title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish series are also popular in Pakistan. "Aşk-ı Memnu", which has broken ratings records in Turkey, aired on the television channel Urdu1 in Pakistan, and has topped ratings being the most successful Turkish series there. The first most popular series is "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" that aired on the same channel, the third best television series is "Muhteşem Yüzyıl" ("Magnificent Century"). According to Pakistani rating network, Media Logic, Aski-Memnu was watched by more than 90 million people on its last episode where as It averaged 45–55 million viewership from rural and urban market.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Moreover, "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" and "Adını Feriha Koydum" averaged 30 million and 28 million viewership respectively from rural and urban market. No Turkish or Indian program received higher viewership after 2013. After URI Attack, Urdu1 banned Indian content and broadcast "". The series opened with higher viewership, after three years the Turkish content begin its demand after Kosem Sultan's premier.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Popularity of the Turkish serials was met by some difficulties: Pakistan's entertainment industry complained that the airing of Turkish and other foreign TV series diverts funding from local productions. Furthermore, A senate committee that oversees information and broadcasting has condemned such shows for their allegedly "vulgar content" and contrary to the Pakistan's Muslim traditions.


title: Turkish television drama

text: It was also reported that TV series "Aşk-ı Memnu", "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?", "Muhtesem Yuzyil" and "Adını Feriha Koydum" have aired once again after its ending due to immense popularity and major demands. See TV has played a number of Turkish dramas dubbed in Urdu like "Ekip1" as Team1, "Ötesiz İnsanlar" as "Alif", "Küçük Gelin" as Masoom Dulhan Kucuk.


title: Turkish television drama

text: "Hum Sitaray" aired season 1 of highest-rated TRT 1 drama "". The story of the father of Osman, founder of the Ottoman Empire. The same drama, Ertugrul, is also being aired on PTV Home, a state-owned entertainment channel from Thursdays to Sundays. It is being watched and its popularity has since risen when PM Imran Khan told Pakistani Public to watch this show. Urdu1 aired "Bizim Hikaye", "Acil Aşk Aranıyor" and "Seven Ne Yapmaz" in November 2019. The rise of Turkish Content on YouTube in Pakistan began when Kanal D signed up an exclusive worldwide deal with Dot Republic Media for the distribution of their content in the Urdu language. For the first time, multiple titles were broadcast on YouTube in parallel to the TV Channels including Güneşin Kızları as Sunehri Titliyaan (aired on Play TV), "Şeref Meselesi" as Aabroo (aired on APlus), "Siyah Beyaz Aşk" as Sawal e Ishq (aired on Play TV), "Afili Aşk" as Tera Mera Pyar (aired on Play TV), "Tatlı Intikam" as Ek Haseen Intiqam (aired on Urdu 1). These dramas were aired on Dramas Central, Turkish Dramas Channel, and Best Pakistani Dramas YouTube channels. "Aşk Laftan Anlamaz" as Pyaar Lafzon Mein Kahan is one of the most-watched series in Pakistan, it has 46 million viewership on its first episode. In Pakistan, it was aired on Filmazia (now LTN Family). People also watched this series from India and Bangladesh. Currently "Diriliş: Ertuğrul", and "Aşk Laftan Anlamaz" are most popular Turkish series in Pakistan.


title: Turkish television drama

text: There is varying levels of mutual intelligibility among the various Turkic languages, especially among Turkish and Azerbaijani, which are both Oghuz languages. Thus, in Azerbaijan, the shows are not subtitled as the content of the show is understandable by the general public. Turkish shows are also aired in the Turkish-speaking "de facto" independent state of Northern Cyprus.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkic languages more distant from Turkish, such as Turkmen, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek, require subtitles as they have lesser degree of mutual intelligibility. Turkish TV series are popular in the Turkic countries of Central Asia.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In 2017, the Turkish series "Fi" was sold to GTV channel in South Korea. In 2021, "Kırmızı Oda" was sold for the South Korean channel, Kuki TV. "Ezel" won the Special Award in the Drama category at the 7th Seoul International Drama Awards. "Medcezir" won the Silver Award for Best Drama at the 9th Seoul International Drama Awards. "Kara Sevda" won the Special Jury Award in the Drama category at the 10th Seoul International Drama Awards held in South Korea. Engin Akyürek received the "Best Actor" award at the 10th Seoul International Drama Awards. Kerem Bürsin won the "Best Actor" award at the 12th Seoul International Drama Awards. Turkish drama, "Çarpışma", won the Silver Award in the Best Drama category at the 14th Seoul International Drama Awards. "The Pit" won the Special Jury Award at the 16th Seoul International Drama Awards. At the 17th Seoul Drama Awards, two Turkish dramas 'Destan' and 'Mahkum' won the 'Best Series Award'.


title: Turkish television drama

text: "Paramparça" aired on ANTV. The Turkish series "Kirgın Çicekler" was broadcast on Indonesia's ANTV channel and became the 'Most Watched' production by female viewers aged 20–29. Turkish drama, "Elif", aired in Indonesia and local remake was made as "Elif Indonesia" on SCTV.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The first Turkish series broadcast on Malaysian National Channel RTM was "Bu Şehir Arkandan Gelecek". Malaysian remake of Turkish drama, Rüzgarın Kalbi, aired as Degup Cinta in 2020.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In 2018, GMA Network from the Philippines aired the first Turkish drama, "Bana Sevmeyi Anlat" (as "Wings of Love"). ETC channel also aired "Ewerywhere I Go", "Endless Love" ("Kara Sevda") and "Aşk Laftan Anlamaz".


title: Turkish television drama

text: "Magnificent Century" aired on Channel Ginga as オスマン帝国外伝～愛と欲望のハレム〜 in Japan. The Japanese Nippon Tv has acquired the rights of the Turkish drama series "Anne", a remake of Japanese drama "Mother"; the Turkish remake, "Anne", will air on BS Nippon TV and Hulu in Japan. Turkish drama "Kadın", a remake of Japanese drama "Woman", won the Special Award (Foreign dramas) at the Tokyo Drama Awards.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish TV shows are widely successful all over the Balkan Region. The most watched show in Bosnia and Herzegovina was "Muhteşem Yüzyıl" ("Magnificent Century"). In Kosovo, the most popular TV shows in December 2012 were "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" ("What is Fatmagül's Fault?"), which ranked top of all programmes and "Aşk ve Ceza" ("Love and Punishment"), which came in third according to data by Index Kosova. In Serbia, research from January 2013 indicates that the top two Turkish shows in TV were "Muhteşem Yüzyıl", which ranked fourth, and "Öyle Bir Geçer Zaman Ki" ("As Time Goes By"), which came in seventh. Serbian sociologist Ratko Božović explains this popularity by pointing at the traditional, patriarchal values of the Turkish shows, and the many cultural and linguistic similarities between Turkey and the Balkan countries: "The mentality depicted in those shows has to do with a traditional understanding of morality that people in Balkans remember at some level". According to him, all Balkan countries (Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Albania, Croatia etc.) have seen dramatic changes in terms of family life, and the Turkish shows help them recall value systems that now seem lost.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In North Macedonia, "Öyle Bir Geçer Zaman Ki" ("As Time Goes By") ranked in January 2013 the top in terms of viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research. In fact, Turkish shows are so successful in North Macedonia that the government has passed a bill to restrict broadcasts of Turkish series during the day and at prime time in order to reduce the Turkish impact on North Macedonia's society.


title: Turkish television drama

text: They are also widely watched by Bulgarian viewers. Nova Televizia broke the record for viewer numbers when it started broadcasting the Turkish TV series "Binbir Gece". The channel then decided to broadcast another Turkish show, "Dudaktan Kalbe".


title: Turkish television drama

text: The series "Binbir Gece" ("One Thousand and One Nights") became a primetime hit in Bosnia, Montenegro and North Macedonia, as well as in Romania, Albania and Greece.


title: Turkish television drama

text: It has increased the popularity of Istanbul as a tourist destination among Croatians, and led to a greater interest in learning Turkish. Other Turkish series that achieved great popularity in Croatia are "Ezel" starring "Kenan İmirzalıoğlu and Cansu dere" (2009-2011), "Muhteşem Yüzyıl Halit Ergenc and Meryem Uzerli" (2011-2014), "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" starring Engin Akyürek and Beren Saat (2010-2012), "Adını Feriha Koydum" Hazal Kaya and Çağatay Ulusoy (2011-2012), "Kuzey Güney" (2011-2013) starring Kıvanç Tatlıtuğ, Buğra Gülsoy and Öykü Karayel, "Dila Hanım", "Küçük Sırlar" (2010-2011) and most recently "Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi" (2010-2013).


title: Turkish television drama

text: According to Kosovo's index the most popular TV series there is Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne? "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" has been sold by 124 countries, "Kara Para Aşk" sold by 112 countries. "Sıla" sold by 104 countries. "Ezel" sold by 100 are series that has been sold by over 100 countries.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish TV series were also popular in Greece until their widespread removal from Greek TV in 2020 due to Turkish incursions into Greek territorial waters. As of 2021 only Elif continues to be aired (since early 2018), with low ratings, while from 2018-19 the popularity of Turkish drama in Greece has largely faded, because of the reemergence of Greek-language programming and awareness against Turkish-language TV programs, given the negative opinion about Turkey in Greece. The Greek orthodox Bishop Anthimos had criticised Greek fans of Turkish TV series after "Yabancı Damat" ("The Foreign Bridesgroom") was one of the first Turkish series to become popular in Greece in 2005. According to International Hellenic Association in Delaware is monitoring the broadcast of Turkish drama in Greece, certain companies such as Procter and Gamble provide a large amount of advertising at the Turkish drama in Greece. Generally Turkish dramas have been met with criticism in Greece for many years.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Yabanci Damat started airing in Greece on July 11, 2005, recording a viewing rate of 31.7%; the last episode aired on July 5, 2008, recording a viewing rate of 31.8%. One Thousand and One Nights started broadcasting on June 7, 2010 by ANT1, recording a viewership rate of 18.7%. The last episode aired on February 1, 2011, scoring 24.3%, while the highest percentage was 43.8% on August 6, 2010. Another popular drama was Sila; it aired in Greece on June 10, 2012 by MEGA. The series "Elif" had a particularly significant average viewership share, 16.8% of all viewers, it was watched daily by an average of about 450,000 viewers.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Greek remake, Trapped, of Turkish drama, Yargı, will air on ANT1. Another Greek remake, Storgi, of Turkish Drama, Kirmizi Oda, will air on Skai Tv.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The series, "Ezel", was adapted by Romanian TV channel Pro TV under the title "Vlad". Turkish drama, "O Hayat Benim", was remade by Romanian channel as "Adela" in 2020. Fructul oprit, a Romanian adaptation of Ask-i Memnu was also produced by Antena 1 in 2018. The Romanian remake, The Clan, of the Turkish drama, İçerde, will air by the Romanian Pro TV.


title: Turkish television drama

text: After Latin America success, there is great interest in Turkish TV series in Spain. The Spanish Telenovela channel started broadcasting the TV series 'Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne' in 2018, and the series became the most watched series of the channel. After the TV series "Fatmagul", the Spanish channel began to air Turkish series like "Kara Para Ask", "Elif", "Ezel", "Sila", "Medcezir", "Anne", "One Thousand and One Nights" and "The Girl Named Feriha". At the same time, the series "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne" adapted as Alba by the Spanish Atresmedia.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish dramas; Kadın (as Mujer), Sen Çal Kapımı, Erkenci Kuş, Kızım, Bir Zamanlar Çukurova (as Tierra Amarga) and Sadakatsiz (Infiel) received high ratings on different channels in Spain. Kadin (Mujer) was the first Turkish series aired in prime time in Spain, it has managed to lead its time slot for a year, even facing great products and being broadcast for several days in a row. Sadakatsiz aired in Spain with an average audience of 2.3 million viewers, which makes it one of the foreign series with the best debut since 2020 Caner Cindoruk was on the cover of Spain's "Albacete A Mano" magazine for the promotion of the TV series "Sadakatsiz".


title: Turkish television drama

text: While it was being produced by Turkish Netflix, the series, Eğer Bilseydim, whose production was not made due to censorship, written by Ece Yörenç, will be broadcast by Spanish Netflix under the name of Si lo Hubiera Sabido.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The TV series Sen Çal Kapımı, broadcast on the Spanish channel Divinity, reached 460,000 viewers and reached 4.9 percent in Share. Thus, Sen Çal Kapımı became the most watched program of the channel. Another Turkish series, Early Bird, broadcast by the channel before, broke the record by reaching 427,000 viewers.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Spanish remake of Turkish drama, Anne, will air as Heridas on Atresmedia. Another Spanish remake of Turkish drama, Son, aired as El Accidente on Telecinco in 2017.


title: Turkish television drama

text: THE MEDIAPRO STUDIO and MEDYAPIM established their Spanish-Turkish co-production company in 2022, focusing making Spanish remakes of Turkish dramas.


title: Turkish television drama

text: 'Sadakatsiz' premiered with a powerful 18.1% rating on Antena 3 and 2,357,000 viewers and, it was the leader every Sunday and moves around a 14-15% share in Spain. The final episode of Kızım (as Mi hija) aired as the most watched series on Antena 3 with an average of more than 2.4 million viewers and a 16.8% share, also placed it as a leader on Sunday nights.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Çilek Kokusu will be broadcast by Mediaset Spain's Divinity channel under the name "Com olor a fresas". The series will be broadcast every weekday. The same channel bought the broadcasting rights for Spain of Bu Şehir Arkandan Gelecek and Kaderimin Oyunu.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Mitele Plus, the digital broadcasting platform of Mediaset Spain, acquired Kanal D Drama channel, which broadcasts Turkish series. Thus, a selection of approximately 1200 episodes was added to the platform as Spanish dubbed. Mitele made a similar deal with the Timeless Dizi Channel (TDC), which broadcasts Turkish series in October 2021.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Antena 3 became the most watched channel in prime time on Sunday, October 9, with the premiere of the new Turkish series, Yargı. Then another Turkish drama, 'Sadakatsiz' shot up to 21.6% and 1,607,000 in the late night slot on the same channel.


title: Turkish television drama

text: 'Cherry Season' was the first Turkish TV series to be broadcast in Italy and received high ratings on Canale 5. Turkish TV series such as 'Dolunay' and 'Erkenci Kuş' made Can Yaman an idol in Italy. Fan clubs were established for the duo of Can Yaman and Demet Özdemir. The actors of the Early Bird and Cherry Season series participated in talk shows in Italy. The series starring Kerem Bürsin and Hande Erçel in 'Canale 5' was broadcast under the name 'Love is in the Air'.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The first episode of "Sevgili Geçmiş" was watched by 2 million 472 thousand people on Canale 5 with 13.4 percent in primetime and took the first place.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The first popular Turkish TV series in Russia was Çalıkuşu, broadcast in 1986. Kurt Seyit ve Şura was broadcast on Russia's Domashny television channel in 2015. Magnificent Century (Великолепный век) was shown on the Domanshi channel in 2012. Even though the Turkish series called "Sultan of my Heart" was not successful in Turkey, was broadcast on Channel 1, Russia's largest channel, in 2019 and it took place at number one as the most watched TV series in Russia. Siyah Beyaz Aşk was aired in Russia on the Domashniy channel. Anne, Kara Sevda, Kara Para Aşk and Meryem aired in Russia as well. Kara Sevda gained the popularity in Russia. Russian viewers enjoyed watching not only the original episode, but also reruns of Kara Sevda. Marina Hripunova, General Manager of Russian Domashniy television channel, said, "We cannot do without Turkish TV series. Turkish TV series are watched with great interest in Russia." Turkish star Tuba Büyüküstün became the face of Russian mobile operator, Megafon, in 2021.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Magnificent Century aired on Ukraine Channel 1+1 in 2012 as well. As of August 2017, Kara Sevda, with the name "Нескінченне кохання" in Ukraine, started to be broadcast on 1+1, the Ukrainian television. Ukrainian remake of Turkish drama, Ezel , aired as Uznay menya, esli smozhesh (Узнай меня, если сможешь) in 2014. Ukrainian remake of Turkish drama Siyah Beyaz Aşk was made as Na tvoey storone (На твоей стороне)


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish series; Kara Sevda, Ölene Kadar, Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?, and Bu Şehir Arkandan Gelecek, were broadcast on Africa-based Novelas TV, which also broadcasts in France. Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne? was selected as the Best Foreign Series at the Soap Awards in 2019. 7. Koğuştaki Mucize became the most watched movie in Netflix France and thus took the title of the first Turkish movie that was watched the most on Netflix France.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish series are also popular in Slovenia. They are broadcast by Planet TV and POP TV. You could watch Kara Sevda, Sen Çal Kapımı, Erkenci Kuş, Bay Yanli ...


title: Turkish television drama

text: The Swedish public broadcaster SVT acquired the series "Son" ("The End"), becoming the first major broadcaster in Western Europe to buy a Turkish TV series in 2013. According to Sweden's television critic, Anders Björkman, the series, Son, was the best foreign show this season in all categories.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Son was remade in 2016 on KRO-NCRV, one of the leading Dutch television channels, under the name Vlucht HS13 (Flight HS13). Thus, it became the first Turkish TV series adapted in Western Europe.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish drama, Suskunlar was remade as Game of Silence on NBC. Turkish drama, Son, has been sold to 20th Century Fox Television in the United States and was adapted into a pilot named Runner for ABC. On November 20, 2017, Kara Sevda won an Emmy for Best Telenovela of the Year. Turkish actor Haluk Bilginer was selected as the 'Best Actor' for his role in the TV series, Şahsiyet, at the 47th International Emmy Awards. Turkish crime drama, Alef, was selected in Variety's "Top 15 International TV Series of 2020" list. The BluTV and FX special production "Alef" won the "best crime drama" and "best credits" awards at the New York Festivals in the USA.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish dramas have become popular in Latin America after being dubbed into Spanish and Portuguese. Due to the popularity, new Turkish shows continue to be dubbed into Spanish and Portuguese. In 2017, 25% of the biggest 7 Turkish exporting companies' business came from Latin America.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The popularity of Turkish shows in Latin America has been credited to multiple factors. Burhan Gün, the president of the Turkish TV and Cinema Producers Guild, has stated that one reason is that Latin Americans and Turkish people can often look similar to each other. Gün has also expressed that Turkish shows portray storylines relating to migration patterns that are similar in many developing nations. Many shows portray plots about moving from rural areas to cities, and the challenges that come with this transition.


title: Turkish television drama

text: ATV has sold rights to air the series, "Hercai", in various international markets, including most of Latin America and the United States through Telemundo, which premiered on June 22, 2021. "Exathlon" is a physical challenge reality show from Turkey that has inspired local versions of the show to be create in Latin America. Brazil and Mexico have each created their own version of the show, Exathlon Brazil and Exatlón México.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In 2020, Taner Ölmez, the lead actor of Miracle Doctor, won the "Best Foreign Actor" award at the Produ Awards, one of the most important awards of the television industry in Latin America. "Bir Zamanlar Çukurova" was announced as the "Best Foreign Series" and received one of the biggest awards at the Produ Awards. Vahide Perçin won the grand prize in the "Best Foreign Actress" category.


title: Turkish television drama

text: HBO opened a Turkish series category on its digital platform in Latin America. For this category, they agreed with Madd Entertainment from Turkey for 3 years; put 10 Turkish TV series in its catalog. Mucize Doktor became the most watched TV series on HBO Max as of October 2021. Sen Cal Kapimi ranked second in the Top 10 list on HBOMAXLA. It ranked first in Chile, Uruguay and Colombia, and third in Mexico and Argentina.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In Chile, the most popular Turkish show is "Binbir Gece," as it was the most watched show in 2014. The television channel "Mega", which started to show Turkish series for the first time in Chile, was saved from bankruptcy, thanks to the Turkish TV series "Binbir Gece". Turkish TV series "Sıla", which is broadcast in Chile, received as high a rating as the Copa America qualifying match between Brazil and Chile.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The first Turkish TV series broadcast in Brazil was Binbir Gece on Band Tv. Then Fatmagul and Sila aired. "Sila" had the best first week rating of Turkish soap operas in Band. HBO Max Brasil launched its first Turkish soap opera, Sen Cal Kapimi, in the Brazilian catalog and the title won over subscribers, ranking 1st among the most watched productions on streaming.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Tv series; "Cesur ve Güzel", "Fazilet Hanım ve Kızları", "Binbir Gece", "Kara Para Aşk", "Fatma Gül'ün Suçu Ne", "Adını Feriha Koydum", "Ezel", "Muhteşem Yüzyıl" and "Elif" broadcast in the country.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In Argentina the show "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" is extremely popular, with more than 12 million Argentine viewers watching each episode. "Mucize Doktor", which started broadcasting on Argentina's number one channel Telefe, received a rating of 14.2 in its first episode, making it the second highest opening performance for a Turkish series. Two days later, on Wednesday, it reached the highest rating for a Turkish drama with a rating of 21.5.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Kanal D Drama, broadcasting in Spanish for Turkish series, has surpassed one million subscribers in Peru.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Adapted from the Turkish TV series, "Kara Para Aş"k, "Imperio de Mentiras" was broadcast on the Mexican Televisa channel. The Mexican adaptation of the Ezel was released in 2018 under the name Yago for Televisa. “El Asesino Del Olvido” the Mexican remake of the Turkish series Şahsiyet was aired. Remake of Gecenin Kraliçesi was broadcast on Las Esterellas as "¿Te acuerdas de mí?" in 2021.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish drama "Kara Sevda" is broadcast in the United States through Univision, it became the most watched foreign soap opera in the entire history of the country and the Turkish series with the highest audience, surpassing its main competitors. The love story remains the most watched fiction in Hispanic prime time with more than 2 million viewers every day and close to 4 million in its final episode, something that no other series has achieved. Currently, Kara Sevda remains the most watched Turkish series in the United States.


title: Turkish television drama

text: A Spanish-language American remake titled "Pasión prohibida" of Turkish drama "Aşkı Memnu" began airing in 2013. Later, the Indian channel Star Plus broadcast the remake of this show as Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara.


title: Turkish television drama

text: The drama, "Sefirin Kızı", made Univision the first U.S. network among Hispanic viewers in the weeknight 10 p.m. slot. The actress of Sefirin Kizi, Neslihan Atagül, was on the cover of the HOLA! USA for the promotion of the drama. The actor of Hercai, Akın Akınözü, was on the cover of HOLA! USA for the promotion of the another drama. Another Turkish star, Tuba Buyukustun, was on the cover of HOLA!USA for her key role in the global recognition of Turkish actors.


title: Turkish television drama

text: As of 2016, Turkish soap operas are popular in Ethiopia, through Kana TV where they are dubbed into Amharic.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Television channels in Turkey are controlled by the Radio and Television Supreme Council. If RTUK detects that any channel is broadcasting obscene, illegal, disruptive or divisive content, the channel may be fined, suspended, or even closed by canceling the license of the channel. Therefore, TV channels have to pay attention to their content. Punishments are often given because the scene is against the general moral code. Generally, things that are forbidden are either not shown on television or shown by censorship. Often the boundaries of what is immoral are unclear and very personal. Therefore, what deserves punishment and what does not cause controversy. And for this reason, screenwriters have internalized self-censorship. There are complaints as to why the sensitivity to alcohol or sexuality issues is not shown on issues of abuse and violence scenes.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In 2010, a season of Turkish TV series was 30 to 35 episodes long. One 90-minute episode took 6 days to make. When TV series are broadcast, the next 3 to 4 episodes were shot concurrently. Actors and workers were on strike. So a Turkish TV series has generally has 2 crew concurrently.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In 2016, a season of Turkish TV series was 35 to 40 episodes long. It is between 120 and 150 minutes in length. Actors and crew members complained.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Each series roughly consists of 40 episodes that last about 130 minutes, which translates into 5,200 hours of domestic TV content broadcast yearly. Demiray commented that as a screenwriter, "it was wonderful until about 10 years ago. Then I had to write a 60-minute episode per week, as opposed to today's 130-plus minutes. It has become a very mechanical and uninteresting process, just a question of keeping the melodrama going."


title: Turkish television drama

text: Cagri Vila Lostuvali, 10 years in the business and four as a director, adds: "To deliver one episode per week our crews work up to 18 hours a day. This job eats up our entire lives."


title: Turkish television drama

text: According to Şükrü Avşar, one of the leading Turkish TV shows producers and director of Avşar Film, some episodes need between 15 and 20 days of work to get satisfying results.


title: Turkish television drama

text: According to actor Yılmaz Erdoğan the length of episodes is the first weakness of the market. Another weakness is that many series do not last long due to the lack of audience. Therefore, Turkish TV series market has not yet reached maturity.


title: Turkish television drama

text: "With the increase of the episodes' duration and consequently the amount of working hours, the industry has lost its most experienced professionals who refuse to work in such conditions. Wages have not grown much either," said Meric.


title: Turkish television drama

text: To get a sense of proportion, it suffices to think about the process of developing a cinema script, which takes about two years and at least seven weeks to shoot 120 minutes of edited footage.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Turkish shows began expanding internationally in 1999, but only started to gain popularity in the early 21st century. In order to be able to produce high-quality content and to be competitive with the non-Turkish shows that were gaining traction in Turkey, more money was needed and the financial deficit was made up for through expansion to non-domestic markets. The Turkish government also played a role in motivating international expansion, creating incentive by granting awards and support to the companies that are most effective in exporting worldwide.


title: Turkish television drama

text: In 2017, Turkish TV exports earned 350 million U.S. dollars, officially marking the country as the second largest drama exporter in the world behind the United States. According to the Secretary General of the TEA, Bader Arslan, Turkey's yearly income from TV exports will exceed 1 billion U.S. dollars by 2023.


title: Turkish television drama

text: Today, there are about 45 production companies and 150 active film directors in Turkey. Production cost of a series may vary between 78,000 and 520,000 U.S. dollars (for the most famous ones).


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Hershel Woodrow "Woody" Williams (October 2, 1923 – June 29, 2022) was a United States Marine Corps Reserve warrant officer and United States Department of Veterans Affairs veterans service representative who received the Medal of Honor, the United States military's highest decoration for valor, for heroism above and beyond the call of duty during the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II. Williams was the last living Medal of Honor recipient from World War II.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams, the youngest of eleven children, was born in Quiet Dell in Marion County, West Virginia, southeast of Fairmont, on October 2, 1923, and raised on a dairy farm in the area. At birth, Williams weighed pounds and was not expected to live. His mother, Lurenna, decided to name him after the doctor who arrived at their farm several days after his birth. By the time he was 11, his father, Lloyd, had died of a heart attack and several of his siblings had died due to the Spanish flu.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams worked a series of odd jobs in the area, including as a truck driver for W.S. Harr Construction Company of Fairmont, and as a taxi driver. When Pearl Harbor was attacked, he was working in Montana as a Civilian Conservation Corps enrollee.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams was drawn to the Marines by their dress blue uniforms he had seen several men in his community wear. He disliked the Army's brown wool uniform he considered "... the ugliest thing in town ... I decided I did not want to be in that thing. I want to be in those dress blues." Aside from the appearance of the uniform, Williams knew nothing of the Marines. Standing 5-foot-6, when Williams tried to enlist in the Marine Corps in 1942, he was told he was too short for service. After the height regulations were changed in early 1943, he successfully enlisted in the United States Marine Corps Reserve in Charleston, West Virginia, on May 26.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams received his recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California. Upon completion, he was sent to the Camp Elliott training center in San Diego, where he joined the tank training battalion on August 21, 1943. The following month he was transferred to the training center's infantry battalion for instruction as a demolition man and in the use of flamethrowers. The training, Williams said, was technical and focused on the flamethrower's design: three tanks, two of which held a mix of diesel fuel and aviation gas, and a third tank that held compressed air. There was little training on the operational use of the weapon. "We had to learn that ourselves", he said.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams was assigned to the 32nd Replacement Battalion on October 30, 1943, and left for New Caledonia in the southwest Pacific on December 3 aboard the M.S. "Weltey Reden". In January 1944, he joined Company C, 1st Battalion, 21st Marine Regiment, 3rd Marine Division at Guadalcanal. In July and August 1944, he was attached to Headquarters Company and participated in action against the Japanese during the Battle of Guam. In October, he rejoined Company C.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams' next and final campaign was at the Battle of Iwo Jima, where he distinguished himself with actions "above and beyond the call of duty", for which he would be awarded the Medal of Honor. On February 21, 1945, he landed on the beach with the 1st Battalion, 21st Marines. Williams, by then a corporal, distinguished himself two days later when American tanks, trying to open a lane for the infantry, encountered a network of reinforced concrete pillboxes.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Pinned down by machine-gun fire, his company commander asked one of his men to attach a high explosive charge to a pole and, supported by Williams, his flamethrower and several Marine riflemen, shoved the improvised weapon into an opening in the enemy's pillbox. As they fought their way to the pillbox, all of the men, except Williams, became casualties. Undeterred, Williams arrived at the first pillbox, shoved the flamethrower nozzle into the pillbox opening and fired the weapon, killing all of the soldiers inside. He then returned five times to his company area, refueled his weapon, and moved forward to destroy the remaining pillboxes.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Covered by only four riflemen, he fought for four hours under intense enemy small-arms fire and repeatedly returned to his own lines to prepare demolition charges and obtain serviced flame throwers. He returned to the front, frequently to the rear of hostile emplacements, to wipe out one position after another. At one point, a wisp of smoke alerted him to the air vent of a Japanese bunker, and he approached close enough to put the nozzle of his flamethrower through the hole, fire and kill the occupants. On another occasion, he was charged by enemy riflemen who attempted to stop him with bayonets; he killed them with a burst of flame from his weapon. Williams said that much of the action "is just a blank. I have no memory."


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: These actions occurred on the same day that two flags were raised on Mount Suribachi, and Williams, about one thousand yards away from the volcano, was able to witness the event. He fought through the remainder of the five-week-long battle, even though he was wounded in the leg on March 6 by fragmentation, for which he was awarded the Purple Heart.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: In September 1945, he returned to the United States, and on October 1 he joined Marine Corps Headquarters in Washington, D.C. He and thirteen other servicemen were presented the Medal of Honor by President Harry S. Truman on October 5, 1945, at the White House.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: On October 22, 1945, he was transferred to the Marine Barracks, Naval Training Center Bainbridge, Maryland, for discharge. He was honorably discharged from the Marine Corps Reserve on November 6, 1945.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: In March 1948, he reenlisted in the inactive Marine Corps Reserve, but was again discharged on August 4, 1949.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: On October 20, 1954, he joined the Organized Marine Reserve when the 98th Special Infantry Company was authorized by Headquarters Marine Corps to be located at Clarksburg, West Virginia. He transferred to the Marine Corps Reserve's 25th Infantry Company in Huntington, West Virginia, on June 9, 1957, later becoming the (Interim) Commanding Officer of that unit as a warrant officer on June 6, 1960. He was designated the Mobilization Officer for the 25th Infantry Company and surrounding Huntington area on June 11, 1963.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: He was advanced through the warrant officer ranks during his time in the Marine Corps Reserve until reaching his final rank of Chief Warrant Officer 4. Although Williams technically did not meet retirement requirements, he was honorarily retired from the Marine Corps Reserve in 1969 after approximately 17 years of service.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty as Demolition Sergeant serving with the First Battalion, Twenty-First Marines, Third Marine Division, in action against enemy Japanese forces on Iwo Jima, Volcano Island, 23 February 1945. Quick to volunteer his services when our tanks were maneuvering vainly to open a lane for the infantry through the network of reinforced concrete pillboxes, buried mines and black, volcanic sands, Corporal Williams daringly went forward alone to attempt the reduction of devastating machine-gun fire from the unyielding positions. Covered only by four riflemen, he fought desperately for four hours under terrific enemy small-arms fire and repeatedly returned to his own lines to prepare demolition charges and obtain serviced flame throwers, struggling back, frequently to the rear of hostile emplacements, to wipe out one position after another. On one occasion he daringly mounted a pillbox to insert the nozzle of his flame thrower through the air vent, kill the occupants and silence the gun; on another he grimly charged enemy riflemen who attempted to stop him with bayonets and destroyed them with a burst of flame from his weapon. His unyielding determination and extraordinary heroism in the face of ruthless enemy resistance were directly instrumental in neutralizing one of the most fanatically defended Japanese strong points encountered by his regiment and aided in enabling his company to reach objective. Corporal Williams' aggressive fighting spirit and valiant devotion to duty throughout this fiercely contested action sustain and enhance the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: After World War II, Williams served as a United States Department of Veterans Affairs veterans service representative, retiring after 33 years federal service.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams died at the Hershel "Woody" Williams Veterans Affairs Medical Center in Huntington, West Virginia, on June 29, 2022, at the age of 98. He was the last surviving Medal of Honor recipient from World War II. On July 14, 2022 Williams' remains lay in honor at the U.S. Capitol Rotunda.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: Williams was a member of The American Legion, Congressional Medal of Honor Society, Marine Corps League, and Sons of the American Revolution. His medal of honor is on display at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library in Chicago. For years, Williams struggled with post-traumatic stress until 1962, when he experienced a religious renewal. In a 2020 "Washington Post" interview remembering the 75th anniversary of the Iwo Jima battle, he credited his religious awakening with ending his nightmares and transforming his life.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: It's one of those things you put in the recess of your mind. You were fulfilling an obligation that you swore to do, to defend your country. Anytime you take a life, there's always some aftermath to that if you've got any heart at all.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: In 1965, Williams received West Virginia's Distinguished Service Medal. In 1967, he was honored by the Veteran's Administration with the Civilian Vietnam Service Award for service as a civilian counselor to the armed forces. In 1999, he was added to the City of Huntington Foundation's "Wall of Fame". He received the 2014 Founder's Award for extraordinary contributions to the mission of the Pritzker Military Museum & Library and the preservation of the heritage of the Citizen Soldier.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: The West Virginia state legislature has included Williams in the Hall of Fame for the state named him a Distinguished West Virginian in 1980 and in 2013. He is on the “Wall of Fame” in the Civic Center in the city of Huntington, West Virginia, nominated and selected by the former recipients who received this honor. In his hometown of Fairmont, West Virginia, the 32 million dollar Hershel “Woody” Williams Armed Forces Reserve Center is the only National Guard facility in the country named after a Marine.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: In 2010, the not-for-profit Hershel Woody Williams Congressional Medal of Honor Education Foundation, Inc. was established "to honor Gold Star Families, relatives, and Gold Star Children who have sacrificed a loved one in the service of their country." Williams served on the foundation's Founders Advisory Board.


title: Hershel W. Williams

text: On February 4, 2018, Williams along with 14 other living Medal of Honor recipients was honored at the Super Bowl LII during the coin toss.


title: Kaddish

text: Kaddish or Qaddish or Qadish ( "holy") is a hymn praising God that is recited during Jewish prayer services. The central theme of the Kaddish is the magnification and sanctification of God's name. In the liturgy, different versions of the Kaddish are functionally chanted or sung as separators of the different sections of the service.


title: Kaddish

text: The term "Kaddish" is often used to refer specifically to "The Mourner's Kaddish," which is chanted as part of the mourning rituals in Judaism in all prayer services, as well as at funerals (other than at the gravesite; see Kaddish acher kevurah ""Qaddish after Burial"") and memorials; for 11 Hebrew months after the death of a parent; and in some communities for 30 days after the death of a spouse, sibling, or child. When mention is made of "saying Kaddish", this often refers to the rituals of mourning. Mourners recite Kaddish to show that despite the loss they still praise God.


title: Kaddish

text: Along with the Shema Yisrael and the Amidah, the Kaddish is one of the most important and central elements in the Jewish liturgy. Kaddish is not, traditionally, recited alone. Along with some other prayers, it traditionally can only be recited with a minyan of ten Jews (a minimum quorum of ten adult Jews).


title: Kaddish

text: All versions of the Kaddish begin with the "Hatzi Kaddish" (there are some extra passages in the Kaddish after a burial or a siyum). The longer versions contain additional paragraphs, and are often named after distinctive words in those paragraphs.


title: Kaddish

text: Historically there existed another type of Kaddish, called "Qaddish Yahid" ("Individual's Kaddish"). This is included in the "Siddur of Amram Gaon", but is a meditation taking the place of Kaddish rather than a Kaddish in the normal sense. It is not recited in modern times.


title: Kaddish

text: The Half Kaddish is used to punctuate divisions within the service: for example, before Barechu, after the Amidah, and following readings from the Torah.


title: Kaddish

text: The "Kaddish d'Rabbanan" is used after any part of the service that includes extracts from the Mishnah or the Talmud, as its original purpose was to close a study session.


title: Kaddish

text: "Kaddish Titkabbal" originally marked the end of a prayer service, though in later times extra passages and hymns were added to follow it.


title: Kaddish

text: The following includes the half, complete, mourner's and rabbi's kaddish. The variant lines of the kaddish after a burial or a siyum are given below.


title: Kaddish

text: In some recent non-Orthodox prayerbooks, for example, the American Reform Machzor, line 36 is replaced with:


title: Kaddish

text: This effort to extend the reach of Oseh Shalom to non-Jews is said to have been started by the British Liberal Jewish movement in 1967, with the introduction of "v'al kol bnai Adam" ("and upon all humans"); these words continue to be used by some in the UK.


title: Kaddish

text: The opening words of the Kaddish are inspired by Ezekiel 38:23's vision of God becoming great in the eyes of all the nations.


title: Kaddish

text: The central line of the Kaddish is the congregation's response: (Yǝhē šmēh rabbā mǝvārakh lǝʿālam u-lʿalmē ʿālmayyā, "May His great name be blessed for ever, and to all eternity"), a public declaration of God's greatness and eternality. This response is similar to the wording of Daniel 2:20. It is also parallel to the Hebrew "" (commonly recited after the first verse of the Shema); Aramaic versions of both יה שמה רבה and ברוך שם כבוד appear in the various versions of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis 49:2 and Deuteronomy 6:4.


title: Kaddish

text: The Mourners, Rabbis and Complete Kaddish end with a supplication for peace ("Oseh Shalom..."), which is in Hebrew, and is somewhat similar to the Tanakh Job 25:2.


title: Kaddish

text: Kaddish does not contain God's name. It is said that this is because Kaddish has 26 words, equalling the gematria of the Lord's name itself (יהוה), and the Kaddish text proves that from the very beginning with words ""May His great name be exalted and sanctified"".


title: Kaddish

text: Kaddish may be spoken or chanted. In services on certain special occasions, it may be sung to special melodies. There are different melodies in different Jewish traditions, and within each tradition the melody can change according to the version, the day it is said and even the position in the service. Many mourners recite Kaddish slowly and contemplatively.


title: Kaddish

text: In Ashkenazi synagogues, the custom varies. Very commonly, in both Orthodox and Reform congregations, everyone stands for the mourner's kaddish; but in some (especially many Conservative and Sephardic) synagogues, most of the congregants sit. Sometimes, a distinction is made between the different forms of Kaddish, or each congregant stands or sits according to his or her own custom. The Mourner's Kaddish is often treated differently from the other variations of Kaddish in the service, as is the Half Kaddish before the maftir.


title: Kaddish

text: Those standing to recite Kaddish bow, by widespread tradition, at various places. Generally: At the first word of the prayer, at each "Amen", at "Yitbarakh", at "Brikh hu", and for the last verse ("Oseh shalom"). For "Oseh shalom" it is customary to take three steps back (if possible) then bow to one's left, then to one's right, and finally bow forward, as if taking leave of the presence of a king, in the same way as when the same words are used as the concluding line of the Amidah.


title: Kaddish

text: According to the original Ashkenazic custom, as well as the Yemenite custom, one mourner recites each Kaddish, and the Halachic authorities set down extensive rules to determine who has priority for each kaddish. In most (but not all) Ashkenazic communities, they have adopted the Sephardic custom to allow multiple mourners to recite Kaddish together.


title: Kaddish

text: "Masekhet Soferim", an eighth-century compilation of Jewish laws regarding the preparation of holy books and public reading, states (Chapter 10:7) that Kaddish may be recited only in the presence of a minyan (a quorum of at least 10 men in Orthodox Judaism or 10 adults in Reform and Conservative Judaism). While the traditional view is that "If "kaddish" is said in private, then by definition it is not "kaddish"," some alternatives have been suggested, including the "Kaddish L'yachid" ("Kaddish for an individual"), attributed to ninth-century Gaon Amram bar Sheshna, and the use of kavanah prayer, asking heavenly beings to join with the individual "to make a minyan of both Earth and heaven". In some Reform congregations, a minyan is not required for recitation of the Kaddish, but other Reform congregations disagree and believe that the Kaddish should be said publicly.


title: Kaddish

text: "The Kaddish is in origin a closing doxology to an Aggadic discourse." Most of it is written in Aramaic, which, at the time of its original composition, was the lingua franca of the Jewish people. It is not composed in the vernacular Aramaic, however, but rather in a "literary, jargon Aramaic" that was used in the academies, and is identical to the dialect of the Targum.


title: Kaddish

text: Professor Yoel Elitzur, however, argues that the Kaddish was originally written in Hebrew, and later translated to Aramaic to be better understood by the masses. He notes that quotations from the Kaddish in the Talmud and Sifrei are in Hebrew, and that even today some of the words are Hebrew rather than Aramaic.


title: Kaddish

text: The oldest version of the Kaddish is found in the "Siddur of Rab Amram Gaon", c. 900. "The first mention of mourners reciting Kaddish at the end of the service is in a thirteenth century halakhic writing called the Or Zarua. The Kaddish at the end of the service became designated as Kaddish Yatom or Mourner's Kaddish (literally, "Orphan's Kaddish")."


title: Kaddish

text: The Kaddish was not always recited by mourners and instead became a prayer for mourners sometime between the 12th and 13th centuries when it started to be associated with a medieval legend about Rabbi Akiva who meets a dead man seeking redemption in the afterlife.


title: Kaddish

text: Mourner's Kaddish is said in most communities at all prayer services and certain other occasions. It is written in Aramaic. It takes the form of "Kaddish Yehe Shelama Rabba", and is traditionally recited several times, most prominently at or towards the end of the service, after the Aleinu and/or closing Psalms and/or (on the Sabbath) Ani'im Zemirot. In most communities, Kaddish is recited eleven months after the death of a parent, and then at every anniversary of the death (the Yahrzeit). Technically, there is no obligation to recite Kaddish for other relatives, even though there is an obligation to mourn for them.


title: Kaddish

text: Customs for reciting the Mourner's Kaddish vary markedly among various communities. In Sephardi synagogues, the custom is that all the mourners stand and chant the Kaddish together. In Ashkenazi synagogues before the 19th century, one mourner was chosen to lead the prayer on behalf of the rest, but gradually over the last two centuries, most (but certainly not all) communities have adopted the Sephardi custom. In many Reform synagogues, the entire congregation recites the Mourner's Kaddish together. This is sometimes said to be for those victims of the Holocaust who have no one left to recite the Mourner's Kaddish on their behalf and in support of the mourners. In some congregations (especially Reform and Conservative ones), the Rabbi reads a list of the deceased who have a Yahrzeit on that day (or who have died within the past month), and then ask the congregants to name any people they are mourning for. Some synagogues, especially Orthodox and Conservative ones, multiply the number of times that the Mourner's Kaddish is recited, for example by reciting a separate Mourner's Kaddish after both Aleinu and then each closing Psalm. Other synagogues limit themselves to one Mourner's Kaddish at the end of the service.


title: Kaddish

text: Notably, the Mourner's Kaddish does not mention death at all, but instead praises God. Though the Kaddish is often popularly referred to as the "Jewish Prayer for the Dead," that designation more accurately belongs to the prayer called "El Malei Rachamim", which specifically prays for the soul of the deceased. The Mourner's Kaddish can be more accurately represented as an expression of "justification for judgment" by the mourners on their loved ones' behalf. It is believed that mourners adopted this version of the Kaddish around the 13th century during harsh persecution of Jews by crusaders in Germany because of the opening messianic line about God bringing the dead back to life (though this line is not in many modern versions).


title: Kaddish

text: There is evidence of some women saying the Mourner's Kaddish for their parents at the grave, during shiva, and in daily prayers since the 17th century. Rabbi Yair Bacharach concluded that technically a woman can recite the Mourner's Kaddish, but concludes that since this is not the common practice, it should be discouraged. As such, women reciting kaddish is controversial in some Orthodox communities, and it is almost unheard of in Haredi communities. Nevertheless, Rabbi Aharon Soloveichik ruled that in our time, we should permit women to say Kaddish, and this is a common (but not universal) practice in all Modern Orthodox circles. In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a halachic ruling that women may say the Kaddish in memory of their deceased parents (in presence of male minyan). In Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist Judaism, the Mourner's Kaddish is traditionally said by women who are there also counted in the minyan.


title: Kaddish

text: The Kaddish has been a particularly common theme and reference point in the arts, including the following:


title: Gastrulation

text: Gastrulation is the stage in the early embryonic development of most animals, during which the blastula (a single-layered hollow sphere of cells), or in mammals the blastocyst is reorganized into a multilayered structure known as the gastrula. Before gastrulation, the embryo is a continuous epithelial sheet of cells; by the end of gastrulation, the embryo has begun differentiation to establish distinct cell lineages, set up the basic axes of the body (e.g. dorsal-ventral, anterior-posterior), and internalized one or more cell types including the prospective gut.


title: Gastrulation

text: In triploblastic organisms, the gastrula is trilaminar (three-layered). These three germ layers are the ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer). In diploblastic organisms, such as Cnidaria and Ctenophora, the gastrula has only ectoderm and endoderm. The two layers are also sometimes referred to as the "hypoblast" and "epiblast". Sponges do not go through the gastrula stage, which is why they are basal among all animals.


title: Gastrulation

text: Gastrulation takes place after cleavage and the formation of the blastula, or blastocyst. Gastrulation is followed by organogenesis, when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers. Each layer gives rise to specific tissues and organs in the developing embryo.


title: Gastrulation

text: Following gastrulation, cells in the body are either organized into sheets of connected cells (as in epithelia), or as a mesh of isolated cells, such as mesenchyme.


title: Gastrulation

text: Although gastrulation patterns exhibit enormous variation throughout the animal kingdom, they are unified by the five basic types of cell movements that occur during gastrulation:


title: Gastrulation

text: The terms "gastrula" and "gastrulation" were coined by Ernst Haeckel, in his 1872 work ""Biology of Calcareous Sponges"". Lewis Wolpert, pioneering developmental biologist in the field, has been credited for noting that "It is not birth, marriage, or death, but gastrulation which is truly the most important time in your life."


title: Gastrulation

text: Gastrulation is highly variable across the animal kingdom but has underlying similarities. Gastrulation has been studied in many animals, but some models have been used for longer than others. Furthermore, it is easier to study development in animals that develop outside the mother. Model organisms whose gastrulation is understood in the greatest detail include the mollusc, sea urchin, frog, and chicken. A human model system is the gastruloid.


title: Gastrulation

text: The distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is based on the direction in which the mouth (stoma) develops in relation to the blastopore. Protostome derives from the Greek word protostoma meaning "first mouth" (πρῶτος + στόμα) whereas Deuterostome's etymology is "second mouth" from the words second and mouth (δεύτερος + στόμα).


title: Gastrulation

text: Sea urchins have been important model organisms in developmental biology since the 19th century. Their gastrulation is often considered the archetype for invertebrate deuterostomes. Experiments along with computer simulations have been used to gain knowledge about gastrulation in the sea urchin. Recent simulations found that planar cell polarity is sufficient to drive sea urchin gastrulation.


title: Gastrulation

text: Sea urchins exhibit highly stereotyped cleavage patterns and cell fates. Maternally deposited mRNAs establish the organizing center of the sea urchin embryo. Canonical Wnt and Delta-Notch signaling progressively segregate progressive endoderm and mesoderm.


title: Gastrulation

text: In sea urchins the first cells to internalize are the primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs), which have a skeletogenic fate, which ingress during the blastula stage. Gastrulation – internalization of the prospective endoderm and non-skeletogenic mesoderm – begins shortly thereafter with invagination and other cell rearrangements the vegetal pole, which contribute approximately 30% to the final archenteron length. The gut's final length depends on cell rearrangements within the archenteron.


title: Gastrulation

text: The sperm contributes one of the two mitotic asters needed to complete first cleavage. The sperm can enter anywhere in the animal half of the egg but its exact point of entry will break the egg's radial symmetry by organizing the cytoskeleton. Prior to first cleavage, the egg's cortex rotates relative to the internal cytoplasm by the coordinated action of microtubules, in a process known as cortical rotation. This displacement brings maternally loaded determinants of cell fate from the equatorial cytoplasm and vegetal cortex into contact, and together these determinants set up the organizer. Thus, the area on the vegetal side opposite the sperm entry point will become the organizer. Hilde Mangold, working in the lab of Hans Spemann, demonstrated that this special "organizer" of the embryo is necessary and sufficient to induce gastrulation.


title: Gastrulation

text: Specification of endoderm depends on rearrangement of maternally deposited determinants, leading to nuclearization of Beta-catenin. Mesoderm is induced by signaling from the presumptive endoderm to cells that would otherwise become ectoderm.


title: Gastrulation

text: The dorsal lip of the blastopore is the mechanical driver of gastrulation. The first sign of invagination seen in the frog is the dorsal lip.


title: Gastrulation

text: In the frog, "Xenopus," one of the signals is retinoic acid (RA). RA signaling in this organism can affect the formation of the endoderm and depending on the timing of the signaling, it can determine the fate whether its pancreatic, intestinal, or respiratory. Other signals such as Wnt and BMP also play a role in respiratory fate of the "Xenopus" by activating cell lineage tracers.


title: Gastrulation

text: In amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals), gastrulation involves the creation of the blastopore, an opening into the archenteron. Note that the blastopore is not an opening into the blastocoel, the space within the blastula, but represents a new inpocketing that pushes the existing surfaces of the blastula together. In amniotes, gastrulation occurs in the following sequence: (1) the embryo becomes asymmetric; (2) the primitive streak forms; (3) cells from the epiblast at the primitive streak undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition and ingress at the primitive streak to form the germ layers.


title: Gastrulation

text: In preparation for gastrulation, the embryo must become asymmetric along both the proximal-distal axis and the anteroposterior axis. The proximal-distal axis is formed when the cells of the embryo form the “egg cylinder,” which consists of the extraembryonic tissues, which give rise to structures like the placenta, at the proximal end and the epiblast at the distal end. Many signaling pathways contribute to this reorganization, including BMP, FGF, nodal, and Wnt. Visceral endoderm surrounds the epiblast. The distal visceral endoderm (DVE) migrates to the anterior portion of the embryo, forming the anterior visceral endoderm (AVE). This breaks anterior-posterior symmetry and is regulated by nodal signaling.


title: Gastrulation

text: The primitive streak is formed at the beginning of gastrulation and is found at the junction between the extraembryonic tissue and the epiblast on the posterior side of the embryo and the site of ingression. Formation of the primitive streak is reliant upon nodal signaling in the Koller's sickle within the cells contributing to the primitive streak and BMP4 signaling from the extraembryonic tissue. Furthermore, Cer1 and Lefty1 restrict the primitive streak to the appropriate location by antagonizing nodal signaling. The region defined as the primitive streak continues to grow towards the distal tip.


title: Gastrulation

text: During the early stages of development, the primitive streak is the structure that will establish bilateral symmetry, determine the site of gastrulation and initiate germ layer formation. To form the streak, reptiles, birds and mammals arrange mesenchymal cells along the prospective midline, establishing the first embryonic axis, as well as the place where cells will ingress and migrate during the process of gastrulation and germ layer formation. The primitive streak extends through this midline and creates the antero-posterior body axis, becoming the first symmetry-breaking event in the embryo, and marks the beginning of gastrulation. This process involves the ingression of mesoderm and endoderm progenitors and their migration to their ultimate position, where they will differentiate into the three germ layers. The localization of the cell adhesion and signaling molecule beta-catenin is critical to the proper formation of the organizer region that is responsible for initiating gastrulation.


title: Gastrulation

text: In order for the cells to move from the epithelium of the epiblast through the primitive streak to form a new layer, the cells must undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) to lose their epithelial characteristics, such as cell-cell adhesion. FGF signaling is necessary for proper EMT. FGFR1 is needed for the up regulation of SNAI1, which down regulates E-cadherin, causing a loss of cell adhesion. Following the EMT, the cells ingress through the primitive streak and spread out to form a new layer of cells or join existing layers. FGF8 is implicated in the process of this dispersal from the primitive streak.


title: Gastrulation

text: There are certain signals that play a role in determination and formation of the three germ layers, such as FGF, RA, and Wnt. In mammals such as mice, RA signaling can play a role in lung formation. If there isn't enough RA, there will be an error in the lung production. RA also regulates the respiratory competence in this mouse model.


title: Gastrulation

text: During gastrulation, the cells are differentiated into the ectoderm or mesendoderm, which then separates into the mesoderm and endoderm. The endoderm and mesoderm form due to the nodal signaling. Nodal signaling uses ligands that are part of TGFβ family. These ligands will signal transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors, and this will then phosphorylate Smad2 and Smad3. This protein will then attach itself to Smad4 and relocate to the nucleus where the mesendoderm genes will begin to be transcribed. The Wnt pathway along with β-catenin plays a key role in nodal signaling and endoderm formation. Fibroblast growth factors (FGF), canonical Wnt pathway, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), and retinoic acid (RA) are all important in the formation and development of the endoderm. FGF are important in producing the homeobox gene which regulates early anatomical development. BMP signaling plays a role in the liver and promotes hepatic fate. RA signaling also induce homeobox genes such as Hoxb1 and Hoxa5. In mice, if there is a lack in RA signaling the mouse won't develop lungs. RA signaling also has multiple uses in organ formation of the pharyngeal arches, the foregut, and hindgut.


title: Gastrulation

text: There have been a number of attempts to understand the processes of gastrulation using "in vitro" techniques in parallel and complementary to studies in embryos, usually though the use of 2D and 3D cell (Embryonic organoids) culture techniques using Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). These are associated with number of clear advantages in using tissue-culture based protocols, some of which include reducing the cost of associated "in vivo" work (thereby reducing, replacing and refining the use of animals in experiments; the 3Rs), being able to accurately apply agonists/antagonists in spatially and temporally specific manner which may be technically difficult to perform during Gastrulation. However, it is important to relate the observations in culture to the processes occurring in the embryo for context.


title: Gastrulation

text: To illustrate this, the guided differentiation of mouse ESCs has resulted in generating primitive streak-like cells that display many of the characteristics of epiblast cells that traverse through the primitive streak (e.g. transient brachyury up regulation and the cellular changes associated with an epithelial to mesenchymal transition), and human ESCs cultured on micro patterns, treated with BMP4, can generate spatial differentiation pattern similar to the arrangement of the germ layers in the human embryo. Finally, using 3D embryoid body- and organoid-based techniques, small aggregates of mouse ESCs (Embryonic Organoids, or Gastruloids) are able to show a number of processes of early mammalian embryo development such as symmetry-breaking, polarisation of gene expression, gastrulation-like movements, axial elongation and the generation of all three embryonic axes (anteroposterior, dorsoventral and left-right axes).


title: Gastrulation

text: In "vitro" fertilization occurs in a laboratory. The process of in "vitro" fertilization is when mature eggs are removed from the ovaries and are placed in a cultured medium where they are fertilized by sperm. In the culture the embryo will form. 14 days after fertilization the primitive streak forms. The formation of the primitive streak has been known to some countries as “human individuality." This means that the embryo is now a being itself, it is its own entity. The countries that believe this have created a 14-day rule in which it is illegal to study or experiment on a human embryo after the 14-day period in "vitro". Research has been conducted on the first 14 days of an embryo, but no known studies have been done after the 14 days. With the rule in place, mice embryos are used understand the development after 14 days; however, there are differences in the development between mice and humans.


title: Burbot

text: The burbot (Lota lota) is the only gadiform (cod-like) freshwater fish. It is also known as bubbot, mariah, loche, cusk, freshwater cod, freshwater ling, freshwater cusk, the lawyer, coney-fish, lingcod, and eelpout. The species is closely related to the marine common ling and the cusk. It is the only member of the genus "Lota". For some time of the year, the burbot lives under ice, and it requires frigid temperatures to breed.


title: Burbot

text: The name burbot comes from the Latin word "barba", meaning beard, referring to its single chin whisker, or barbel. Its generic and specific names, "Lota lota", comes from the old French "lotte" fish, which is also named "barbot" in Old French.


title: Burbot

text: With an appearance like a cross between a catfish and an eel, the burbot has a serpent-like body, but is easily distinguished by a single barbel on the chin. The body is elongated and laterally compressed, with a flattened head and single, tube-like projection for each nostril. The mouth is wide, with both upper and lower jaws having many small teeth. Burbot have two soft dorsal fins, with the first being low and short, and the second being much longer. The anal fin is low and almost as long as the dorsal fin. The caudal fin is rounded, the pectoral fins are fan-shaped, and pelvic fins are narrow with an elongated second fin ray. Having such small fins relative to body size indicates a benthic lifestyle with low swimming endurance, unable to withstand strong currents.


title: Burbot

text: Burbot have circumpolar distribution above 40°N. Populations are continuous from France across Europe and Asia to the Bering Strait. In North America, burbot range from the Seward Peninsula in Alaska to New Brunswick along the Atlantic Coast. Burbot are most common in streams and lakes of North America and Europe. They are fairly common in Lake Erie, but are also found in the other Great Lakes. Recent genetic analysis suggests the geographic pattern of burbot may indicate multiple species or subspecies, making this single taxon somewhat misleading.


title: Burbot

text: In the United Kingdom, the burbot is possibly extinct. The last recorded capture was a specimen weighing , in July 1970, by Stephen Mackinder, from the Cut-off Channel or the Great Ouse Relief Channel, at Denver, Norfolk. In October 1970, it was described in the "Guinness Book of Records" as the "rarest British fish" which was "almost extinct", so it had been "agreed that no record for this species should be published, at least until 1974, in the interests of conservation". The burbot may still survive in the UK. The counties of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and Yorkshire (particularly the River Derwent or Yorkshire Ouse) seem to be the strongest candidates for areas in which the species might yet survive. Plans to reintroduce this freshwater member of the cod family back into British waters are under investigation.


title: Burbot

text: Burbot live in large, cold rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, primarily preferring freshwater habitats, but able to thrive in brackish environments for spawning. During the summer, they are typically found in the colder water below the thermocline. In Lake Superior, burbot can live at depths below . As benthic fish, they tolerate an array of substrate types, including mud, sand, rubble, boulder, silt, and gravel, for feeding. Adults construct extensive burrows in the substrate for shelter during the day. Burbot are active crepuscular hunters. Burbot populations are adfluvial during the winter, and they migrate to near-shore reefs and shoals to spawn, preferring spawning grounds of sand or gravel.


title: Burbot

text: Burbot reach sexual maturity at between four and seven years of age. Spawning season typically occurs between December and March, often under ice at extremely low temperatures ranging between 1 and 4 °C. During a relatively short season lasting from two to three weeks, burbot spawn multiple times, but not every year.


title: Burbot

text: As broadcast spawners, burbot do not have an explicit nesting site, but rather release eggs and sperm into the water column to drift and settle. When spawning, many male burbot gather around one or two females, forming a spawning ball. Writhing in the open water, males and females simultaneously release sperm and eggs. Depending on water temperatures, the incubation period of the eggs lasts from 30 to 128 days. Fertilized eggs then drift until they settle into cracks and voids in the substrate.


title: Burbot

text: Depending on body size, female burbot fecundity ranges from 63,000 to 3,478,000 eggs for each clutch. Rate of growth, longevity, and age of sexual maturity of burbot are strongly correlated with water temperature; large, older individuals produce more eggs than small, younger individuals. Eggs are round with a large oil globule, about in diameter and have an optimal incubation range between 1 and 7 °C (34 and 45 °F).


title: Burbot

text: Newly hatched burbot larvae are pelagic, passively drifting in the open water. Habitats near 4 °C (39 °F) are optimal for burbot and they prefer water temperatures of 12 °C (54 °F) and lower. By night, juveniles are active, taking shelter during the day under rocks and other debris. Growing rapidly in their first year, burbot reach between in total length by late fall. During their second year of life, burbot on average grow another .


title: Burbot

text: Burbot transition from pelagic habitats to benthic environments as they reach adulthood, around five years old. Average length of burbot by maturity is about , with slight sexual dimorphism. Maximum lengths range between , and weights range from .


title: Burbot

text: At the larval stage, month-old burbot begin exogenous feeding, consuming food through the mouth and digesting in the intestines. Burbot at the larval stage and into the juvenile stage feed on invertebrates based on size. Under , burbot eat copepods and cladocerans, and above , zooplankton and amphipods. As adults, they are primarily piscivores, preying on lamprey, whitefish, grayling, young northern pike, suckers, stickleback, trout, and perch. At times, burbot also eat insects and other macroinvertebrates, and have been known to eat frogs, snakes, and birds. Having such a wide diet is also correlated to their tendency to bite lures, making them very easy to catch. Burbot are preyed upon by northern pike, muskellunge, and some lamprey species.


title: Burbot

text: The burbot is edible. In Finland, its roe and liver are highly regarded as delicacies, as is the fish itself. An annual spearfishing tournament is held near Roblin, Manitoba. One of the highlights of the tournament is the fish fry, where the day's catch is served deep-fried. When cooked, burbot meat tastes very similar to American lobster, leading to the burbot's nickname of "poor man's lobster".


title: Burbot

text: In the 1920s, Minnesota druggist Theodore "Ted" H. Rowell and his father, Joseph Rowell, a commercial fisherman on Lake of the Woods, were using the burbot as feed for the foxes on Joe's blue fox farm. They discovered the burbot contained something that improved the quality of the foxes' furs; this was confirmed by the fur buyers, who commented that these furs were superior to other furs they were seeing. Ted Rowell felt it was something in the burbot, so he extracted some oil and sent it away to be assayed. The result of the assay was that the liver of the burbot has three to four times the potency in vitamin D, and four to 10 times in vitamin A, than "good grades" of cod-liver oil. Their vitamin content varies from lake to lake, where their diets may have some variation. Additionally, liver makes up about 10% of the fish's total body weight, and its liver is six times the size of those of freshwater fish of comparable size. The oil is lower in viscosity, and more rapidly digested and assimilated than most other fish-liver oils. Rowell went on to found the Burbot Liver Products Company, which later became Rowell Laboratories, Inc.


title: Burbot

text: The IGFA recognizes the world-record burbot as caught on Lake Diefenbaker, Saskatchewan, Canada, by Sean Konrad on 27 March 2010. The fish weighed .


title: Burbot

text: The burbot is a tenacious predator, which sometimes attacks other fish of almost the same size, and as such, can be a nuisance fish in waters where it is not native. Recent discoveries of burbot in the Green River at Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah have concerned wildlife biologists, who fear the burbot could decimate the sport-fish population in what is recognized as one of the world's top brown trout fisheries, because it often feeds on the eggs of other fish in the lake, such as sockeye salmon. The Utah Division of Fish and Game has instituted a "no release" "catch and kill" regulation for the burbot in Utah waterways. However, the regulations have been found to be largely unenforceable.


title: Burbot

text: The town of Walker, Minnesota, holds an International Eelpout Festival every winter on Leech Lake. The festival received national attention on 4 March 2011, when a correspondent from "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" did a segment on the event.


title: Burbot

text: Burbot populations are difficult to study, due to their deep habitats and reproduction under ice. Although burbot global distribution is widespread and abundant, many populations have been threatened or extirpated. Ichthyologists and taxonomists are strongly advising to look into the old taxonomical due to new genetic insights there are two species of burbot: the European burbot (Lota lota) and the North-American burbot (Lota maculosa).


title: Burbot

text: As the burbot lacks popularity in commercial fishing, many regions do not even consider management plans. Pollution and habitat change, such as river damming, appear to be the primary causes for riverine burbot population declines, while pollution and the adverse effects of invasive species have the greatest influence on lacustrine populations. Management of burbot is on low priority, being nonexistent in some regions.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: In monetary economics, the quantity theory of money (often abbreviated QTM) is one of the directions of Western economic thought that emerged in the 16th-17th centuries. The QTM states that the general price level of goods and services is directly proportional to the amount of money in circulation, or money supply. For example, if the amount of money in an economy doubles, QTM predicts that price levels will also double. The theory was originally formulated by Renaissance mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus in 1517, and was influentially restated by philosophers John Locke, David Hume, Jean Bodin. The theory experienced a large surge in popularity with economists Anna Schwartz and Milton Friedman's book "A Monetary History of the United States," published in 1963.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The theory was challenged by Keynesian economists, but updated and reinvigorated by the monetarist school of economics, led by economist Milton Friedman. Critics of the theory argue that money velocity is not stable and, in the short-run, prices are sticky, so the direct relationship between money supply and price level does not hold.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Alternative theories include the real bills doctrine and the more recent fiscal theory of the price level.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The quantity theory descends from Nicolaus Copernicus, followers of the School of Salamanca like Martín de Azpilicueta, Jean Bodin, Henry Thornton, and various others who noted the increase in prices following the import of gold and silver, used in the coinage of money, from the New World. The "equation of exchange" relating the supply of money to the value of money transactions was stated by John Stuart Mill who expanded on the ideas of David Hume. The quantity theory was developed by Simon Newcomb, Alfred de Foville, Irving Fisher, and Ludwig von Mises, although the latter believed demand for money was also a significant factor, in the late 19th and early 20th century.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Henry Thornton introduced the idea of a central bank after the financial panic of 1793. The concept of a modern central bank was, however, not given much attention until Keynes published "A Tract on Monetary Reform" in 1923. In 1802, Thornton published "An Enquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain" in which he gave an account of his theory regarding the central bank's ability to control price level. According to his theory, it could control the currency in circulation through bookkeeping. This control could then allow it command of the money supply of the country. That ultimately would lead to central banks' ability to control price levels. Thornton's work was a major contribution to the quantity theory of money.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Karl Marx modified it by arguing that the labor theory of value requires that prices, under equilibrium conditions, are determined by socially necessary labor time needed to produce the commodity and that quantity of money was a function of the quantity of commodities, the prices of commodities, and the velocity. Marx did not reject the basic concept of the Quantity Theory of Money, but rejected the notion that each of the four elements were equal, and instead argued that the quantity of commodities and the price of commodities are the determinative elements and that the volume of money follows from them. He argued...


title: Quantity theory of money

text: John Maynard Keynes, like Marx, accepted the theory in general and wrote... Also like Marx he believed that the theory was misrepresented. Where Marx argues that the amount of money in circulation is determined by the quantity of goods times the prices of goods Keynes argued the amount of money was determined by the purchasing power or aggregate demand. He wrote In the Tract on Monetary Reform (1923), Keynes developed his own quantity equation: n = p(k + rk'),where n is the number of "currency notes or other forms of cash in circulation with the public", p is "the index number of the cost of living", and r is "the proportion of the bank's potential liabilities (k') held in the form of cash." Keynes also assumes "...the public,(k') including the business world, finds it convenient to keep the equivalent of k consumption in cash and of a further available k' at their banks against cheques..." So long as k, k', and r do not change, changes in n cause proportional changes in p.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Keynes thus accepts the Quantity Theory as accurate over the long-term but not over the short term. Keynes remarks that contrary to contemporaneous thinking, velocity and output were not stable but highly variable and as such, the quantity of money was of little importance in driving prices.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The theory was influentially restated by Milton Friedman in response to the work of John Maynard Keynes and Keynesianism. Friedman understood that Keynes was like Friedman, a "quantity theorist" and that Keynes Revolution "was from, as it were, within the governing body", i.e. consistent with previous Quantity Theory. Friedman notes the similarities between his views and those of Keynes when he wrote...


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Friedman notes that Keynes shifted the focus away from the quantity of money (Fisher's M and Keynes' n) and put the focus on price and output. Friedman writes...


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The Monetarist counter-position was that contrary to Keynes, velocity was not a passive function of the quantity of money but it can be an independent variable. Friedman wrote:


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Thus while Marx, Keynes, and Friedman all accepted the Quantity Theory, they each placed different emphasis as to which variable was the driver in changing prices. Marx emphasized production, Keynes income and demand, and Friedman the quantity of money.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Academic discussion remains over the degree to which different figures developed the theory. For instance, Bieda argues that Copernicus's observation


title: Quantity theory of money

text: amounts to a statement of the theory, while other economic historians date the discovery later, to figures such as Jean Bodin, David Hume, and John Stuart Mill.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The quantity theory of money preserved its importance even in the decades after Friedmanian monetarism had occurred. In new classical macroeconomics the quantity theory of money was still a doctrine of fundamental importance, but Robert E. Lucas and other leading new classical economists made serious efforts to specify and refine its theoretical meaning. For new classical economists, following David Hume's famous essay "Of Money", money was not neutral in the short-run, so the quantity theory was assumed to hold only in the long-run. These theoretical considerations involved serious changes as to the scope of countercyclical economic policy.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Historically, the main rival of the quantity theory was the real bills doctrine, which says that the issue of money does not raise prices, as long as the new money is issued in exchange for assets of sufficient value.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The previous equation presents the difficulty that the associated data are not available for all transactions. With the development of national income and product accounts, emphasis shifted to national-income or final-product transactions, rather than gross transactions. Economists may therefore work


title: Quantity theory of money

text: As an example, formula_15 might represent currency plus deposits in checking and savings accounts held by the public, formula_14 real output (which equals real expenditure in macroeconomic equilibrium) with formula_17 the corresponding price level, and formula_18 the nominal (money) value of output. In one empirical formulation, velocity was taken to be "the ratio of net national product in current prices to the money stock".


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Thus far, the theory is not particularly controversial, as the equation of exchange is an identity. A theory requires that assumptions be made about the causal relationships among the four variables in this one equation. There are debates about the extent to which each of these variables is dependent upon the others. Without further restrictions, the equation does not require that a change in the money supply would change the value of any or all of formula_17, formula_14, or formula_18. For example, a 10% increase in formula_15 could be accompanied by a change of 1/(1 + 10%) in formula_13, leaving formula_18 unchanged. The quantity theory postulates that the primary causal effect is an effect of "M" on "P".


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Economists Alfred Marshall, A.C. Pigou, and John Maynard Keynes (before he developed his own, eponymous school of thought) associated with Cambridge University, took a slightly different approach to the quantity theory, focusing on money demand instead of money supply. They argued that a certain portion of the money supply will not be used for transactions; instead, it will be held for the convenience and security of having cash on hand. This portion of cash is commonly represented as "k", a portion of nominal income (formula_25). The Cambridge economists also thought wealth would play a role, but wealth is often omitted for simplicity. The Cambridge equation is thus:


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Assuming that the economy is at equilibrium (formula_27), formula_28 is exogenous, and "k" is fixed in the short run, the Cambridge equation is equivalent to the equation of exchange with velocity equal to the inverse of "k":


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The Cambridge version of the quantity theory led to both Keynes's attack on the quantity theory and the Monetarist revival of the theory.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Monge (2021) showed that the Cambridge equation comes from a Cobb-Douglas utility function, which demonstrates that, in classical quantity theory, money has diminishing marginal utility (then, inflation is a monetary phenomenon).


title: Quantity theory of money

text: As restated by Milton Friedman, the quantity theory emphasizes the following relationship of the nominal value of expenditures formula_30 and the price level formula_17 to the quantity of money formula_32:


title: Quantity theory of money

text: The plus signs indicate that a change in the money supply is hypothesized to change nominal expenditures and the price level in the same direction (for other variables held constant).


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Friedman described the empirical regularity of substantial changes in the quantity of money and in the level of prices as perhaps the most-evidenced economic phenomenon on record.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Empirical studies have found relations consistent with the models above and with causation running from money to prices. The short-run relation of a change in the money supply in the past has been relatively more associated with a change in real output formula_14 than the price level formula_17 in (1) but with much variation in the precision, timing, and size of the relation. For the "long"-run, there has been stronger support for (1) and (2) and no systematic association of formula_14 and formula_15.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Friedman also developed the "Money Multiplier", which demonstrated how much a change in the reserve ratio of banks would change the money supply. In the formula, formula_39 represents the reserve ratio, while formula_40 represents the money multiplier.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: An application of the quantity-theory approach aimed at removing monetary policy as a source of macroeconomic instability was to target a constant, low growth rate of the money supply. Still, practical identification of the relevant money supply, including measurement, was always somewhat controversial and difficult. As financial intermediation grew in complexity and sophistication in the 1980s and 1990s, it became more so. To mitigate this problem, some central banks, including the U.S. Federal Reserve, which had targeted the money supply, reverted to targeting interest rates. Starting 1990 with New Zealand, more and more central banks started to communicate inflation targets as the primary guidance for the public. Reasons were that interest targeting turned out to be a less effective tool in low-interest phases and it did not cope with the public uncertainty about future inflation rates to expect. The communication of inflation targets helps to anchor the public inflation expectations, it makes central banks more accountable for their actions, and it reduces economic uncertainty among the participants in the economy. But monetary aggregates remain a leading economic indicator. with "some evidence that the linkages between money and economic activity are robust even at relatively short-run frequencies."


title: Quantity theory of money

text: John Maynard Keynes criticized the quantity theory of money in his book "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money". Keynes had originally been a proponent of the theory, but he presented an alternative in the "General Theory". Keynes argued that the price level was not strictly determined by the money supply. Changes in the money supply could have effects on real variables like output.


title: Quantity theory of money

text: Ludwig von Mises agreed that there was a core of truth in the quantity theory, but criticized its focus on the supply of money without adequately explaining the demand for money. He said the theory "fails to explain the mechanism of variations in the value of money".


title: Quantity theory of money

text: In his book "The Denationalisation of Money", Friedrich Hayek described the quantity theory of money "as no more than a useful rough approximation to a really adequate explanation". According to him, the theory "becomes wholly useless where several concurrent distinct kinds of money are simultaneously in use in the same territory."


title: Michael Steele

text: Michael Stephen Steele (born October 19, 1958) is an American political commentator, attorney, and Republican Party politician. Steele served as the seventh lieutenant governor of Maryland from 2003 to 2007; he was the first African-American elected to statewide office in Maryland. As lieutenant governor, Steele chaired the Minority Business Enterprise task force, actively promoting an expansion of affirmative action in the corporate world. Steele also served as chairperson of the Republican National Committee (RNC) from January 2009 until January 2011; he was the first African-American to serve in that capacity.


title: Michael Steele

text: In the 1990s, Steele worked as a partner at the international law firm of LeBoeuf, Lamb, Greene & MacRae and co-founded the Republican Leadership Council, a "fiscally conservative and socially inclusive" political action committee. Steele also made numerous appearances as a political pundit on Fox News and other media outlets prior to running for public office. He made an unsuccessful run in the 2006 U.S. Senate election in Maryland, losing to Democrat Ben Cardin. From 2007 to 2009, Steele was chairman of GOPAC, a 527 organization that trains and supports Republican candidates in state and local elections. After serving one term as RNC Chairperson from 2009 to 2011, he lost his bid for a second term and was succeeded by Reince Priebus. Since 2011, Steele has contributed as a regular columnist for online magazine "The Root" and as a political analyst for MSNBC. In 2018, he became a Senior Fellow at Brown University's Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs.


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2020, he formally endorsed Joe Biden for the presidency, after previously starring in an advertisement aired by The Lincoln Project.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele was born on October 19, 1958, at Andrews Air Force Base in Prince George's County, Maryland, and was adopted as an infant by William and Maebell Steele. His father died in 1962. His mother, who had been born into a sharecropping family in South Carolina, worked for minimum wage as a laundress to raise her children. After Steele's father died, she ignored her friends' appeals to apply for public assistance, later telling Steele, "I didn't want the government raising my children." She later married John Turner, a truck driver. Michael and his sister, Monica Turner, were raised in the Petworth neighborhood of Northwest, Washington, D.C., which Steele has described as a small, stable and racially integrated community that insulated him from some of the problems elsewhere in the city. Steele's sister later married and divorced former heavyweight boxing champion Mike Tyson.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele attended Archbishop Carroll High School in Washington, D.C., participating in the glee club, the National Honor Society and many of the school's drama productions. During his senior year, he was elected student council president.


title: Michael Steele

text: In 1981, Steele received a BA degree in international studies from the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore City, Maryland.


title: Michael Steele

text: After graduating from Hopkins, Steele worked for one year as a high school teacher at Malvern Preparatory School in Pennsylvania, teaching classes in world history and economics. He spent three years preparing for the Catholic priesthood at the Augustinian Friars Seminary at Villanova University, which he left prior to ordination to enter civil service.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele subsequently attended Georgetown Law School where he graduated with a JD degree in 1991. He failed the Maryland bar exam, but passed the Pennsylvania exam.


title: Michael Steele

text: From 1991 to 1997, Steele worked in Washington, D.C., as a corporate securities associate for the Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen & Hamilton international law firm, where he specialized in financial investments for Wall Street underwriters. He left the firm to found the Steele Group, a business and legal consulting firm.


title: Michael Steele

text: After joining the Republican Party, he became chairman of the Prince George's County Republican Central Committee. He was a founding member of the centrist, fiscally conservative and socially inclusive Republican Leadership Council in 1993 but left in 2008, citing disagreements over endorsing primary candidates. In 1995, the Maryland Republican Party selected him as their Republican Man of the Year. He worked on several political campaigns, was an alternate delegate to the 1996 Republican National Convention and a delegate to the 2000 Republican National Convention. Steele's Maryland biography identifies him as a member of the Tau Epsilon Phi fraternity.


title: Michael Steele

text: In December 2000, he was elected chairman of the Maryland Republican Party, becoming the first African-American ever to be elected chairman of any state Republican Party.


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2002, Robert Ehrlich, who was running for Maryland governor, selected Steele as his running mate for lieutenant governor. The campaign was waged against Democrat Kathleen Kennedy Townsend, who was running for governor, and Charles R. Larson who was running for lieutenant governor.


title: Michael Steele

text: In the September primary election, Ehrlich and Steele had no serious opposition. In the November 2002 general election, the Republican Ehrlich-Steele ticket won, 51 percent to 48 percent, even though Maryland traditionally votes Democratic and had not elected a Republican Governor in almost 40 years. The Townsend-Larson campaign had been tainted by outgoing Democratic governor Parris Glendening's marital problems and backlash due to his strict enforcement of environmental regulations.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele's most prominent efforts for the Ehrlich administration were reforming the state's Minority Business Enterprise program and chairing the Governor's Commission on Quality Education in Maryland. Steele garnered criticism for his failure to oppose Ehrlich's reinstitution of the death penalty, despite claims of racial inequities in the use of the death penalty, Steele's own religious beliefs and his prior anti-death penalty pronouncements.


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2005, Steele was named an Aspen Institute Rodel Fellow in Public Leadership and was awarded the Bethune-DuBois Institute Award for his continuing efforts to improve the quality education in Maryland.


title: Michael Steele

text: At the 2004 Republican National Convention, Steele gave the Republican counterpoint to Barack Obama's 2004 Democratic National Convention keynote address; it was Steele's first major national exposure. In April 2005, President Bush chose him to be a member of the U.S. delegation at the investiture of Pope Benedict XVI in Vatican City.