title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: Studies conducted for Eurocontrol, using recently recorded operational data, indicate that currently the probability of a mid-air collision for each flight hour in European airspace is 2.7 x 10 which equates to one in every 3 years. When TCAS II Version 7.1 is implemented, that probability will be reduced by a factor of 4.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: Although ACAS III is mentioned as a future system in ICAO Annex 10, ACAS III is unlikely to materialize due to difficulties the current surveillance systems have with horizontal tracking. Currently, research is being conducted to develop a future collision avoidance system (under the working name of ACAS X).


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: Originally designated TCAS II Enhanced, TCAS III was envisioned as an expansion of the TCAS II concept to include horizontal resolution advisory capability. TCAS III was the "next generation" of collision avoidance technology which underwent development by aviation companies such as Honeywell. TCAS III incorporated technical upgrades to the TCAS II system, and had the capability to offer traffic advisories and resolve traffic conflicts using "horizontal" as well as vertical manouevring directives to pilots. For instance, in a head-on situation, one aircraft might be directed, "turn right, climb" while the other would be directed "turn right, descend." This would act to further increase the total separation between aircraft, in both horizontal and vertical aspects. Horizontal directives would be useful in a conflict between two aircraft close to the ground where there may be little if any vertical maneuvering space.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: TCAS III attempts to use the TCAS directional antenna to assign a bearing to other aircraft, and thus be able to generate a horizontal maneuver (e.g. turn left or right). However, it was judged by the industry to be unfeasible due to limitations in the accuracy of the TCAS directional antennas. The directional antennas were judged not to be accurate enough to generate an accurate horizontal-plane position, and thus an accurate horizontal resolution. By 1995, years of testing and analysis determined that the concept was unworkable using available surveillance technology (due to the inadequacy of horizontal position information), and that horizontal RAs were unlikely to be invoked in most encounter geometries. Hence, all work on TCAS III was suspended and there are no plans for its implementation. The concept has later evolved and been replaced by TCAS IV.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: TCAS IV uses additional information encoded by the target aircraft in the Mode S transponder reply (i.e. target encodes its own position into the transponder signal) to generate a horizontal resolution to an RA. In addition, some reliable source of position (such as Inertial Navigation System or GPS) is needed on the target aircraft in order for it to be encoded.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: TCAS IV has replaced the TCAS III concept by the mid 1990s. One of the results of TCAS III experience has been that the directional antenna used by the TCAS processor to assign a bearing to a received transponder reply is not accurate enough to generate an accurate horizontal position, and thus a safe horizontal resolution. TCAS IV uses additional position information encoded on an air-to-air data link to generate the bearing information, so the accuracy of the directional antenna would not be a factor.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: TCAS IV development continued for some years, but the appearance of new trends in data link such as Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) have pointed out a need to re-evaluate whether a data link system dedicated to collision avoidance such as TCAS IV should be incorporated into a more generic system of air-to-air data link for additional applications. As a result of these issues, the TCAS IV concept was abandoned as ADS-B development started.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: Although the system occasionally suffers from false alarms, pilots are now under strict instructions to regard all TCAS messages as genuine alerts demanding an immediate, high-priority response. Only Windshear Detection and GPWS alerts and warnings have higher priority than the TCAS. The FAA, EASA and most other countries' authorities' rules state that in the case of a conflict between TCAS RA and air traffic control (ATC) instructions, the TCAS RA always takes precedence. This is mainly because of the TCAS-RA inherently possessing a more current and comprehensive picture of the situation than air traffic controllers, whose radar/transponder updates usually happen at a much slower rate than the TCAS interrogations.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: If one aircraft follows a TCAS RA and the other follows conflicting ATC instructions, a collision can occur, such as the July 1, 2002 Überlingen disaster. In this mid-air collision, both airplanes were fitted with TCAS II Version 7.0 systems which functioned properly, but one obeyed the TCAS advisory while the other ignored the TCAS and obeyed the controller; both aircraft descended into a fatal collision.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: This accident could have been prevented if TCAS was able to reverse the original RA for one of the aircraft when it detects that the crew of the other one is not following their original TCAS RA, but conflicting ATC instructions instead. This is one of the features that would later be implemented within Version 7.1 of TCAS II.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: Implementation of TCAS II Version 7.1 has been originally planned to start between 2009 and 2011 by retrofitting and forward fitting all the TCAS II equipped aircraft, with the goal that by 2014 the version 7.0 will be completely phased out and replaced by version 7.1. The FAA and EASA have already published the TCAS II Version 7.1 Technical Standard Order (TSO-C119c and ETSO-C119c, respectively) effective since 2009, based on the RTCA DO-185B and EUROCAE ED-143 standards. On 25 September 2009 FAA issued Advisory Circular AC 20-151A providing guidance for obtaining airworthiness approval for TCAS II systems, including the new version 7.1. On 5 October 2009, the Association of European Airlines (AEA) published a Position Paper showing the need to mandate TCAS II Version 7.1 on all aircraft as a matter of priority. On 25 March 2010, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) published Notice of Proposed Amendment (NPA) No. 2010-03 pertaining to the introduction of ACAS II software version 7.1. On 14 September 2010, EASA published the Comment Response Document (CRD) to the above-mentioned NPA. Separately, a proposal has been made to amend the ICAO standard to require TCAS II Version 7.1 for compliance with ACAS II SARPs.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: ICAO has circulated an amendment for formal member state agreement which recommends TCAS II Change 7.1 adoption by 1 January 2014 for forward fit and 1 January 2017 for retrofit. Following the feedback and comments from airline operators, EASA has proposed the following dates for the TCAS II Version 7.1 mandate in European airspace: forward fit (for new aircraft) 1 March 2012, retrofit (for existing aircraft) 1 December 2015. These dates are proposed dates, subject to further regulatory processes, and are not final until the Implementing Rule has been published.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: Among the system manufacturers, by February 2010 ACSS certified Change 7.1 for their TCAS 2000 and Legacy TCAS II systems, and is currently offering Change 7.1 upgrade for their customers. By June 2010 Honeywell published a white paper with their proposed solutions for TCAS II Version 7.1. Rockwell Collins currently announces that their TCAS-94, TCAS-4000 and TSS-4100 TCAS II compliant systems are software upgradeable to Change 7.1 when available.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: While the safety benefits of current TCAS implementations are self-evident, the full technical and operational potential of TCAS is not fully exploited due to limitations in current implementations (most of which will need to be addressed in order to further facilitate the design and implementation of Free flight) and NextGen:


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: To overcome some of these limitations, the FAA is developing a new collision avoidance logic based on dynamic programming.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: In response to a series of midair collisions involving commercial airliners, Lincoln Laboratory was directed by the Federal Aviation Administration in the 1970s to participate in the development of an onboard collision avoidance system. In its current manifestation, the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System is mandated worldwide on all large aircraft and has significantly improved the safety of air travel, but major changes to the airspace planned over the coming years will require substantial modification to the system.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: The first FAA-scheduled industry meeting was held in October 2011 in Washington DC, to brief avionics manufacturers on the development plans for "ACAS X" – including flight demonstrations scheduled for fiscal 2013. The FAA says its work "will be foundational to the development of minimum operational performance standards" for ACAS X by standards developer RTCA.


title: Traffic collision avoidance system

text: It is estimated that, if ACAS X will be further developed and certified, ACAS X will not be commercially available before mid 2020s. And it is said to be unclear at this stage whether ACAS X would provide any horizontal resolutions.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Jerry Lorenzo (born Jerry Lorenzo Manuel Jr.; October 5, 1977) is an American fashion and sneaker designer. He is the founder of the american luxury streetwear label Fear of God. He is also the son of former MLB player, coach, and manager Jerry Manuel Sr.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo created five custom looks for Justin Bieber to wear on stage during his "Purpose World Tour." He also helped to design the tour merchandise. Celebrities such as Kanye West and Kendall Jenner are known fans of the brand. Lorenzo founded his signature label in 2012, although he had no fashion training and was unknown in the world of streetwear.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: In 2018, Jerry Lorenzo launched a "competitively priced sister label" to Fear of God, this label was "ESSENTIALS" which was a subsidiary to his main brand, Fear Of God. His Label Essentials has been worn by Kanye West, Justin Bieber, Hailey Bieber, Gigi Hadid, Selena Gomez, Virgil Abloh and many more celebrities. Their aim was to make a more competitively priced label that was easily accessible to others.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo was born on October 5, 1977 in Sacramento, California. Lorenzo had a nomadic childhood as his father transitioned roles frequently in the MLB: from playing five seasons as a second baseman for the Montreal Expos to managing teams such as the White Sox and Miami Marlins to coaching for the New York Mets.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo went on to get his Bachelor’s at Florida A&M and his MBA at Loyola Marymount. As he was pursuing his MBA, Lorenzo worked part-time in the sales department at Diesel. After college, he began working for the LA Dodgers and a sports marketing agency called CSMG.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: In 2008, Lorenzo moved back to LA to throw parties which attracted celebrities and designers of the likes of Virgil Abloh, Pusha-T, and Kid Cudi. In the same year, he began managing MLB player Matt Kemp (Dodgers) with a focus on media image and mens styling. He wanted to style his client in ways that were not available so he decided to design them himself. “I felt like there was something missing in my closet, and if it was missing in mine then it must be missing from yours, too,” he says in an interview with Complex Magazine. Lorenzo decided to change career paths and built Fear of God with only $14,000.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Jerry Lorenzo draws heavy influence from a wide range of sources – most notably amongst his contemporaries Kanye West, artists like Kurt Cobain, and athletes like Allen Iverson, to name a few. In fact, Lorenzo took this inspiration and put it into existence when he worked with Justin Bieber to design his purpose tour merchandise. The aesthetics match Cobain’s style closely: graphic t-shirt, denim, and a flannel over shirt.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo recalls buying a pair of Rick Owen Dunks in 2006 – the designer was able to transform a basketball sneaker into a luxury item, integrating two very different worlds into one entity. The process of turning basic clothing items luxury is the foundation of Fear of God and what he is pushing with his Essentials sub-line. Though many brands are pushing a similar initiative, Lorenzo's creative direction differs dramatically: he defines luxury as being your own boss and making your own schedule. He even quotes Jay-Z, "Until you’re on your own, you can’t be free no matter how much money you’re making." It is the reason why Fear of God does not do fashion shows. Though he gains influences from designers such as Rick Owens, his creative mission lies is solution wear rather than conceptual design.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Additionally, Lorenzo garners influence from his parents: “We didn’t have a lot when I grew up, but players and coaches looked to my parents for something else they had about themselves that was beyond material things. In a way, it’s what [i'd] like to achieve with Fear of God." Fashion has a greater meaning to him - it goes beyond making clothes as the fashion must be built with purpose. Fear of God is always evolving and is centered around the question: "What [are we] giving to people beyond a cool ‘fit for Instagram?"


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: As his father was a professional MLB player and general manager, Lorenzo has strong knowledge about baseball and its history. With his seventh collection, he pays homage to the Negro Leagues with pieces that resembled the roles his father held when he managed MLB teams.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo started with a basic silhouette: the long white tee. Other brands did not match his vision for the piece. He sought a long but not drapey design with a loose neckline. He then moved on to hoodies and added his own special touch to them by putting a zipper on each side.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: His brand began gaining traction when rapper Big Sean’s stylist got a hold of the t-shirts. They were received well and Lorenzo was asked for more pieces. A few weeks later, Lorenzo receives a call from Kanye West, who asked to see his work on Fear of God so far. A moment of eureka hit Lorenzo when West saw eye-to-eye with his artistic vision. His idol validated his vision and it gave Lorenzo the courage and confidence to continue pushing his creativity.


title: Jerry Lorenzo

text: In 2017, the brand launched a joint collaboration with Vans transforming the Era 95 model with their all over print and transitioned with Nike in 2018 with the signature Air Fear of God 1 silhouette. He moved away from both brands taking the position of Global Head of Adidas Basketball in 2020.


title: Furlong

text: A furlong is a measure of distance in imperial units and United States customary units equal to one eighth of a mile, equivalent to 660 feet, 220 yards, 40 rods, 10 chains or approximately 201 metres. It is now mostly confined to use in horse racing, where in many countries it is the standard measurement of race lengths, and agriculture, where is it used to measure rural field lengths and distances.


title: Furlong

text: In the United States, some states use older definitions for surveying purposes, leading to variations in the length of the furlong of two parts per million, or about . This variation is too small to have practical consequences in most applications.


title: Furlong

text: Using the international definition of the yard as exactly 0.9144 metres, one furlong is 201.168 metres, and five furlongs are about 1 kilometre ( exactly).


title: Furlong

text: The name "furlong" derives from the Old English words ' (furrow) and ' (long). Dating back at least to early Anglo-Saxon times, it originally referred to the length of the furrow in one acre of a ploughed open field (a medieval communal field which was divided into strips). The furlong (meaning furrow length) was the distance a team of oxen could plough without resting. This was standardised to be exactly 40 rods or 10 chains. The system of long furrows arose because turning a team of oxen pulling a heavy plough was difficult. This offset the drainage advantages of short furrows and meant furrows were made as long as possible. An acre is an area that is one furlong long and one chain (66 feet or 22 yards) wide. For this reason, the furlong was once also called an acre's length, though in modern usage an area of one acre can be of any shape. The term furlong, or shot, was also used to describe a grouping of adjacent strips within an open field.


title: Furlong

text: Among the early Anglo-Saxons, the rod was the fundamental unit of land measurement. A furlong was 40 rods; an acre 4 by 40 rods, or 4 rods by 1 furlong, and thus 160 square rods; there are 10 acres in a square furlong. At the time, the Saxons used the North German foot, which was about 10 percent longer than the foot of the international 1959 agreement. When England changed to a shorter foot in the late 13th century, rods and furlongs remained unchanged, since property boundaries were already defined in rods and furlongs. The only thing that changed was the number of feet and yards in a rod or a furlong, and the number of square feet and square yards in an acre. The definition of the rod went from 15 old feet to new feet, or from 5 old yards to new yards. The furlong went from 600 old feet to 660 new feet, or from 200 old yards to 220 new yards. The acre went from 36,000 old square feet to 43,560 new square feet, or from 4,000 old square yards to 4,840 new square yards.


title: Furlong

text: The furlong was historically viewed as being equivalent to the Roman stade ("stadium"), which in turn derived from the Greek system. For example, the King James Bible uses the term "furlong" in place of the Greek "stadion", although more recent translations often use miles or kilometres in the main text and give the original numbers in footnotes.


title: Furlong

text: In the Roman system, there were 625 feet to the "stadium", eight "stadia" to the mile, and three miles to the league. A league was considered to be the distance a man could walk in one hour, and the mile (from "mille", meaning "thousand") consisted of 1,000 "passus" (paces, five feet, or double-step).


title: Furlong

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, medieval Europe continued with the Roman system, which the people proceeded to diversify, leading to serious complications in trade, taxation, etc. Around the year 1300, by royal decree England standardized a long list of measures. Among the important units of distance and length at the time were the foot, yard, rod (or pole), furlong, and the mile. The rod was defined as yards or feet, and the mile was eight furlongs, so the definition of the furlong became 40 rods and that of the mile became 5,280 feet (eight furlongs/mile times 40 rods/furlong times feet/rod).


title: Furlong

text: A description from 1675 states, "Dimensurator or Measuring Instrument whereof the mosts usual has been the Chain, and the common length for English Measures four Poles, as answering indifferently to the Englishs Mile and Acre, 10 such Chains in length making a Furlong, and 10 single square Chains an Acre, so that a square Mile contains 640 square Acres." —John Ogilby, Britannia, 1675


title: Furlong

text: The official use of the furlong was abolished in the United Kingdom under the Weights and Measures Act 1985, an act that also abolished the official use of many other traditional units of measurement.


title: Furlong

text: In Myanmar, furlongs are currently used in conjunction with miles to indicate distances on highway signs. Mileposts on the Yangon–Mandalay Expressway use miles and furlongs.


title: Furlong

text: In the rest of the world, the furlong has very limited use, with the notable exception of horse racing in most English-speaking countries, including Canada and the United States. The distances for horse racing in Australia were converted to metric in 1972, but in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, and the United States, races are still given in miles and furlongs. Also distances along the canals in English navigated by narrowboats are commonly expressed in miles and furlongs.


title: Furlong

text: The city of Chicago's street numbering system allots a measure of 800 address units to each mile, in keeping with the city's system of eight blocks per mile. This means that every block in a typical Chicago neighborhood (in either north–south or east–west direction but rarely both) is approximately one furlong in length. Salt Lake City's blocks are also each a square furlong in the downtown area. The blocks become less regular in shape farther from the center, but the numbering system (800 units to each mile) remains the same everywhere in Salt Lake County. Blocks in central Logan, Utah, and in large sections of Phoenix, Arizona, are similarly a square furlong in extent (eight to a mile, which explains the series of freeway exits: 19th Ave, 27th, 35th, 43rd, 51st, 59th ...). City blocks in the Hoddle Grid of Melbourne are also one furlong in length.


title: Furlong

text: Much of Ontario, Canada, was originally surveyed on a ten-furlong grid, with major roads being laid out along the grid lines. Now that distances are shown on road signs in kilometres, these major roads are almost exactly two kilometres apart. The exits on highways running through Toronto, for example, are generally at intervals of two kilometres.


title: Furlong

text: The exact length of the furlong varies slightly among English-speaking countries. In Canada and the United Kingdom, which define the furlong in terms of the international yard of exactly 0.9144 metres, a furlong is 201.168 m.


title: Furlong

text: Australia does not formally define the furlong, but it does define the chain and link in terms of the international yard.


title: Furlong

text: In the United States, which defines the furlong, chain, rod, and link in terms of the U.S. survey foot of exactly metre, a furlong is approximately 201.1684 m long. The United States does not formally define a "survey yard". The difference of approximately two parts per million between the U.S. value and the "international" value is insignificant for most practical measurements.


title: Furlong

text: In October 2019, U.S. National Geodetic Survey and National Institute of Standards and Technology announced their joint intent to retire the U.S. survey foot, with effect from the end of 2022. The furlong in U.S. Customary units is thereafter defined based on the International 1959 foot, giving the length of the furlong as exact 201.168 meters in the United States as well.


title: Dating the Bible

text: The oldest surviving Hebrew Bible manuscripts—including the Dead Sea Scrolls—date to about the 2nd century BCE (fragmentary) and some are stored at the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem. The oldest extant complete text survives in a Greek translation called the Septuagint, dating to the 4th century CE (Codex Sinaiticus). The oldest extant manuscripts of the vocalized Masoretic Text (the basis of modern editions), date to the 9th century CE.


title: Dating the Bible

text: With the exception of a few biblical sections in the Prophets, virtually no biblical text is contemporaneous with the events it describes.


title: Dating the Bible

text: Internal evidence in the texts suggests dating the individual books of the 27-book New Testament canon in the 1st century CE. The first book written was probably 1 Thessalonians, written around 50 CE. The final book (in the ordering of the canon), the Book of Revelation, is generally accepted by traditional scholarship to have been written during the reign of Domitian (81–96). Dating the composition of the texts relies primarily on internal evidence, including direct references to historical events—textual criticism and philological and linguistic evidence provide more subjective indications.


title: Dating the Bible

text: This table summarises the chronology of the main tables and serves as a guide to the historical periods mentioned. Much of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament may have been assembled in the 5th century BCE. The New Testament books were composed largely in the second half of the 1st century CE. The Deuterocanonical books fall largely in between.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Islam was the first-recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines. Islam reached the Philippines in the 14th century with the arrival of Muslim traders from the Persian Gulf, southern India, and their followers from several sultanates in the wider Malay Archipelago. The first missionaries then followed in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. They facilitated the formation of sultanates and conquests in mainland Mindanao and Sulu. Those who converted to Islam came to be known as the Moros, with Muslim conquest reaching as far as Tondo that was later supplanted by Bruneian Empire vassal-state of Maynila.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Muslim sultanates had already begun expanding in the central Philippines by the 16th century, when the Spanish fleet led by Ferdinand Magellan arrived. The subsequent Spanish conquest led to Catholic Christianity becoming the predominant religion in most of the modern-day Philippines, with Islam becoming a significant minority religion.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: In the 21st century, there is some disagreement regarding the size of the Muslim population. The 2000 Census reported that Muslims comprised about five percent of the population and a 2015 report of Philippine Statistics Authority asserted that 4.1% of Filipinos were Muslims. However, it was reported in 2004 that some Muslim groups asserted that the proper number was between eight and twelve percent. , the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (NCMF) estimated a figure of 4-5 percent, attributing the difference to a number of factors.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Most Muslims live in parts of Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago – an area known as Bangsamoro or the Moro region. Some have migrated into urban and rural areas in different parts of the country. Most Muslim Filipinos practice Sunni Islam according to the Shafi'i school.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: In 1380, Makhdum Karim reached the Sulu Archipelago and Jolo in the Philippines and established Islam in the country through trade in several regions of the island. In 1390, Minangkabau Prince Rajah Baguinda and his followers preached Islam on the islands. The Sheik Karimol Makhdum Mosque was the first mosque established in the Philippines on Simunul in Mindanao in the 14th century.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Subsequent settlements by Indian Muslim missionaries traveling to Malaysia and Indonesia helped strengthen Islam in the Philippines and each settlement was governed by a datu, rajah and sultan. Islam was introduced by Chinese Muslims, Indian Muslims, and Persians. Islamic provinces founded in the Philippines included the Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao and other parts of the southern Philippines.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: When the Spanish fleet led by Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in the Philippines in 1565, they were met by local datus as they traveled in the islands. Arriving in the Maynila, a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei, in 1570 they were met by the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: By the next century conquests had reached the Sulu islands in the southern tip of the Philippines where the population was Buddhist and Hindu and they took up the task of converting the animistic population to Islam with renewed zeal. By the 15th century, half of Luzon (Northern Philippines) and the islands of Mindanao in the south had become subject to the various Muslim sultanates of Borneo and much of the population in the almost of South were converted to Islam. However, the Visayas was largely dominated by Hindu-Buddhist societies led by rajahs and datus who strongly resisted Islam. One reason could be the economic and political disasters preeuropean Muslim pirates from the Mindanao region brought during raids. These frequent attacks gave way to naming present-day Cebu as then-"Sugbo" or scorched earth which was a defensive technique implemented by the Visayans so the pirates had nothing much to loot.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: In the year 1498–99, the Bruneian Empire conducted a series of raids against the natives of the Taytay in Palawan and the island of Mindoro which had been subjugated to the Islamic Bruneian Empire under Sultan Bolkiah. The Muslim conquest reached as far as Tondo, which was supplanted by Brunei's vassal-state of Maynila.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: The Muslim Bruneian Empire under the rule of Sultan Bolkiah, who is an ancestor of the current Sultan of Brunei subjugated the Tondo, which was ruled by Rajah Sukwu during 1500. The aftermath of the battle was the formation of an alliance between the newly established Kingdom of Guihulngan (Selurong) and the Bruneian Empire to crush the power of Tondo and the subsequent installation of the Pro-Islamic Rajah Sulaiman into power. Furthermore, Sultan Bolkiah's victory over Sulu and Seludong (modern day Manila), as well as his marriages to Laila Mecanai the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir al-Ombra (an uncle of Sharifa Mahandun married to Nakhoda Angging or Maharaja Anddin of Sulu), and to the daughter of Datu Kemin, widened Brunei's influence in the Philippines.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: A new dynasty began under a local Lumad leader who accepted Islam and became Rajah Salalila or Rajah Sulayman I. He also started to established a trading challenge to the already rich House of Rajah Lakandula in Tondo. Islam was further strengthened by the arrival of Muslim traders and from Jolo, Mindanao, Malaysia, and Indonesia.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Rajah Salalila and Rajah Matanda in the south (now the Intramuros district) were installed as Muslim rajas by converted Muslims and the Buddhist-Hindu settlement was under Lakandula in northern Tundun (now Tondo, Manila.)


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: The Chinese Muslim mariner Zheng He is credited with founding several Chinese Muslim communities in Mandaue and along the shores of Lapu-lapu, the Bohol Peninsula, and the Philippines during China's early Ming dynasty. These Muslims supposedly followed the Badjao school in the Chinese language. This Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, who urged his followers to assimilate and take local names.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Rajah Sulayman was the Rajah of Maynila, a polity at the mouth of the Pasig River where it meets Manila Bay, at the time the Spanish forces first came to Luzon.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Sulayman resisted the Spanish forces, and thus, along with Rajah Matanda and Lakan Dula, was one of three Rajahs who played significant roles in what was the Spanish conquest of their polities of the Pasig River delta in the early 1570s.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Moro (derived from the Spanish word meaning "Moors") is the appellation inherited from the Spaniards, for Filipino Muslims of Mindanao. The Spanish distinguished the Moro from the "Indios", which referred to the Christianised people of Luzon and the Visayas. Islam continued to spread in Mindanao, from centers such as Sulu and Cotabato.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: The Muslims seek to establish an independent Islamic province in Mindanao to be named Bangsamoro. The term "Bangsamoro" is a combination of an Old Malay word meaning "nation" or "state" with the Spanish word "Moro" which means "Muslim". A significant Moro Rebellion occurred during the Philippine–American War. Conflicts and rebellion have continued in the Philippines from the pre-colonial period up to the present. Other related issue with the Moro secession is the territorial dispute of eastern Sabah in Malaysia which claimed by the Sultanate of Sulu as their territory.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: The Moros have a history of resistance against Spanish, American, and Japanese rule for over 400 years. The violent armed struggle against the Spanish, Americans, Japanese and Filipinos is considered by current Moro (Muslim) leaders as part of the four centuries long "national liberation movement" of the Bangsamoro (Muslim Nation). The 400-year-long resistance against the Japanese, Filipinos, Americans, and Spanish by the Moro/Muslims persisted and morphed into their current war for independence against the Philippine state.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Muslim leaders in Zamboanga petitioned the Ottoman Empire to send a representative to advise them on religious matters. A scholar from the Shaykh al-Islām was sent in response.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: In 2012, research was conducted on various cultural properties in Islamic areas in Mindanao. The research included the 'Maradika' Qur'an of Bayang, description of the notes found in the Qur'an of Bayang, the Qur'an and Islamic manuscripts of the Sheikh Ahmad Bashir collection, the 'Dibolodan' Qur'an of Bacong in Marantao, the Qur'an and prayer scroll of Guro sa Masiu in Taraka, the 'Story of the Prophet Muhammad' at the Growing Memorial Research Center of the Dansalan College, and the Islamic Manuscript Art of the Philippines. In 2014, the Maradika Qur'an of Bayang was declared as a "National Cultural Treasure", the first Islamic manuscript in the Philippines to be declared as such.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: In 2018, a unification gathering of all the sultans of the Sulu archipelago and representatives from all ethnic communities in the Sulu archipelago commenced in Zamboanga City, declaring themselves as the "Bangsa Sug" peoples and separating them from the "Bangsa Moro" peoples of mainland central Mindanao. They cited the complete difference in cultures and customary ways of life as the primary reason for their separation from the Muslims of mainland central Mindanao. They also called the government to establish a separate Philippine state, called "Bangsa Sug", from mainland Bangsa Moro or to incorporate the Sulu archipelago to whatever state is formed in the Zamboanga peninsula, if ever federalism in the Philippines is approved in the coming years.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: There is also a growing community of Filipino converts to Islam known popularly as Balik Islam (return or returnees to Islam), often led by former Christian missionary converts.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Most Muslims in the Philippines live on the island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago and Palawan. The Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) is the region of the Philippines that is composed of all the Philippines' predominantly Muslim provinces, namely: Basilan (except Isabela City), Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. It also comprised the cities of Marawi, Lamitan, and Cotabato City and the 63 Barangays in North Cotabato who opted to join the autonomous region. It is the only region that has its own government. The regional capital is at Cotabato City, which is outside the jurisdiction of the former and defunct Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) but is now part of the Bangsamoro region after the majority of the residents voted in favor for their inclusion in the autonomous region in the ratification of the Bangsamoro Organic Law on January 21, 2019.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: Other provinces and regions with large Muslim populations as well have a significant history with Moro/Muslims include North Cotabato, Bicol Region, Eastern Visayas, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat and the Zamboanga Peninsula. However, these are not part of the Bangsamoro region.


title: Islam in the Philippines

text: The predominantly Muslim ethnolinguistic groups of the Philippines are the Iranun, Jama Mapun, Kalagan, Kalibugan, Maguindanao, Maranaw, Molbog, Sama (including the Badjao, Balanguingui, and various Tawi-Tawi Sama groups), Sangil, Tausūg, and Yakan.


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், "caṅka ilakkiyam";) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், "Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ") connotes the ancient Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings around Madurai and Kapāṭapuram (Pandyan capitals): the first over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years before the start of the common era. Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical. Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era spanned from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE, while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the colophons.


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in the monasteries of Hinduism, particularly those related to Shaivism near Kumbakonam, by colonial-era scholars in the late nineteenth century. The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It comprises an "Urtext" of oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam), the Ettuttokai anthology (the "Eight Collections"), the Pattuppattu anthology (the "Ten Songs"). The Tamil literature that followed the Sangam period – that is, after c. 250 CE but before c. 600 CE – is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature.


title: Sangam literature

text: This collection contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of the known Sangam literature, with Kapilar – the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire corpus. These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long. The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is largely about love ("akam") and war ("puram"), with the exception of the shorter poems such as in "paripaatal" which is more religious and praise Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan.


title: Sangam literature

text: On their significance, Zvelebil quotes A. K. Ramanujan, "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius. The Tamils, in all their 2,000 years of literary effort, wrote nothing better."


title: Sangam literature

text: "Sangam" literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman, a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia. The first has roots in the Hindu deity Shiva, his son Murugan, Kubera as well as 545 sages including the famed Rigvedic poet Agastya. The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman. The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the "Akattiyam" and the "Tolkāppiyam" survived and guided the third Sangam scholars.


title: Sangam literature

text: A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the eighth century CE – describes this legend. The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in "Tirupputtur Tantakam" by Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-century "Tiruvilaiyatal puranam" by Perumparrap Nampi. The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part of "Ettuttokai"):


title: Sangam literature

text: These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses Kumari Kandam have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and "Classical" literature should be used instead. According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman, is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of the "Mahabharata" into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam".


title: Sangam literature

text: According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry". The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such as "caṅka ilakkiyam" or "Sangam age poetry".


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. According to Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family, some merchants, some farmers. At least 27 of the poets were women. These poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil society had already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides had shared mythology, values and literary conventions.


title: Sangam literature

text: The available literature from this period was categorised and compiled in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are the "patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku" ("the eighteen greater text series") comprising "Ettuthogai" (or "Ettuttokai", "Eight Anthologies") and the "Pattuppāṭṭu" ("Ten Idylls"). According to Takanobu Takahashi, this compilation is as follows:


title: Sangam literature

text: Sangam literature is broadly classified into akam (, inner), and puram (, outer). The "akam" poetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual union and eroticism. The "puram" poetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war and public life. Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry is "akam" themed, and about one fourth is "puram".


title: Sangam literature

text: Sangam literature, both "akam" and "puram", can be subclassified into seven minor genre called "tiṇai" (திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set. These are: "kuṟiñci" (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; "mullai" (முல்லை), pastoral forests; "marutam" (மருதம்), riverine agricultural land; "neytal" (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; "pālai" (பாலை) arid. In addition to the landscape based "tiṇai"s, for "akam" poetry, "ain-tinai" (well matched, mutual love), "kaikkilai" (ill matched, one sided), and "perunthinai" (unsuited, big genre) categories are used. The "Ainkurunuru" – 500 short poems anthology – is an example of mutual love poetry.


title: Sangam literature

text: Similar "tiṇai"s pertain to "puram" poems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity: "vetchi" (cattle raid), "vanchi" (invasion, preparation for war), "kanchi" (tragedy), "ulinai" (siege), "tumpai" (battle), "vakai" (victory), "paataan" (elegy and praise), "karanthai" , and "pothuviyal". The "akam" poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community will fill in and understand given their oral tradition. The "puram" poetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.


title: Sangam literature

text: The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse. The two meters found in the early poetry are "akaval" and "vanci". The fundamental metrical unit in these is the "acai" (metreme), itself of two types – "ner" and "nirai". The "ner" is the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the "nirai" is the unstressed/short syllable combination (pyrrhic (dibrach) and iambic) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition. The "acai" in the Sangam poems are combined to form a "cir" (foot), while the "cir" are connected to form a "talai", while the line is referred to as the "ati". The "sutras" of the "Tolkappiyam" – particularly after "sutra" 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.


title: Sangam literature

text: The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to "akaval", also called "aciriyam", Sangam meter rule:


title: Sangam literature

text: This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza. The metrical patterns within the "akaval" meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations. The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4). The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter in "Kalittokai" and the mixed Paripatal meter in "Paripatal".


title: Sangam literature

text: The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as Arumuka Navalar (1822-1879), C.W. Damodaram Pillai (1832-1901) and U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar (1855-1942).


title: Sangam literature

text: Arumuka Navalar from Jaffna first inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing a fine edition of Tirukkuṟaḷ by 1860. Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize Shaiva Hinduism against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and Shaiva literature to wider attention. He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 ("Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai", one of the Ten Idylls). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on "Tolkappiyam".


title: Sangam literature

text: C.W. Damodaram Pillai, also from Jaffna, was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism. These included:


title: Sangam literature

text: Aiyar – a Tamil scholar and a Shaiva pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of Kumbhakonam, he reached out to the monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted. There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature. Aiyar published his first print of the Ten Idylls in 1889.


title: Sangam literature

text: Together, these scholars printed and published "Kalittokai" (1887), "Tholkappiyam", "Nachinarkiniyar Urai" (1895), "Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai" (1868), "Manimekalai" (1898), "Silappatikaram" (1889), "Pattuppāṭṭu" (1889), "Patiṟṟuppattu" (1889). "Puṟanāṉūṟu" (1894), "Aiṅkurunūṟu" (1903), "Kuṟuntokai" (1915), "Naṟṟiṇai" (1915), "Paripāṭal" (1918) and "Akanāṉūṟu" (1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems.


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel to Sanskrit, and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancient Madurai (Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil.


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era "Ainkurunuru" poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of Brahmin boys". These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households. The "Pattinappalai" poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god Murugan and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent. One of the early loan words, for example, is "acarya–" from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as "aciriyan" (priest, teacher, scholar), "aciriyam" or "akavar" or "akaval" or "akavu" (a poetic meter).


title: Sangam literature

text: The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is almost entirely non-religious, except for the occasional mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of "Paripaatal" in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan. Similarly, the 150 poems of "Kalittokai" – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the "Mahabharata", Kama, Krishna, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India. One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of Benares", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets. Some of the "Paripaatal" love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals (Magh Mela) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.


title: Sangam literature

text: Further, the colophons of the "Paripaatal" poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.


title: Sangam literature

text: The first music album on Tamil Sangam poetry titled by Composer Rajan Somasundaram in collaboration with Durham Symphony, featured in Amazon's Top#10 'International Music albums' category in July 2020 and was called a "A Major event in the world of Music" by The Hindu Music review.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Newton Edward Daniels (6 April 1938 – 17 March 2016), known professionally as Paul Daniels, was an English magician and television presenter. He achieved international fame through his television series "The Paul Daniels Magic Show", which ran on the BBC from 1979 to 1994.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was known for his catchphrase "You'll like this... not a lot, but you'll like it!", and for his marriage to his assistant, Debbie McGee. He was awarded the "Magician of the Year" Award by the Academy of Magical Arts in 1982, the first magician from outside the United States to receive it. He also won the Golden Rose of Montreux in 1985. He was a Member of the Inner Magic Circle with Gold Star. He has been described as "The Godfather of Magic" and has been repeatedly credited with inspiring many top professional magicians to start in the profession.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was outspoken on matters including politics, current affairs, magic, entertainment, and fellow celebrities. Towards the end of his life he also appeared in reality television shows. He was described by former BBC executive Lord Grade upon his death as "a genius", "a brilliant showman" and a "pillar of Saturday Night for the BBC in their golden era of ratings".


title: Paul Daniels

text: Newton Edward Daniels was born on 6 April 1938 in the South Bank area of Middlesbrough, the son of Handel Newton "Hughie" Daniels and Nancy ("née" Lloyd). He was of Welsh descent. His father was a cinema projectionist at the Hippodrome Theatre and a worker for ICI in Wilton, North Riding of Yorkshire. After completing his education at Sir William Turners Grammar School on Coatham Road in Coatham, North Riding of Yorkshire and holding his first job as a junior clerk in the treasurer's office of Eston Council, Daniels served as a conscript in the 1st Battalion, Green Howards, during his national service. He was posted to the British garrison in Hong Kong before training as an accountant in local government.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Even in his early age, Daniels had thinning hair, which he claimed to be an act of "magic". He later sported a wig for much of his television career. After working as a junior clerk and then as an auditor in local government, he joined his parents in their grocery business. He later set up his own shop, at one point a mobile shop, but eventually gave this up in favour of his growing career as a magician.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In 2012 Daniels explained the origin of his stage name to "The Guardian", saying: "I borrowed the name Paul from my first son, who was born in 1960. I was born Newton Edward Daniels, everyone called me Ted, but Paul worked better for showbusiness".


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels' interest in magic began at the age of 11 when, during a holiday, he read a book called "How to Entertain at Parties". He began performing magic as a hobby, occasionally entertaining at parties and youth clubs and later doing shows for fellow servicemen during his national service. After returning to civilian life he continued to develop his magic by performing in clubs in the evenings while working at his grocery business during the day. At one point he worked with his first wife Jackie under the name of "The Eldani's", an anagram of Daniels. It was while working the clubs that he developed what would become his long-running catchphrase, "You'll like this ... not a lot, but you'll like it." He stated that he first came up with the line at a club in Bradford as a way to deal with a heckler.


title: Paul Daniels

text: A major turning point in Daniels' career came in 1969 when he was offered a summer season in Newquay in Cornwall. He decided to sell his grocery business and try magic as a full-time career. He made his television debut on the long-running talent show "Opportunity Knocks" in 1970, and came second. Television producer Johnnie Hamp saw Daniels in that show and later gave him a regular spot on a show compèred by Bernard Manning, "The Wheeltappers and Shunters Social Club", for Granada Television.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In 1978 ITV gave Daniels his own Sunday night show, "Paul Daniels' Blackpool Bonanza". His first series for the BBC was "For My Next Trick", where Daniels appeared with several other magicians and singer Faith Brown. This led to Daniels presenting his own television series, "The Paul Daniels Magic Show", on BBC1 from 1979 until 1994. As well as featuring tricks and illusions for pure entertainment, he also included a regular segment (the "Bunco Booth") in which he exposed the confidence tricks of street charlatans. He also replicated the kind of results that have impressed researchers of the paranormal and parapsychologists in a segment called "Under Laboratory Conditions", thereby demonstrating his scepticism about claims made in these fields.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels starred in his own stage show, "It's Magic", at the Prince of Wales Theatre from 10 December 1980 until 6 February 1982. At that time, the show was one of the longest-running magic shows ever staged in London. By this point he was already working with his future wife, Debbie McGee, whose role as his assistant would become a major feature of his act. She had first worked with him on his summer season show in Great Yarmouth in 1979.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In addition to his magic shows he hosted other television series during the 1980s and 1990s, including three BBC1 quiz shows: "Odd One Out", "Every Second Counts" and "Wipeout" (all of which were based on short-lived American game shows), and the children's television programme "Wizbit" (also for the BBC), about a magician called Wizbit and a rabbit called Woolly, who lived in Puzzleopolis. In 1987, he was a timekeeper in the charity television special "The Grand Knockout Tournament".


title: Paul Daniels

text: Also in 1987, Daniels hosted a controversial Halloween live special of his magic show where he replicated a Harry Houdini escape from an iron maiden. The trick was deliberately staged to give the illusion that the escape had gone tragically wrong and Daniels had been killed – it was later broadcast that he had successfully escaped from the device.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels and McGee were the focus of one of the episodes of the 2001 BBC documentary series "When Louis Met...", presented by Louis Theroux, with Daniels additionally appearing on "Da Ali G Show" in an Ali G costume, and was interviewed by Caroline Aherne in her guise as Mrs Merton. In 2004, Daniels and McGee appeared in the Channel 5 reality TV show, "The Farm", and in 2006, they appeared in the ITV show "". They were the first act voted off the show, after singing "Let Me Entertain You" by Robbie Williams. Daniels and McGee also made a guest appearance in the "Wife Swap" series in early 2007, with McGee changing places with journalist and presenter Vanessa Feltz.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In 2010, he competed in "Strictly Come Dancing" with his partner Ola Jordan. They were consistently criticised by the judges and were the second couple to leave the competition.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In August 2011, while filming a scene for ITV's "Sooty", Daniels was struck by a flying pizza, thrown by the puppet Sooty. He got a piece of pizza in his eye and called in to a cottage hospital for them to rinse it out. Later that month, he appeared with his son, Martin, on episode 9 of the first season of "".


title: Paul Daniels

text: In 2008 and 2010, Daniels toured with 'The Best of British Variety Tour', with acts including Cannon and Ball, Christopher Biggins, Frank Carson and The Krankies, where he closed the first half of the show.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In 2013, Daniels and Debbie McGee toured their 'First Farewell Tour', followed by a tour 'comically' entitled 'Back Despite Popular Demand Tour' a year later. They toured 'The Intimate Tour' in 2015.


title: Paul Daniels

text: They starred in the Pantomime 'Aladdin', at the Ipswich Regent Theatre from December 2015 until January 2016, completing the run a few days before Paul was taken ill.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was awarded the "Zina Bennett Trophy" from the British Ring of the International Brotherhood of Magicians in 1964 while he was known as "Ted Daniels"


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was awarded the "Magician of the Year’" Award by the Academy of Magical Arts in 1982, becoming the first magician from outside the US to receive it. An Easter special of "The Paul Daniels Magic Show" won the Golden Rose of Montreux Award at the International TV Festival in Switzerland in 1985.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was the recipient of "The Maskelyne", awarded for services to British Magic by The Magic Circle in 1988.


title: Paul Daniels

text: He was awarded "The Devant", for services to International Magic by The Magic Circle in 2007 and was bestowed "The Carlton Comedy Award" in 2012 by the same organization.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was also awarded the "Great Lafayette Award" by the Edinburgh International Magic Festival in 2011.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels was a supporter of the Conservative Party. He was reported to have considered leaving the UK with the election of a Labour Party government at the 1997 general election. Daniels later said that his views had been misrepresented, and he would only have considered leaving if they raised income tax. Daniels stated that he had limited sympathy with the homeless because he had come from a "very poor" background and "grafted" to achieve his success. In 2011, he tweeted that he did not consider the term "Paki" to be any more offensive than the word "Brit" and described those who held the opposite view of being excessively politically correct. Daniels was personally affected by the winter storms of 2013–2014 and described himself in an interview for "Channel 4 News" as a climate change sceptic, instead attributing flooding to changes in procedures of The Environment Agency, particularly with regard to dredging. He supported the hereditary system in the House of Lords, expressing the view that the aristocracy had "genetic knowledge" that others didn't have. On the subject of criminal justice, he once publicly offered to help murderer Ian Huntley end his own life.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels refused to attend magic conferences in the UK since they "...were ruined for me by bitchiness and jealousy...now I only go to foreign conventions where, to be honest, I am greeted with respect and civility AND I have tons of 'foreign' magician friends." He was dismissive of modern illusionists, once describing David Blaine as "not very original". He commented on other television personalities such as Anne Robinson and Chris Morris, claiming that Robinson had hated him ever since his 1987 Halloween special hoax performance, while describing Morris as "just nasty." He was dismissive of the younger generation of impressionists, saying: "Forget Alistair McGowan. There's been no-one good since Mike Yarwood." Daniels was also critical of journalists, stating "I don't really understand why journalism has to be so nasty, so sarcastic and intrusive".


title: Paul Daniels

text: Following the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal in 2012, Daniels said that while he believed his fellow BBC broadcaster Savile was "undoubtedly a bad guy", he questioned whether some accusers were "for real". His comments were criticised by the NSPCC and Mark Williams-Thomas, the former child protection officer who had exposed Savile's crimes. Williams-Thomas accused Daniels of "belittling" the victims of Jimmy Savile in one of his blog posts. The entry was later removed from the blog.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels married his first wife, Jacqueline Skipworth (born 1942), in 1960; she was 17 and he was 21. They had three sons together: Gary, Paul, and magician Martin. All three sons occasionally appeared on "The Paul Daniels Magic Show" in varying capacities. Daniels's father often made props for the show, such as wooden boxes for the Selbit Sawing illusion, whilst his mother sewed the stage curtains for his theatre tours.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels married his second wife, long-time assistant Debbie McGee, on 2 April 1988 in Buckinghamshire. The couple met in London in May 1979 during rehearsals for Daniels's summer season show in Great Yarmouth that year. When they married, he was 50 and she was 29. McGee went on to work with Daniels in his 1980 summer show in Bournemouth and then his London stage show "It's Magic" before being offered the role of assistant in his long-running television series. Their relationship gradually became more established, and he proposed in 1987. Early in their marriage, they lived in a house in Denham that once belonged to Roger Moore. In 1998, they moved to a house on the banks of the River Thames in Wargrave, Berkshire.


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels's autobiography, "Under No Illusion", includes descriptions of his and McGee's joking life: "I was writing and needed to concentrate, so I had a 'Do Not Disturb' sign on my back. Eventually I went to bed and Debbie was lying stark naked on the bed – eat your heart out fellas! She was wearing the sort of sleeping blindfold you get on long-haul flights. Printed on it was 'Do Not Disturb'. But further down her body she had a sign that said 'Disturb'!"


title: Paul Daniels

text: Daniels also claimed in the book to have had, as of 2000, sexual relations with more than 300 women. He said that he had a "passionate" encounter with a schoolgirl hitch-hiker in 1969 when he was aged 30, though he ejected her from the car upon realising her age.


title: Paul Daniels

text: In 2012, Daniels cut off his left index finger and the tip of his ring finger in an accident with a circular saw, in the garden shed of his Wargrave home. He drove himself from his home to hospital in Henley-on-Thames, where the index finger was reattached.


title: Paul Daniels

text: On 20 February 2016, Daniels had a fall and was taken to hospital, where he was treated by medical staff for suspected pernicious anemia. However it was later discovered that he had an incurable brain tumour. He died less than a month later, on 17 March, at the age of 77. Tributes included one from fellow magician Dynamo: “Paul was truly a giant of the entertainment world who really defined magic for over 20 years,” he said. “As a working-class magician from the North, he was personally a huge inspiration for me and I know that he has inspired countless magicians around the world and will forever be known as one of the all-time greats.”


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: Private Benjamin is a 1980 American comedy film directed by Howard Zieff, written by Nancy Meyers, Charles Shyer, and Harvey Miller, and starring Goldie Hawn, Eileen Brennan, and Armand Assante.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: The film was one of the biggest box office hits of 1980, and also spawned a short-lived television series starring Lorna Patterson as Judy Benjamin, with Brennan reprising her role as Captain Lewis. "Private Benjamin" ranked No. 82 on the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Laughs list, and No. 59 on Bravo's list of "100 Funniest Movies".


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: Judy Benjamin, a 28-year-old Jewish woman from a sheltered wealthy upbringing whose lifelong dream is to "marry a professional man," is devastated after Yale Goodman, her new husband, dies on their wedding night during sex. Emotionally adrift, Judy tells her story on a radio call-in show and meets another caller, Army recruiter SFC James Ballard, who leads her to believe military life will provide the "family" she seeks. He also pitches the service as a getaway, comparing it to a spa vacation, but Judy has a rude awakening upon arriving at basic training, realizing the recruiter conned her. She wants to quit almost immediately, but is astonished to find out, contrary to the assertions of her recruiting sergeant, that she cannot leave.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: Army regulations and the continual disapproval of both Captain Doreen Lewis and SFC L. C. Ross, the drill sergeant, frustrate Judy—but when her parents arrive at Fort Biloxi to take her home, berating her for "punishing" them with her decisions, she decides to stay and finish basic training. Judy does complete her training after a war games exercise in which her squad exposes an affair between a member of her training platoon and a rival company officer (with whom Lewis was also having an affair), and takes the leaders of both sides hostage. Upon completion of basic training, Judy and her friends spend the weekend on leave in New Orleans, where she meets Henri Tremont, a French doctor there for a medical conference. After a brief romance, Henri returns to Paris and Judy begins training with an elite paratrooper unit, the Thornbirds.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: Judy quickly discovers she was chosen for paratrooper training because the unit's commander finds her attractive; after the other trainees have jumped from the plane, he attempts to sexually assault her. When Judy jumps out of the plane rather than comply, he attempts to have her transferred far from Biloxi as soon as possible. Rather than accept what she sees as an undesirable post in Greenland or Guam, Judy negotiates an assignment to Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in Belgium, and meets up with Henri again on a visit to Paris. He proposes marriage and she accepts, but when Captain Lewis discovers that Tremont is a communist, Judy is forced to choose between the Army and love.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: After she chooses Henri and gets engaged, he reveals his childish, controlling nature. He tries to "remake" Judy, and also insists she sign a prenuptial agreement to protect his centuries-old family home. Finally, when Henri sleeps with the house maid and also makes it obvious that he has not gotten over his ex-girlfriend Clare, Judy has a change of heart. On her wedding day, in the middle of the ceremony, she realizes she is on the verge of a huge mistake. Judy abandons Henri at the altar and heads off into the unknown, empowered by her newfound freedom and excited about what may lie ahead.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: The film holds a score of 83% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's consensus reads, ""Private Benjamin" proves a potent showcase for its Oscar-nominated star, with Goldie Hawn making the most of a story that rests almost completely on her daffily irresistible charm."


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and praised it as "an appealing, infectious comedy" in a review that concluded, "Goldie Hawn, who is a true comic actress, makes an original, appealing character out of Judy Benjamin, and so the movie feels alive, not just an exercise in gags and situations." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called Hawn "totally charming" and praised Zieff's "great skill at keeping the gags aloft and in finding new ways by which to free the laughs trapped inside old routines about latrine duty, war games, forced marches and calisthenics." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4, calling it "old-fashioned, commercial Hollywood filmmaking at its best — an upbeat, delightful comedy with a gentle message." "Variety" wrote that the film "is actually a double feature — one is a frequently funny tale of an innocent who is conned into joining the U.S. Army and her adventures therein; the other deals with the same innocent's personality problems as a Jewish princess with only an intermittent chuckle to help out." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" panned the film, calling it "a movie you don't salute, you court martial. It may or may not violate the Articles of War but it raises holy hob with the laws of film making, the first of which is that you start with a good script." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" called it "a peculiarly unappealing throwback to the traditional service comedies like 'Buck Privates,' 'Caught in the Draft,' 'See Here, Private Hargrove,' et al.," with an "aimless screenplay" that leaves Hawn's character "less likable than the one at the beginning." Pauline Kael of "The New Yorker" wrote, "Goldie Hawn demonstrates what an accomplished comedienne she is—she carries 'Private Benjamin' on her back." David Ansen of "Newsweek" called the film "an uneven but highly enjoyable mixture of sociological satire, basic-training slapstick and feminist fable."


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: "Private Benjamin" grossed $4,739,769 from 763 theaters in its opening weekend, finishing at the top of the US box office. It added 36 more screens the following weekend and increased its gross to $4,935,571, finishing number one again, with a 10-day gross of $11.5 million.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: In 1981, "Private Benjamin" was made into an Emmy and Golden Globe–winning television series of the same name that ran from 1981 to 1983. Set during the events of the film, it starred Lorna Patterson, Eileen Brennan, Hal Williams, Lisa Raggio, Wendie Jo Sperber and Joel Brooks. For the series, Brennan and Williams reprised their film roles, again portraying Captain Doreen Lewis and Sergeant L. C. Ross respectively.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: In March 2010, Anna Faris was cast to portray Judy Benjamin in a "Private Benjamin" remake from New Line Cinema, but in May 2014, it was confirmed that Rebel Wilson would portray Benjamin in the remake. Amy Talkington was in discussion to write the script, which would update both the story and screenplay on which Harvey Miller, Nancy Meyers, and Charles Shyer had initially collaborated. Mark Gordon was set to produce.


title: Private Benjamin (1980 film)

text: The new adaptation Talkington was exploring would reset Miller's, Meyers', and Shyer's story in present day and set it against the backdrop of current military conflicts. According to insiders, the studio wanted neither to make fun of military service people nor take political potshots, but sought instead to focus on the empowerment elements and build upon the fish-out-of-water comedy. As of the beginning of August 2018, however, no new word was available on the project.


title: Hamites

text: Hamites is the name formerly used for some Northern and Horn of Africa peoples in the context of a now-outdated model of dividing humanity into different races which was developed originally by Europeans in support of colonialism and slavery. The term was originally borrowed from the Book of Genesis, where it is used for the descendants of Ham, son of Noah.


title: Hamites

text: The term was originally used in contrast to the other two proposed divisions of mankind based on the story of Noah: Semites and Japhetites. The appellation "Hamitic" was applied to the Berber, Cushitic, and Egyptian branches of the Afroasiatic language family, which, together with the Semitic branch, was thus formerly labelled "Hamito-Semitic". However, since the three Hamitic branches have not been shown to form an exclusive (monophyletic) phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family.


title: Hamites

text: Beginning in the 19th century, scholars generally classified the Hamitic race as a subgroup of the Caucasian race, alongside the Aryan race and the Semitic – thus grouping the non-Semitic populations native to North Africa and the Horn of Africa, including the Ancient Egyptians. According to the Hamitic theory, this "Hamitic race" was superior to or more advanced than the "Negroid" populations of Sub-Saharan Africa. In its most extreme form, in the writings of C. G. Seligman, this theory asserted that virtually all significant achievements in African history were the work of "Hamites".


title: Hamites

text: Since the 1960s the Hamitic hypothesis, along with other theories of "race science", has become entirely discredited in science.


title: Hamites

text: The term "Hamitic" originally referred to the peoples said to be descended from Ham, one of the Sons of Noah according to the Bible. According to the Book of Genesis, after Noah became drunk and Ham dishonored his father, upon awakening Noah pronounced a curse on Ham's youngest son, Canaan, stating that his offspring would be the "servants of servants". Of Ham's four sons, Canaan fathered the Canaanites, while Mizraim fathered the Egyptians, Cush the Cushites, and Phut the Libyans.


title: Hamites

text: During the Middle Ages, Jews and Christians considered Ham to be the ancestor of all Africans. Noah's curse on Canaan as described in Genesis began to be interpreted by some theologians as having caused visible racial characteristics in all of Ham's offspring, notably black skin. In a passage unrelated to the curse on Canaan, the sixth-century Babylonian Talmud says that Ham and his descendants were cursed with black skin, which modern scholars have interpreted as an etiological myth for skin color. Later, Western and Islamic traders and slave owners used the concept of the "Curse of Ham" to justify the enslaving of Africans.


title: Hamites

text: A significant change in Western views on Africans came about when Napoleon's 1798 invasion of Egypt drew attention to the impressive achievements of Ancient Egypt, which could hardly be reconciled with the theory of Africans being inferior or cursed.


title: Hamites

text: In consequence, some 19th century theologians emphasized that the biblical Noah restricted his curse to the offspring of Ham's youngest son Canaan, while Ham's son Mizraim, the ancestor of the Egyptians, was not cursed.


title: Hamites

text: Following the Age of Enlightenment, many Western scholars were no longer satisfied with the biblical account of the early history of mankind, but started to develop faith-independent theories. These theories were developed in a historical situation where most Western nations were still profiting from the enslavement of Africans. In this context, many of the works published on Egypt after Napoleon's expedition "seemed to have had as their main purpose an attempt to prove in some way that the Egyptians were not Negroes", thus separating the high civilization of Ancient Egypt from what they wanted to see as an inferior race. Authors such as W. G. Browne, whose "Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria" was published in 1806, laid the "seeds for the new Hamitic myth that was to emerge in the very near future", insisting that the Egyptians were white.


title: Hamites

text: In the mid-19th century, the term "Hamitic" acquired a new anthropological meaning, as scholars asserted that they could discern a "Hamitic race" that was distinct from the "Negroid" populations of Sub-Saharan Africa. Richard Lepsius would coin the appellation "Hamitic" to denote the languages which are now seen as belonging to the Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian branches of the Afroasiatic family.


title: Hamites

text: "Perhaps because slavery was both still legal and profitable in the United States ... there arose an American school of anthropology which attempted to prove scientifically that the Egyptian was a Caucasian, far removed from the inferior Negro". Through craniometry conducted on thousands of human skulls, Samuel George Morton argued that the differences between the races were too broad to have stemmed from a single common ancestor, but were instead consistent with separate racial origins. In his "Crania Aegyptiaca" (1844), Morton analyzed over a hundred intact crania gathered from the Nile Valley, and concluded that the ancient Egyptians were racially akin to Europeans. His conclusions would establish the foundation for the American School of anthropology, and would also influence proponents of polygenism.


title: Hamites

text: In his influential "The Mediterranean Race" (1901), the anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi argued that the Mediterranean race had likely originated from a common ancestral stock that evolved in the Sahara region in Africa, and which later spread from there to populate North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and the circum-Mediterranean region. According to Sergi, the Hamites themselves constituted a Mediterranean variety, and one situated close to the cradle of the stock. He added that the Mediterranean race "in its external characters is a brown human variety, neither white nor negroid, but pure in its elements, that is to say not a product of the mixture of Whites with Negroes or negroid peoples." Sergi explained this taxonomy as inspired by an understanding of "the morphology of the skull as revealing those internal physical characters of human stocks which remain constant through long ages and at far remote spots[...] As a zoologist can recognise the character of an animal species or variety belonging to any region of the globe or any period of time, so also should an anthropologist if he follows the same method of investigating the morphological characters of the skull[...] This method has guided me in my investigations into the present problem and has given me unexpected results which were often afterwards confirmed by archaeology or history."


title: Hamites

text: The Hamitic hypothesis reached its apogee in the work of C. G. Seligman, who argued in his book "The Races of Africa" (1930) that:


title: Hamites

text: Seligman asserted that the Negro race was essentially static and agricultural, and that the wandering "pastoral Hamitic" had introduced most of the advanced features found in central African cultures, including metal working, irrigation and complex social structures. Despite criticism, Seligman kept his thesis unchanged in new editions of his book into the 1960s.


title: Hamites

text: With the demise of the concept of Hamitic languages, the notion of a definable "Hamite" racial and linguistic entity was heavily criticised. In 1974, writing about the African Great Lakes region, Christopher Ehret described the Hamitic hypothesis as the view that "almost everything more un-'primitive', sophisticated or more elaborate in East Africa [was] brought by culturally and politically dominant Hamites, immigrants from the North into East Africa, who were at least part Caucasoid in physical ancestry". He called this a "monothematic" model, which was "romantic, but unlikely" and "[had] been all but discarded, and rightly so". He further argued that there were a "multiplicity and variety" of contacts and influences passing between various peoples in Africa over time, something that he suggested the "one-directional" Hamitic model obscured.


title: Hamites

text: Sergi outlined the constituent Hamitic physical types, which would form the basis for the work of later writers such as Carleton Coon and C. G. Seligman. In his book "The Mediterranean Race" (1901), he wrote that there was a distinct Hamitic ancestral stock, which could be divided into two subgroups: the "Western Hamites" (or "Northern Hamites", comprising the Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara, Tibbu, Fula, and extinct Guanches), and the "Eastern Hamites" (or "Ethiopids", comprising Ancient and Modern Egyptians (but not the Arabs in Egypt), Nubians, Beja, Abyssinians, Galla, Danakil, Somalis, Masai, Bahima and Watusi).


title: Hamites

text: According to Coon, typical Hamitic physical traits included narrow facial features; an orthognathous visage; light brown to dark brown skin tone; wavy, curly or straight hair; thick to thin lips without eversion; and a dolichocephalic to mesocephalic cranial index.


title: Hamites

text: According to Ashley Montagu "Among both the Northern and Eastern Hamites are to be found some of the most beautiful types of humanity."


title: Hamites

text: In the African Great Lakes region, Europeans based the various migration theories of Hamitic provenance in part on the long-held oral traditions of local populations such as the Tutsi and Hima (Bahima, Wahuma or Mhuma). These groups asserted that their founders were "white" migrants from the north (interpreted as the Horn of Africa and/or North Africa), who subsequently "lost" their original language, culture, and much of their physiognomy as they intermarried with the local Bantus. Explorer J.H. Speke recorded one such account from a Wahuma governor in his book, "Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile". According to Augustus Henry Keane, the Hima King Mutesa I also claimed Oromo (Galla) ancestors and still reportedly spoke an Oromo idiom, though that language had long since died out elsewhere in the region. The missionary R. W. Felkin, who had met the ruler, remarked that Mutesa "had lost the pure Hamitic features through admixture of Negro blood, but still retained sufficient characteristics to prevent all doubt as to his origin". Thus, Keane would suggest that the original Hamitic migrants to the Great Lakes had "gradually blended with the aborigines in a new and superior nationality of Bantu speech".


title: Hamites

text: Speke believed that his explorations uncovered the link between "civilized" North Africa and "primitive" central Africa. Describing the Ugandan Kingdom of Buganda, he argued that its "barbaric civilization" had arisen from a nomadic pastoralist race who had migrated from the north and was related to the Hamitic Oromo (Galla) of Ethiopia. In his "Theory of Conquest of Inferior by Superior Races" (1863), Speke would also attempt to outline how the Empire of Kitara in the African Great Lakes region may have been established by a Hamitic founding dynasty. These ideas, under the rubric of science, provided the basis for some Europeans asserting that the Tutsi were superior to the Hutu. In spite of both groups being Bantu-speaking, Speke thought that the Tutsi had experienced some "Hamitic" influence, partly based on their facial features being comparatively more narrow than those of the Hutu. Later writers followed Speke in arguing that the Tutsis had originally migrated into the lacustrine region as pastoralists and had established themselves as the dominant group, having lost their language as they assimilated to Bantu culture.


title: Hamites

text: Seligman and other early scholars believed that, in the African Great Lakes and parts of Central Africa, invading Hamites from North Africa and the Horn of Africa had mixed with local "Negro" women to produce several hybrid "Hamiticised Negro" populations. The "Hamiticised Negroes" were divided into three groups according to language and degree of Hamitic influence: the "Negro-Hamites" or "Half-Hamites" (such as the Maasai, Nandi and Turkana), the Nilotes (such as the Shilluk and Nuer), and the Bantus (such as the Hima and Tutsi). Seligman would explain this Hamitic influence through both demic diffusion and cultural transmission:


title: Hamites

text: European colonial powers in Africa were influenced by the Hamitic hypothesis in their policies during the twentieth century. For instance, in Rwanda, German and Belgian officials in the colonial period displayed preferential attitudes toward the Tutsis over the Hutu. Some scholars argued that this bias was a significant factor that contributed to the 1994 Rwandan genocide of the Tutsis by the Hutus.


title: Hamites

text: African-American scholars were initially ambivalent about the Hamitic hypothesis. Because Sergi's theory proposed that the superior Mediterranean race had originated in Africa, some African-American writers believed that they could appropriate the Hamitic hypothesis to challenge Nordicist claims about the superiority of the white Nordic race. The latter "Nordic" concept was promoted by certain writers, such as eugenicist Madison Grant. According to Yaacov Shavit, this generated "radical Afrocentric theory, which followed the path of European racial doctrines". Writers who insisted that the Nordics were the purest representatives of the Aryan race indirectly encouraged "the transformation of the Hamitic race into the black race, and the resemblance it draws between the different branches of black forms in Asia and Africa."


title: Hamites

text: In response, historians published in the "Journal of Negro History" stressed the cross-fertilization of cultures between Africa and Europe: for instance, George Wells Parker adopted Sergi's view that the "civilizing" race had originated in Africa itself. Similarly, black pride groups appropriated the concept of Hamitic identity for their own purposes. Parker founded the Hamitic League of the World in 1917 to "inspire the Negro with new hopes; to make him openly proud of his race and of its great contributions to the religious development and civilization of mankind." He argued that "fifty years ago one would not have dreamed that science would defend the fact that Asia was the home of the black races as well as Africa, yet it has done just that thing."


title: Hamites

text: Timothy Drew and Elijah Muhammad developed from this the concept of the "Asiatic Blackman." Many other authors followed the argument that civilization had originated in Hamitic Ethiopia, a view that became intermingled with biblical imagery. The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) (1920) believed that Ethiopians were the "mother race". The Nation of Islam asserted that the superior black race originated with the lost tribe of Shabazz, which originally possessed "fine features and straight hair", but which migrated into Central Africa, lost its religion, and declined into a barbaric "jungle life".


title: Hamites

text: Afrocentric writers considered the Hamitic hypothesis to be divisive since it asserted the inferiority of "Negroid" peoples. W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963) thus argued that "the term Hamite under which millions of Negroes have been characteristically transferred to the white race by some eager scientists" was a tool to create "false writing on Africa". According to Du Bois, "Livingstone, Stanley, and others were struck with the Egyptian features of many of the tribes of Africa, and this is true of many of the peoples between Central Africa and Egypt, so that some students have tried to invent a 'Hamitic' race to account for them—an entirely unnecessary hypothesis."


title: Kykuit

text: Kykuit ( ), known also as the John D. Rockefeller Estate, is a 40-room historic house museum in Pocantico Hills, a hamlet in the town of Mount Pleasant, New York 25 miles north of New York City. The house was built for oil tycoon and Rockefeller family patriarch John D. Rockefeller. Conceived largely by his son, John D. Rockefeller Jr., and enriched by the art collection of the third-generation scion, Governor of New York, and Vice President of the United States, Nelson Rockefeller, it was home to four generations of the family. The house is a National Historic Landmark owned by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and tours are given by Historic Hudson Valley.


title: Kykuit

text: "Kykuit" (in modern Dutch the word "Kijkuit" means "Lookout", from "kijkuit" (also "uitkijk"), both compound nouns meaning "lookout, look-out") is situated on the highest point in Pocantico Hills, overlooking the Hudson River at Tappan Zee. Located near Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, it has a view of the New York City skyline 25 miles to the south.


title: Kykuit

text: John D. Rockefeller purchased land in the area as early as 1893, after his brother William had moved into a 204-room mansion, Rockwood Hall, nearby. When Rockefeller and his son chose Pocantico Hills as their residence, he quietly purchased multiple homes and properties in the area, and used the houses for himself, his family, staff, or to rent out. Rockefeller and his wife Laura Spelman Rockefeller moved into one of these, the Parsons-Wentworth House, in 1893. The couple would spend winter weekends and parts of each summer and fall there, sharing the upstairs rooms with their adult children and in-laws, pending construction of the manor house.


title: Kykuit

text: The Parsons-Wentworth House burned down on September 17, 1902, and the Kent House became their temporary residence until rebuilding could occur. "The New York Times" mentioned that Rockefeller had never been satisfied with the destroyed house's electric wiring, which had been installed before certain safety measures were developed. He had ordered workers to reroute the wires into conduits, work which had been planned to commence the day after it was pre-empted by the fire. The loss was estimated at $40,000.


title: Kykuit

text: Kykuit was designed originally as a steep-roofed three-story stone mansion by the architects Chester Holmes Aldrich and William Adams Delano. Aldrich was a distant relative of the younger Rockefeller's wife, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, who was involved as artistic consultant and in the interior design of the mansion.


title: Kykuit

text: The initial eclectic structure took six years to complete. Before being occupied, it was substantially rebuilt into its present four-story Classical Revival Georgian form. Completed in 1913, it has two basement levels filled with interconnecting passageways and service tunnels. The home's interiors were designed by Ogden Codman Jr., and feature collections of Chinese and European ceramics, fine furnishings, and 20th-century art.


title: Kykuit

text: The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. In 1979, its occupant, Nelson Rockefeller, bequeathed upon his death his one-third interest in the estate to the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Today, Kykuit is open to the public for tours conducted by Historic Hudson Valley.


title: Kykuit

text: Kykuit was renovated and modernized in 1995 by New Haven architect Herbert S. Newman and Partners. Included were major infrastructure changes enabling the estate to accommodate group tours of the first floor and art gallery, as well as a reconfiguration of third and fourth floor staff quarters into guest suites.


title: Kykuit

text: Initially, landscaping of the grounds was given to the firm of Frederick Law Olmsted, who had designed Manhattan's Central Park. Rockefeller Senior was unhappy with this work however and assumed control of the design himself, transplanting whole mature trees, designing lookouts and the several scenic winding roads. In 1906, the further design of Kykuit's grounds was undertaken by the architect William Welles Bosworth, who designed the surrounding terraces and gardens with fountains, pavilions and classical sculpture. These gardens in the Beaux-Arts style are considered some of Bosworth's best work in the United States, looking out over very fine views of the Hudson River. A few years later, Bosworth would design the Neo-Classical main building complex and landscaping for the new campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.


title: Kykuit

text: Bosworth's original gardens still exist, with plantings carefully replaced over time, although his entrance forecourt was extended in 1913. The terraced gardens include a Morning Garden, Grand Staircase, Japanese Garden, Italian Garden, Japanese-style brook, Japanese Tea-house, large Oceanus fountain, Temple of Aphrodite, loggia, and semicircular rose garden.


title: Kykuit

text: Distributed through the estate are numerous artworks reflecting the tastes of the past occupants. Governor Nelson Rockefeller collected and displayed many 20th century artworks, with a focus on abstract works from the 1950s through the 1970s. He was also very influential in the selection of artworks for the Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection, located next to the New York State Capitol in Albany, New York.


title: Kykuit

text: Nelson Rockefeller transformed previously empty basement passages beneath the mansion that had led to a grotto into a major private art gallery containing paintings by Picasso, Chagall, and Warhol, the latter two having visited the estate. Between 1935 and the late 1970s more than 120 works of abstract, avant-garde, and modern sculpture from Nelson's collection were added to the gardens and grounds, including works by Pablo Picasso ("Bathers"), Constantin Brâncuși, Karel Appel ("Mouse on Table"), Jean Arp, Alexander Calder, Alberto Giacometti, Georg Kolbe ("Ruf der Erde"), Gaston Lachaise, Aristide Maillol, Henry Moore, Louise Nevelson, Isamu Noguchi ("Black Sun"), and David Smith.


title: Kykuit

text: The inner park area was opened to restricted conducted tours of the mansion and immediate surrounds in 1994, but remains occupied and controlled by the family by the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, which leased the area from the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1991 and serves as steward of what is referred to as "the historic area".


title: Kykuit

text: Public tours are conducted by Historic Hudson Valley, an organization established in 1951 by John D. Rockefeller Jr. "to celebrate the region's history, architecture, landscape, and material culture, advancing its importance and thereby assuring its preservation." Shuttle vans run from a visitor center located at the Philipsburg Manor House on Route 9 in Sleepy Hollow, New York.


title: Kykuit

text: The estate, known as Pocantico or Pocantico Hills, occupies an area of . During much of the 20th century, the estate featured a resident workforce of security guards, gardeners, and laborers, and had its own farming, cattle, and food supplies. It has a nine-hole, reversible golf course, and at one time had 75 houses and 70 private roads, most designed by John D. Rockefeller Sr. and his son. A longstanding witticism about the estate quips: "It's what God would have built, if only He had the money".


title: Kykuit

text: In 1901, John D. Rockefeller Sr. hired golf course architect Willie Dunn, the designer of Shinnecock Hills Golf Club, to build a golf course on the grounds.