Romanorum Imperator" after their Roman coronations.


title: King of the Romans

text: Candidates for the kingship were at first the heads of Germanic stem duchies. As these units broke up, rulers of smaller principalities and even non-Germanic rulers were considered for the position. The only requirements generally observed were that the candidate be an adult male, a Catholic Christian, and not in holy orders. The kings were elected by several Imperial Estates (secular princes as well as Prince-Bishops), often in the imperial city of Frankfurt after 1147, a custom recorded in the "Schwabenspiegel" code in about 1275.


title: King of the Romans

text: Originally all noblemen present could vote by unanimous acclamation, but later a franchise was granted to only the most eminent bishops and noblemen, and according to the Golden Bull of 1356 issued by Emperor Charles IV only the seven Prince-electors had the right to participate in a majority voting as determined by the 1338 Declaration of Rhense. They were the Prince-Archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne as well as the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Saxon duke, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. After the Investiture Controversy, Charles intended to strengthen the legal status of the "Rex Romanorum" beyond Papal approbation. Consequently, among his successors only Sigismund and Frederick III were still crowned Emperors in Rome and in 1530 Charles V was the last king to receive the Imperial Crown at the hands of the Pope (in Bologna). The Golden Bull remained effective as constitutional law until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.


title: King of the Romans

text: After his election, the new king would be crowned as King of the Romans ("Romanorum Rex"), usually at Charlemagne's throne in Aachen Cathedral by the Archbishop of Cologne in a solemnly celebrated ceremony. The details of Otto's coronation in 936 are described by the medieval chronicler Widukind of Corvey in his "Res gestae saxonicae". The kings received the Imperial Crown from at least 1024, at the coronation of Conrad II. In 1198 the Hohenstaufen candidate Philip of Swabia was crowned "Rex Romanorum" at Mainz Cathedral (as was King Rupert centuries later), but he had another coronation in Aachen after he had prevailed against his Welf rival Otto IV.


title: King of the Romans

text: At some time after the ceremony, the king would, if possible, cross the Alps, to receive coronation in Pavia or Milan with the Iron Crown of Lombardy as King of Italy. Finally, he would travel to Rome and be crowned Emperor by the Pope. Because it was rarely possible for the elected King to proceed immediately to Rome for his crowning, several years might elapse between election and coronation, and some Kings never completed the journey to Rome at all. As a suitable title for the King between his election and his coronation as Emperor, "Romanorum Rex" would stress the plenitude of his authority over the Empire and his warrant to be future Emperor ("Imperator futurus") without infringing upon the Papal privilege.


title: King of the Romans

text: Not all Kings of the Romans made this step, sometimes because of hostile relations with the Pope, or because either the pressure of business at home or warfare in Germany or Italy made it impossible for the King to make the journey. In such cases, the king might retain the title "King of the Romans" for his entire reign.


title: King of the Romans

text: The title "Romanorum Rex" ceased to be used for ruling kings after 1508, when the Pope permitted King Maximilian I to use the title of "Electus Romanorum Imperator" ("elected Emperor of the Romans") after he failed in a good-faith attempt to journey to Rome. At this time Maximilian also took the new title "King in Germania" ("Germaniae rex", "König in Germanien"), but the latter was never used as a primary title.


title: King of the Romans

text: Maximilian's titles read, in part: ""Maximilian von Gots genaden erwelter Romischer Romischer kayser, zu allen zeiten merer des Reichs, in Germanien zu Hungern, Dalmatien, Croatien etc. kunig […]" ("Maximilian by God's grace Elected Roman Emperor, always Augustus, in Germany, of Hungary, Dalamatia, Croatia etc King […]"


title: King of the Romans

text: Beginning with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, the rulers of the Empire no longer sought the Imperial coronation by the Pope and styled themselves "Emperors" without Papal approval, taking the title as soon as they were crowned in Germany or, if crowned in their predecessor's lifetime, upon the death of a sitting Emperor.


title: King of the Romans

text: The Holy Roman Empire was an elective monarchy. No person had an automatic legal right to the succession simply because he was related to the current Emperor. However, the Emperor could, and often did, have a relative (usually a son) elected to succeed him after his death. This elected heir apparent bore the title "King of the Romans".


title: King of the Romans

text: During the Middle Ages, a junior King of the Romans was normally chosen only when the senior ruler bore the title of Emperor, so as to avoid having two, theoretically equal kings. Only on one occasion (1147-1150) was there both a ruling King of the Romans (King Conrad III) and a King of the Romans as heir (Henry Berengar). This practice continued from the 16th century onwards as the rulers of the Empire assumed the title "Emperor elect" without Imperial coronation by the Pope. The title of a King of the Romans now exclusively referred to the elected successor during his predecessor's lifetime.


title: King of the Romans

text: The election was in the same form as that of the senior ruler. In practice, however, the actual administration of the Empire was always managed by the Emperor (or Emperor elect), with at most certain duties delegated to the heir.


title: King of the Romans

text: When Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, had a son and heir, Napoleon II (181132), he introduced the title as King of Rome ("Roi de Rome"), styling his son as such at birth. The boy was often known colloquially by this title throughout his short life. However, from 1818 onward, he was styled officially as the Duke of Reichstadt by his maternal grandfather, Emperor Francis I of Austria.


title: King of the Romans

text: The following list shows all individuals bearing the title "Kings of the Romans". The regnal dates given are those between a king's election as "King of the Romans" and either becoming Emperor or ending their reign by deposition or death. Ruling kings are coloured in yellow, while those whose claim to the throne failed to achieve widespread support are coloured in pink. Individuals that bore the title "Kings of the Romans" solely as heirs designate are coloured in silver. '*' indicates that the king in question was elected in his predecessor's lifetime.


title: King of the Romans

text: This article uses material translated from the in the German-language Wikipedia, which, in turn, cites a source that contains further references:


title: Meyer lemon

text: Citrus" × "meyeri, the Meyer lemon ( ), is a hybrid citrus fruit native to China. It is a cross between a citron and a mandarin/pomelo hybrid.


title: Meyer lemon

text: Mature trees are around tall with dark green shiny leaves. The flowers are white with a purple base and are fragrant. The fruit is rounder than a true lemon, deep yellow with a slight orange tint when ripe, and has a sweeter, less acidic flavor. The lemons contain a highly acidic pH of between 2 and 3. This acidity level allows for these lemons to be used as antibacterial and antiseptic cleaners.


title: Meyer lemon

text: It was introduced to the United States in 1908 as S.P.I. #23028 by the agricultural explorer Frank Nicholas Meyer, an employee of the United States Department of Agriculture who collected a sample of the plant on a trip to China. Though it is given his name, this variety was likely established thousands of years before he introduced it to America.


title: Meyer lemon

text: The Meyer lemon is commonly grown in China in garden pots as an ornamental tree. It became popular as a food item in the United States after being rediscovered by chefs such as Alice Waters at Chez Panisse during the rise of California cuisine starting in the 1970s. Popularity further climbed when Martha Stewart began featuring them in some of her recipes.


title: Meyer lemon

text: "Citrus" × "meyeri" trees are around tall at maturity, though they can be pruned smaller. Their leaves are dark green and shiny. The flowers are white with a purple base and are fragrant.


title: Meyer lemon

text: The Meyer lemon fruit is yellow and rounder than a true lemon. The skin is fragrant and thin, colored a deep yellow with a slight orange tint when ripe. Meyer lemon fruits have a sweeter, less acidic flavor than the more common Lisbon or Eureka supermarket lemon varieties. The pulp is a dark yellow and contains up to 10 seeds per fruit.


title: Meyer lemon

text: The Meyer lemon is popular as an ornamental plant for its compact size, hardiness, and productivity. It is decorative and suitable for container growing. It is one of the sweetest lemons and even the skin is edible. Growing a Meyer lemon tree can either be done in a pot or straight from the ground, but the plant requires plenty of sunlight. However, too much sunlight is possible and can burn the plant if exposed for long periods. This is why summer sun, morning sunlight, and some afternoon shade are ideal for taking the best care of the lemon tree. The tree is reasonably hardy and grows well in warm climates. It is fairly vigorous, with a plant grown from a young graft usually beginning to fruit in four years, yielding thousands of lemons over its lifetime. These plants require an adequate amount of water but well-drained soil is crucial. However, allowing the soil to dry out slightly between watering keeps the plant moist enough, but not too moist or dry. Along with watering and sunlight, Meyer lemon trees need high nitrogen fertilizer that is slow-releasing. These plants should only be given fertilizer within the growing season (spring-fall) and never in the winter unless the leaves are yellowing; then, they should be given water and fertilizer. While fruit is produced throughout the year, the majority of the crop is harvest-ready in winter. Trees require adequate water, but less in the winter. For maximum yield, they should be fertilized during growing periods.


title: Meyer lemon

text: New branches are thorny to protect the young shoots, but the thorns transform into secondary branches with age. Pruning plays a very important role in growing the most successful tree; this keeps the plant in shape and avoids unnecessary overcrowding plants to leave room for the lemons. It allows the plant to receive the proper airflow, which enhances the plant to grow strong and well while also preventing the plant from any potential diseases.


title: Meyer lemon

text: The juice of the lemon can be used to make beverages such as cocktails and lemonade. This lemon juice can tenderize meat and partially hydrolyze tough collagen fibers; the low pH denatures the proteins, causing them to dry out when the meat is cooked. The juice is also used as a substitute for vinegar in salad dressings and to enhance the flavors of vegetables. The lemon zest—the grated outer rind of the fruit—is used to add flavor to other dishes.


title: Meyer lemon

text: By the mid-1940s, the Meyer lemon had grown widely in California. However, at that time, it was discovered that most of the Meyer lemon trees being cloned were symptomless carriers of the Citrus tristeza virus, a virus which had killed millions of citrus trees all over the world and rendered other millions useless for production. After this finding, most of the Meyer lemon trees in the United States were destroyed to save other citrus trees. The Meyer lemon is also known as the Valley Lemon.


title: Meyer lemon

text: A virus-free selection was found in the 1950s and was certified and released in 1975 by the University of California as the 'Improved Meyer lemon' – "Citrus" × "meyeri" 'Improved'.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Inherit the Wind is a 1960 American film based on the 1955 play of the same name written by Jerome Lawrence and Robert Edwin Lee. The film was directed by Stanley Kramer. It stars Spencer Tracy as lawyer Henry Drummond and Fredric March as his friend and rival Matthew Harrison Brady. It also features Gene Kelly, Dick York, Harry Morgan, Donna Anderson, Claude Akins, Noah Beery Jr., Florence Eldridge, and Jimmy Boyd.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The script was adapted by Nedrick Young (originally as Nathan E. Douglas) and Harold Jacob Smith. Stanley Kramer was commended for bringing in writer Nedrick Young, as the latter was blacklisted and forced to use the pseudonym Nathan E. Douglas.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: "Inherit the Wind" is a parable that fictionalizes the 1925 Scopes "Monkey" Trial as a means to discuss McCarthyism. Written in response to the chilling effect of the McCarthy era investigations on intellectual discourse, the film (like the play) is critical of creationism.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: A television remake of the film which starred Melvyn Douglas and Ed Begley was broadcast in 1965. Another television remake which starred Jason Robards and Kirk Douglas aired in 1988. Once again, it was remade for television in 1999, co-starring Jack Lemmon as Drummond and co-starring George C. Scott as Brady.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: In the small Southern town of Hillsboro, in the 1920s, a schoolteacher, Bertram Cates, is about to stand trial for teaching Darwinism, which is a violation of state law. Cates is denounced by town leaders including Reverend Jeremiah Brown.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The town is excited because Matthew Brady, a noted statesman and three-time presidential candidate, will be assisting in the prosecution of Cates. A staunch foe of evolution and a Biblical scholar, Brady will sit beside prosecuting attorney Tom Davenport, in the courtroom of Judge Coffey.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The teacher's defense is to be handled by the equally well-known Henry Drummond, one of America's most controversial legal minds and a long-standing acquaintance and adversary of Brady. An influential newspaperman, E.K. Hornbeck of the "Baltimore Herald", has persuaded Drummond to represent Cates, and ensured that his newspaper and a radio network will provide nationwide coverage of the case.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Rev. Brown publicly rallies the townspeople against Cates and Drummond. The preacher's daughter Rachel is conflicted because she and Cates are engaged. When Rachel cries out against her father's condemnation, Brady admonishes Brown by quoting : "He that troubleth his own house shall inherit the wind."


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The courtroom takes on a circus atmosphere with radio broadcasting, newspaper photography and spectator outbursts during the trial. Each time Drummond calls a scientist or authority figure to discuss Darwin's theories, the judge sustains the prosecution's objections and forbids such testimony, ruling that Cates, not evolution, is on trial. Drummond grows frustrated, feeling the case has already been decided. When he asks to withdraw from the case, the judge holds Drummond in contempt of court, orders him jailed, and tells Drummond to show cause the next morning why he should not be held in contempt of court. John Stebbins offers his farm as collateral for Drummond's bail. Stebbins' son was a friend and protégé of Cates who drowned after developing a cramp while swimming. Brown had said the child was damned to hell because he was not baptized. This led to Cates abandoning the church, as he felt it was not fair that a child could not enter Heaven due to an action that was beyond his control.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: That night, mocking crowds go by the jail and then to the hotel where Drummond is staying. Drummond is trying to decide how to present his defense without his witnesses and states that he needs a miracle. Hornbeck throws him a Bible from Brady, stating "There are plenty in there." As Hornbeck pours some drinks and turns to Drummond, he is surprised by Drummond holding the Bible and smiling.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Drummond calls Brady himself to the witness stand. Brady's confidence in his Biblical knowledge is so great that he welcomes this challenge, but becomes flustered under Drummond's cross-examination, unable to explain certain Biblical events, until he is forced to confess that at least some Biblical passages cannot be interpreted literally. Drummond hammers home his point — that Cates, like any other man, demands the right to think for himself, and those citing divine support as a rationale to silence him are wrong.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The jury finds Cates guilty, but, the judge, concerned with political embarrassment, fines him only $100 ($ in current dollars). Brady is furious and tries to enter a speech into the record, but Drummond persuades the judge to disallow it as the trial has concluded. As court adjourns, Brady tries to give his speech but most ignore him outside of his wife and his opponents at the defense table — Cates, Rachel, Hornbeck, and Drummond. As he becomes increasingly hysterical, he suffers a "busted belly" and dies.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: After the crowd has cleared out, Hornbeck talks with Drummond, wanting to use the Bible quotation from Brown's rally, where Brady had quoted the "inherit the wind" verse because Rev. Brown was about to damn his own daughter to hell. Drummond quotes the verse verbatim, shocking Hornbeck, who states, "Well, we're growing an odd crop of agnostics this year!" They argue over Brady's legacy, Drummond accuses Hornbeck of being a heartless cynic, and Hornbeck walks out, leaving Drummond alone in the courtroom. Drummond picks up the Bible and Darwin's book ("On the Origin of Species"), balancing them in his hands before walking out with both of them.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Uncredited roles include Richard Deacon, George Dunn, Snub Pollard, Addison Richards, Harry Tenbrook, Will Wright. Actress and singer Leslie Uggams sings both the opening and closing songs by herself "a cappella".


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Kramer offered the role of Henry Drummond to Spencer Tracy, who initially turned it down. Kramer then sought March, Kelly, and Eldridge as co-stars, and Tracy eventually agreed to make the film. However, none of the other co-stars had been signed at the time; Tracy was the first. Once Tracy signed on, the others signed too.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: "Inherit the Wind" is a fictionalized account of the 1925 Scopes "Monkey" Trial, which took place between July 10 and July 21, 1925, and resulted in John T. Scopes's conviction for teaching Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to a high school science class, contrary to a Tennessee state law. The characters of Matthew Harrison Brady, Henry Drummond, Bertram Cates and E. K. Hornbeck correspond to the historical figures of William Jennings Bryan, Clarence Darrow, Scopes, and H. L. Mencken, respectively. However, Lee and Lawrence state in a note at the opening of the play on which the film is based that it is not meant to be a historical account, and many events were substantially altered or invented. For instance, the characters of the preacher and his daughter were fictional, the townspeople were not hostile towards those who had come to Dayton for the trial, and Bryan offered to pay Scopes' fine if he was convicted. Bryan died shortly after the trial's conclusion, but he died in his sleep five days later, on July 26, 1925, at the age of 65.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Political commentator Steve Benen said the following about the drama's inaccuracies: "Scopes issued no plea for empathy, there was no fiancee and the real Scopes was never arrested. In a 1996 interview, Lawrence stated that the play's purpose was to criticize McCarthyism and defend intellectual freedom. According to Lawrence, "we used the teaching of evolution as a parable, a metaphor for any kind of mind control ... It's not about science versus religion. It's about the right to think."


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The film includes events from the actual Scopes trial, such as Darrow's citation for contempt of court when he denounced the court by stating that it was prejudiced and his subsequent act of contrition and his request that the charge be dropped, both events occurred the next day. The film also expands on the relationship of Drummond and Brady, particularly when the two opponents have a respectful private conversation in rocking chairs, in which they explain their positions in the trial. Furthermore, the film has a sequence occurring on the night after the court recessed and Cates and Drummond are harassed by a mob even as the lawyer is inspired how to argue his case the next day.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: In the play, Brady is a more extreme Christian fundamentalist than Bryan was. According to historian Ronald Numbers, author of "The Creationists", Bryan should be considered a day-age creationist.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Because the judge ruled that scientific evidence was inadmissible, a ruling which the movie depicted, Darrow called Bryan as his only witness and then he attempted to humiliate Bryan by asking him to interpret Scripture. When Darrow, in his closing remarks, called upon the jury to find Scopes guilty so he could appeal the verdict, Bryan was prevented from delivering his summation. The guilty verdict was overturned two years later. Bryan suffered a heart attack and died in his sleep five days after the trial ended.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 10th Berlin International Film Festival on June 25, 1960. Its U.S. premiere was in Dayton, Tennessee on July 21, 1960.


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: The film grossed $2 million ($ in current dollar terms) worldwide and recorded a loss of $1.7 million ($ in current dollar terms).


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Thomas M. Pryor of "Variety" described it as "a rousing and fascinating motion picture ... roles of Tracy and March equal Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan who collided on evolution ... a good measure of the film's surface bite is contributed by Gene Kelly as a cynical Baltimore reporter (patterned after Henry L. Mencken) whose paper comes to the aid of the younger teacher played by Dick York. Kelly demonstrates again that even without dancing shoes he knows his way on the screen." Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" praised the performances of Tracy and March, and further praised Kramer for displaying "not only a graphic fleshing of his theme but he also has got one of the most brilliant and engrossing displays of acting ever witnessed on the screen." "Harrison's Reports" praised the cast as "superb", but cautioned that "it will be difficult to sell the average movie-goer unless the limited romantic sequences are exaggerated. It is principally a wordy, philosophical courtroom drama, splendidly produced. Direction is top-notch; photography, excellent..."


title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: In 2006, Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated the film four stars, referring to it as "a film that rebukes the past when it might also have feared the future". On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 93% approval rating, based on 27 reviews with an average rating of 8.1/10.


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: Jayne Atkinson (born 18 February 1959) is a British-American actress. She is best known for the role of Karen Hayes on "24", as well as her Tony Award–nominated roles in "The Rainmaker" and "Enchanted April". She has also appeared in the CBS drama "Criminal Minds" as BAU Section Chief Erin Strauss, the CBS drama "Madam Secretary" as United States Vice President Teresa Hurst, and in the Netflix political drama "House of Cards" as U.S. Secretary of State Catherine Durant.


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: Atkinson was born on 18 February 1959 in Bournemouth, England. Her family moved to the United States in 1968 when she was 9 years old. She grew up in North Miami Beach, Florida, and graduated from Pine Crest School, where she was elected Homecoming Queen in 1977. She attended Northwestern University (BS Communications, 1981), where she was initiated as a member of Alpha Chi Omega and a sorority sister of Laura Innes; and graduated with an MFA from the Yale Drama School in 1985.


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: After working in regional theatres, Atkinson appeared off-Broadway in the Manhattan Theatre Club's production of "Bloody Poetry" in 1987. She made her Broadway debut the same year in a revival of Arthur Miller's "All My Sons".


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: Subsequently, she landed title roles in more stage productions, which include "Henry VIII", "Tru", and "The Art of Success". She earned a Drama Desk Award for Best Actress in a Play for her performance in "The Skriker" in 1996. Atkinson's work in the Roundabout Theatre Company's 1999 production of "The Rainmaker" earned her a Tony Award nomination, and her performance in the 2003 play "Enchanted April" earned her an Outer Critics Circle Award, another Tony Award nomination and a Drama Desk nomination.


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: In 2009, she starred as Ruth Condomine in a Broadway revival of Noël Coward's "Blithe Spirit", which co-starred Rupert Everett, Christine Ebersole, and Angela Lansbury.


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: "Syriana". Her television acting credits include "A Year in the Life", "Parenthood", "The X-Files", "Law & Order", "The Practice", "Criminal Minds", "24", Gossip Girl and "House of Cards", opposite Kevin Spacey and husband Michel Gill. Her performance in the made-for-TV movie "Our Town" garnered her a Satellite Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Jayne Atkinson

text: Atkinson is married to actor Michel Gill, with whom she has one son. Atkinson and Gill met when they appeared together in a 1989 production of "The Heiress" at the Long Wharf Theater in New Haven, Connecticut. They both appeared in "House of Cards", though not as a couple: Gill played President Garrett Walker and Atkinson played Secretary of State Catherine Durant.


title: Kansai dialect

text: The is a group of Japanese dialects in the Kansai region (Kinki region) of Japan. In Japanese, is the common name and it is called in technical terms. The dialects of Kyoto and Osaka are known as , and were particularly referred to as such in the Edo period. The Kansai dialect is typified by the speech of Osaka, the major city of Kansai, which is referred to specifically as . It is characterized as being both more melodic and harsher by speakers of the standard language.


title: Kansai dialect

text: Since Osaka is the largest city in the region and its speakers gained the most media exposure over the last century, non-Kansai-dialect speakers tend to associate the dialect of Osaka with the entire Kansai region. However, technically, Kansai dialect is not a single dialect but a group of related dialects in the region. Each major city and prefecture has a particular dialect, and residents take some pride in their particular dialectal variations.


title: Kansai dialect

text: The common Kansai dialect is spoken in Keihanshin (the metropolitan areas of the cities of Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe) and its surroundings, a radius of about around the Osaka-Kyoto area (see regional differences). This article mainly discusses the Keihanshin version of the Kansai dialect in the Shōwa and Heisei periods.


title: Kansai dialect

text: Dialects of other areas have different features, some archaic, in common with the common Kansai dialect. Tajima and Tango (except Maizuru) dialects in northwest Kansai are too different to be regarded as Kansai dialects and are thus usually included in the Chūgoku dialect. Dialects spoken in Southeastern Kii Peninsula including Totsukawa and Owase are also far different from other Kansai dialects, and considered a language island. The Shikoku dialect and the Hokuriku dialect share many similarities with the Kansai dialects, but are classified separately.


title: Kansai dialect

text: The Kansai dialect has over a thousand years of history. When Kinai cities such as Nara and Kyoto were Imperial capitals, the Kinai dialect, the ancestor of the Kansai dialect, was the "de facto" standard Japanese. It had an influence on all of the nation including the Edo dialect, the predecessor of modern Tokyo dialect. The literature style developed by the intelligentsia in Heian-kyō became the model of Classical Japanese language.


title: Kansai dialect

text: When the political and military center of Japan was moved to Edo under the Tokugawa Shogunate and the Kantō region grew in prominence, the Edo dialect took the place of the Kansai dialect. With the Meiji Restoration and the transfer of the imperial capital from Kyoto to Tokyo, the Kansai dialect became fixed in position as a provincial dialect. See also Early Modern Japanese.


title: Kansai dialect

text: As the Tokyo dialect was adopted with the advent of a national education/media standard in Japan, some features and intraregional differences of the Kansai dialect have diminished and changed. However, Kansai is the second most populated urban region in Japan after Kantō, with a population of about 20 million, so Kansai dialect is still the most widely spoken, known and influential non-standard Japanese dialect. The Kansai dialect's idioms are sometimes introduced into other dialects and even standard Japanese. Many Kansai people are attached to their own speech and have strong regional rivalry against Tokyo.


title: Kansai dialect

text: Since the Taishō period, the form of Japanese comedy has been developed in Osaka, and a large number of Osaka-based comedians have appeared in Japanese media with Osaka dialect, such as Yoshimoto Kogyo. Because of such associations, Kansai speakers are often viewed as being more "funny" or "talkative" than typical speakers of other dialects. Tokyo people even occasionally imitate Kansai dialect to provoke laughter or inject humor.


title: Kansai dialect

text: In phonetic terms, Kansai dialect is characterized by strong vowels and contrasted with Tokyo dialect, characterized by its strong consonants, but the basis of the phonemes is similar. The specific phonetic differences between Kansai and Tokyo are as follows:


title: Kansai dialect

text: The pitch accent in Kansai dialect is very different from the standard Tokyo accent, so non-Kansai Japanese can recognize Kansai people easily from that alone. The Kansai pitch accent is called the Kyoto-Osaka type accent (, "Keihan-shiki akusento") in technical terms. It is used in most of Kansai, Shikoku and parts of western Chūbu region. The Tokyo accent distinguishes words only by downstep, but the Kansai accent distinguishes words also by initial tones, so Kansai dialect has more pitch patterns than standard Japanese. In the Tokyo accent, the pitch between first and second morae usually change, but in the Kansai accent, it does not always.


title: Kansai dialect

text: Below is a list of simplified Kansai accent patterns. H represents a high pitch and L represents a low pitch.