title: Imo State

text: After independence in 1960, the area of the present-day Imo was a part of the post-independence Eastern Region until 1967 when the region was split and the area became part of the East Central State. Less than two months afterwards, the former Eastern Region attempted to secede in the three-year long Nigerian Civil War with Imo as a part of the secessionist, Igbo nationalist state of Biafra. The area was hard fought over throughout the war with Owerri and its surrounding area exchanging hands twice before Owerri was named the Biafran capital in 1969. The present-day Imo State was captured by federal forces in early 1970 with Operation Tail-Wind taking the city and ending the war. At the war's end and the reunification of Nigeria, the East Central State was reformed until 1976 when Imo State was formed by the Murtala Muhammed regime. Fifteen years afterwards, Imo State was divided with eastern Imo being broken off to form the new Abia State.


title: Imo State

text: The State economy is highly dependent on agricultural production, especially the production of palm oil, which a majority of citizens rely on for cooking. A key minor industry is the extraction of crude oil and natural gas, especially in Imo's north and west. The State has been beset by violence at various points throughout its history, most notably the anti-cult 1996 Otokoto Riots and the ongoing separatist violence from the Eastern Security Network along with other opportunistic nativist gunmen. Despite unrest, with its fast growing population and industrialization, Imo State has the joint-sixth highest Human Development Index in the country.


title: Imo State

text: Imo State is bordered by Abia State on the East, River Niger and Delta State to the West, Anambra State on the North, and Rivers State to the South. The state lies within latitudes 4°45'N and 7°15'N, and longitude 6°50'E and 7°25'E, with an area of around 5,100 sq km.


title: Imo State

text: The State has several natural resources which includes, crude oil, natural gas, lead, Calcium Carbonate, solar and wind power, zinc.


title: Imo State

text: Profitable flora including iroko, mahogany, obeche, bamboo, rubber tree and oil palm. Additionally white clay, fine sand and limestone are also found in the State.


title: Imo State

text: There are over 163 oil wells, at over 12 different locations in the State. The main petroleum companies operating in the State are Addax Petroleum, Chevron Corporation, Royal Dutch Shell and Agip. Some of the established oil-rich local government councils include: Ohaji/Egbema, Oguta, Oru East, Iho, Oru West, Obowo and Ngor Okpala.


title: Imo State

text: Many investment opportunities exist in the State including oil and gas exploration, chemical plants, brewery plants, hydroelectric plants, gas-fired power plants, grain mills, starch production, cashews, fruit and vegetable juice concentrate production, integrated multi-oil seed processing plants, ceramics, inland waterway transport, and palm produce industry.


title: Imo State

text: Independent global brewer Heineken, through its subsidiary Nigerian Breweries, has significant investment in Imo State. The company manages the world-class Awo-omamma Brewery, a multiple-line plant.


title: Imo State

text: Many more oil and gas opportunities are yet to be developed. The federal government has been called to inspect newly discovered oil-rich areas, which might help foster economic development and job creation.


title: Imo State

text: Industrial parks and processing zones to harness the huge agricultural produce and minerals would give a major boost to the state's economic growth and industrialization.


title: Imo State

text: Oguta Lake, Palm Beach Holiday Resort in Awo-omamma , and a host of other tourist sites along the banks of the 26 km-length Njaba River present hotspots for tourism.


title: Imo State

text: Agriculture is the primary occupation, but due to over-farming and high population density, the soil has greatly degraded.This could be as a result of inefficient production techniques, poor resource base, declining soil productivity, predominance of primitive techniques of agricultural production, inadequate supply of credit, low capital investment, use of crude implements to mention but a few. The Agricultural sector in Imo State, needs the intervention of the state government and other huge private companies, this is because having a strong economy based on crude oil, natural gas and palm oil will not aid for the development of the State.


title: Imo State

text: The rainy season begins in April and lasts until October, with annual rainfall varying from 1,500 mm to 2,200 mm (60 to 80 inches).


title: Imo State

text: An average annual temperature above , creates an annual relative humidity of 75%. With humidity reaching 90% in the rainy season. The dry season experiences two months of Harmattan, from late December to late February. The hottest months are between January and March.


title: Imo State

text: With high population density and over farming, the soil has been degraded and much of the native vegetation has disappeared.


title: Imo State

text: This deforestation has triggered soil erosion, which is compounded by heavy seasonal rainfall that has led to the destruction of houses and roads.


title: Imo State

text: Imo State came into existence in 1976, along with other new states created under the leadership of the late military ruler of Nigeria, Murtala Muhammed, having been previously part of East-Central State. The state is named after the Imo River, which bears the name of a prominent Nigerian family with that family name, who were the chiefs of Imo State before the ratification of a more formal government. Part of it was split off in 1991 as Abia State, and another part became Ebonyi State.


title: Imo State

text: Imo State was created at Ngwoma, and the meetings for the state creation which began after the Nigerian Civil War ended in 1970 were chaired by Eze S. E. Onukogu.


title: Imo State

text: The people of Imo State carried out the Otokoto riots of 1996, which was a statewide protest, in response to the serial kidnappings and murders occurring in Imo at that point in time. One of the most remarkable riots that took place in Imo state, that led to the destruction of properties was the #ENDSARS protest. This protest which started peacefully not only in Imo state, led to riots and destruction of police stations, and killing of security personnel#ENDSARS in Imo State.


title: Imo State

text: The State has a three-tier administrative structure: State, Local and Autonomous community levels. The three arms at state level are the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary. The executive arm is headed by an elected Governor, who is assisted by a deputy governor, commissioners and executive advisers.


title: Imo State

text: The legislative arm is headed by the Speaker of the State House of Assembly. The current Speaker is Rt. Hon. Emeka Nduka , and his deputy is Rt. Hon. Amara iwuanyanwu . The remainder of the house is made up of elected legislators, from the 27 LGAs of the State.


title: Imo State

text: The judiciary is made up of the high court of justice and the customary court of appeal, and is headed by the Chief Judge of the State.


title: Imo State

text: The state has over 4.8 million people, and the population density varies from 230 to 1,400 people per square kilometre. Christianity is the major religion. In addition to its capital, other notable towns are Orlu, Obowo, Oguta, Awo-Omamma, Mgbidi, Mbaise, Okigwe and Ohaji/Egbema.


title: Imo State

text: There are several institutions of higher learning including both state and federal government run institutions such as:


title: Imo State

text: Soil Erosion is the most common geo-environmental hazard in Imo State, with over 360 erosion sites, out of which 57 are confirmed to be critical and in need of immediate remediation. They are mostly gully erosion found in Ideato, Orlu, Ihitte-uboma, Arondizuogu, Umuomi-ikeduru and Njaba areas of the state. These gullies are attributed mainly to poor civil engineering works, specifically road/gutter construction as well as sand mining. During road construction, adequate control of the runoff generated in this process is poorly taken into consideration. There is also no proper termination, spill way, and gabions to lower intense flow to non-erosion velocities during gutter construction. Hence, rainwater overflow from concrete gutters resulting in erosion, especially at the intersection of gutter and road.


title: Imo State

text: Due to gullies, farmlands have been significantly affected, with both farmlands and their road paths lost. There is also loss of social infrastructures such as, electricity and pipe-borne waters. Communities such as Ikeduru, Orlu, Ehime Mbano, Nwangele, Nkwerre and Mbaitoli dependent on stream and harvested rain water for domestic use have been impacted due to surface water/stream pollution caused by intense runoffs from the gully sites.


title: Imo State

text: Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP), kick-started in the state on November 11, 2014 and the ecological fund are some of the interventions for soil erosion in the State. Communities such as Eziala- Obizi in Ezinihitte Mbaise LGA; Iyiuzo-Ihioma-Ogberuru in Orlu LGA; Umueshi-Amanato in Ideato South LGA; Umuturu -Ezemazu -Urualla in Ideato North LGA; Umunumo Ibeafor in Ehime Mbano LGA; and Umueze Obazu-Mbieri in Mbaitoli LGA are beneficiaries of the NEWMAP project in Imo State.


title: Imo State

text: Available research identifies Oguta, Ohaji/Egbema, Ngor Okpala, Owerri West, Owerri North, Aboh Mbaise and Owerri municipal LGAs as very high flood areas; Mbaitolu, Ikeduru, Aboh Mbaise, Onuimo, IhiteUboma, Obowo and Ehime Mbano LGAs as moderate flood hazard areas; and northern of Isiala Mbano, Nwangele, Nkwere, Orlu, Ehime Mbano and Southern part of Ideato North, Okigwe and Ideato South LGAs as low flood hazard areas.


title: Imo State

text: In August 2019, flooding caused by heavy rain submerged about 70 houses, displaced 2000 villagers and destroyed farmlands in Orsu-Obodo community, in the Oguta local government area. Many residents in the state capital (Owerri) were also displaced in 2017. The Orlu-Umuchima-Obiohia-Akokwa-Uga federal road has been cut off by gully erosion thereby leaving motorists and other road users stranded.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In linguistics, aspect is a grammatical category that expresses how an action, event, or state, as denoted by a verb, extends over time. Perfective aspect is used in referring to an event conceived as bounded and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during ("I helped him"). Imperfective aspect is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or repetitively as time flows ("I was helping him"; "I used to help people").


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Further distinctions can be made, for example, to distinguish states and ongoing actions (continuous and progressive aspects) from repetitive actions (habitual aspect).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Certain aspectual distinctions express a relation between the time of the event and the time of reference. This is the case with the perfect aspect, which indicates that an event occurred prior to (but has continuing relevance at) the time of reference: "I have eaten"; "I had eaten"; "I will have eaten".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Different languages make different grammatical aspectual distinctions; some (such as Standard German; see below) do not make any. The marking of aspect is often conflated with the marking of tense and mood (see tense–aspect–mood). Aspectual distinctions may be restricted to certain tenses: in Latin and the Romance languages, for example, the perfective–imperfective distinction is marked in the past tense, by the division between preterites and imperfects. Explicit consideration of aspect as a category first arose out of study of the Slavic languages; here verbs often occur in pairs, with two related verbs being used respectively for imperfective and perfective meanings.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The concept of grammatical aspect should not be confused with perfect and imperfect "verb forms"; the meanings of the latter terms are somewhat different, and in some languages, the common names used for verb forms may not follow the actual aspects precisely.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The Indian linguist Yaska (c. 7th century BCE) dealt with grammatical aspect, distinguishing actions that are processes ("bhāva"), from those where the action is considered as a completed whole ("mūrta"). This is the key distinction between the imperfective and perfective. Yaska also applied this distinction to a verb versus an action nominal.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Grammarians of the Greek and Latin languages also showed an interest in aspect, but the idea did not enter into the modern Western grammatical tradition until the 19th century via the study of the grammar of the Slavic languages. The earliest use of the term recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Aspect is often confused with the closely related concept of tense, because they both convey information about time. While tense relates the time of referent to some other time, commonly the speech event, aspect conveys other temporal information, such as duration, completion, or frequency, as it relates to the time of action. Thus tense refers to "temporally when" while aspect refers to "temporally how". Aspect can be said to describe the texture of the time in which a situation occurs, such as a single point of time, a continuous range of time, a sequence of discrete points in time, etc., whereas tense indicates its location in time.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: For example, consider the following sentences: "I eat", "I am eating", "I have eaten", and "I have been eating". All are in the present tense, indicated by the present-tense verb of each sentence ("eat", "am", and "have"). Yet since they differ in aspect each conveys different information or points of view as to how the action pertains to the present.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Grammatical aspect is a "formal" property of a language, distinguished through overt inflection, derivational affixes, or independent words that serve as grammatically required markers of those aspects. For example, the K'iche' language spoken in Guatemala has the inflectional prefixes "k"- and "x"- to mark incompletive and completive aspect; Mandarin Chinese has the aspect markers -"le" 了, -"zhe" 着, "zài"- 在, and -"guò" 过 to mark the perfective, durative stative, durative progressive, and experiential aspects, and also marks aspect with adverbs; and English marks the continuous aspect with the verb "to be" coupled with present participle and the perfect with the verb "to have" coupled with past participle. Even languages that do not mark aspect morphologically or through auxiliary verbs, however, can convey such distinctions by the use of adverbs or other syntactic constructions.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Grammatical aspect is distinguished from lexical aspect or "aktionsart", which is an inherent feature of verbs or verb phrases and is determined by the nature of the situation that the verb describes.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between perfective aspect and imperfective aspect. This is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the morphological forms known respectively as the aorist and imperfect in Greek, the preterite and imperfect in Spanish, the simple past ("passé simple") and imperfect in French, and the perfect and imperfect in Latin (from the Latin "perfectus", meaning "completed").


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Essentially, the perfective aspect looks at an event as a complete action, while the imperfective aspect views an event as the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event (thus corresponding to the progressive/continuous aspect for events of short-term duration and to habitual aspect for longer terms).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: For events of short durations in the past, the distinction often coincides with the distinction in the English language between the simple past "X-ed," as compared to the progressive "was X-ing". Compare "I wrote the letters this morning" (i.e. finished writing the letters: an action completed) and "I was writing letters this morning" (the letters may still be unfinished).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In describing longer time periods, English needs context to maintain the distinction between the habitual ("I called him often in the past" – a habit that has no point of completion) and perfective ("I called him once" – an action completed), although the construct "used to" marks both habitual aspect and past tense and can be used if the aspectual distinction otherwise is not clear.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Sometimes, English has a lexical distinction where other languages may use the distinction in grammatical aspect. For example, the English verbs "to know" (the state of knowing) and "to find out" (knowing viewed as a "completed action") correspond to the imperfect and perfect forms of the equivalent verbs in French and Spanish, "savoir" and "saber". This is also true when the sense of verb "to know" is "to know somebody", in this case opposed in aspect to the verb "to meet" (or even to the construction "to get to know"). These correspond to imperfect and perfect forms of "conocer" in Spanish, and "connaître" in French. In German, on the other hand, the distinction is also lexical (as in English) through verbs "kennen" and "kennenlernen", although the semantic relation between both forms is much more straightforward since "kennen" means "to know" and "lernen" means "to learn".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The Germanic languages combine the concept of aspect with the concept of tense. Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect, progressive perfect, and [in the past tense] habitual) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is found in most languages with aspect. Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly. One instance of this is the alternation, in some forms of English, between sentences such as "Have you eaten?" and "Did you eat?".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In European languages, rather than locating an event time, the way tense does, aspect describes "the internal temporal constituency of a situation", or in other words, aspect is a way "of conceiving the flow of the process itself". English aspectual distinctions in the past tense include "I went, I used to go, I was going, I had gone"; in the present tense "I lose, I am losing, I have lost, I have been losing, I am going to lose"; and with the future modal "I will see, I will be seeing, I will have seen, I am going to see". What distinguishes these aspects within each tense is not (necessarily) when the event occurs, but how the time in which it occurs is viewed: as complete, ongoing, consequential, planned, etc.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In most dialects of Ancient Greek, aspect is indicated uniquely by verbal morphology. For example, the very frequently used aorist, though a functional preterite in the indicative mood, conveys historic or 'immediate' aspect in the subjunctive and optative. The perfect in all moods is used as an aspectual marker, conveying the sense of a resultant state. E.g. – I see (present); – I saw (aorist); – I am in a state of having seen = I know (perfect).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Also Turkish has a same/similar aspect such as "Görmüş bulunuyorum/durumdayım", where "görmüş" means "having seen" and "bulunuyorum/durumdayım" means "I am in the state".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In many Sino-Tibetan languages, such as Mandarin, verbs lack grammatical markers of tense, but are rich in aspect (Heine, Kuteva 2010, p. 10). Markers of aspect are attached to verbs to indicate aspect. Event time is inferred through use of these aspectual markers, along with optional inclusion of adverbs.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: There is a distinction between grammatical aspect, as described here, and lexical aspect. Other terms for the contrast "lexical vs. grammatical" include: "situation vs. viewpoint" and "inner vs. outer". Lexical aspect, also known as aktionsart, is an inherent property of a verb or verb-complement phrase, and is not marked formally. The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect. Typical distinctions are between states ("I owned"), activities ("I shopped"), accomplishments ("I painted a picture"), achievements ("I bought"), and punctual, or semelfactive, events ("I sneezed"). These distinctions are often relevant syntactically. For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used in English with a prepositional "for"-phrase describing a time duration: "I had a car for five hours", "I shopped for five hours", but not "*I bought a car for five hours". Lexical aspect is sometimes called "Aktionsart", especially by German and Slavic linguists. Lexical or situation aspect is marked in Athabaskan languages.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: One of the factors in situation aspect is telicity. Telicity might be considered a kind of lexical aspect, except that it is typically not a property of a verb in isolation, but rather a property of an entire verb "phrase". Achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives have telic situation aspect, while states and activities have atelic situation aspect.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The other factor in situation aspect is duration, which is also a property of a verb phrase. Accomplishments, states, and activities have duration, while achievements and semelfactives do not.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers. There are a number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time. Prominent in this category are Chinese and American Sign Language, which both differentiate many aspects but rely exclusively on optional time-indicating terms to pinpoint an action with respect to time. In other language groups, for example in most modern Indo-European languages (except Slavic languages and some Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in the verbal morphological system, with time.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In Russian, aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them morphologically, and still others with auxiliaries (e.g., English).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In Hindi, the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker. Periphrastic Hindi verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In literary Arabic ( "al-fuṣḥā") the verb has two aspect-tenses: perfective (past), and imperfective (non-past). There is some disagreement among grammarians whether to view the distinction as a distinction in aspect, or tense, or both. The past verb ( "al-fiʿl al-māḍī") denotes an event ( "ḥadaṯ") completed in the past, but it says nothing about the relation of this past event to present status. For example, "waṣala", "arrived", indicates that arrival occurred in the past without saying anything about the present status of the arriver – maybe they stuck around, maybe they turned around and left, etc. – nor about the aspect of the past event except insofar as completeness can be considered aspectual. This past verb is clearly similar if not identical to the Greek aorist, which is considered a tense but is more of an aspect marker. In the Arabic, aorist aspect is the logical consequence of past tense. By contrast, the "Verb of Similarity" ( "al-fiʿl al-muḍāriʿ"), so called because of its resemblance to the active participial noun, is considered to denote an event in the present or future without committing to a specific aspectual sense beyond the incompleteness implied by the tense: ("yaḍribu", he strikes/is striking/will strike/etc.). Those are the only two "tenses" in Arabic (not counting "amr", command or imperative, which is traditionally considered as denoting future events.) To explicitly mark aspect, Arabic uses a variety of lexical and syntactic devices.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Contemporary Arabic dialects are another matter. One major change from al-fuṣḥā is the use of a prefix particle ( "bi" in Egyptian and Levantine dialects—though it may have a slightly different range of functions in each dialect) to explicitly mark progressive, continuous, or habitual aspect: , "bi-yiktib", he is now writing, writes all the time, etc.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Aspect can mark the stage of an action. The prospective aspect is a combination of tense and aspect that indicates the action is in preparation to take place. The inceptive aspect identifies the beginning stage of an action (e.g. Esperanto uses "ek-", e.g. "Mi ekmanĝas", "I am beginning to eat".) and inchoative and ingressive aspects identify a change of state ("The flowers started blooming") or the start of an action ("He started running"). Aspects of stage continue through progressive, pausative, resumptive, cessive, and terminative.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The English tense–aspect system has two morphologically distinct tenses, past and non-past, the latter of which is also known as the "present-future" or, more commonly and less formally, simply the "present". No marker of a distinct future tense exists on the verb in English; the futurity of an event may be expressed through the use of the auxiliary verbs "will" and "shall", by a non-past form plus an adverb, as in "tomorrow we will go to New York City", or by some other means. Past is distinguished from non-past, in contrast, with internal modifications of the verb. These two tenses may be modified further for progressive aspect (also called "continuous" aspect), for the perfect, or for both. These two aspectual forms are also referred to as BE +ING and HAVE +EN, respectively, which avoids what may be unfamiliar terminology.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: (While many elementary discussions of English grammar classify the present perfect as a past tense, it relates the action to the present time. One cannot say of someone now deceased that they "have eaten" or "have been eating". The present auxiliary implies that they are in some way "present" (alive), even when the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).)


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Aspects can also be marked on non-finite forms of the verb: "(to) be eating" (infinitive with progressive aspect), "(to) have eaten" (infinitive with perfect aspect), "having eaten" (present participle or gerund with perfect aspect), etc. The perfect infinitive can further be governed by modal verbs to express various meanings, mostly combining modality with past reference: "I should have eaten" etc. In particular, the modals "will" and "shall" and their subjunctive forms "would" and "should" are used to combine future or hypothetical reference with aspectual meaning:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The uses of the progressive and perfect aspects are quite complex. They may refer to the viewpoint of the speaker:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: English expresses some other aspectual distinctions with other constructions. "Used to" + VERB is a past habitual, as in "I used to go to school," and "going to / gonna" + VERB is a prospective, a future situation highlighting current intention or expectation, as in "I'm going to go to school next year."


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as African-American Vernacular English (see for example habitual be), and of creoles based on English vocabulary, such as Hawaiian Creole English, are quite different from those of standard English, and often reflect a more elaborate paradigm of aspectual distinctions (often at the expense of tense). The following table, appearing originally in Green (2002) shows the possible aspectual distinctions in AAVE in their prototypical, negative and stressed/emphatic affirmative forms:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Although Standard German does not have aspects, many Upper German languages, all West Central German languages, and some more vernacular German languages do make one aspectual distinction, and so do the colloquial languages of many regions, the so-called German regiolects. While officially discouraged in schools and seen as 'bad language', local English teachers like the distinction, because it corresponds well with the English continuous form. It is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb "sein" ("to be") followed by the preposition "am" and the infinitive, or the nominalized verb. The latter two are phonetically indistinguishable; in writing, capitalization differs: "Ich war am essen" vs. "Ich war am Essen" (I was eating, compared to the Standard German approximation: "Ich war beim Essen"); yet these forms are not standardized and thus are relatively infrequently written down or printed, even in quotations or direct speech.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In the Tyrolean and other Bavarian regiolect the prefix *da can be found, which form perfective aspects. "I hu's gleant" (Ich habe es gelernt = I learnt it) vs. "I hu's daleant" (*Ich habe es DAlernt = I succeeded in learning).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In Dutch (a West Germanic language), two types of continuous form are used. Both types are considered Standard Dutch.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The first type is very similar to the non-standard German type. It is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb "zijn" ("to be"), followed by "aan het" and the gerund (which in Dutch matches the infinitive). For example:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The second type is formed by one of the conjugated auxiliary verbs "liggen" ("to lie"), "zitten" ("to sit"), "hangen" ("to hang"), "staan" ("to stand") or "lopen" ("to walk"), followed by the preposition "te" and the infinitive. The conjugated verbs indicate the stance of the subject performing or undergoing the action.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Sometimes the meaning of the auxiliary verb is diminished to 'being engaged in'. Take for instance these examples:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The Slavic languages make a clear distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects; it was in relation to these languages that the modern concept of aspect originally developed.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In Slavic languages, a given verb is, in itself, either perfective or imperfective. Consequently, each language contains many pairs of verbs, corresponding to each other in meaning, except that one expresses perfective aspect and the other imperfective. (This may be considered a form of lexical aspect.) Perfective verbs are commonly formed from imperfective ones by the addition of a prefix, or else the imperfective verb is formed from the perfective one by modification of the stem or ending. Suppletion also plays a small role. Perfective verbs cannot generally be used with the meaning of a present tense – their present-tense forms in fact have future reference. An example of such a pair of verbs, from Polish, is given below:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In at least the East Slavic and West Slavic languages, there is a three-way aspect differentiation for verbs of motion with the determinate imperfective, indeterminate imperfective, and perfective. The two forms of imperfective can be used in all three tenses (past, present, and future), but the perfective can only be used with past and future. The indeterminate imperfective expresses habitual aspect (or motion in no single direction), while the determinate imperfective expresses progressive aspect. The difference corresponds closely to that between the English "I (regularly) go to school" and "I am going to school (now)". The three-way difference is given below for the Russian basic (unprefixed) verbs of motion.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: When prefixes are attached to Russian verbs of motion they become more or less normal imperfective/perfective pairs, with the indeterminate imperfective becoming the prefixed imperfective and the determinate imperfective becoming the prefixed perfective. For example, prefix "при-" "pri-" + indeterminate "ходи́ть" "khodít" = "приходи́ть" "prikhodít" (to arrive (on foot), impf.); and prefix "при-" "pri-" + determinate "идти́" "idtí" = "прийти" "prijtí" (to arrive (on foot), pf.).


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Modern Romance languages merge the concepts of aspect and tense but consistently distinguish perfective and imperfective aspects in the past tense. This derives directly from the way the Latin language used to render both aspects and "consecutio temporum".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The "imperfetto"/"trapassato prossimo" contrasts with the "passato remoto"/"trapassato remoto" in that "imperfetto" renders an imperfective (continuous) past while "passato remoto" expresses an aorist (punctual/historical) past.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Other aspects in Italian are rendered with other periphrases, like prospective ("io sto per mangiare" "I'm about to eat", "io starò per mangiare" "I shall be about to eat"), or continuous/progressive ("io sto mangiando" "I'm eating", "io starò mangiando" "I shall be eating").


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Hindi has three aspects, habitual aspect, perfective aspect and the progressive aspect. Each of these three aspects are formed from their participles. The aspects of Hindi when conjugated into their personal forms can be put into five grammatical moods: indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual, and imperative. In Hindi, the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker. Periphrastic Hindi verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements is the aspect marker. The second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: There are a couple of verbs which can be used as the copula to the aspectual participles: होना (honā) [to be, happen], रहना (rêhnā) [to stay, remain], आना (ānā) [to come], and जाना (jānā) [to go]. Each of these copulas provide a unique nuance to the aspect. The default (unmarked) copula is होना (honā) [to be]. These copulas can themselves be conjugated into an aspectual participle and used with another copula, hence forming subaspects. (Seeː Hindi verbs)


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Finnish and Estonian, among others, have a grammatical aspect contrast of telicity between telic and atelic. Telic sentences signal that the intended goal of an action is achieved. Atelic sentences do not signal whether any such goal has been achieved. The aspect is indicated by the case of the object: accusative is telic and partitive is atelic. For example, the (implicit) purpose of shooting is to kill, such that:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: There are derivational suffixes for verbs, which carry frequentative, momentane, causative, and inchoative aspect meanings. Also, pairs of verbs differing only in transitivity exist.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The Rapa language (Reo Rapa) is a mixed language that grew out of Tahitian and Old Rapa among monolingual inhabitants of Rapa Iti. Old Rapa words are still used for grammar and sentence structure, but most common words were replaced by Tahitian words. Rapa is similar to English as they both have specific tense words such as "did" or "do".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Wuvulu language is a minority language in Pacific. The Wuvulu verbal aspect is hard to organize because of its number of morpheme combinations and the interaction of semantics between morphemes. Perfective, imperfective negation, simultaneous and habitual are four aspects markers in Wuvulu language.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: There are three types of aspects one must consider when analyzing the Tokelauan language: inherent aspect, situation aspect, and viewpoint aspect.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The inherent aspect describes the purpose of a verb and what separates verbs from one another. According to Vendler, inherent aspect can be categorized into four different types: activities, achievements, accomplishments, and states. Simple activities include verbs such as pull, jump, and punch. Some achievements are continue and win. Drive-a-car is an accomplishment while hate is an example of a state. Another way to recognize a state inherent aspect is to note whether or not it changes. For example, if someone were to hate vegetables because they are allergic, this state of hate is unchanging and thus, a state inherent aspect. On the other hand, an achievement, unlike a state, only lasts for a short amount of time. Achievement is the highpoint of an action.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Another type of aspect is situation aspect. Situation aspect is described to be what one is experiencing in his or her life through that circumstance. Therefore, it is his or her understanding of the situation. Situation aspect are abstract terms that are not physically tangible. They are also used based upon one's point of view. For example, a professor may say that a student who comes a minute before each class starts is a punctual student. Based upon the professor's judgment of what punctuality is, he or she may make that assumption of the situation with the student. Situation aspect is firstly divided into states and occurrences, then later subdivided under occurrences into processes and events, and lastly, under events, there are accomplishments and achievements.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The third type of aspect is viewpoint aspect. Viewpoint aspect can be likened to situation aspect such that they both take into consideration one's inferences. However, viewpoint aspect diverges from situation aspect because it is where one decides to view or see such event. A perfect example is the glass metaphor: Is the glass half full or is it half empty. The choice of being half full represents an optimistic viewpoint while the choice of being half empty represents a pessimistic viewpoint. Not only does viewpoint aspect separate into negative and positive, but rather different point of views. Having two people describe a painting can bring about two different viewpoints. One may describe a situation aspect as a perfect or imperfect. A perfect situation aspect entails an event with no reference to time, while an imperfect situation aspect makes a reference to time with the observation.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Aspect in Torau is marked with post-verbal particles or clitics. While the system for marking the imperfective aspect is complex and highly developed, it is unclear if Torau marks the perfective and neutral viewpoints. The imperfective clitics index one of the core arguments, usually the nominative subject, and follow the rightmost element in a syntactic structure larger than the word. The two distinct forms for marking the imperfective aspect are "(i)sa-" and "e-". While more work needs to be done on this language, the preliminary hypothesis is that "(i)sa-" encodes the stative imperfective and "e-" encodes the active imperfective. It is also important to note that reduplication always cooccurs with "e-", but it usually does not with "(i)sa-." This example below shows these two imperfective aspect markers giving different meanings to similar sentences.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: In Torau, the suffix -"to", which must attach to a preverbal particle, may indicate similar meaning to the perfective aspect. In realis clauses, this suffix conveys an event that is entirely in the past and no longer occurring. When "-to" is used in irrealis clauses, the speaker conveys that the event will definitely occur (Palmer, 2007). Although this suffix is not explicitly stated as a perfective viewpoint marker, the meaning that it contributes is very similar to the perfective viewpoint.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Like many Austronesian languages, the verbs of the Malay language follow a system of affixes to express changes in meaning. To express the aspects, Malay uses a number of auxiliary verbs:


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Like many Austronesian languages, the verbs of the Philippine languages follow a complex system of affixes to express subtle changes in meaning. However, the verbs in this family of languages are conjugated to express the aspects and not the tenses. Though many of the Philippine languages do not have a fully codified grammar, most of them follow the verb aspects that are demonstrated by Filipino or Tagalog.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Creole languages typically use the unmarked verb for timeless habitual aspect, or for stative aspect, or for perfective aspect in the past. Invariant pre-verbal markers are often used. Non-stative verbs typically can optionally be marked for the progressive, habitual, completive, or irrealis aspect. The progressive in English-based Atlantic Creoles often uses "de" (from English "be"). Jamaican Creole uses "a" (from English "are") or "de" for the present progressive and a combination of the past time marker ("did" , "behn" , "ehn" or "wehn") and the progressive marker ("a" or "de") for the past progressive (e.g. "did a" or "wehn de"). Haitian Creole uses the progressive marker "ap". Some Atlantic Creoles use one marker for both the habitual and progressive aspects. In Tok Pisin, the optional progressive marker follows the verb. Completive markers tend to come from superstrate words like "done" or "finish", and some creoles model the future/irrealis marker on the superstrate word for "go".


title: Grammatical aspect

text: American Sign Language (ASL) is similar to many other sign languages in that it has no grammatical tense but many verbal aspects produced by modifying the base verb sign.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: An example is illustrated with the verb TELL. The basic form of this sign is produced with the initial posture of the index finger on the chin, followed by a movement of the hand and finger tip toward the indirect object (the recipient of the telling). Inflected into the unrealized inceptive aspect ("to be just about to tell"), the sign begins with the hand moving from in front of the trunk in an arc to the initial posture of the base sign (i.e., index finger touching the chin) while inhaling through the mouth, dropping the jaw, and directing eye gaze toward the verb's object. The posture is then held rather than moved toward the indirect object. During the hold, the signer also stops the breath by closing the glottis. Other verbs (such as "look at", "wash the dishes", "yell", "flirt") are inflected into the unrealized inceptive aspect similarly: The hands used in the base sign move in an arc from in front of the trunk to the initial posture of the underlying verb sign while inhaling, dropping the jaw, and directing eye gaze toward the verb's object (if any), but subsequent movements and postures are dropped as the posture and breath are held.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Other aspects in ASL include the following: stative, inchoative ("to begin to..."), predispositional ("to tend to..."), susceptative ("to... easily"), frequentative ("to... often"), protractive ("to... continuously"), incessant ("to... incessantly"), durative ("to... for a long time"), iterative ("to... over and over again"), intensive ("to... very much"), resultative ("to... completely"), approximative ("to... somewhat"), semblitive ("to appear to..."), increasing ("to... more and more"). Some aspects combine with others to create yet finer distinctions.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: Aspect is unusual in ASL in that transitive verbs derived for aspect lose their grammatical transitivity. They remain semantically transitive, typically assuming an object made prominent using a topic marker or mentioned in a previous sentence. See Syntax in ASL for details.


title: Grammatical aspect

text: The following aspectual terms are found in the literature. Approximate English equivalents are given.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The Flight of the Phoenix is a 1965 American survival drama film produced and directed by Robert Aldrich, based on the 1964 novel of the same name by English author Elleston Trevor. The story follows a small group of men struggling to survive their aircraft's emergency landing in the Sahara. It stars an ensemble cast, with James Stewart, Richard Attenborough, Peter Finch, Hardy Kruger, Ernest Borgnine, Ian Bannen, Ronald Fraser, Christian Marquand, Dan Duryea and George Kennedy.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Though the film was not a financial success, it was well-received by critics, who praised Aldrich’s direction and the performances of its cast. It was nominated for two Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actor for Bannen and Best Editing for Michael Luciano. Hardy Krüger was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor, and Aldrich was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Drama.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Frank Towns is the pilot of a twin-engine Fairchild C-82 Packet cargo plane flying from Jaghbub to Benghazi in Libya; Lew Moran is the navigator. Passengers include Capt. Harris and Sgt. Watson of the British Army; Dr. Renaud, a French physician; Heinrich Dorfmann, a German aeronautical engineer; and an oil company accountant named Standish. There are also several oil workers, including Trucker Cobb, a foreman suffering from mental fatigue; Ratbags Crow, a cocky Scot; Carlos and his pet monkey; and Gabriele.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: A sudden sandstorm disables the engines, forcing Towns to crash-land in the Sahara desert. As the aircraft comes to a stop, two workers are killed and Gabriele's leg is severely injured.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The radio is unusable, and the survivors are too far off course to be found by searchers. Aboard the plane is a large quantity of pitted dates but only enough water for ten to fifteen days if rationed. Captain Harris sets out to try and find an oasis. When Sgt. Watson feigns an injury to stay behind, Carlos volunteers, leaving his pet monkey with Bellamy. Harris and Towns refuse to allow the mentally-unstable Cobb to go along, but Cobb defiantly follows anyway and later dies of exposure in the desert. Days later, Harris returns to the crash site alone and barely alive. Sgt. Watson discovers and then ignores him, though others later find him.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Meanwhile, Dorfmann proposes a radical idea: building a new aircraft from the wreckage. The C-82 has twin booms extending rearwards from each engine and connected by the horizontal stabilizer. Dorfmann wants to attach the outer sections of both wings to the left engine and left boom, discarding the center fuselage and both inner wing sections of the aircraft. The men will ride atop the wings. Towns and Moran believe he is either joking or delusional. The argument is complicated by a personality clash between Towns, a proud traditionalist aviator who flew for the Allied Forces during the Second World War, and Dorfmann, a young, arrogant German engineer. Moran struggles to maintain the peace.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Towns initially resists Dorfmann's plan, though Renaud sways his opinion, saying activity and hope will help sustain the men's morale. Dorfmann supervises the reconstruction, while Towns remains skeptical. During the work, the fatally-injured Gabriele commits suicide, depressing the men to where they consider abandoning the new plane's construction. Dorfmann, caught exceeding his water ration, justifies it, saying he has been the only one working continuously. He promises to not do it again but demands everyone work equally hard from then on.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Standish christens the nearly completed aircraft, "Phoenix", after the mythical bird that is reborn from its own ashes. When a band of Arabs camp nearby, Harris and Renaud leave to make contact while the others (and the aircraft) remain hidden. The two men are found murdered the next day. Additionally, Towns and Moran are stunned to learn that Dorfmann designs model airplanes rather than full-sized aircraft. Dorfmann defends himself, claiming the aerodynamic principles are the same, and many model planes require more exacting designs than full-size aircraft. With no other choice, Towns and Moran forge ahead with the plan without telling the others about Dorfmann.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The Phoenix is completed but untested. Only seven starter cartridges are available to ignite the engine. The first four startup attempts are unsuccessful. Over Dorfmann's vehement objections, Towns fires the fifth cartridge with the ignition off to clear the engine's cylinders. The next startup is successful. The men pull the Phoenix to a nearby hilltop, then climb onto the wings. When Towns guns the engine, the Phoenix slides down the hill and over a lake bed before taking off. After a successful landing at an oasis with a manned oil rig, the men celebrate and Towns and Dorfmann are reconciled.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Principal photography started April 26, 1965, at the 20th Century-Fox Studios and 20th Century-Fox Ranch, California. Other filming locations, simulating the desert, were Buttercup Valley in the Algodones Dunes, California and Pilot Knob Mesa, California. The flying sequences were all filmed at Pilot Knob Mesa near Winterhaven, located in California's Imperial Valley, on the western fringes of Yuma, Arizona.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The C-82As were from Steward-Davies Inc. at Long Beach, California, while the O-47A came from the Planes of Fame air museum in California. The R4Q-1 was purchased from Allied Aircraft of Phoenix, Arizona. The aerial camera platform was a B-25J Mitchell, "N1042B", which was also used in the 1970 film "Catch-22".


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Although principal photography was completed on August 13, 1965, in order to complete filming, a North American O-47A (N4725V) from the Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California was modified and used as a flying "Phoenix" stand-in. With the canopy removed, a set of skids attached to the main landing gear as well as ventral fin added to the tail, it sufficed as more-or-less a visual lookalike. Filming using the O-47A was completed in October/November 1965. It appears in the last flying scenes, painted to look like the earlier Phoenix P-1.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The final production used a mix of footage that included the O-47A, the "cobbled-together" Phoenix and Phoenix P-1.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The flying sequences were flown by famous racing/stunt/movie pilot and collector of warplanes Paul Mantz, co-owner of Tallmantz Aviation, filling in for his partner Frank Tallman, who had injured his leg.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: On the morning of July 8, 1965, Mantz was flying the Tallmantz Phoenix P-1, the machine that was "made of the wreckage", performing touch-and-go landings for the cameras, when the fuselage buckled during a touchdown. The movie model broke apart and cartwheeled, killing Mantz and seriously injuring stuntman Bobby Rose.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The final credit on the screen was, "It should be remembered... that Paul Mantz, a fine man and a brilliant flyer gave his life in the making of this film..."


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: The film opened in selected theaters on December 15, 1965, with a full release in 1966. Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" dismissed it as "grim and implausible", while "Variety" praised the film as an "often-fascinating and superlative piece of filmmaking highlighted by standout performances and touches that show producer-director at his best."


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: Aldrich says the film previewed well and everyone thought it was going to be a big hit but "it never took off" commercially. According to Fox records, the film needed to earn $10,800,000 in rentals to break even, but suffered a loss after only making $4,855,000.


title: The Flight of the Phoenix (1965 film)

text: "The Flight of the Phoenix" was nominated for two Academy Awards: Ian Bannen for Supporting Actor and Michael Luciano for Film Editing.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County. Positioned alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsin's western border. La Crosse's population as of the 2020 census was 52,680. The city forms the core of and is the principal city in the La Crosse–Onalaska Metropolitan Area, which includes all of La Crosse County and Houston County, Minnesota, with a population of 139,627.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: A regional technology, medical, education, manufacturing, and transportation hub, companies based in the La Crosse area include Organic Valley, Logistics Health Incorporated, Kwik Trip, La Crosse Technology, City Brewing Company, and Trane.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse is a college town with over 20,000 students and home to the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, Viterbo University, and Western Technical College.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The first Europeans to see the region were French fur traders who traveled the Mississippi River in the late 17th century. There is no written record of any visit to the site until 1805, when Lt. Zebulon Pike mounted an expedition up the Mississippi River for the United States. Pike recorded the location's name as "Prairie La Crosse". The name originated from the game with sticks that resembled a bishop's crozier or "la crosse" in French, which was played by Native Americans there.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In 1841, the first white settlement at La Crosse was established when Nathan Myrick, a New York native, moved to the village at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin to work in the fur trade. Myrick was disappointed to find that because many fur traders were already well-entrenched there, there were no openings for him in the trade. As a result, he decided to establish a trading post upriver at the then still unsettled site of Prairie La Crosse. In 1841, he built a temporary trading post on Barron Island (now called Pettibone Park), which lies just west of La Crosse's present downtown. The following year, Myrick relocated the post to the mainland prairie, partnering with H. J. B. Miller to run the outfit.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The spot Myrick chose to build his trading post proved ideal for settlement. It was near the junction of the Black, La Crosse, and Mississippi Rivers. In addition, the post was built at one of the few points along the Wisconsin side of the Mississippi River where a broad plain, ideal for development, existed between the river's bank and the tall bluffs that line the river valley. Because of these advantages, a small village grew around Myrick's trading post in the 1840s.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In 1844, a small Mormon community settled at La Crosse, building several dozen cabins a few miles (kilometers) south of Myrick's post. Although these settlers relocated away from the Midwest after just a year, the land they occupied near La Crosse continues to bear the name Mormon Coulee.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: On June 23, 1850, Father James Lloyd Breck of the Episcopal Church said the first Christian liturgy on top of Grandad Bluff. Today, a monument to that event stands atop the bluff, near the parking lot at a scenic overlook.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: More permanent development took place closer to Myrick's trading post, where stores, a hotel, and a post office were constructed during the 1840s. Under the direction of Timothy Burns, lieutenant governor of Wisconsin, surveyor William Hood platted the village in 1851. This opened it up for further settlement, which was achieved rapidly as a result of promotion of the city in eastern newspapers. By 1855, La Crosse had grown in population to nearly 2,000 residents, leading to its incorporation in 1856. The city grew even more rapidly after 1858 with the completion of the La Crosse & Milwaukee Railroad, the second railroad connecting Milwaukee to the Mississippi River.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: During the second half of the 19th century, La Crosse grew to become one of the largest cities in Wisconsin. It was a center of the lumber industry, for logs cut in the interior of the state could be rafted down the Black River toward sawmills built in the city. La Crosse also became a center for the brewing industry and other manufacturers that saw advantages in the city's location adjacent to major transportation arteries, such as the Mississippi River and the railroad between Milwaukee and St. Paul, Minnesota.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Around the turn of the 20th century, the city became a center for education, with three colleges and universities established in the city between 1890 and 1912. Similar to cities across the country, La Crosse saw population stagnation in the latter half of the 20th century as a result of suburbanization. Since 1966, La Crosse has seen its population grow by 10.73%, while its area, miles of sewer, and miles of water mains each grew by more than 50%.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In 2016, Mayor Tim Kabat and former Mayor John Medinger issued a proclamation apologizing for La Crosse's history as a sundown town that discriminated against African Americans.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse remains the largest city on Wisconsin's western border, and the educational institutions in the city have recently led it toward becoming a regional technology and medical hub.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse is located on the western border of the midsection of Wisconsin, on a broad alluvial plain along the east side of the Mississippi River. The Black River empties into the Mississippi north of the city, and the La Crosse River flows into the Mississippi just north of the downtown area. Just upriver from its mouth, this river broadens into a marshland that splits the city into two distinct sections, north and south.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Surrounding the relatively flat prairie valley where La Crosse lies are towering bluffs, one of the most prominent of which is Grandad Bluff (mentioned in "Life on the Mississippi" by Mark Twain), which has an overlook of the three states region. This feature typifies the topography of the Driftless Area in which La Crosse sits. This rugged region is composed of high ridges dissected by narrow valleys called coulees, a French term. As a result, the area around La Crosse is frequently referred to as the "Coulee Region".


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse's location in the United States' upper midwest gives the area a temperate, continental climate. The warmest month of the year is July, when the average high temperature is , with overnight low temperatures averaging . January is the coldest month, with high temperatures averaging , with the overnight low temperatures around .


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Suburbs of the city include: French Island in the Town of Campbell, Holmen, the Town of Medary, City of Onalaska, La Crescent, Minnesota, and the Town of Shelby.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: As of the census of 2020, the population was 52,680. The population density was . There were 24,221 housing units at an average density of . The population living in college or university student housing was 3,897. The racial makeup of the city was 85.6% White, 4.9% Asian, 2.9% Black or African American, 0.5% Native American, 1.2% from other races, and 4.9% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 3.2% Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: According to the American Community Survey estimates for 2016–2020, the median income for a household in the city was $46,438, and the median income for a family was $66,928. Male full-time workers had a median income of $43,438 versus $37,215 for female workers. The per capita income for the city was $27,398. About 7.9% of families and 22.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.6% of those under age 18 and 10.9% of those age 65 or over. Of the population age 25 and over, 93.9% were high school graduates or higher and 36.5% had a bachelor's degree or higher.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: At the 2010 census, there were 51,320 people, 21,428 households and 9,691 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,501.5 per square mile (965.6/km). There were 22,628 housing units at an average density of 1,102.7 per square mile (425.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 89.8% White, 2.3% African American, 0.6% Native American, 4.9% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: There were 21,428 households, of which 19.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.6% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.8% were non-families. 37.7% of all households were composed of individuals, and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.86.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: 16.2% of the population were under the age of 18, 26.5% from 18 to 24, 23.1% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The city has a variety of religious traditions and communities, including Catholicism, Protestantism, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodox, Judaism, Unitarian Universalism, and Islam.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse is the episcopal see for the Roman Catholic Diocese of La Crosse. The Cathedral of Saint Joseph the Workman serves as the seat of the Diocese. The city is also home to St. Rose of Viterbo Convent, the mother house of the Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, and the Shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. An independent catholic school district in the city, La Crosse Aquinas Catholic Schools, is also overseen by the diocese.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Protestant churches in the city include Lutheran, Baptist, Methodist, Vineyard, Presbyterian, and independent traditions. The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod has five churches in La Crosse: First Lutheran Church, Grace Lutheran Church, Immanuel Lutheran Church, Mt. Calvary Lutheran Church, and St. John's Lutheran Church.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Christ Church of La Crosse, the city's Episcopal church, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. St. Elias Antiochian Orthodox Church, the city's Eastern Orthodox Church, is listed on the city's local register of Historic places.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Other religious groups within the city include: the Congregation Sons of Abraham, a Jewish synagogue; the Unitarian Universalist Fellowship of La Crosse, which has held services since 1951; the Islamic Society Othman Bin Afaan; and the Hmong Faith Alliance Church.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse is the home and current global headquarters of several corporations and organizations, including:


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse and the surrounding communities form a regional commercial center and shopping hub. In the northeastern region of the city lies the area's largest shopping center, Valley View Mall. The surrounding area includes numerous big-box stores, and many restaurants. Other shopping centers in the La Crosse region include Three Rivers Plaza, Marsh View Center, Shelby Mall, Jackson Plaza, Bridgeview Plaza, and the Village Shopping Center. Downtown La Crosse has experienced a resurgence in recent years, providing shopping, farmers' markets, hotels, restaurants, and specialty shops.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse has over 30 active arts organizations. The Pump House Regional Arts Center hosts visual arts exhibits throughout the year plus its own series of jazz, folk, and blues performers. The La Crosse Symphony is the city's regional orchestra and the La Crosse Community Theater has won both regional and national acclaim. The city is home to the Blue Stars Drum and Bugle Corps, a member of Drum Corps International. Other arts sites include Viterbo University Fine Arts building, UW–La Crosse Art Gallery and Theater, and the La Crosse Center, which hosts national performers. Local sculptor Elmer Petersen has created sculptures that are exhibited throughout the downtown area, including "La Crosse Players" and the "Eagle" in Riverside Park. It also hosts a yearly St Patrick's Day Parade as well as Irishfest La Crosse in August


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The La Crosse Center, a convention center and arena located in downtown La Crosse on the Mississippi River, hosts a variety of sporting events, concerts, exhibits, and shows. The city annually hosts Oktoberfest USA, an Oktoberfest celebration first established in 1961.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The La Crosse Loggers of the Northwoods League, play baseball at their home field at Copeland Park on the north side of La Crosse in the summer months. In 2017, the La Crosse Showtime began play in the American Basketball Association at La Crosse Center. In the past, the La Crosse Center has been home to the Catbirds and the Bobcats of the CBA, as well as the River Rats of the IFL, the Spartans of the IFL and the Night Train of the NIFL. In the winter season, the Coulee Region Chill was a junior team in the North American 3 Hockey League at the Green Island Ice Arena. Additionally, the area's only ski hill, Mt. La Crosse, opened in 1959 and has 18 slopes and trails. The ski hill is home to "Damnation!", Mid-America's steepest trail.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The University of Wisconsin–La Crosse's "Eagles" compete in NCAA Division III. The university's 10,000 seat Veterans Memorial Field for football (turf field) and outdoor timed track opened in 2009 and hosts the WIAA Wisconsin high school outdoor track and field state championships.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The La Crosse Fairgrounds Speedway, located in nearby West Salem, is the first and only paved NASCAR-sanctioned asphalt stock car racing track in Wisconsin.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Riverside Park is situated on the riverfront of downtown La Crosse near the Blue Bridges. It hosts events such as Riverfest, Fourth of July fireworks, Oktoberfest, and the Rotary Lights. Several steamboats make stops along the river in the park, including the American Queen, La Crosse Queen, and Julia Belle Swain. The park has walking/running trails. The park was previously home to a controversial Statue of Hiawatha. Long standing public debate about whether the statue was offensive or presented a caricature based on stereotypes of Native Americans eventually led to its removal in 2020, nearly 60 years after it was erected.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Pettibone Park is located on Baron Island, across the river from Riverside Park and the downtown area. The island was originally part of the state of Minnesota. The land was transferred to Wisconsin and eventually the City of La Crosse following a border dispute that was resolved in 1919. Today the park has a variety of recreational facilities, including a beach and disc golf course.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: An extensive marsh, a natural floodplain created by the La Crosse River, divides the city between north and south. The area is protected as an important wildlife habitat and watershed to the Mississippi River. Several biking and walking paths cross through the marshland which is also used for canoeing, fishing and trapping. On the southern end of the marsh lies Myrick Park. The park was named after the city's first European settler: Nathan Myrick. It has many recreational amenities as well as a nature center and environmental education department. Hunting and fishing are very popular all seasons of the year and the Mississippi and other rivers, sloughs, creeks, lakes, the Upper Mississippi River Wildlife Refuge and hilltops and valleys with public woodlands are available to sportsmen and families.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The city government employs a weak mayor form of the mayor-council system. The mayor is elected at-large, while the 13 members of the Common Council are elected per aldermanic districts. Mitch Reynolds defeated Vicki Markussen in the 2021 La Crosse Mayoral election, succeeding retiring incumbent Tim Kabat. Kabat served as Mayor from 2013 to 2021.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Both the city and county of La Crosse have voted Democratic in every presidential election since 1988. In the 2016 Presidential Election, Hillary Clinton won by 52% of the City of La Crosse. In the 2012 presidential election, Barack Obama won 65% of the city of La Crosse and 58% of La Crosse County. In 2014, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel ranked La Crosse as one of Wisconsin's top performing Democratic cities.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In the United States Congress, Democrat Ron Kind has represented La Crosse as part of Wisconsin's 3rd congressional district since 1997. The city is almost coterminous with the 95th Wisconsin State Assembly District and is represented by Democrat Jill Billings. Additionally, Democrat Steve Doyle currently represents suburban La Crosse County in the 94th Assembly District. La Crosse is part of the State Senate District 32 and is represented by Democrat Brad Pfaff.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The La Crosse area is served by the School District of La Crosse, which as of 2022, has a total enrollment of 6,139 students. As of 2021, the district has 16 separate facilities, providing a total of 20 elementary, middle, high, and charter school programs. In 2021, the school district proposed to consolidate the district's largest high schools, Central High School and Logan High School, into a new facility. A 2022 referendum will decide whether this plan is carried through.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Catholic private schools in La Crosse include La Crosse Aquinas Catholic Schools, a Roman Catholic school district affiliated with the Diocese of La Crosse, which includes Aquinas High School and Aquinas Middle School. Another Roman Catholic school, the Providence Academy, is independent from the district and has no affiliation with the Diocese.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Lutheran private schools in La Crosse include First Lutheran School, Immanuel Lutheran School, and Mt. Calvary-Grace Lutheran School, which are part of the La Crosse Area Lutheran Schools organization and affiliated with the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. The region's largest Lutheran high school, Luther High School is located in Onalaska, Wisconsin.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse is the home of three regional colleges and universities. The University of Wisconsin–La Crosse is the region's leading public university. Western Technical College is a public community college located in the city. La Crosse is also home to Viterbo University, a Roman Catholic private institution. The Health Science Center exists as a combined effort of all the La Crosse medical centers, universities, and government agencies with a goal of advancing students in the medical fields.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse's largest newspaper is the daily "La Crosse Tribune" which serves the Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa regions. Free weekly tabloids include the "Foxxy Shopper" and the "Buyer's Express." "The Racquet" is the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse's free weekly paper.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: "Coulee Parenting Connection" is a magazine serving families in the La Crosse area. "Coulee Region Women" is a magazine serving the community.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The La Crosse Regional Airport, located on French Island, provides direct scheduled passenger service to Minneapolis, Detroit, and Chicago through Delta Air Lines link Endeavor Air, as well as American Airlines link Envoy Air. Sun Country and Xtra Airways provide charter service to Laughlin, Elko, Nevada, and other destinations. The airport also serves general aviation for the La Crosse region.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The city is served by several major highways and Interstate, including Interstate 90, U.S. Highway 14, U.S. Highway 53, U.S. Highway 61, Wisconsin State Highway 35, Wisconsin State Highway 16, and Wisconsin State Highway 33.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The Mississippi River Bridge, also known as the Cass St. bridge and the newer Cameron Street bridge (photo with blue arch) both connect downtown La Crosse with La Crescent, Minnesota. These two bridges cross the Mississippi River, as does the Interstate 90 bridge located just northwest of La Crosse, connecting Wisconsin and Minnesota.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In 2012, the City of La Crosse was the first city in Wisconsin to pass a Green Complete Streets ordinance. This ordinance requires that when roads are reconstructed the needs of stormwater management and the safety of bicycles and pedestrians are taken into account in the new design. The same year, the city passed the Bicycle and Pedestrian Master Plan to guide improvements to the transportation network for those walking or cycling in the city.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: By 2018, La Crosse had of on-street bike lanes, of paved bike paths, and of unpaved paths. As of 2021, however, La Crosse had no protected bike lanes, while bike infrastructure has generally gone unmaintained through the winter months.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: A new bikeshare system debuted in downtown La Crosse in April of 2021 through a partnership of La Crosse Neighborhoods, Inc and Koloni, an Iowa based bikeshare company. It is hoped that this service will be expanded across the city in the near future. There are currently 8 bikeshare stations and 40 bikes available for use.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The interstate Mississippi River Trail passes through La Crosse. However, the trail does not follow a dedicated multi-use path. The La Crosse River Trail and the Great River State Trail pass through the northern edge of the city. These trails combine to form one continuous trail from Trempealeau to Reedsburg. They are rail trails built on the former roadbed of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Public transit in La Crosse began with the opening of a horse-drawn streetcar line in 1878. Over time, more streetcar lines were added, and by 1893, all streetcars had been electrified. Beginning in the early 20th century, however, increasing car ownership led to a decline of the privately run streetcar system. As a result, buses began to replace streetcars throughout the city. By November 1945, the last streetcar line closed. The City of La Crosse took over operations of the buses in the 1970s from the Mississippi Valley Public Service Company, as the buses could no longer be operated profitably.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In 1945, in the first timetable after streetcar service had ended, there were four bus routes. The earliest bus left at 5:40am and the last bus returned at 1:00am. Buses ran at a 10 to 15 minute headway throughout the day. In total, the buses provided 1519.95 hours of service per week. Today, in 2021, the MTU provides only 1141.6 hours of service per week, a decline of 24.89%.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The City of La Crosse's MTU bus service with routes reaching out to the suburbs served over one million users in 2007. As of 2021, the MTU operates 11 routes with the earliest buses beginning their routes at 5:12am and running until 10:40pm at the latest.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In addition to the MTU, a regional bus service, Scenic Mississippi Regional Transit, provides service to Prairie du Chien, Viroqua, Tomah, and points in-between. The service has four routes, which only run on weekdays.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: On the Mississippi River, cargo is transported to and from this area to St Paul and St Louis, using towboats, primarily moving dry bulk cargo barges for coal, grain, and other low-value bulk goods.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Lock and Dam No. 7 on the Mississippi River is located approximately upstream from Downtown La Crosse.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The first rail line to reach La Crosse arrived in 1858 from Milwaukee constructed by the Milwaukee & La Crosse Railroad. This later became the main line of the Milwaukee Road. After the Milwaukee Road went bankrupt it became part of the Soo Line Railroad in 1985 and later came under the control of Canadian Pacific Railway. This line provides the track on which the La Crosse Amtrak station is located, served daily by the "Empire Builder" between Chicago and Seattle or Portland. As of 2021, funding has been secured to provide a second daily train from Chicago to St. Paul, stopping in La Crosse. This service is anticipated to begin in 2024.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Railroad tracks owned by Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway (BNSF) pass through La Crosse providing freight service. These were originally built by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad in 1886 to connect Chicago to the Twin Cities following the east bank of the Mississippi River. This line provided passenger service as well up until May 1, 1971, when Amtrak took over intercity passenger rail operations.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Jefferson Lines serves La Crosse with one daily bus running from Minneapolis to Milwaukee via Rochester and Madison. In addition, Badger Bus offers service on Fridays and Sundays during the school year between Madison and Minneapolis via La Crosse. Both Jefferson Lines and Badger Bus make stops at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Student Union, while Jefferson Lines also stops at the downtown Grand River Station transit hub.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: La Crosse's tap drinking water, which is raised from a deep underground Artesian aquifer, won the best natural tasting water award in September 2007 in a statewide tasting competition hosted by the Wisconsin Water Association. The city competed against groundwater and surface water utilities from Algoma, Appleton, Green Bay, Madison, Milwaukee, Pell Lake, Shawano, Shawano Lake and Watertown at the annual meeting of the association. La Crosse's drinking water is pumped from deep ground wells to a distribution center and is treated with chlorine and fluoride; some wells are also treated with polyphosphate.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: In recent years, the city discovered PFAS in the groundwater on French Island, WI as a result of fire fighting foam used at the La Crosse Regional Airport. This has led to the closure of two municipal wells, as well as prevented residents of parts of the Town of Campbell, WI from safely using their private wells. Over 500 wells on French Island have been contaminated and the State of Wisconsin has supplied bottled water to the affected residents.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Two major regional health care facilities are located in La Crosse: Gundersen Health System and the Franciscan Skemp Medical Center.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: Gundersen Health System is a nationally ranked health care system located in La Crosse that is also an ACS nationally certified Level II Trauma Center. It is the primary hospital associated with the Gundersen Clinic medical group and the location of the Western campus for the University of Wisconsin Medical School. With its main campus located in La Crosse, the system also manages 23 locations throughout Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa with nearly 6,000 employees. In 2014, Gundersen Health received the Healthgrades America's 50 Best Hospitals™ designation, placing the system among the top 1 percent of hospitals nationwide.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The Franciscan Skemp Medical Center is an affiliate of the Mayo Clinic. Franciscan Skemp, which was the first western Wisconsin hospital to open its doors in 1883 as St. Francis Hospital, was started by the Catholic Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, who still are associated with the medical center. In 1995, Franciscan Skemp merged with Mayo Clinic Health Systems in Rochester, Minnesota, located 60 miles away. A new trauma and emergency department, helicopter pad, and surgery wing recently opened in 2007.


title: La Crosse, Wisconsin

text: The Health Science Center, located on the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse campus, is a combined effort of both medical centers, UW–La Crosse, Viterbo University, Western College, the School District of La Crosse, and various government educational groups. The purpose was to prepare and train students for advancement in the medical field.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Abdominal thrusts, also known as the Heimlich maneuver or Heimlich manoeuvre, is a first aid procedure used to treat upper airway obstructions (or choking) by foreign objects. American doctor Henry Heimlich is often credited for its creation. Performing abdominal thrusts involves a rescuer standing behind a patient and using their hands to exert pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea, hopefully expelling it.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Most modern protocols, including those of the American Heart Association, American Red Cross and the European Resuscitation Council, recommend several stages for airway obstructions, designed to apply increasingly more pressure. Most protocols recommend encouraging the victim to cough, followed by hard back slaps, and finally abdominal thrusts or chest thrusts as a last resort. Some guidelines also recommend alternating between abdominal thrusts and back slaps.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Thoracic surgeon and medical researcher Henry Heimlich, noted for promulgating abdominal thrusts, claimed that back slaps were proven to cause death by lodging foreign objects into the windpipe. The 1982 Yale study by Day, DuBois, and Crelin that persuaded the American Heart Association to stop recommending back blows for dealing with choking was partially funded by Heimlich's own foundation. According to Roger White MD of the Mayo Clinic and American Heart Association (AHA), "There was never any science here. Heimlich overpowered science all along the way with his slick tactics and intimidation, and everyone, including us at the AHA, caved in."


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: From 1985 to 2005, abdominal thrusts were the only recommended treatment for choking in the published guidelines of the American Heart Association and the American Red Cross. In 2006, both organizations drastically changed course and "downgraded" the use of the technique. For conscious victims, the new guidelines recommend first applying back slaps; if this method failed to remove the airway obstruction, rescuers were to then apply abdominal thrusts. For unconscious victims, the new guidelines recommend chest thrusts.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Henry Heimlich also promoted abdominal thrusts as a treatment for drowning and asthma attacks. The Red Cross now contests those claims. The Heimlich Institute has stopped advocating on their website for the Heimlich maneuver to be used as a first aid measure for drowning victims. His son, Peter M. Heimlich, alleges that in August 1974 his father published the first of a series of fraudulent case reports in order to promote the use of abdominal thrusts for near-drowning rescue. The 2005 drowning rescue guidelines of the American Heart Association did not include citations of Heimlich's work, and warned against the use of the Heimlich maneuver for drowning rescue as unproven and dangerous, due to its risk of vomiting leading to aspiration.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: In May 2016 Henry Heimlich, age 96, personally used the maneuver to save the life of a fellow resident at his retirement home in Cincinnati. According to the article, it was either the first or second time Heimlich himself used his namesake maneuver to save the life of someone in a non-simulated choking situation.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: A choking victim is usually unable to speak, and may not be able to make much sound at all. A universal sign of choking has been designated as a silent indication from a person who is unable to breathe, and consists of placing both hands on one's own throat while trying to attract the attention of others who might assist.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Both the American Red Cross and UK National Health Service (NHS) advise that, as a first resort, a rescuer should encourage the patient to cough out the obstruction. As a second resort, the rescuer should give five slaps on the back, after bending the patient forward. Abdominal thrusts are recommended only if these methods fail.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: As with the European Resuscitation Council and the Mayo Clinic, they recommend a repeating cycle of 5 back slaps and 5 abdominal thrusts. They are not recommended on babies below the age of 1. In contrast to the prevailing American and European advice, the Australian Resuscitation Council recommends chest thrusts instead of abdominal thrusts.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Performing abdominal thrusts involves a rescuer standing behind an upright patient, and using their hands to exert forceful pressures on the bottom of the diaphragm. As an example, WebMD recommends making a fist with one hand grasping it with the other, to press with both just above the person's bellybutton. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea, hopefully expelling it. The pressure amounts to an artificially induced cough. To assist a larger person, more force may be needed. The Mayo Clinic recommends the same placement of fist and hand and upward thrusts as if you are trying to lift the person.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: If the victim can not receive pressures on the abdomen (for example, in case of pregnancy or excessive obesity), chest thrusts are advised instead. These are applied on the lower half of the chest bone, but not in the very endpoint (which is the xiphoid process and could be broken).


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: If the victim is not upright, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommends positioning the person on their back, then straddling the torso and using chest thrusts.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: It is possible for still-conscious choking victims to perform the procedure on themselves, without assistance. However, this can be difficult, so, in this cases and some others (disabled people, etc.), the use of an anti-choking device is recommended.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Due to the forceful nature of the procedure, even when done correctly, abdominal thrusts can injure the person on whom it is performed. Bruising to the abdomen is highly likely and more serious injuries can occur, including fracture of the xiphoid process or ribs. The NHS recommend that anyone who has been subjected to abdominal thrusts should seek a medical examination afterwards.


title: Abdominal thrusts

text: Researchers at Royal Brompton Hospital have demonstrated that similar intrathoracic pressures (50–60 cmHO) are produced by a first aider performing abdominal thrusts "inwards" as are produced when the force is directed "inwards and upwards". They argue that this may be easier to perform with less concern about injury to ribcage or upper abdominal organs. Self-administered abdominal thrusts by study participants produced similar pressures to those generated by first aiders. The highest pressures were produced by participants performing an abdominal thrust onto the back of a chair (115 cmHO).


title: Hallie Jackson

text: Hallie Marie Jackson (born April 29, 1984) is Senior Washington correspondent for NBC News, an anchor for both its cable and streaming divisions, MSNBC and NBC News Now, a fill-in and substitute anchor for "Today", Sunday Today With Willie Geist, And NBC Nightly News. She worked in Salisbury, Maryland, Dover, Delaware, Hartford, Connecticut, New Haven, Connecticut, and Baltimore, Maryland, before joining NBC News in 2014.


title: Hallie Jackson

text: Jackson was born on April 29, 1984, in Yardley, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Heidi and David Jackson. In 2002, she graduated from Pennsbury High School. In 2006, Jackson graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Johns Hopkins University with a B.A. degree in political science.


title: Hallie Jackson

text: Jackson started her journalism career at WBOC-TV in the towns of Salisbury, Maryland, and Dover, Delaware, in 2006, until her departure for WFSB in the cities of Hartford and New Haven, Connecticut, during 2008. Her career led her in 2012 to Hearst Corporation, where she reported for their 26 stations from Washington, D.C. In 2014, Jackson became a reporter and journalist for NBC News, for which she covered the Ted Cruz presidential campaign for the network as their embedded reporter. In late summer 2016, Jackson began anchoring the 1 p.m. ET edition of "MSNBC Live", NBC News' daytime coverage platform. In January 2017, NBC named Jackson as its chief White House correspondent, while also stating that she would transition time slots and anchor MSNBC's 10:00 a.m. hour. On September 20, 2021, Jackson moved to the 3 p.m. hour of "MSNBC Live". On November 17, 2021, Jackson began hosting Hallie Jackson NOW on NBC News' streaming channel, NBC News Now, which streams Mondays through Fridays at 5 p.m. ET.


title: Hallie Jackson

text: On May 27, 2020, Jackson was invited to and gave special remarks at her alma mater Johns Hopkins University's 2020 commencement ceremony. Other notable guest speakers during the virtual ceremony included Reddit co-founder and commencement speaker Alexis Ohanian; philanthropist and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg; Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a leading member of the White House Coronavirus Task Force; and senior class president Pavan Patel.


title: Hallie Jackson

text: Jackson and her partner Frank Thorp, a producer and off-air reporter for NBC News, announced the birth of their first child on March 9, 2020.


title: Backup

text: In information technology, a backup, or data backup is a copy of computer data taken and stored elsewhere so that it may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. The verb form, referring to the process of doing so, is "back up", whereas the noun and adjective form is "backup". Backups can be used to recover data after its loss from data deletion or corruption, or to recover data from an earlier time. Backups provide a simple form of disaster recovery; however not all backup systems are able to reconstitute a computer system or other complex configuration such as a computer cluster, active directory server, or database server.


title: Backup

text: A backup system contains at least one copy of all data considered worth saving. The data storage requirements can be large. An information repository model may be used to provide structure to this storage. There are different types of data storage devices used for copying backups of data that is already in secondary storage onto archive files.<ref group = note name=ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld/HistoricalMaterial>In contrast to everyday use of the term "archive", the data stored in an "archive file" is not necessarily old or of historical interest.</ref> There are also different ways these devices can be arranged to provide geographic dispersion, data security, and portability.


title: Backup

text: Data is selected, extracted, and manipulated for storage. The process can include methods for dealing with live data, including open files, as well as compression, encryption, and de-duplication. Additional techniques apply to enterprise client-server backup. Backup schemes may include dry runs that validate the reliability of the data being backed up. There are limitations and human factors involved in any backup scheme.


title: Backup

text: A backup strategy requires an information repository, "a secondary storage space for data" that aggregates backups of data "sources". The repository could be as simple as a list of all backup media (DVDs, etc.) and the dates produced, or could include a computerized index, catalog, or relational database.


title: Backup

text: The backup data needs to be stored, requiring a backup rotation scheme, which is a system of backing up data to computer media that limits the number of backups of different dates retained separately, by appropriate re-use of the data storage media by overwriting of backups no longer needed. The scheme determines how and when each piece of removable storage is used for a backup operation and how long it is retained once it has backup data stored on it. The 3-2-1 rule can aid in the backup process. It states that there should be at least 3 copies of the data, stored on 2 different types of storage media, and one copy should be kept offsite, in a remote location (this can include cloud storage). 2 or more different media should be used to eliminate data loss due to similar reasons (for example, optical discs may tolerate being underwater while LTO tapes may not, and SSDs cannot fail due to head crashes or damaged spindle motors since they don't have any moving parts, unlike hard drives). An offsite copy protects against fire, theft of physical media (such as tapes or discs) and natural disasters like floods and earthquakes. Disaster protected hard drives like those made by ioSafe are an alternative to an offsite copy, but they have limitations like only being able to resist fire for a limited period of time, so an offsite copy still remains as the ideal choice.


title: Backup

text: An unstructured repository may simply be a stack of tapes, DVD-Rs or external HDDs with minimal information about what was backed up and when. This method is the easiest to implement, but unlikely to achieve a high level of recoverability as it lacks automation.


title: Backup

text: A repository using this backup method contains complete source data copies taken at one or more specific points in time. Copying system images, this method is frequently used by computer technicians to record known good configurations. However, imaging is generally more useful as a way of deploying a standard configuration to many systems rather than as a tool for making ongoing backups of diverse systems.


title: Backup

text: An incremental backup stores data changed since a reference point in time. Duplicate copies of unchanged data aren't copied. Typically a full backup of all files is once or at infrequent intervals, serving as the reference point for an incremental repository. Subsequently, a number of incremental backups are made after successive time periods. Restores begin with the last full backup and then apply the incrementals.


title: Backup

text: Some backup systems can create a from a series of incrementals, thus providing the equivalent of frequently doing a full backup. When done to modify a single archive file, this speeds restores of recent versions of files.


title: Backup

text: Continuous Data Protection (CDP) refers to a backup that instantly saves a copy of every change made to the data. This allows restoration of data to any point in time and is the most comprehensive and advanced data protection. Near-CDP backup applications—often marketed as "CDP"—automatically take incremental backups at a specific interval, for example every 15 minutes, one hour, or 24 hours. They can therefore only allow restores to an interval boundary. Near-CDP backup applications use journaling and are typically based on periodic "snapshots", read-only copies of the data frozen at a particular point in time.


title: Backup

text: Near-CDP (except for Apple Time Machine) intent-logs every change on the host system, often by saving byte or block-level differences rather than file-level differences. This backup method differs from simple disk mirroring in that it enables a roll-back of the log and thus a restoration of old images of data. Intent-logging allows precautions for the consistency of live data, protecting "self-consistent" files but requiring "applications" "be quiesced and made ready for backup."


title: Backup

text: Near-CDP is more practicable for ordinary personal backup applications, as opposed to "true" CDP, which must be run in conjunction with a virtual machine or equivalent and is therefore generally used in enterprise client-server backups.


title: Backup

text: Software may create copies of individual files such as written documents, multimedia projects, or user preferences, to prevent failed write events caused by power outages, operating system crashes, or exhausted disk space, from causing data loss. A common implementation is an appended ".bak" extension to the file name.


title: Backup

text: A Reverse incremental backup method stores a recent archive file "mirror" of the source data and a series of differences between the "mirror" in its current state and its previous states. A reverse incremental backup method starts with a non-image full backup. After the full backup is performed, the system periodically synchronizes the full backup with the live copy, while storing the data necessary to reconstruct older versions. This can either be done using hard links—as Apple Time Machine does, or using binary diffs.