title: Swissair

text: However, in 2005 Swiss was taken over by the German airline Lufthansa, the national airline of Germany. With the merger with Lufthansa, Swiss joined the Star Alliance in 2006, which Swissair planned to join before it failed. With this move, Swiss's frequent flyer club, Swiss TravelClub became part of Miles & More, which was originally the Lufthansa Group frequent flyer club. It acts as both airlines' frequent flyer programme, along with many other Lufthansa Group airlines.


title: Swissair

text: The criminal trial began 16 January 2007 in Bülach. The entire Swissair management board stood facing criminal charges of mismanagement, false statements, and forgery of documents. Top defendants in the trial were Mario Corti, Philippe Bruggisser, George Schorderet, Jacqualyn Fouse, Eric Honegger, and Verena Spoerry. Corti, Honegger, and Spoerry entered statements proclaiming their innocence.


title: Swissair

text: On 7 June 2007 the court in Bülach cleared the defendants of all criminal charges over the airline's 2001 bankruptcy.


title: Swissair

text: Swiss retains the rights to the "Swissair" name, whose value was estimated at more than 10 million Swiss francs in 2010. In order to prevent the trademark from becoming void through disuse, Swiss licensed it to Hopscotch Air, which operates a fleet of Cirrus SR22 planes in the United States, for use from 2010 to 2013. In Switzerland, the trademark is protected through its use by an aviation sports club, "Sportfluggruppe Swissair".


title: Swissair

text: Swissair Asia was formed to serve Taipei, Taiwan, within the Republic of China, while Swissair was maintaining service to the People's Republic of China.


title: Swissair

text: KSG, Architects G.Müller + G.Berger designed the final head office complex for the airline. It was in proximity to the main airport facilities and area freeways. The first phase of the building included offices for 1,600 workers, computer rooms, printing rooms, and 500-seat restaurant facilities. The second phase included an open plan office room, another computer laboratory, and expansions of the restaurant facilities.


title: Swissair

text: Over the 71-year history of Swissair, there were eleven major incidents reported resulting in 414 fatalities.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: The Bad Seed is a 1956 American psychological thriller film, directed by Mervyn LeRoy and starring Nancy Kelly, Patty McCormack, Henry Jones, and Eileen Heckart.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: The film is based upon the 1954 play of the same name by Maxwell Anderson, which in turn is based upon William March's 1954 novel of the same name. The play was adapted by John Lee Mahin for the screenplay of the film.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: Kenneth and Christine Penmark dote on their eight-year-old daughter Rhoda. Kenneth leaves on military duty. Monica, the Penmarks' neighbor and landlady, visits. Rhoda, pristine and proper in her pinafore dress and blonde pigtails, tells her about a penmanship competition that she lost to her schoolmate, Claude Daigle. Rhoda then leaves for her school picnic at the lake.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: Christine is having lunch with friends when they hear a radio report that a child has drowned in the lake. The victim is the same Claude who had won the penmanship medal. Christine worries that her daughter might be traumatized, but Rhoda is unfazed by the incident and goes about her life. Rhoda's teacher, Miss Fern, visits Christine, revealing that Rhoda was the last person to see Claude alive and that she was seen grabbing at Claude's medal. She hints that Rhoda might have some connection to the boy's death and adds the girl will not be welcome at the school after the current term ends. Claude's parents barge in. Mrs. Daigle is distraught and drunk and accuses Rhoda's teacher of knowing something she is not telling.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: When Christine finds the medal in Rhoda's room, she demands an explanation. Rhoda lies that Claude let her have it. Christine's father visits. Haunted by confusing memories about her own childhood, Christine talks with him and he reveals that he is not her biological parent; she was adopted. Upset by this revelation, Christine is then horrified to learn that she is actually the daughter of a notorious serial killer. She worries that her origin is the cause of Rhoda's sociopathy and that her behavior is genetic.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: Christine catches Rhoda trying to dispose of her tap shoes in the household incinerator and realizes that Rhoda must have hit Claude with the shoes, which left odd crescent marks on his face that could not be identified. Alternately feigning tears and angrily blaming Claude, Rhoda admits that she killed the boy for his medal and confirms Christine's suspicion that, to acquire a keepsake, she had previously murdered an elderly neighbor when they lived in Wichita, Kansas. Christine orders Rhoda to burn the shoes in the incinerator.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: The next day, the caretaker, Leroy, teasingly tells Rhoda that he believes she killed Claude. After Rhoda angrily tells him she burned her shoes, Leroy opens the incinerator and finds the remains. A drunk Mrs. Daigle returns and tells Christine that she believes Rhoda knows what happened to her son. Mr. Daigle calls and comes to pick up his wife. Realizing that Leroy knows she really did kill Claude, Rhoda sets his excelsior bedding ablaze. After some men break open the basement hatch, Leroy runs into the yard aflame, ultimately burning to death. From the window, Christine and Monica see him die, which makes Christine hysterical. That night, a strangely calm Christine tells Rhoda that she dropped the medal into the lake, then gives her daughter a lethal dose of sleeping pills. She attempts to kill herself with a gunshot to the head. However, the gunshot alerts the neighbors and Rhoda and Christine are taken to the hospital. They both survive, although Christine is in a coma. Kenneth arrives and takes Rhoda home.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: At bedtime, Rhoda excitedly tells Kenneth that she will inherit Monica's pet love bird. She also mentions that she and Monica plan to sunbathe on the roof soon. Christine regains consciousness and is expected to make a full recovery. She calls Kenneth and tells him that she must pay for her "dreadful sin" but Kenneth assures her that they will work on their problems together. Meanwhile Rhoda sneaks out during a rainstorm, determined to retrieve the medal from the bay. She uses a metal pole to probe the water. Suddenly a bolt of lightning strikes her, sending her into the water and to her death.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: After the success of the book, Geoffrey Shurlock from Production Code Administration (PCA) sent a letter to Jack Warner stating that “the property violated the spirit and letter of the Code.” Shurlock’s office wrote to Paramount Pictures, Columbia Pictures and Universal Pictures to caution them against the property although none had inquired about it.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: After a bidding war, Jack Warner bought the film rights for $300,000 (equivalent to $2.9 million in 2021). United States Pictures owned by Milton Sperling stated that they would only produce the film for Warner Brothers Pictures upon approval by PCA. Adler contacted Shurlock demanding to know why approval was given. Shurlock responded that director Mervyn LeRoy was able to come up a treatment "that seemed to do what the office thought was impossible".


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: Although the novel and play conclude with Christine dying and Rhoda surviving, the Motion Picture Production Code did not allow for "crime to pay". The ending of the film thus reverses the deaths of the mother and daughter, with Christine's life being saved and Rhoda's ultimately being struck down by lightning. In another move to appease the censors, Warner Bros. added an "adults only" tag to the film's advertising. Finally, the film diffuses shock of the ending with a coda in which an announcer introduces the members of the cast. It concludes with Kelly lightheartedly spanking McCormack for her character's misdeeds.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: "The Bad Seed" was one of the bigger hits of 1956 for Warner Bros., earning the company $4.1 million in theatrical rentals in the U.S. against a $1 million budget. The film was one of the year's top 20 at the box office in the United States and among the 10 most popular box-office draws in Britain in 1956.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: The film received favorable reviews from critics, and Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 64%, based on , with a rating average of 7.00/10.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: In 1995, McCormack starred in the low-budget movie "Mommy" in which she played a psychopathic mother. Critics hailed her performance and deemed the film as an "unofficial sequel".


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: The lifetime film "House of Deadly Secrets" has also been considered an unofficial sequel because of McCormack’s performance.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: "The Bad Seed" was remade for television in 1985, adapted by George Eckstein and directed by Paul Wendkos. It starred Carrie Welles, Blair Brown, Lynn Redgrave, David Carradine, Richard Kiley, and Chad Allen. This version uses the original ending of the March novel and its stage production. This remake was panned by critics and poorly received by its television audience.


title: The Bad Seed (1956 film)

text: In June 2015, it was announced that Lifetime would remake "The Bad Seed". In December 2017, Deadline.com reported that Rob Lowe was to direct and star in the remake with Mckenna Grace, Sarah Dugdale, Marci T. House, Lorne Cardinal, Chris Shields, Cara Buono, and a special appearance by Patty McCormack as Dr. March. The film aired in September 2018.


title: Norma Kuhling

text: Norma Zea Kuhling (born 1990) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Dr. Ava Bekker in the NBC medical drama series "Chicago Med" and as Jo Mitchel in the 2019 independent film "Fourteen".


title: Norma Kuhling

text: Kuhling's early roles include the 2009 comedy-drama film "The Joneses" and a 2011 production of Michael Weller's play "Moonchildren" at the Berkshire Theatre Festival. In 2016, she acted in the romantic fantasy film "Fallen" and made guest appearances in the first season of "Falling Water". Kuhling joined the NBC medical drama series "Chicago Med" in 2017 as Dr. Ava Bekker, an ambitious cardiothoracic surgery fellow. She first appeared in the season 2 finale, "Love Hurts", and was a series regular in seasons 3 and 4 until her departure from the series in 2019.


title: Norma Kuhling

text: She starred in the 2019 independent film "Fourteen" as Jo Mitchel, a troubled social worker who maintains a complicated friendship with her friend Mara (portrayed by Tallie Medel). Kuhling's and Medel's performances received critical praise; Richard Brody of "The New Yorker" described the performances as "poised and thoughtful", and Guy Lodge of "Variety" applauded Kuhling's "rangy, room-consuming physicality" that complemented Medel's character. Barry Hertz, writing for "The Globe and Mail", commented that Kuhling added "layers and history to what seems like a Greta Gerwig spin on the Manic Pixie Dream Girl", and described the acting as "quietly powerful". After "Fourteen" was released theatrically, Jon Frosch of "The Hollywood Reporter" counted Kuhling's and Medel's performances as among the best film performances of 2020.


title: Norma Kuhling

text: Kuhling was born and raised in New York, and she is the daughter of production designer Kristi Zea and Michael Kuhling. She trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.


title: Microbiological culture

text: A microbiological culture, or microbial culture, is a method of multiplying microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture medium under controlled laboratory conditions. Microbial cultures are foundational and basic diagnostic methods used as a research tool in molecular biology.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Microbial cultures are used to determine the type of organism, its abundance in the sample being tested, or both. It is one of the primary diagnostic methods of microbiology and used as a tool to determine the cause of infectious disease by letting the agent multiply in a predetermined medium. For example, a throat culture is taken by scraping the lining of tissue in the back of the throat and blotting the sample into a medium to be able to screen for harmful microorganisms, such as "Streptococcus pyogenes", the causative agent of strep throat. Furthermore, the term culture is more generally used informally to refer to "selectively growing" a specific kind of microorganism in the lab.


title: Microbiological culture

text: It is often essential to isolate a pure culture of microorganisms. A pure (or "axenic") culture is a population of cells or multicellular organisms growing in the absence of other species or types. A pure culture may originate from a single cell or single organism, in which case the cells are genetic clones of one another. For the purpose of gelling the microbial culture, the medium of agarose gel (agar) is used. Agar is a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. A cheap substitute for agar is guar gum, which can be used for the isolation and maintenance of thermophiles.


title: Microbiological culture

text: There are several types of bacterial culture methods that are selected based on the agent being cultured and the downstream use.


title: Microbiological culture

text: One method of bacterial culture is liquid culture, in which the desired bacteria are suspended in a liquid nutrient medium, such as Luria Broth, in an upright flask. This allows a scientist to grow up large amounts of bacteria for a variety of downstream applications.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Liquid cultures are ideal for preparation of an antimicrobial assay in which the experimenter inoculates liquid broth with bacteria and lets it grow overnight (they may use a shaker for uniform growth). Then they would take aliquots of the sample to test for the antimicrobial activity of a specific drug or protein (antimicrobial peptides).


title: Microbiological culture

text: As an alternative, the microbiologist may decide to use static liquid cultures. These cultures are not shaken and they provide the microbes with an oxygen gradient.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Microbiological cultures can be grown in petri dishes of differing sizes that have a thin layer of agar-based growth medium. Once the growth medium in the petri dish is inoculated with the desired bacteria, the plates are incubated at the optimal temperature for the growing of the selected bacteria (for example, usually at 37 degrees Celsius, or the human body temperature, for cultures from humans or animals, or lower for environmental cultures). After the desired level of growth is achieved, agar plates can be stored upside down in a refrigerator for an extended period of time to keep bacteria for future experiments.


title: Microbiological culture

text: There are a variety of additives that can be added to agar before it is poured into a plate and allowed to solidify. Some types of bacteria can only grow in the presence of certain additives. This can also be used when creating engineered strains of bacteria that contain an antibiotic-resistance gene. When the selected antibiotic is added to the agar, only bacterial cells containing the gene insert conferring resistance will be able to grow. This allows the researcher to select only the colonies that were successfully transformed.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Miniaturised version of agar plates implemented to dipstick formats, eg. Dip Slide, Digital Dipstick show potential to be used at the point-of-care for diagnosis purposes. They have advantages over agar plates since they are cost effective and their operation does not require expertise or laboratory environment, which enable them to be used at the point-of-care.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Stab cultures are similar to agar plates, but are formed by solid agar in a test tube. Bacteria is introduced via an inoculation needle or a pipette tip being stabbed into the center of the agar. Bacteria grow in the punctured area. Stab cultures are most commonly used for short-term storage or shipment of cultures.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Microbial culture collections focus on the acquisition, authentication, production, preservation, catalogueing and distribution of viable cultures of standard reference microorganisms, cell lines and other materials for research in microbial systematics. Culture collection are also repositories of type strains.


title: Microbiological culture

text: For solid plate cultures of thermophilic microorganisms such as "Bacillus acidocaldarius, Bacillus stearothermophilus, Thermus aquaticus" and "Thermus thermophilus" etc. growing at temperatures of 50 to 70 degrees C, low acyl clarified gellan gum has been proven to be the preferred gelling agent comparing to agar for the counting or isolation or both of the above thermophilic bacteria.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Virus and phage cultures require host cells in which the virus or phage multiply. For bacteriophages, cultures are grown by infecting bacterial cells. The phage can then be isolated from the resulting plaques in a lawn of bacteria on a plate. Viral cultures are obtained from their appropriate eukaryotic host cells. The streak plate method is a way to physically separate the microbial population, and is done by spreading the inoculate back and forth with an inoculating loop over the solid agar plate. Upon incubation, colonies will arise and single cells will have been isolated from the biomass. Once a microorganism has been isolated in pure culture, it is necessary to preserve it in a viable state for further study and use in cultures called stock cultures. These cultures have to be maintained, such that there is no loss of their biological, immunological and cultural characters.


title: Microbiological culture

text: For single-celled eukaryotes, such as yeast, the isolation of pure cultures uses the same techniques as for bacterial cultures. Pure cultures of multicellular organisms are often more easily isolated by simply picking out a single individual to initiate a culture. This is a useful technique for pure culture of fungi, multicellular algae, and small metazoa, for example.


title: Microbiological culture

text: Developing pure culture techniques is crucial to the observation of the specimen in question. The most common method to isolate individual cells and produce a pure culture is to prepare a streak plate. The streak plate method is a way to physically separate the microbial population, and is done by spreading the inoculate back and forth with an inoculating loop over the solid agar plate. Upon incubation, colonies will arise and single cells will have been isolated from the biomass. Once a microorganism has been isolated in pure culture, it is necessary to preserve it in a viable state for further study and use. Stock cultures have to be maintained, such that there is no loss of their biological, immunological and cultural characters.


title: Virgin Territory

text: Virgin Territory is a 2007 romantic comedy film directed by David Leland and starring Hayden Christensen, Mischa Barton, Tim Roth, Rosalind Halstead and


title: Virgin Territory

text: Kate Groombridge. Based upon Giovanni Boccaccio's "Decameron", it has also been known under the working titles "The Decameron", "Angels and Virgins", "Guilty Pleasures" and "Chasing Temptation". The film's Italian title "Decameron Pie" pays tribute to both the title of the original source inspiration and to American comedy film "American Pie". The film was released in France on December 12, 2007, under the title "Medieval Pie", and was released directly-to-DVD in the U.S. in August 2008. It was the last film produced by Dino De Laurentiis.


title: Virgin Territory

text: The film is set in Florence (Republic of Florence) during the Black Death. As in the "Decameron", ten young Florentines take refuge from the plague. But instead of telling stories, they have lusty adventures, bawdy exchanges, romance and swordplay. There are randy nuns, Saracen pirates, and a sexy cow.


title: Virgin Territory

text: Pampinea is the daughter of a wealthy merchant who has died moments before the start of the movie. Lorenzo is a young man in town who is exceptionally good at gambling and is charmed by her beauty. Gerbino De Ratta is the head of the local thugs who robs anyone or steals anything that he sees stealable. Count Dzerzhinsky, from the city of Novgorod in Novgorod Republic now in modern Russia, is Pampinea's fiancé who she has never met. Their fate intertwines after Pampinea's father died and Gerbino robs Pampinea of her fortune, saying her father was in debt. The only way for the merchant's daughter to save her life was to marry him, according to Gerbino himself.


title: Virgin Territory

text: Lorenzo was being chased by Gerbino after he bested him at a gambling table, then took refuge in a convent by posing as a "deaf and dumb" gardener. At this convent, he has sex with all of the horny nuns, but only until Pampinea's arrival. Pampinea—trying to escape from Gerbino's grasp—ran to the convent for shelter. There she witnesses Lorenzo, whom she'd long had feelings for, having sex with the nuns and get jealous. She blindfolds Lorenzo and kisses him passionately out of love. But then, out of jealousy, she informs the convent's abbess of his deception, that he is actually neither deaf nor dumb.


title: Virgin Territory

text: The Count arrives in Florence only to be ambushed by Gerbino's men. All of his companions are killed, but he survives. Receiving a message from Pampinea's servant, Count Dzerzhinsky rides to Pampinea's father's mansion for the wedding, for he has been promised her hand in marriage. On the way, the young Count meets a skinny dipping Elissa—Pampinea's best friend, who is on her way to attend the wedding—and the two subsequently fall in love. The Count is led to believe Elissa is Pampinea.


title: Virgin Territory

text: Chased out of the convent, Lorenzo follows Pampinea to her father's mansion. There he confesses to her that he's fallen in love with the nun who kissed him whilst blindfolded, the woman whose face he never got to see. Later, Gerbino and his men arrive at the mansion and imprison Lorenzo. Pampinea agrees to marry Gerbino right that day to save Lorenzo, and thus Lorenzo is banished to the woods. There he meets Dzerzhinsky who is on his way to the mansion to be married to 'Pampinea' (actually Elissa) and the two team up to take out Gerbino's men. Gerbino himself dies falling into a large deep well inside the mansion.


title: Virgin Territory

text: Pampinea, in love with Lorenzo, refuses to marry Count Dzerzhinsky, only to realise moments later that the Count himself is actually in love with Elissa who has been posing as her. She happily then runs after Lorenzo and kisses him. Lorenzo realises that she is in fact the nun he's in love with and they hold their wedding that very day, with all of their friends attending.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Keith Floyd (28 December 1943 – 14 September 2009) was a British celebrity cook, restaurateur, television personality and "gastronaut" who hosted cooking shows for the BBC and published many books combining cookery and travel. On television, his eccentric style of presentation – usually drinking wine as he cooked and talking to his crew – endeared him to millions of viewers worldwide.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd was born in Sulhamstead, near Reading, Berkshire, on 28 December 1943 to working-class parents Sydney and Winnifred Floyd. He was brought up in a council house in the small town of Wiveliscombe in Somerset. His family made financial sacrifices to enable him to be educated privately at Wellington School, Somerset.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd became a cub reporter on the "Bristol Evening Post". He claimed, perhaps jokingly, that he decided to join the British Army in 1963 after watching the film "Zulu", although the film was not released until 1964. He attained the rank of Second lieutenant in the Royal Tank Regiment serving on Centurion tanks, where he pestered the mess cook to produce gourmet dinners.


title: Keith Floyd

text: After three years, finding that he and the Army were "mutually incompatible", Floyd found employment in several catering-related jobs including barman, dishwasher and vegetable peeler.


title: Keith Floyd

text: By 1971 Floyd had acquired three restaurants in Bristol: Floyd's Bistro in Princess Victoria Street in Clifton, Floyd's Restaurant in Alma Vale Road and Keith Floyd's Restaurant in Chandos Road, Redland.


title: Keith Floyd

text: All three restaurants had financial problems. Floyd sold the restaurants and the rights to the name "Floyd's Restaurant" and moved to the south of France, where again he opened a restaurant in L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue in the Vaucluse. After this again ended in financial problems, he moved back to Britain. With the help of loans from friends, he opened another restaurant, again in Chandos Road.


title: Keith Floyd

text: The restaurant in Chandos Road was frequented by actors and others connected with television. Floyd's first cookery book, "Floyd's Food", published before he became a TV celebrity, had an introduction written by Leonard Rossiter, star of British TV sitcoms "Rising Damp" and "The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin".


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd's first foray into the world of show business was as a radio chef on Radio West, an independent commercial radio station in Bristol. TV producer David Pritchard then offered him a slot on BBC West regional magazine show "RPM", presented by Andy Batten Foster. That led, in 1984, to his being offered his first BBC TV series "Floyd on Fish", which started his rapid rise to national popularity. Floyd never described himself as a chef since he was untrained.


title: Keith Floyd

text: He became well known for cooking with a glass of wine in one hand, often in unusual locations such as a fishing boat in rough seas. He was regarded as a pioneer of taking cooking programmes out of the studio. The chef went on to present his shows from around the world, cooking on location in his unique chaotic style.


title: Keith Floyd

text: He bought and ran the Maltsters Arms in Tuckenhay, Devon in the late 1980s. When Floyd was not running the kitchen, chefs included Jean Christophe Novelli. He was more often seen at the bar than in the kitchen. The failure of the Maltsters led to his bankruptcy.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Despite TV success, Floyd continued to have financial problems and personal conflicts. He was declared bankrupt in 1996. The "Daily Mirror" claims that this happened after he personally guaranteed an order for £36,000 of drinks. He lived in Kinsale, County Cork, Ireland for a time in the mid-1990s.


title: Keith Floyd

text: In April 2008 he travelled to Singapore and Thailand in pursuit of new business ventures in Southeast Asia. Until his death he was actively involved in his restaurant Floyd's Brasserie, located at the Burasari Resort on the popular Thai island of Phuket. This was his first Asian restaurant and Phuket's first ever celebrity chef restaurant, drawing a large following of Floyd fans who remembered his many TV series and cookbooks.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd travelled widely to cook local dishes and entertain people around the world. His cooking shows were often marked by a tendency to consume wine during the preparation of the food.


title: Keith Floyd

text: A documentary "Keith Meets Keith", featuring actor and comedian Keith Allen interviewing Floyd, was broadcast on Channel 4 on 14 September 2009 and watched by nearly one million people. In the programme, Floyd was severely critical of modern television chefs for promoting themselves more than the food. Floyd admitted that away from the cameras, he often drank too much out of loneliness. It later emerged that Floyd had collapsed and died a few hours before the broadcast.


title: Keith Floyd

text: In 2020, Floyd was the subject of 'Keith Floyd's Bristol', a documentary presented by Xander Brett. It was produced by Burst Radio, later broadcast on BBC Radio Bristol to mark eleven years since his death.


title: Keith Floyd

text: He was the subject of "This Is Your Life" in 1991 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel in The Brazen Head pub in Dublin.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd can also be seen in a number of episodes of the children's television series "Balamory", as a chef in Suzie Sweet's "Suzie's Cooking" song.


title: Keith Floyd

text: In 2006, he also appeared on the ITV show "Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway", demonstrating to the pair how to bake a cake for their Ant vs Dec challenge of cake decorating, resulting in Dec (Donnelly) winning the challenge.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd had a bistro bar named after him in Thailand on the island of Koh Samui, Floyd's Beach Bistro Restaurant; Floyd visited it while filming the series "Far Flung Floyd" in Thailand and developed a close relationship with the family who owned the resort.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd spent many years in France. In 1974 he moved to Vaucluse department, in the south-east of France, with Paddy Walker and her three young children. Together, they formed a company called Walker Floyd, buying wines in Vaucluse and then driving them back to Bristol to be sold to the city's bars and restaurants. They would then buy interesting, and carefully picked out, pieces of bric-a-brac to be driven back to Vaucluse for sale in the various markets. Paddy Walker and Floyd also ran a restaurant together in the village of L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue in the Vaucluse. In his autobiography, Floyd notes Walker's influence on him: "My approach to food, my style if you like, had developed as a result of my life in France with Paddy." In 1979, after five years together, Walker and Floyd's relationship broke down and they returned to Britain.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd was a big fan of rock group the Stranglers: the tracks "Waltzinblack", an edited version of "Peaches", and an instrumental version of "Viva Vlad" were used as theme music for most of his TV programmes.


title: Keith Floyd

text: In October 2002 Floyd, a smoker and a heavy drinker, was reported to have suffered a mild stroke, although he denied this in his autobiography. In November 2004 he was banned from driving for 32 months and fined £1,500 after crashing his car into another vehicle while three-and-a-half times over the legal alcohol limit. He suspected he had lung cancer or emphysema in early 2006, but was given the all-clear after a medical examination. In the summer of 2006 he was diagnosed as suffering from malnutrition.


title: Keith Floyd

text: In August 2007, he was hospitalised in Thailand after collapsing in a restaurant. He collapsed at a pub in Chesterton, Staffordshire, on 29 January 2008 and was in a coma in hospital on a life-support machine. He was discharged on 22 February, travelling to his home in France to recuperate. He made a full recovery. On 14 September 2008, exactly a year before his death, he collapsed and was hospitalised for several days.


title: Keith Floyd

text: Floyd died of a heart attack, aged 65, on 14 September 2009, at the Dorset County Hospital in Dorchester, Dorset, after being taken ill at the home of his partner Celia Martin (née Constanduros).


title: Keith Floyd

text: The following day, chefs provided quotes for the media. Antony Worrall Thompson said of him: "I think all of us modern TV chefs owe a living to him. He kind of spawned us all." Marco Pierre White said that Floyd "inspired a nation". White also said, "The thing which is very sad is a little piece of Britain today died which will never be replaced. He was a beautiful man, his ability to inspire people to cook just with his words and the way he did things was extraordinary. If you look at TV chefs today they don't have his magic." Floyd's humanist funeral took place on 30 September 2009 in Bristol.


title: Karthika Nair

text: Karthika Nair (born 27 June 1992) is a former Indian actress who primarily worked down South in all language films. She made her debut in the 2009 Telugu film "Josh", opposite Naga Chaitanya. She rose to fame starring in her second and her first successful Tamil film "Ko", opposite Jiiva and Piaa Bajpai. She found further success in the Malayalam film "", opposite Dileep. She is well known for her action roles in the comedy "Brother of Bommali", the social drama "Purampokku Engira Podhuvudamai" and the Hindi epic TV series "".


title: Karthika Nair

text: Karthika was born to former Indian actress Radha. She has a brother and a sister, Thulasi Nair, who is also a South Indian actress. She did her schooling in Podar International School in Mumbai earned a degree in business from a London School of Economics-affiliated college.


title: Karthika Nair

text: She made her acting debut at the age of 17 in the 2009 Telugu film "Josh", opposite Naga Chaitanya. Though the film received mixed reviews, her performance as Vidya, an elementary school teacher desperate to attend college was received well. She received the Santosham Film Award for Best Debut Actress. Her second movie was in Tamil, called "Ko", directed by famous film director K. V. Anand, with Jiiva and Piaa Bajpai in lead roles, which did very well at the box office. The film received cult status in the genre of political thrillers. Her performance as Renuka Narayanan, an investigative journalist, who exposes the blunders of politicians was hugely applauded. She received a nomination for SIIMA for Best supporting Actress – Tamil at 1st South Indian International Movie Awards. She then appeared in the Malayalam film "Makaramanju", directed by Lenin Rajendran, starring alongside ace cinematographer and director Santosh Sivan. She donned a dual role, one of a painting model, Sugandha Bai and Urvashi, the Celestial beauty. Her first-ever dual role was well received and critics raved about her performance. British director Danny Boyle was highly impressed with her work in the film. She received SIIMA for Best Debut Actress – Malayalam at 1st SIIMA Awards and Kerala Film Critics Association Award for best debut actress.


title: Karthika Nair

text: In 2012, she appeared in a single Telugu film "Dammu", directed by Boyapati Srinu, in a limited glamorous role. Her performance and the movie received mixed reviews and ended up being a commercial failure. She was paired with N. T. Rama Rao Jr. and shared screen space with Trisha.


title: Karthika Nair

text: In 2013, she appeared in the comedy film "", alongside Mammootty and Dileep. Her performance as Surekha, a mute Christian young widow who works in Indian Revenue Service was well received and so is the film. Later, she appeared in the titular role in the Tamil film "Annakodi", directed by legendary filmmaker Bharathiraja. Though the film received negative reviews, her performance as a damsel in distress received positive response. She made her Kannada debut with "Brindavana", a remake of Telugu blockbuster "Brindavanam". The film repeated the success of the original. In the film, she was paired with Darshan.


title: Karthika Nair

text: In 2014, she appeared in her third Telugu film "Brother of Bommali", where she played Lucky, the streetwise tomboy twin sister of Allari Naresh's character. The film starred top comedians such as Brahmanandam, Ali and villains such as Kelly Dorji, Nagineedu and Vineet Kumar. In the film, she has donned a full-length comic role. Her performance received high critical acclaim and she received her first-ever Filmfare nomination in the category of Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress -Telugu at 62nd Filmfare Awards South.


title: Karthika Nair

text: In 2015, she appeared in her third Tamil Political crime drama film "Purampokku Engira Podhuvudamai", directed by National Film Award winner S. P. Jananathan, alongside Arya, Vijay Sethupathi and Shaam. As part of her role, she learned how to ride a motorcycle. Her performance as Kuyili, a mastermind behind a prison break plan received a positive response. The film received commercial success and critical acclaim. Her portrayal of Kuyili is cited as a complete deprival of regular commercial heroine characterizations.


title: Karthika Nair

text: Her much delayed film "Vaa Deal", starring Arun Vijay is yet to be released or would be considered unreleased & shelved forever.


title: Karthika Nair

text: In the year 2017, Nair made her Television debut(after retiring from movies, since 2015) with the Epic drama "", written by V. Vijayendra Prasad and directed by Goldie Behl, which aired on Star Plus, starring opposite Rajneesh Duggal. In the series, she played Devasena, a warrior queen, which was well received by both audience and critics. The show aired its last on 10 September 2017.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: Vergil Ortiz Jr. (born March 25, 1998) is an American professional boxer who has held the WBO International welterweight title since 2021. As an amateur, he was a seven-time national champion and was the winner at the 2013 Junior Olympics. He was named 2019 The Ring magazine Prospect of the Year. Ortiz is known for his punching power, with a knockout-to-win percentage of 100%. As of August 2022, Ortiz Jr is ranked as the world's fifth best welterweight by "The Ring" and fourth best by BoxRec and TBRB.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: Ortiz was victorious in his first six fights, winning all six by stoppage and only going past the first round in one of the six fights.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: His seventh bout came on September 16, 2017 on the undercard of Canelo Álvarez vs. Gennady Golovkin I against Cesar Valenzuela, which he won by second-round technical knockout.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: After improving to 11-0, Ortiz appeared a year later on the undercard of Canelo Álvarez vs. Gennady Golovkin II to face Roberto Ortiz. Vergil Ortiz knocked down his opponent with a right hand early in the second round. Roberto got up, but he was still hurt. Vergil attacked him immediately and knocked him down again with a right hand that sent his opponent to one knee. Roberto Ortiz reached his feet again, but the referee deemed him unfit to continue, calling off the fight.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: Ortiz, who now had an unblemished record of 13-0, defeated Antonio Orozco by sixth-round technical knockout to win the vacant WBA Gold welterweight title on August 10, 2019 at The Theatre at Grand Prairie, Texas. He defended the title in his next fight against Brad Solomon on December 13, 2019 in Indio, California, winning by fifth-round knockout.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: Ortiz was originally scheduled to face Samuel Vargas on March 28, 2020 at The Forum, Inglewood, California on the undercard of Canelo Álvarez vs. Billy Joe Saunders. However, following the postponement of the fight between Álvarez and Saunders due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the fight took place on July 24, 2020 at the same venue as Ortiz's previous fight against Brad Solomon. Ortiz won the fight by seventh-round technical knockout and retained his WBA Gold welterweight title.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: Ortiz returned to the ring on March 20, 2021, beating Maurice Hooker with another seventh-round technical knockout in Fort Worth, Texas to win the vacant WBO International welterweight title. Hooker was ranked #8 by the WBO, #13 by the WBC and #15 by the IBF at welterweight.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: On August 14, 2021, Ortiz defended the title against Egidijus Kavaliauskas. Kavaliauskas was ranked #5 by the WBO and #10 by the WBC at welterweight. Kavaliauskas, who became Ortiz's first opponent to last longer than seven rounds, suffered five knockdowns as Ortiz won by eighth-round technical knockout.


title: Vergil Ortiz Jr.

text: On August 6, 2022, Ortiz Jr fought Michael McKinson in an eliminator for the WBA world welterweight title. McKinson was ranked #5 by the WBO and #10 by the WBA at welterweight. Ortiz Jr beat McKinson by technical knockout in the 9th round.


title: Globular cluster

text: A globular cluster is a spheroidal conglomeration of stars. Globular clusters are bound together by gravity, with a higher concentration of stars towards their centers. They can contain anywhere from tens of thousands to many millions of member stars. Their name is derived from Latin (small sphere). Globular clusters are occasionally known simply as "globulars".


title: Globular cluster

text: Although one globular cluster, Omega Centauri, was observed in antiquity and long thought to be a star, recognition of the clusters' true nature came with the advent of telescopes in the 17th century. In early telescopic observations globular clusters appeared as fuzzy blobs, leading French astronomer Charles Messier to include many of them in his catalog of astronomical objects that he thought could be mistaken for comets. Using larger telescopes, 18th-century astronomers recognized that globular clusters are groups of many individual stars. Early in the 20th century the distribution of globular clusters in the sky was some of the first evidence that the Sun is far from the center of the Milky Way.


title: Globular cluster

text: Globular clusters are found in nearly all galaxies. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way they are mostly found in the outer spheroidal part of the galaxythe galactic halo. They are the largest and most massive type of star cluster, tending to be older, denser, and composed of lower abundances of heavy elements than open clusters, which are generally found in the disks of spiral galaxies. The Milky Way has more than 150 known globulars, and there may be many more.


title: Globular cluster

text: The origin of globular clusters and their role in galactic evolution are unclear. Some are among the oldest objects in their galaxies and even the universe, constraining estimates of the universe's age. Star clusters were formerly thought to consist of stars that all formed at the same time from one star-forming nebula, but nearly all globular clusters contain stars that formed at different times, or that have differing compositions. Some clusters may have had multiple episodes of star formation, and some may be remnants of smaller galaxies captured by larger galaxies.


title: Globular cluster

text: The first known globular cluster, now called M 22, was discovered in 1665 by Abraham Ihle, a German amateur astronomer. The cluster Omega Centauri, easily visible in the southern sky with the naked eye, was known to ancient astronomers like Ptolemy as a star, but was reclassified as a nebula by Edmond Halley in 1677, then finally as a globular cluster in the early 19th century by John Herschel. The French astronomer Abbé Lacaille listed NGC 104, , M 55, M 69, and in his 1751–1752 catalogue. The low resolution of early telescopes prevented individual stars in a cluster from being visually separated until Charles Messier observed M 4 in 1764.


title: Globular cluster

text: When William Herschel began his comprehensive survey of the sky using large telescopes in 1782, there were 34 known globular clusters. Herschel discovered another 36 and was the first to resolve virtually all of them into stars. He coined the term "globular cluster" in his "Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars" (1789). In 1914 Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters, published across about forty scientific papers. He examined the clusters' RR Lyrae variables (stars which he assumed were Cepheid variables) and used their luminosity and period of variability to estimate the distances to the clusters. It was later found that RR Lyrae variables are fainter than Cepheid variables, causing Shapley to overestimate the distances.


title: Globular cluster

text: A large majority of the Milky Way's globular clusters are found in the celestial sky around the galactic core. In 1918 Shapley used this strongly asymmetrical distribution to determine the overall dimensions of the galaxy. Assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy's center, he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the Sun relative to the galactic center. He correctly concluded that the Milky Way's center is in the Sagittarius constellation and not near the Earth. He overestimated the distance, finding typical globular cluster distances of ; the modern distance to the Galactic Center is roughly . Shapley's measurements indicated the Sun is relatively far from the center of the galaxy, contrary to what had been inferred from the observed uniform distribution of ordinary stars. In reality most ordinary stars lie within the galaxy's disk and are thus obscured by gas and dust in the disk, whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much greater distances.


title: Globular cluster

text: The count of known globular clusters in the Milky Way has continued to increase, reaching 83 in 1915, 93 in 1930, 97 by 1947, and 157 in 2010. Additional, undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be in the galactic bulge or hidden by the gas and dust of the Milky Way. For example, most of the Palomar Globular Clusters have only been discovered in the 1950s, with some located relatively close-by yet obscured by dust, while others reside in the very far reaches of the Milky Way halo. The Andromeda Galaxy, which is comparable in size to the Milky Way, may have as many as five hundred globulars. Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated system of globular clusters, as does almost every large galaxy surveyed. Some giant elliptical galaxies (particularly those at the centers of galaxy clusters), such as M 87, have as many as 13,000 globular clusters.


title: Globular cluster

text: Shapley was later assisted in his studies of clusters by Henrietta Swope and Helen Sawyer Hogg. In 1927–1929 Shapley and Sawyer categorized clusters by the degree of concentration of stars toward each core. Their system, known as the Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class, identifies the most concentrated clusters as Class I and ranges to the most diffuse Class XII. In 2015 astronomers from the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile proposed a new type of globular cluster on the basis of observational data: Dark globular clusters.


title: Globular cluster

text: The formation of globular clusters is poorly understood. Globular clusters have traditionally been described as a simple star population formed from a single giant molecular cloud, and thus with roughly uniform age and metallicity (proportion of heavy elements in their composition). Modern observations show that nearly all globular clusters contain multiple populations; the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) exhibit a bimodal population, for example. During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation. This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared with the age of many globular clusters. It has been proposed that this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin. In the Antennae Galaxy, for example, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clustersregions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs, in which many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge. Their overall range of ages and (possibly) metallicities could lead to clusters with a bimodal, or even multiple, distribution of populations.


title: Globular cluster

text: Observations of globular clusters show that their stars primarily come from regions of more efficient star formation, and from where the interstellar medium is at a higher density, as compared to normal star-forming regions. Globular cluster formation is prevalent in starburst regions and in interacting galaxies. Some globular clusters likely formed in dwarf galaxies and were removed by tidal forces to join the Milky Way. In elliptical and lenticular galaxies there is a correlation between the mass of the supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at their centers and the extent of their globular cluster systems. The mass of the SMBH in such a galaxy is often close to the combined mass of the galaxy's globular clusters.


title: Globular cluster

text: No known globular clusters display active star formation, consistent with the hypothesis that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in their galaxy and were among the first collections of stars to form. Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters, such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way, may be the precursors of globular clusters.


title: Globular cluster

text: Many of the Milky Way's globular clusters have a retrograde orbit (meaning that they revolve around the galaxy in the reverse of the direction the galaxy is rotating), including the most massive, Omega Centauri. Its retrograde orbit suggests it may be a remnant of a dwarf galaxy captured by the Milky Way.


title: Globular cluster

text: Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low-metal, old stars. The stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a spheroid in which half the light is emitted within a radius of only a few to a few tens of parsecs. They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all the gas and dust was long ago either turned into stars or blown out of the cluster by the massive first-generation stars.


title: Globular cluster

text: Globular clusters can contain a high density of stars; on average about 0.4stars per cubic parsec, increasing to 100 or 1000stars/pc in the core of the cluster. In comparison, the stellar density around the Sun is roughly 0.1 stars/pc. The typical distance between stars in a globular cluster is about one light year, but at its core the separation between stars averages about a third of a light yearthirteen times closer than the Sun is to its nearest neighbor, Proxima Centauri.


title: Globular cluster

text: Globular clusters are thought to be unfavorable locations for planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the gravitational perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at one astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster, such as 47 Tucanae, would survive only on the order of a hundred million years. There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar (PSRB1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M4, but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar.


title: Globular cluster

text: Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri in the Milky Way and Mayall II in the Andromeda Galaxy, are extraordinarily massive, measuring several million solar masses () and having multiple stellar populations. Both are evidence that supermassive globular clusters formed from the cores of dwarf galaxies that have been consumed by larger galaxies. About a quarter of the globular cluster population in the Milky Way may have been accreted this way, as with more than 60% of the globular clusters in the outer halo of Andromeda.


title: Globular cluster

text: Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars which, compared with Population I stars such as the Sun, have a higher proportion of hydrogen and helium and a lower proportion of heavier elements. Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as "metals" (distinct from the material concept) and to the proportions of these elements as the metallicity. Produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, the metals are recycled into the interstellar medium and enter a new generation of stars. The proportion of metals can thus be an indication of the age of a star in simple models, with older stars typically having a lower metallicity.


title: Globular cluster

text: The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff observed two special populations of globular clusters, which became known as "Oosterhoff groups". The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars. While both groups have a low proportion of metallic elements as measured by spectroscopy, the metal spectral lines in the stars of Oosterhoff typeI (OoI) cluster are not quite as weak as those in typeII (OoII), and so typeI stars are referred to as "metal-rich" (e.g. Terzan 7), while typeII stars are "metal-poor" (e.g. ESO 280-SC06). These two distinct populations have been observed in many galaxies, especially massive elliptical galaxies. Both groups are nearly as old as the universe itself and are of similar ages. Suggested scenarios to explain these subpopulations include violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy. In the Milky Way the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the bulge.


title: Globular cluster

text: In the Milky Way a large majority of the metal-poor clusters are aligned on a plane in the outer part of the galaxy's halo. This observation supports the view that typeII clusters were captured from a satellite galaxy, rather than being the oldest members of the Milky Way's globular cluster system as was previously thought. The difference between the two cluster types would then be explained by a time delay between when the two galaxies formed their cluster systems.


title: Globular cluster

text: Close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often in globular clusters because of their high star density. These chance encounters give rise to some exotic classes of starssuch as blue stragglers, millisecond pulsars, and low-mass X-ray binarieswhich are much more common in globular clusters. How blue stragglers form remains unclear, but most models attribute them to interactions between stars, such as stellar mergers, the transfer of material from one star to another, or even an encounter between two binary systems. The resulting star has a higher temperature than other stars in the cluster with comparable luminosity and thus differs from the main-sequence stars formed early in the cluster's existence. Some clusters have two distinct sequences of blue stragglers, one bluer than the other.


title: Globular cluster

text: Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s. The required resolution for this task is exacting; it is only with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that the first claimed discoveries were made, in 2002 and 2003. Based on HST observations, other researchers suggested the existence of a (solar masses) intermediate-mass black hole in the globular cluster M15 and a black hole in the Mayall II cluster of the Andromeda Galaxy. Both X-ray and radio emissions from MayallII appear consistent with an intermediate-mass black hole; however, these claimed detections are controversial. The heaviest objects in globular clusters are expected to migrate to the cluster center due to mass segregation. One research group pointed out that the mass-to-light ratio should rise sharply towards the center of the cluster, even without a black hole, in both M15 and Mayall II. Observations from 2018 find no evidence for an intermediate-mass black hole in any globular cluster, including M15, but cannot definitively rule out one with a mass of .


title: Globular cluster

text: The confirmation of intermediate-mass black holes in globular clusters would have important ramifications for theories of galaxy development as being possible sources for the supermassive black holes at their centers. The mass of these supposed intermediate-mass black holes is proportional to the mass of their surrounding clusters, following a pattern previously discovered between supermassive black holes and their surrounding galaxies.


title: Globular cluster

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams (H–R diagrams) of globular clusters allow astronomers to determine many of the properties of their populations of stars. An H–R diagram is a graph of a large sample of stars plotting their absolute magnitude (their luminosity, or brightness measured from a standard distance), as a function of their color index. The color index, roughly speaking, measures the color of the star; positive color indices indicate a reddish star with a cool surface temperature, while negative values indicate a bluer star with a hotter surface. Stars on an H–R diagram mostly lie along a roughly diagonal line sloping from hot, luminous stars in the upper left to cool, faint stars in the lower right. This line is known as the main sequence and represents the primary stage of stellar evolution. The diagram also includes stars in later evolutionary stages such as the cool but luminous red giants.


title: Globular cluster

text: Constructing an H–R diagram requires knowing the distance to the observed stars to convert apparent into absolute magnitude. Because all the stars in a globular cluster have about the same distance from Earth, a color–magnitude diagram using their observed magnitudes looks like a shifted H–R diagram (because of the roughly constant difference between their apparent and absolute magnitudes). This shift is called the distance modulus and can be used to calculate the distance to the cluster. The modulus is determined by comparing features (like the main sequence) of the cluster's color–magnitude diagram to corresponding features in an H–R diagram of another set of stars, a method known as spectroscopic parallax or main-sequence fitting.


title: Globular cluster

text: Since globular clusters form at once from a single giant molecular cloud, a cluster's stars have roughly the same age and composition. A star's evolution is primarily determined by its initial mass, so the positions of stars in a cluster's H–R or color–magnitude diagram mostly reflect their initial masses. A cluster's H–R diagram, therefore, appears quite different from H–R diagrams containing stars of a wide variety of ages. Almost all stars fall on a well-defined curve in globular cluster H–R diagrams, and that curve's shape indicates the age of the cluster. A more detailed H–R diagram often reveals multiple stellar populations as indicated by the presence of closely separated curves, each corresponding to a distinct population of stars with a slightly different age or composition. Observations with the Wide Field Camera 3, installed in 2009 on the Hubble Space Telescope, made it possible to distinguish these slightly different curves.


title: Globular cluster

text: The most massive main-sequence stars have the highest luminosity and will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage. As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will do the same. Therefore, the age of a single-population cluster can be measured by looking for those stars just beginning to enter the giant star stage, which form a "knee" in the H–R diagram called the main-sequence turnoff, bending to the upper right from the main-sequence line. The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the cluster's age; an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude.


title: Globular cluster

text: The morphology and luminosity of globular cluster stars in H–R diagrams are influenced by numerous parameters, many of which are still actively researched. Recent observations have overturned the historical paradigm that all globular clusters consist of stars born at exactly the same time, or sharing exactly the same chemical abundance. Some clusters feature multiple populations, slightly differing in composition and age; for example, high-precision imagery of cluster NGC 2808 discerned three close, but distinct, main sequences. Further, the placements of the cluster stars in an H–R diagram (including the brightnesses of distance indicators) can be influenced by observational biases. One such effect, called blending, arises when the cores of globular clusters are so dense that observations see multiple stars as a single target. The brightness measured for that seemingly single star is thus incorrecttoo bright, given that multiple stars contributed. The computed distance is in turn incorrect, so the blending effect can introduce a systematic uncertainty into the cosmic distance ladder and may bias the estimated age of the universe and the Hubble constant.


title: Globular cluster

text: The blue stragglers appear on the H–R diagram as a series diverging from the main sequence in the direction of brighter, bluer stars. White dwarfs (the final remnants of some Sun-like stars), which are much fainter and somewhat hotter than the main-sequence stars, lie on the bottom-left of an H–R diagram. Globular clusters can be dated by looking at the temperatures of the coolest white dwarfs, often giving results as old as 12.7 billion years. In comparison, open clusters are rarely older than about half a billion years. The ages of globular clusters place a lower bound on the age of the entire universe, presenting a significant constraint in cosmology. Astronomers were historically faced with age estimates of clusters older than their cosmological models would allow, but better measurements of cosmological parameters, through deep sky surveys and satellites, appear to have resolved this issue.


title: Globular cluster

text: Studying globular clusters sheds light on how the composition of the formational gas and dust affects stellar evolution; the stars' evolutionary tracks vary depending on the abundance of heavy elements. Data obtained from these studies are then used to study the evolution of the Milky Way as a whole.


title: Globular cluster

text: In contrast to open clusters most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound together for time periods comparable to the lifespans of most of their stars. Strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of some stars, leaving behind "tidal tails" of stars removed from the cluster.


title: Globular cluster

text: After formation the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. The velocities of the stars steadily change, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time, related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster and the number of stellar masses. The relaxation time varies by cluster, but a typical value is on the order of one billion years.


title: Globular cluster

text: Although globular clusters are generally spherical in form, ellipticity can form via tidal interactions. Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape, while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical.


title: Globular cluster

text: Astronomers characterize the morphology (shape) of a globular cluster by means of standard radii: the core radius ("r"), the half-light radius ("r"), and the tidal or Jacobi radius ("r"). The radius can be expressed as a physical distance or as a subtended angle in the sky. Considering a radius around the core, the surface luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance, and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half. A comparable quantity is the half-light radius, or the distance from the core containing half the total luminosity of the cluster; the half-light radius is typically larger than the core radius.


title: Globular cluster

text: Most globular clusters have a half-light radius of less than ten parsecs (pc), although some globular clusters have very large radii, like NGC 2419 (r = 18 pc) and Palomar 14 (r = 25 pc). The half-light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight, so theorists also use the half-mass radius ("r")the radius from the core that contains half the total mass of the cluster. A small half-mass radius, relative to the overall size, indicates a dense core. Messier 3 (M3), for example, has an overall visible dimension of about 18 arc minutes, but a half-mass radius of only 1.12 arc minutes.


title: Globular cluster

text: The tidal radius, or Hill sphere, is the distance from the center of the globular cluster at which the external gravitation of the galaxy has more influence over the stars in the cluster than does the cluster itself. This is the distance at which the individual stars belonging to a cluster can be separated away by the galaxy. The tidal radius of M3, for example, is about forty arc minutes, or about 113 pc.


title: Globular cluster

text: In most Milky Way clusters the surface brightness of a globular cluster as a function of decreasing distance to the core first increases, then levels off at a distance typically 1–2 parsecs from the core. About 20% of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed "core collapse". In such a cluster the luminosity increases steadily all the way to the core region.


title: Globular cluster

text: Models of globular clusters predict core collapse occurs when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive counterparts. Over time, dynamic processes cause individual stars to migrate from the center of the cluster to the outside, resulting in a net loss of kinetic energy from the core region and leading the region's remaining stars to occupy a more compact volume. When this gravothermal instability occurs, the central region of the cluster becomes densely crowded with stars, and the surface brightness of the cluster forms a power-law cusp. A massive black hole at the core could also result in a luminosity cusp. Over a long time this leads to a concentration of massive stars near the core, a phenomenon called mass segregation.


title: Globular cluster

text: The dynamical heating effect of binary star systems works to prevent an initial core collapse of the cluster. When a star passes near a binary system, the orbit of the latter pair tends to contract, releasing energy. Only after this primordial supply of energy is exhausted can a deeper core collapse proceed. In contrast, the effect of tidal shocks as a globular cluster repeatedly passes through the plane of a spiral galaxy tends to significantly accelerate core collapse.


title: Globular cluster

text: Core collapse may be divided into three phases. During a cluster's adolescence, core collapse begins with stars nearest the core. Interactions between binary star systems prevents further collapse as the cluster approaches middle age. The central binaries are either disrupted or ejected, resulting in a tighter concentration at the core. The interaction of stars in the collapsed core region causes tight binary systems to form. As other stars interact with these tight binaries they increase the energy at the core, causing the cluster to re-expand. As the average time for a core collapse is typically less than the age of the galaxy, many of a galaxy's globular clusters may have passed through a core collapse stage, then re-expanded.


title: Globular cluster

text: The HST has provided convincing observational evidence of this stellar mass-sorting process in globular clusters. Heavier stars slow down and crowd at the cluster's core, while lighter stars pick up speed and tend to spend more time at the cluster's periphery. The cluster 47 Tucanae, made up of about one million stars, is one of the densest globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere. This cluster was subjected to an intensive photographic survey that obtained precise velocities for nearly fifteen thousand stars in this cluster.


title: Globular cluster

text: The overall luminosities of the globular clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy each have a roughly Gaussian distribution, with an average magnitude M and a variance σ. This distribution of globular cluster luminosities is called the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF). For the Milky Way, M = , σ = . The GCLF has been used as a "standard candle" for measuring the distance to other galaxies, under the assumption that globular clusters in remote galaxies behave similarly to those in the Milky Way.


title: Globular cluster

text: Computing the gravitational interactions between stars within a globular cluster requires solving the N-body problem. The naive computational cost for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to "N" (where N is the number of objects), so the computing requirements to accurately simulate a cluster of thousands of stars can be enormous. A more efficient method of simulating the N-body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdivision into small volumes and velocity ranges, and using "probabilities" to describe the locations of the stars. Their motions are described by means of the Fokker–Planck equation, often using a model describing the mass density as a function of radius, such as a Plummer model. The simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces (such as from the Milky Way galaxy) must also be included. In 2010 a low-density globular cluster's lifetime evolution was able to be directly computed, star-by-star.


title: Globular cluster

text: Completed N-body simulations have shown that stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster, often forming loops and falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass. Additionally, some stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster due to gravitational interactions that result in a sufficient increase in velocity. Over long periods of time this process leads to the dissipation of the cluster, a process termed evaporation. The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 10 years. The ultimate fate of a globular cluster must be either to accrete stars at its core, causing its steady contraction, or gradual shedding of stars from its outer layers.


title: Globular cluster

text: Binary stars form a significant portion of stellar systems, with up to half of all field stars and open cluster stars occurring in binary systems. The present-day binary fraction in globular clusters is difficult to measure, and any information about their initial binary fraction is lost by subsequent dynamical evolution. Numerical simulations of globular clusters have demonstrated that binaries can hinder and even reverse the process of core collapse in globular clusters. When a star in a cluster has a gravitational encounter with a binary system, a possible result is that the binary becomes more tightly bound and kinetic energy is added to the solitary star. When the massive stars in the cluster are sped up by this process, it reduces the contraction at the core and limits core collapse.


title: Globular cluster

text: Cluster classification is not always definitive; objects have been found that can be classified in more than one categories. For example, BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster.


title: Globular cluster

text: In 2005 astronomers discovered a new, "extended" type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy's halo, similar to the globular cluster. The three new-found clusters have a similar star count as globular clusters and share other characteristics, such as stellar populations and metallicity, but are distinguished by their larger sizeseveral hundred light years acrossand some hundred times lower density. Their stars are separated by larger distances; parametrically, these clusters lie somewhere between a globular cluster and a dwarf spheroidal galaxy.


title: Globular cluster

text: The formation of these extended clusters is likely related to accretion. It is unclear why the Milky Way lacks such clusters; Andromeda is unlikely to be the sole galaxy with them, but their presence in other galaxies remains unknown.


title: Globular cluster

text: When a globular cluster comes close to a large mass, such as the core region of a galaxy, it undergoes a tidal interaction. The difference in gravitational strength between the nearer and further parts of the cluster results in an asymmetric, tidal force. A "tidal shock" occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy.


title: Globular cluster

text: Tidal shocks can pull stars away from the cluster halo, leaving only the core part of the cluster; these trails of stars can extend several degrees away from the cluster. These tails typically both precede and follow the cluster along its orbit and can accumulate significant portions of the original mass of the cluster, forming clump-like features. The globular cluster Palomar 5, for example, is near the apogalactic point of its orbit after passing through the Milky Way. Streams of stars extend outward toward the front and rear of the orbital path of this cluster, stretching to distances of 13,000 light years. Tidal interactions have stripped away much of Palomar5's mass; further interactions with the galactic core are expected to transform it into a long stream of stars orbiting the Milky Way in its halo.


title: Globular cluster

text: The Milky Way is in the process of tidally stripping the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy of stars and globular clusters through the Sagittarius Stream. As many as 20% of the globular clusters in the Milky Way's outer halo may have originated in that galaxy. Palomar 12, for example, most likely originated in the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal but is now associated with the Milky Way. Tidal interactions like these add kinetic energy into a globular cluster, dramatically increasing the evaporation rate and shrinking the size of the cluster. The increased evaporation accelerates the process of core collapse.


title: Globular cluster

text: Astronomers are searching for exoplanets of stars in globular star clusters. A search in 2000 for giant planets in the globular cluster came up negative, suggesting that the abundance of heavier elements – low in globular clusters – necessary to build these planets may need to be at least 40% of the Sun's abundance. Because terrestrial planets are built from heavier elements such as silicon, iron and magnesium, member stars have a far lower likelihood of hosting Earth-mass planets than stars in the solar neighborhood. Globular clusters are thus unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets.


title: Globular cluster

text: A giant planet was found in the globular cluster , orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system . The planet's eccentric and highly inclined orbit suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster, then "exchanged" into its current arrangement. The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems; some planets break free to become rogue planets, orbiting the galaxy. Planets orbiting close to their star can become disrupted, potentially leading to orbital decay and an increase in orbital eccentricity and tidal effects.


title: Root vegetable

text: Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans as food. Although botany distinguishes true roots (such as taproots and tuberous roots) from non-roots (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, although some contain both hypocotyl and taproot tissue), the term "root vegetable" is applied to all these types in agricultural and culinary usage (see terminology of vegetables).


title: Root vegetable

text: Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They differ in the concentration and the balance among starches, sugars, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch; starchy root vegetables are important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of Central Africa, West Africa and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make foods such as fufu or poi.


title: Root vegetable

text: Many root vegetables keep well in root cellars, lasting several months. This is one way of storing food for use long after harvest, which is especially important in nontropical latitudes, where winter is traditionally a time of little to no harvesting. There are also season extension methods that can extend the harvest throughout the winter, mostly through the use of polytunnels.


title: John C. Woods

text: John Clarence Woods (June 5, 1911 – July 21, 1950) was a United States Army master sergeant who, with Joseph Malta, carried out the Nuremberg executions of ten former top leaders of the Third Reich on October 16, 1946, after they were sentenced to death at the Nuremberg trials. "Time" magazine credited him with 347 executions to that date during a 15-year career. According to later research, a number of 60 to 70 over a period of two years is more credible.


title: John C. Woods

text: Born in Wichita, Kansas, Woods joined the US Navy on December 3, 1929, and went absent without leave within months. He was convicted at a general court martial and subsequently examined by a psychiatric board on April 23, 1930. He was diagnosed with "Constitutional Psychopathic Inferiority without Psychosis", was found "poor service material" and discharged. Before being inducted into the United States Army in August 1943, Woods was intermittently employed in construction as a laborer, and was working part-time at a feed-store in Eureka, Kansas, when he was registered for Selective Service in 1940. He married a nurse, Hazel Chilcott, but had no children.


title: John C. Woods

text: Before D-Day, U.S. military executions by hanging in the European Theater of Operations occurred in Southern England only and were performed by the civilian executioner Thomas Pierrepoint with assistance by Albert Pierrepoint (his nephew) and other British personnel. When in autumn of 1944 military executions by hanging were scheduled in France, the Army looked for a volunteer enlisted hangman and found Woods, who falsely claimed previous experience as assistant hangman in two cases in Texas and two in Oklahoma. There is no evidence that the U.S. Army made any attempt to verify Woods's claims—if they had checked, it would have been easy to prove that he was lying; the states of Texas and Oklahoma had both switched to electrocution during the period he claimed to be a hangman. The last hanging in Texas took place in August 1923 when Woods would have been twelve. Oklahoma did not carry out hangings during the relevant period, the last one taking place three months before Woods was born. There was a single hanging in 1936 under federal jurisdiction, and all other executions in Oklahoma between 1915 and 1966 were carried out by electric chair.


title: John C. Woods

text: In fact, Woods had no documented pre-war experience as a hangman. Woods at that time was a private and a member of the 37th Engineer Combat Battalion. He was promoted to master sergeant and transferred to Paris Disciplinary Training Center. Woods performed as the primary executioner in the hangings of 34 U.S. soldiers at various locations in France over 1944–1945, and assisted in at least three others. U.S. Army reports suggest that Woods participated in at least 11 bungled hangings of U.S. soldiers between 1944 and 1946.


title: John C. Woods

text: Woods also participated in the execution of about 45 war criminals at various locations which included Rheinbach, Bruchsal, Landsberg, and Nuremberg. Donald E. Wilkes Jr., a professor of law at the University of Georgia Law School, wrote that many of the Nazis executed at Nuremberg fell from the gallows with a drop insufficient to snap their necks, resulting in their death by strangulation that in some cases lasted several minutes.


title: John C. Woods

text: While serving with the 7th Engineer Brigade in Eniwetok, Marshall Islands, on July 21, 1950, Woods died after accidentally electrocuting himself while attempting to repair an engineer lighting set. He is buried in Toronto Township Cemetery, Toronto, Kansas.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: The Exterminating Angel () is a 1962 Mexican surrealist film written and directed by Luis Buñuel, starring Silvia Pinal, and produced by Pinal's then-husband Gustavo Alatriste. It tells the story of a group of wealthy guests who find themselves unable to leave after a lavish dinner party, and the chaos that ensues. Sharply satirical and allegorical, the film contains a depiction of the aristocracy that suggests they "harbor savage instincts and unspeakable secrets".


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: In 2004, "The New York Times" included the film in a list of "The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made". The film was adapted into an opera of the same name in 2016.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: After a night at the opera, Edmundo and Lucía Nóbile are having 18 wealthy acquaintances over for a dinner party at their lavish mansion. The servants inexplicably begin to leave as the guests are about to arrive and, by the time the meal is over, only Julio, the majordomo, is left. Lucía cancels a planned surprise involving a bear and three sheep upon discovering that guest Sergio Russell does not like jokes, but there are a few strange occurrences, such as the guests somehow entering the mansion and going upstairs twice, Edmundo repeating his toast to the opera singer Silvia, and Cristián Ugalde and Leandro Gomez greeting each other three times (as strangers, cordially, and antagonistically).


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: The guests mingle before adjourning to the salon to listen to Blanca play a piano sonata by Paradisi. When she finishes, she says she is tired, and several other guests indicate they are about to go home, but no one does. Instead, without discussing it, the guests and hosts settle in and spend the night on the couches, chairs, and floor of the salon, preventing Lucía from sneaking off for a tryst with Colonel Alvaro Aranda, while Julio sleeps at the table in the dining room.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: In the morning, it is discovered that Sergio is unconscious. The hosts and some of the guests wonder why no one attempted to leave the night before. A few guests try to exit the salon, but they all turn back or become distressed and stop before crossing the threshold. When Julio brings some leftovers for breakfast, he is trapped as well.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: By that evening, everyone is on edge. They are using a closet as a toilet and have run out of clean water. Raúl blames Eduardo for their plight, but Leticia defends the host. Sergio dies during the night, and Dr. Carlos Conde and Alvaro put the corpse in a closet to prevent the sight of it from further worrying their peers.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: A crowd of onlookers, police, and soldiers gathers outside the gates of the mansion over the following days and finds no one is able to enter, though there is no physical barrier. The trapped individuals get water by tapping into a pipe in the wall, but their good manners continue to deteriorate. A growing number of them become ill, and Dr. Conde has no medicine, until Edmundo shows him a stash of opiates, which some of the guests sneak for themselves.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: At a particularly heated moment, the trapped group sees the three sheep and bear roaming the mansion. The sheep wander into the salon, where they are caught and roasted on a fire in the middle of the room. While the food calms things down somewhat, it does little to raise spirits, and Eduardo and Beatriz, a young engaged couple, kill themselves in a closet.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: servants are drawn back to the mansion. Inside, Raúl has convinced most of the other guests that their predicament will end if Edmundo dies. Dr. Conde attempts to reason with them, and a fight breaks out, the doctor assisted by Alvaro and Julio. Edmundo and Leticia come out of the curtained-off area they have begun to inhabit (Lucía is now openly with Alvaro), and Edmundo offers to take his own life. He gets a small pistol he had hidden, but Leticia tells him to wait. She says all of the people and furniture are in the same spot as the night of the party, and has Blanca play the end of the piano sonata and everyone repeat the conversation that followed.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: This time, when Blanca says she is tired, the group finds they can leave the salon, and then the mansion. The members of the small crowd outside see them exit and are able to pass through the gates to greet them.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: To give thanks for their salvation, most of the group from the salon attend a Te Deum service. Afterward, neither the clergy, nor the churchgoers, can leave the cathedral. Some time later, the military fires on a group of people and drives them away from the cathedral gates. A flock of sheep enters the building as the screams and gunshots continue.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: The film was shot in less than six weeks, from January 29 to March 9, 1962. American actress Marilyn Monroe traveled to Mexico during that period, and her trip included a visit to Churubusco Studios, where the film was being made. She visited the set and met Luis Buñuel, photographer Gabriel Figueroa, and the cast members of the film, with whom she took some pictures.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: "The Exterminating Angel" premiered at the 1962 Cannes Film Festival, and was released in theaters in Mexico on October 1, 1964. It received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93% based on 27 reviews, with an average score of 9.0/10; the site's "critics consensus" reads: "Societal etiquette devolves into depravity in Luis Buñuel's existential comedy, effectively playing the absurdity of civilization for mordant laughs."


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: This film received the International Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI) Prize at the 1962 Cannes Film Festival. At the 1963 Bodil Awards, it won the award for Best Non-European Film.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: The Criterion Collection released "The Exterminating Angel" on DVD on 10 February 2009, and on Blu-ray in November 2016.


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: Though Buñuel never explained how to interpret the film, leaving it to each viewer to decide for themselves, American film critic Roger Ebert wrote a lengthy interpretation of the film's symbolism, which includes the following paragraph: "The dinner guests represent the ruling class in Franco's Spain. Having set a banquet table for themselves by defeating the workers in the Spanish Civil War, they sit down for a feast, only to find it never ends. They're trapped in their own bourgeois cul-de-sac. Increasingly resentful at being shut off from the world outside, they grow mean and restless; their worst tendencies are revealed."


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: Scholar Robert Stam said in his book "Reflexivity in Film and Literature: From Don Quixote to Jean-Luc Godard" that the film "is structured on the comic formula of a slow descent from normality into anarchy ... The 'Exterminating Angel' executes a mission of social justice, an apocalyptic laying low of the noble and the powerful."


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: In a piece on the horror film website "Bloody Disgusting", Samuel Pierce noted parallels between "The Exterminating Angel" and the contemporary horror film, writing: "Within the film's already fascinating plot, there's plenty of poignant social commentary that will be just as familiar to horror fans. Though the film can be interpreted a number of ways, many of its themes are undeniable and as relevant today as they ever were. We see isolation drive madness. We see tribes form in times of strife. We see murder become more and more appealing. More than anything, however, "The Exterminating Angel" explores the hypocrisy of the social elite and the thin strands of society that keep them from utter depravity."


title: The Exterminating Angel

text: Rather than a precursor to many contemporary horror films, some critics have classified "The Exterminating Angel" as a horror film itself. For example, Jonathan Romney of "The Guardian" called it a straightforward "claustrophobic horror story", and film scholar Jonathan Rosenbaum classified it as a "comic horror film."


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: In computing, aspect-oriented programming (AOP) is a programming paradigm that aims to increase modularity by allowing the separation of cross-cutting concerns. It does so by adding behavior to existing code (an advice) "without" modifying the code itself, instead separately specifying which code is modified via a "pointcut" specification, such as "log all function calls when the function's name begins with 'set. This allows behaviors that are not central to the business logic (such as logging) to be added to a program without cluttering the code core to the functionality.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: AOP includes programming methods and tools that support the modularization of concerns at the level of the source code, while aspect-oriented software development refers to a whole engineering discipline.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Aspect-oriented programming entails breaking down program logic into distinct parts (so-called "concerns", cohesive areas of functionality). Nearly all programming paradigms support some level of grouping and encapsulation of concerns into separate, independent entities by providing abstractions (e.g., functions, procedures, modules, classes, methods) that can be used for implementing, abstracting and composing these concerns. Some concerns "cut across" multiple abstractions in a program, and defy these forms of implementation. These concerns are called "cross-cutting concerns" or horizontal concerns.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Logging exemplifies a crosscutting concern because a logging strategy necessarily affects every logged part of the system. Logging thereby "crosscuts" all logged classes and methods.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: All AOP implementations have some crosscutting expressions that encapsulate each concern in one place. The difference between implementations lies in the power, safety, and usability of the constructs provided. For example, interceptors that specify the methods to express a limited form of crosscutting, without much support for type-safety or debugging. AspectJ has a number of such expressions and encapsulates them in a special class, an aspect. For example, an aspect can alter the behavior of the base code (the non-aspect part of a program) by applying advice (additional behavior) at various join points (points in a program) specified in a quantification or query called a pointcut (that detects whether a given join point matches). An aspect can also make binary-compatible structural changes to other classes, like adding members or parents.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: AOP has several direct antecedents A1 and A2: reflection and metaobject protocols, subject-oriented programming, Composition Filters and Adaptive Programming.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Gregor Kiczales and colleagues at Xerox PARC developed the explicit concept of AOP, and followed this with the AspectJ AOP extension to Java. IBM's research team pursued a tool approach over a language design approach and in 2001 proposed Hyper/J and the Concern Manipulation Environment, which have not seen wide usage.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: The Microsoft Transaction Server is considered to be the first major application of AOP followed by Enterprise JavaBeans.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Typically, an aspect is "scattered" or "tangled" as code, making it harder to understand and maintain. It is scattered by virtue of the function (such as logging) being spread over a number of unrelated functions that might use "its" function, possibly in entirely unrelated systems, different source languages, etc. That means to change logging can require modifying all affected modules. Aspects become tangled not only with the mainline function of the systems in which they are expressed but also with each other. That means changing one concern entails understanding all the tangled concerns or having some means by which the effect of changes can be inferred.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: For example, consider a banking application with a conceptually very simple method for transferring an amount from one account to another:


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: However, this transfer method overlooks certain considerations that a deployed application would require: it lacks security checks to verify that the current user has the authorization to perform this operation; a database transaction should encapsulate the operation in order to prevent accidental data loss; for diagnostics, the operation should be logged to the system log, etc.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: In this example, other interests have become "tangled" with the basic functionality (sometimes called the "business logic concern"). Transactions, security, and logging all exemplify "cross-cutting concerns".


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Now consider what happens if we suddenly need to change (for example) the security considerations for the application. In the program's current version, security-related operations appear "scattered" across numerous methods, and such a change would require a major effort.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: AOP attempts to solve this problem by allowing the programmer to express cross-cutting concerns in stand-alone modules called "aspects". Aspects can contain "advice" (code joined to specified points in the program) and "inter-type declarations" (structural members added to other classes). For example, a security module can include advice that performs a security check before accessing a bank account. The pointcut defines the times (join points) when one can access a bank account, and the code in the advice body defines how the security check is implemented. That way, both the check and the places can be maintained in one place. Further, a good pointcut can anticipate later program changes, so if another developer creates a new method to access the bank account, the advice will apply to the new method when it executes.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: One can think of AOP as a debugging tool or as a user-level tool. Advice should be reserved for the cases where you cannot get the function changed (user level) or do not want to change the function in production code (debugging).


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: The advice-related component of an aspect-oriented language defines a join point model (JPM). A JPM defines three things:


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Join-point models can be compared based on the join points exposed, how join points are specified, the operations permitted at the join points, and the structural enhancements that can be expressed.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: There are other kinds of JPMs. All advice languages can be defined in terms of their JPM. For example, a hypothetical aspect language for UML may have the following JPM:


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: "Inter-type declarations" provide a way to express crosscutting concerns affecting the structure of modules. Also known as "open classes" and "extension methods", this enables programmers to declare in one place members or parents of another class, typically in order to combine all the code related to a concern in one aspect. For example, if a programmer implemented the crosscutting display-update concern using visitors instead, an inter-type declaration using the visitor pattern might look like this in AspectJ:


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: It is a requirement that any structural additions be compatible with the original class, so that clients of the existing class continue to operate, unless the AOP implementation can expect to control all clients at all times.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: AOP programs can affect other programs in two different ways, depending on the underlying languages and environments:


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: The difficulty of changing environments means most implementations produce compatible combination programs through a type of program transformation known as "weaving". An aspect weaver reads the aspect-oriented code and generates appropriate object-oriented code with the aspects integrated. The same AOP language can be implemented through a variety of weaving methods, so the semantics of a language should never be understood in terms of the weaving implementation. Only the speed of an implementation and its ease of deployment are affected by which method of combination is used.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Systems can implement source-level weaving using preprocessors (as C++ was implemented originally in CFront) that require access to program source files. However, Java's well-defined binary form enables bytecode weavers to work with any Java program in .class-file form. Bytecode weavers can be deployed during the build process or, if the weave model is per-class, during class loading. AspectJ started with source-level weaving in 2001, delivered a per-class bytecode weaver in 2002, and offered advanced load-time support after the integration of AspectWerkz in 2005.


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Any solution that combines programs at runtime has to provide views that segregate them properly to maintain the programmer's segregated model. Java's bytecode support for multiple source files enables any debugger to step through a properly woven .class file in a source editor. However, some third-party decompilers cannot process woven code because they expect code produced by Javac rather than all supported bytecode forms (see also § Criticism, below).


title: Aspect-oriented programming

text: Deploy-time weaving offers another approach. This basically implies post-processing, but rather than patching the generated code, this weaving approach "subclasses" existing classes so that the modifications are introduced by method-overriding. The existing classes remain untouched, even at runtime, and all existing tools (debuggers, profilers, etc.) can be used during development. A similar approach has already proven itself in the implementation of many Java EE application servers, such as IBM's WebSphere.