title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Documentation for older computers with fixed word size commonly states memory sizes in words rather than bytes or characters. The documentation sometimes uses metric prefixes correctly, sometimes with rounding, e.g., "65 kilowords" (KW) meaning for 65536 words, and sometimes uses them incorrectly, with "kilowords" (KW) meaning 1024 words (2) and megawords (MW) meaning 1,048,576 words (2). With standardization on 8-bit bytes and byte addressability, stating memory sizes in bytes, kilobytes, and megabytes with powers of 1024 rather than 1000 has become the norm, although there is some use of the IEC binary prefixes.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Several of the earliest computers (and a few modern as well) use binary-coded decimal rather than plain binary, typically having a word size of 10 or 12 decimal digits, and some early decimal computers have no fixed word length at all. Early binary systems tended to use word lengths that were some multiple of 6-bits, with the 36-bit word being especially common on mainframe computers. The introduction of ASCII led to the move to systems with word lengths that were a multiple of 8-bits, with 16-bit machines being popular in the 1970s before the move to modern processors with 32 or 64 bits. Special-purpose designs like digital signal processors, may have any word length from 4 to 80 bits.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: The size of a word can sometimes differ from the expected due to backward compatibility with earlier computers. If multiple compatible variations or a family of processors share a common architecture and instruction set but differ in their word sizes, their documentation and software may become notationally complex to accommodate the difference (see Size families below).


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: When a computer architecture is designed, the choice of a word size is of substantial importance. There are design considerations which encourage particular bit-group sizes for particular uses (e.g. for addresses), and these considerations point to different sizes for different uses. However, considerations of economy in design strongly push for one size, or a very few sizes related by multiples or fractions (submultiples) to a primary size. That preferred size becomes the word size of the architecture.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Character size was in the past (pre-variable-sized character encoding) one of the influences on unit of address resolution and the choice of word size. Before the mid-1960s, characters were most often stored in six bits; this allowed no more than 64 characters, so the alphabet was limited to upper case. Since it is efficient in time and space to have the word size be a multiple of the character size, word sizes in this period were usually multiples of 6 bits (in binary machines). A common choice then was the 36-bit word, which is also a good size for the numeric properties of a floating point format.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: After the introduction of the IBM System/360 design, which uses eight-bit characters and supports lower-case letters, the standard size of a character (or more accurately, a byte) becomes eight bits. Word sizes thereafter are naturally multiples of eight bits, with 16, 32, and 64 bits being commonly used.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Early machine designs included some that used what is often termed a "variable word length". In this type of organization, an operand has no fixed length. Depending on the machine and the instruction, the length might be denoted by a count field, by a delimiting character, or by an additional bit called, e.g., flag, or word mark. Such machines often use binary-coded decimal in 4-bit digits, or in 6-bit characters, for numbers. This class of machines includes the IBM 702, IBM 705, IBM 7080, IBM 7010, UNIVAC 1050, IBM 1401, IBM 1620, and RCA 301.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Most of these machines work on one unit of memory at a time and since each instruction or datum is several units long, each instruction takes several cycles just to access memory. These machines are often quite slow because of this. For example, instruction fetches on an IBM 1620 Model I take 8 cycles (160 μs) just to read the 12 digits of the instruction (the Model II reduced this to 6 cycles, or 4 cycles if the instruction did not need both address fields). Instruction execution takes a variable number of cycles, depending on the size of the operands.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: The memory model of an architecture is strongly influenced by the word size. In particular, the resolution of a memory address, that is, the smallest unit that can be designated by an address, has often been chosen to be the word. In this approach, the word-addressable machine approach, address values which differ by one designate adjacent memory words. This is natural in machines which deal almost always in word (or multiple-word) units, and has the advantage of allowing instructions to use minimally sized fields to contain addresses, which can permit a smaller instruction size or a larger variety of instructions.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: When byte processing is to be a significant part of the workload, it is usually more advantageous to use the byte, rather than the word, as the unit of address resolution. Address values which differ by one designate adjacent bytes in memory. This allows an arbitrary character within a character string to be addressed straightforwardly. A word can still be addressed, but the address to be used requires a few more bits than the word-resolution alternative. The word size needs to be an integer multiple of the character size in this organization. This addressing approach was used in the IBM 360, and has been the most common approach in machines designed since then.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: When the workload involves processing fields of different sizes, it can be advantageous to address to the bit. Machines with bit addressing may have some instructions that use a programmer-defined byte size and other instructions that operate on fixed data sizes. As an example, on the IBM 7030 ("Stretch"), a floating point instruction can only address words while an integer arithmetic instruction can specify a field length of 1-64 bits, a byte size of 1-8 bits and an accumulator offset of 0-127 bits.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: In a byte-addressable machine with storage-to-storage (SS) instructions, there are typically move instructions to copy one or multiple bytes from one arbitrary location to another. In a byte-oriented (byte-addressable) machine without SS instructions, moving a single byte from one arbitrary location to another is typically:


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Individual bytes can be accessed on a word-oriented machine in one of two ways. Bytes can be manipulated by a combination of shift and mask operations in registers. Moving a single byte from one arbitrary location to another may require the equivalent of the following:


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Alternatively many word-oriented machines implement byte operations with instructions using special "byte pointers" in registers or memory. For example, the PDP-10 byte pointer contained the size of the byte in bits (allowing different-sized bytes to be accessed), the bit position of the byte within the word, and the word address of the data. Instructions could automatically adjust the pointer to the next byte on, for example, load and deposit (store) operations.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Different amounts of memory are used to store data values with different degrees of precision. The commonly used sizes are usually a power of two multiple of the unit of address resolution (byte or word). Converting the index of an item in an array into the memory address offset of the item then requires only a shift operation rather than a multiplication. In some cases this relationship can also avoid the use of division operations. As a result, most modern computer designs have word sizes (and other operand sizes) that are a power of two times the size of a byte.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: As computer designs have grown more complex, the central importance of a single word size to an architecture has decreased. Although more capable hardware can use a wider variety of sizes of data, market forces exert pressure to maintain backward compatibility while extending processor capability. As a result, what might have been the central word size in a fresh design has to coexist as an alternative size to the original word size in a backward compatible design. The original word size remains available in future designs, forming the basis of a size family.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: In the mid-1970s, DEC designed the VAX to be a 32-bit successor of the 16-bit PDP-11. They used "word" for a 16-bit quantity, while "longword" referred to a 32-bit quantity; this terminology is the same as the terminology used for the PDP-11. This was in contrast to earlier machines, where the natural unit of addressing memory would be called a "word", while a quantity that is one half a word would be called a "halfword". In fitting with this scheme, a VAX "quadword" is 64 bits. They continued this 16-bit word/32-bit longword/64-bit quadword terminology with the 64-bit Alpha.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Another example is the x86 family, of which processors of three different word lengths (16-bit, later 32- and 64-bit) have been released, while "word" continues to designate a 16-bit quantity. As software is routinely ported from one word-length to the next, some APIs and documentation define or refer to an older (and thus shorter) word-length than the full word length on the CPU that software may be compiled for. Also, similar to how bytes are used for small numbers in many programs, a shorter word (16 or 32 bits) may be used in contexts where the range of a wider word is not needed (especially where this can save considerable stack space or cache memory space). For example, Microsoft's Windows API maintains the programming language definition of "WORD" as 16 bits, despite the fact that the API may be used on a 32- or 64-bit x86 processor, where the standard word size would be 32 or 64 bits, respectively. Data structures containing such different sized words refer to them as:


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: A similar phenomenon has developed in Intel's x86 assembly language – because of the support for various sizes (and backward compatibility) in the instruction set, some instruction mnemonics carry "d" or "q" identifiers denoting "double-", "quad-" or "double-quad-", which are in terms of the architecture's original 16-bit word size.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: An example with a different word size is the IBM System/360 family. In the System/360 architecture, System/370 architecture and System/390 architecture, there are 8-bit "byte"s, 16-bit "halfword"s, 32-bit "word"s and 64-bit "doubleword"s. The z/Architecture, which is the 64-bit member of that architecture family, continues to refer to 16-bit "halfword"s, 32-bit "word"s, and 64-bit "doubleword"s, and additionally features 128-bit "quadword"s.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: In general, new processors must use the same data word lengths and virtual address widths as an older processor to have binary compatibility with that older processor.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: Often carefully written source code – written with source-code compatibility and software portability in mind – can be recompiled to run on a variety of processors, even ones with different data word lengths or different address widths or both.


title: Jack Irish

text: Jack Irish is an Australian television drama series first broadcast on ABC TV on 14 October 2012. The series stars Guy Pearce as the title character, a former criminal lawyer turned private investigator and debt collector. Much of the action is set in the Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. Adapted from the crime fiction novels by author Peter Temple, the telemovies and series "Jack Irish" were developed by Andrew Anastasios, Matt Cameron and Andrew Knight. They began as three feature-length movies, before being adapted into three six-episode series, the final one airing from June 2021.


title: Jack Irish

text: All three movies were directed by Jeffrey Walker, while Kieran Darcy-Smith serves as lead director on the series. "Bad Debts", the first of the three feature-length movies, was watched by an average of 950,000 Australian viewers, ranking as the sixth most watched programme of the week. "Black Tide", the second movie, was watched by an average of 851,000 Australian viewers, ranking as the thirteenth most watched programme of the week. "Dead Point", the third and final movie, was watched by an average of 780,000 Australian viewers, ranking as the eleventh most watched programme of the week.


title: Jack Irish

text: The first series of six episodes broadcast from 11 February to 17 March 2016. The second series broadcast from 8 July to 12 August 2018. The second series was dedicated to the memory of Peter Temple, who died in March 2018. The third and final series, "Jack Irish: Hell Bent", premiered on ABC TV and ABC iview on 13 June 2021.


title: Jack Irish

text: The second series of "Jack Irish" was written by Andrew Knight, playwright Matt Cameron, Elise McCredie and Andrew Anastasios, and directed by Mark Joffe, Kriv Stenders and Fiona Banks. A foreign student studying in Australia passes away after she is fatally hit by a bus in Melbourne's CBD. Irish, together with his partner in crime Cam Delray, must investigate the suspicious circumstances surrounding her death, including the potential for a stalker who may have been following her.


title: Jack Irish

text: The third and final series of "Jack Irish" went to air on ABC TV from Sunday 13 June 2021 at 8:30pm. Striking painfully close to home, Jack's obsession with unlocking the secrets of the past brings him face-to-face with an adversary more personal and destructive than any other he has known.


title: Jack Irish

text: "Jack Irish" has been nominated for multiple awards since its initial release to audiences. Pearce was nominated for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television at the Sichuan TV Festival in 2015 for his portrayal of Jack Irish. Dusseldorp and Mailman were nominated for Best Actress at the Logie Awards in 2017 and 2019 respectively and were both awarded Silver Logies for their performances. Series writer Andrew Knight won the Awgie Award for Television Series or Miniseries of more than 4 hours duration, and was also nominated twice for the Best Television Drama Series as a part of the Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts (AACTA) Awards in both 2016 and 2018.


title: Jack Irish

text: Peter Temple wrote four books under the "Jack Irish" franchise, three of which were awarded the Ned Kelly Award for Crime Writing and Ned Kelly Award for Crime Fiction.


title: Jack Irish

text: "Bad Debts" is the first of the four novels, and the first of Temple's crime writing career. It won him the highly prestigious Ned Kelly Award for Crime Writing (under Best True Crime) in 1997. The book has a total of 297 pages and was published by HarperCollins in 1996. "Bad Debts" follows former lawyer Jack Irish as he returns to the criminal world, as Irish receives an unfamiliar phone call from ex-client Danny McKillop, whom he defended on a hit-and-run charge when he worked as an attorney. When Danny is found dead soon after he is released from prison, Irish must find out why.


title: Jack Irish

text: "Black Tide" is the second book in Temple's series, and the only book to have not been nominated for a Ned Kelly Award. It was written in 1999 and has been published into multiple languages, including Dutch. The book has a total of 311 pages, and was published by Bantam Books. In "Black Tide", Jack Irish reenters the criminal world when he agrees to search for Des Connors’ missing son, Gary Connors, who also happens to be Irish's last surviving connection to his father. Irish attempts to uncover the truth, as well as any secrets Gary may have been hiding.


title: Jack Irish

text: "Dead Point" is the third "Jack Irish" novel. Like "Bad Debts", "Dead Point" was the recipient of the Ned Kelly Award for Crime Writing, in 2001. The book has a total of 275 pages, and was published by Bantam Books in 2000. In "Dead Point", Jack Irish is tasked with locating the missing Robbie Colbourne, who later shows up dead in the local morgue. Irish must solve the various mysteries which occur along the way, including the circumstances which led the occasional barman to disappear.


title: Jack Irish

text: "White Dog" is Temple's final book in the "Jack Irish" series, and the third book in the series to be awarded a Ned Kelly Award for Crime Fiction. Published in 2003 by Text Publishing, the book has a total of 337 pages. In "White Dog", a property developer in Irish's hometown of Melbourne is murdered. His ex-girlfriend becomes one of the main suspects as Irish attempts to solve the murder mystery, unveiling secrets and even more complications along the way. Irish must investigate whether she is as guilty as she seems.


title: Jack Irish

text: Production of the Jack Irish series was primarily completed in the Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy, in Australia's state of Victoria. The series was produced by Easy Tiger Productions for ABC in association with Film Victoria and Essential Media & Entertainment. The theme song and music were composed by David McCormack, as well as Antony Partos.


title: Jack Irish

text: The casting for all three series and telemovies were completed by Natalie Wall, Clare Chapman, Kelly Graham, Fiona McMaster and Pearl Mason-Scott.


Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities (Spanish: "Municipios Autónomos Rebeldes Zapatistas", "MAREZ") are "de facto" autonomous territories controlled by the neo-Zapatista support bases in the Mexican state of Chiapas, founded following the Zapatista uprising which took place in 1994 and is part of the wider Chiapas conflict. Despite attempts at negotiation with the Mexican government which resulted in the San Andrés Accords in 1996, the region's autonomy remains unrecognized by it.


title: Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities

text: The Zapatista army, or EZLN, does not hold any power in the autonomous municipalities. According to its constitution, no commander or member of the "Clandestine Revolutionary Indigenous Committee" may take positions of authority or government in these spaces.


text: These places are found within the official municipalities, and several are even within the same municipality, as in the case of San Andrés Larrainzar and Ocosingo. The MAREZ are coordinated by autonomous Zapatista Councils of Good Government (Spanish: "Juntas de Buen Gobierno") and their main objectives have been to promote education and health in their territories. They also fight for land rights, labor and trade, housing, and fuel-supply issues, promoting arts (especially indigenous language and traditions), and administering justice.


text: On the 17th of August, 2019, the Zapatistas announced a significant increase of autonomous municipalities, and a new term for centers of Zapatista autonomy. In most cases these Centers of Autonomous Resistance and Zapatista Rebellion (Spanish: "Centros de Resistencia Autónoma y Rebeldía Zapatista", "CRAREZ") include a "Caracol" (English: "Snail"), a Council of Good Government, and an Autonomous Zapatista Municipality in Rebellion (MAREZ). The Zapatistas credited this growth primarily to the efforts of "women, men, children, and elders of the Zapatista bases of support" and secondarily to a backfiring counter-insurgency strategy of the Mexican state, which "generate conflict and demoralization" among non-Zapatatistas. 11 new Centers of Autonomous Resistance and Zapatista Rebellion (CRAREZ) were declared; specifically, 4 new autonomous municipalities and 7 new Caracols (each accompanied by a Council of Good Government). This ups the total number of Caracols from 5 to 12, and brings the total number of autonomous Zapatistas centers to 43, including 27 original autonomous Zapatista municipalities, 5 original Caracols, and the 11 autonomous Zaptista centers newly declared.


text: On 1 January 1994, thousands of EZLN members occupied towns and cities in Chiapas, burning down police stations, occupying government buildings and skirmishing with the Mexican army. The EZLN demanded "work, land, housing, food, health care, education, independence, freedom, democracy, justice, and peace" in their communities. The Zapatistas seized over a million acres from large landowners during their revolution.


text: Since 2003 the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities (MAREZ) coordinate in very small groups called "Caracoles" (English: "Snails"). Before that, the Neo-Zapatistas used the title of Aguascalientes after the site of the EZLN-organized National Democratic Convention on 8 August 1994; this name gave the allusion to the Convention of Aguascalientes during the Mexican Revolution where Emiliano Zapata and other leaders met in 1914 and Zapata made an alliance with Francisco Villa.


text: At a local level, people attend a popular assembly of around 300 families in which anyone over the age of 12 can participate in decision-making. These assemblies strive to reach a consensus, but are willing to fall back to a majority vote. The communities form a federation with other communities to create an autonomous municipality, which form further federations with other municipalities to create a region. The Zapatistas are composed of five regions, in total having a population of around 360,000 people as of 2018.


text: Each community has 3 main administrative structures: (1) the "commissariat", in charge of day-to-day administration; (2) the "council for land control", which deals with forestry and disputes with neighboring communities; and (3) the "agencia", a community police agency.


text: The Zapatista economy is mainly composed of worker cooperatives, family farms and community stores with the councils of good government providing low-interest loans, free education, radio stations and health-care to communities. The economy is largely self-reliant and agricultural, producing mainly corn, beans, coffee, bananas, sugar, cattle, chickens, pigs and clothing at cooperatives. The communities have abolished private (but not personal) ownership of property and instituted a system of common ownership of land, and they sell over $44 million worth of goods to international markets each year. Given the collective ownership of land and system of participatory democracy, hunger and violence are extremely low compared to other impoverished Mexican communities.


text: The Zapatistas run hundreds of schools with thousands of teachers modeled around the principles of democratic education where students and communities collectively decide on school curriculum and students aren't graded.


text: The Zapatistas maintain a high-quality universal healthcare service which is provided free of charge. However, medications must still be paid for to cover restocking costs. Residents of the Zapatista communities believe their health services are better staffed, equipped and less racist towards indigenous people than most services in Chiapas. It also works with surrounding hospitals and freely takes in patients from other communities who need to use the medical facilities that only the Zapatistas have. Since 1994, the Zapatistas have built 2 new hospitals and 18 health clinics in the region to increase the well-being of communities. One 2014 study indicates the following achievements in Zapatista healthcare:


text: According to one account of Oventic from 2016:In Oventic, there was a small yet seemingly fully-functional medical clinic, which appeared to offer basic healthcare. A sign on the door said general consultations, gynecology, optometry and laboratory services were all available five days a week. Emergency services were available 24 hours, seven days a week. They appeared to have a shiny new ambulance at their disposal. Other services offered a few days a week included dentistry and ultrasounds.


text: Many Zapatista communities are in rural areas with little access to running water. Projects have been undertaken to supply Zapatista communities with fresh water. In one particular case, Roberto Arenas, small Tzeltal community, built its own water service with the help of solidarity activists. Such projects are coordinated democratically. An account by Ramor Ryan noted:


text: The Zapatistas have taken on many projects to protect and restore the damaged ecosystems of the Lacandon Jungle, including the banning of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, as well as resisting the extraction of oil and metal through mining. According to one person who stayed in the town of Oventic in 2016:There was also something else — something which took me a long time to put my finger on. Then it finally hit me: there was no litter; not even a stray chocolate bar wrapper.The Zapatistas have also embarked on beekeeping and reforestation efforts, having planted over 30,000 trees in order to protect water sources (especially important given the increasing water scarcity in Chiapas), reverse deforestation in the rainforests and provide sources of food, fuel and construction material. Beekeepers aim to reverse much of the collapse of the bee population, and produce honey for food, ecological regeneration and candles.


text: Several eco-socialist and eco-anarchist authors have praised the efforts of the Zapatistas to construct an ecological society. However, the Zapatistas have also been heavily criticized by both environmentalists and the indigenous Lacandon Maya for allowing and encouraging logging, farming and settlement construction in protected areas of the Lacandon Jungle.


text: The Zapatistas are strongly affiliated with feminism and pro-queer politics. The Revolutionary Law on Women, drafted by Comandanta Ramona, states that:First: Women, regardless of their race, creed, color or political affiliation, have the right to participate in the revolutionary struggle in a way determined by their desire and capacity.


text: Fourth: Women have the right to participate in the affairs of the community and hold positions of authority if they are freely and democratically elected.


text: Fifth: Women and their children have the right to primary attention in matters of health and nutrition.


text: Eighth: Women shall not be beaten or physically mistreated by their family members or by strangers. Rape and attempted rape will be severely punished.


text: Ninth: Women will be able to occupy positions of leadership in the organization and hold military ranks in the revolutionary armed forces.


text: Tenth: Women will have all the rights and obligations elaborated in the Revolutionary Laws and regulations.In 2018, the Zapatistas hosted a feminist festival, which was described as "not only an opportunity to create educational or professional networks, but also a space to consider one’s health and well-being as a woman in the fight for justice. There were activities ranging from workshops, discussion panels and movie screenings to theater performances, art exhibitions and sports events, including basketball and soccer matches. Themes included gender violence, self-defense, self-care, sexism in the media, sexual rights, health and education, misogyny and childhood, discrimination against indigenous LGBTQ communities, women environmental rights defenders, and decolonization. All of the activities were led and held by women, and all of them were aimed at generating consciousness of gender inequality or the restoration of women’s self-confidence and autonomy."


text: The neo-Zapatistas do not proclaim adherence to a specific political ideology beyond left-wing politics. However, the functioning of the MAREZ distinguished it programmatically from the traditional left, reclaiming Zapatista- and Magonist-inspired ""indigenismo"" with contributions from libertarian socialism, Marxism, and anarchism. Some authors also draw parallels between neozapatismo and autonomism, while others argue it can be better defined as semi-anarchist.


text: The Zapatistas have faced some criticism from socialists and anarchists. Some anarchists have argued that the Zapatista communities have not taken enough effort to fully abolish the capitalist practices of wage labor, rent and multinational investment from their communities, while non-anarchist socialists have criticized the Zapatistas for not centralizing their power enough and exploiting their natural resources to fund social programs in their communities and sponsor revolutionary activity throughout Mexico. Some eco-anarchists have criticized the communities for not engaging in a fully vegetarian lifestyle, continuing to use plastic and deforest the surrounding jungle to raise cattle.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The 2004 Royal Rumble was the 17th annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions. The event took place on January 25, 2004, at the Wachovia Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As has been customary since 1993, the Royal Rumble match winner received a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania, in this instance, WrestleMania XX. Beginning with this Royal Rumble, the winner could choose which championship to challenge for at WrestleMania, either Raw's World Heavyweight Championship or SmackDown!'s WWE Championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Six professional wrestling matches were featured on the event's supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. The main event was the 2004 Royal Rumble match, which featured wrestlers from both brands. SmackDown!'s Chris Benoit, the first entrant, won the match by last eliminating Big Show, also from SmackDown!. This win resulted in Benoit breaking the longevity record last held by Bob Backlund, staying in the match for over one hour, but was then broken by Rey Mysterio in 2006. Benoit also became the second wrestler to win the match as the first entrant, after Shawn Michaels. The primary match on the Raw brand was a Last Man Standing match between Triple H and Shawn Michaels for the World Heavyweight Championship, which ended in a draw. The predominant match on the SmackDown! brand was Brock Lesnar versus Hardcore Holly for the WWE Championship, which Lesnar won to retain the championship. The featured match on the undercard was a Tables match for the World Tag Team Championship between Evolution (Ric Flair and Batista) and The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley), which Evolution won to retain the titles.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV), produced every January by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2004 event was the 17th event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 25, 2004, at the Wachovia Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown! brands.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers. Traditionally, the winner of the match earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. The previous year, the winner earned a match for their respective brand's top championship, but for 2004, the winner could choose to challenge for either brands' world championship at WrestleMania XX: Raw's World Heavyweight Championship or SmackDown!'s WWE Championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The card consisted of six matches. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown! brands, with storylines produced on their weekly television shows, "Raw" and "SmackDown!".


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The buildup to the Royal Rumble match started on the January 1 episode of "SmackDown!", when John Cena interrupted a promo from SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman about the Tribute to the Troops event in Iraq. This angered Heyman and Heyman forced Cena to compete in a handicap match with a partner and the two needed to win the match to gain entry in the Royal Rumble match. Cena's partner was revealed to be Chris Benoit and the two defeated The Full Blooded Italians (Nunzio, Chuck Palumbo and Johnny Stamboli) to qualify for the Royal Rumble match. As a result, all the three members of Full Blooded Italians lost their spots in the Royal Rumble match; had Cena and Benoit would have lost, neither would have been able to participate in the match. After the match, Kurt Angle announced that he would participate in the Royal Rumble match and would win it. Later that night, Benoit insulted Heyman and Heyman forced Benoit to compete at the #1 spot in the Royal Rumble. On the January 5 episode of "Raw", Kane announced that he was going to win the Royal Rumble but was confronted by Booker T, who claimed that he would eliminate Kane from the match and win the match. Three days later on "SmackDown!", Benoit defeated the Full Blooded Italians in a handicap mini Royal Rumble to retain his spot in the Royal Rumble. On the January 12 episode of "Raw", Goldberg defeated Matt Hardy and announced that he would participate in the Royal Rumble match. On the January 15 episode of "SmackDown!", several qualifying matches were held for the Royal Rumble, including a battle royal between the Full Blooded Italians, which Nunzio won. On the January 19 episode of "Raw", Goldberg, Randy Orton, Rob Van Dam, Booker T, Mark Henry and Chris Jericho won matches to qualify for a Battle Royal to determine the #30 entrant of the Royal Rumble match. Goldberg won the match and earned the #30 spot in the Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The main rivalry heading into the event from the Raw brand was between Triple H and Shawn Michaels over the World Heavyweight Championship. At Armageddon, Triple H defeated Goldberg and Kane in a triple threat match to win the World Heavyweight Championship after interference from Evolution (Ric Flair and Batista). On the December 15 episode of "Raw", Michaels and Rob Van Dam defeated Evolution (Triple H, Ric Flair and Batista) in a handicap match, when Michaels pinned Triple H. As a result, Michaels earned a World Heavyweight Championship match against Triple H on the December 29 episode of "Raw" in his hometown of San Antonio, Texas. Michaels seemingly defeated Triple H to win the title, but the Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff declared the match a draw due to both men's shoulders being down on the mat during the pinfall. As a result, Triple H retained the title. On the January 5 episode of "Raw", the self-proclaimed Sheriff of Raw Stone Cold Steve Austin announced that Triple H would defend the title against Michaels in a Last Man Standing match at Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The main rivalry heading into the event from the SmackDown! brand was between Brock Lesnar and Hardcore Holly over the WWE Championship. The rivalry could be dated back to September 12, 2002, episode of "SmackDown!", when Lesnar defeated Holly in a non-title match and injured him by breaking his neck, putting him out of action for over a year. A year later, at Survivor Series, Holly returned to WWE from injury to take revenge from Lesnar. On the December 18 episode of "SmackDown!", Paul Heyman announced that Holly would team with Shannon Moore in a tag team match against A-Train and Matt Morgan, in which Holly could get a match of his choosing if he won but if he lost, his WWE contract would be terminated. Holly and Moore won the match, allowing Holly to wrestle a match of his choosing. On the January 1 episode of "SmackDown!", Holly intentionally got disqualified in a match against Big Show by brutally assaulting him. On the January 8 episode of "SmackDown!", Holly defeated Big Show in a street fight. As a result, Big Show placed a restraining order on Holly and Lesnar stayed with Big Show to protect himself from Holly. On the January 22 episode of "SmackDown!", Holly attacked Lesnar during a handicap match pitting Lesnar, Big Show, Matt Morgan and Rhyno against John Cena and Chris Benoit. This led to a match between Lesnar and Holly for the WWE Championship at Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: A secondary rivalry heading into the event from the SmackDown! brand was between Eddie Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero Jr. At Survivor Series, Basham Brothers (Doug Basham and Danny Basham) defeated Los Guerreros (Eddie and Chavo) to retain the WWE Tag Team Championship. After the event, Los Guerreros started to break up as a team when Chavo began blaming Eddie for the team's recent failure. On the November 20 episode of "SmackDown!", Los Guerreros defeated World's Greatest Tag Team (Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin) but after the match, Haas and Benjamin attacked Chavo and injured his leg. This caused Chavo to blame Eddie for the injury. On the November 27 episode of "SmackDown!", Chavo was attacked again and he blamed Eddie. This continued on the December 4 episode of "SmackDown!", when Eddie helped Chavo in defeating Benjamin in a one-on-one match. Chavo blamed Eddie for stealing the spotlight that Chavo needed. On the January 1 episode of "SmackDown!", Eddie and Chavo finally broke up the team after losing to World's Greatest Tag Team. However, on the January 8 episode of "SmackDown!", Kurt Angle reunited Los Guerreros and earned them a WWE Tag Team Championship match against the Basham Brothers, which Los Guerreros lost. After the match, Los Guerreros finally ended when Chavo attacked Eddie and caused him to bleed. As a result, Chavo turned heel. On the January 15 episode of "SmackDown!", Angle informed Eddie that the SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman had made a match between Eddie and Chavo at Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The secondary rivalry heading into the event from the Raw brand was between Evolution (Ric Flair and Batista) and Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley) over the World Tag Team Championship. At Armageddon, Flair and Batista defeated Dudley Boyz in a Tag Team Turmoil match to win the World Tag Team Championship. On the December 29 episode of "Raw", Flair served as the special referee during a match pitting Dudley Boyz against two enhancement talents. Flair awarded the victory to enhancement talents by disqualifying Dudley Boyz. Batista then came out and attacked Dudley Boyz from behind. On the January 5 episode of "Raw", Flair and Batista defeated Dudley Boyz to retain the World Tag Team Championship. The next week on "Raw", Batista defeated D-Von in a one-on-one match. After the match, Flair tossed a table into the ring and Batista set it up but Bubba Ray entered the ring and chased Flair and Batista. On the January 19 episode of "Raw", Evolution member Randy Orton defeated The Hurricane in a match. After the match, Flair and Batista came out to congratulate Orton. Hurricane's tag team partner Rosey came out to check on him but was attacked by Batista. It led to Dudley Boyz coming out to deliver a 3-D on Flair through the table but Jonathan Coachman ran down to stop them and was hit with a 3D through the table by Dudley Boyz. This led to a Tables match between Dudley Boyz and Evolution for the World Tag Team Championship at Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Another secondary rivalry heading into the event from the SmackDown! brand was between Rey Mysterio Jr. and Jamie Noble over the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. On the January 1 episode of "SmackDown!", Mysterio defeated Tajiri to win the Cruiserweight Championship. The following week, Tajiri and Noble were scheduled to have a number one contender's match for the Cruiserweight Championship, but Noble was not present on the show. As a result, Paul Heyman ordered Noble's manager Nidia to replace Noble in the match. Tajiri easily defeated Nidia. After the match, Tajiri tried to assault Nidia, but Mysterio rescued her. This prompted Noble to come out and attack Mysterio as he thought that Mysterio was trying to harm Nidia. On the January 15 episode of "SmackDown!", Noble defeated Tajiri to become the number one contender for the Cruiserweight Championship at Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Before the event aired live on pay-per-view (PPV), Victoria defeated Molly Holly by pinning her after a Gory Neckbreaker, which Victoria calls "Widow's Peak". The match aired live on "Heat".


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The event opened with Evolution (Batista and Ric Flair) defending the World Tag Team Championship against The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D-Von) in a Tables match. Jonathan Coachman interfered in the match as he distracted The Dudley Boyz, who attempted a Whassup on Coachman but Flair prevented the move. D-Von performed a Clothesline on Flair, allowing Batista to perform a Spinebuster through a table on D-Von to retain the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Next, Rey Mysterio Jr. defended the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Jamie Noble. manager Nidia held Noble's legs, thinking he was Mysterio. Mysterio took advantage and performed a 619 and Droppin' Da Dime on Noble to retain the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: After that, Eddie Guerrero faced Chavo Guerrero Jr. Chavo Guerrero Sr. interfered and attacked Eddie throughout the match. Eddie performed the Three Amigos and a Frog Splash on Chavo to win the match. After the match, Eddie attacked Chavo and Chavo Sr., causing Chavo to bleed.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: In the fourth match, Brock Lesnar defended the WWE Championship against Hardcore Holly. Holly performed an Alabama Slam on Lesnar and applied a Full Nelson on Lesnar. After the two rolled out of the ring, Lesnar broke the hold by performing a Hangman on Holly. Lesnar performed an F5 on Holly to retain the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: In the fifth match, Triple H defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Shawn Michaels in a Last Man Standing match. Triple H attempted a Pedigree onto a steel chair on Michaels but Michaels countered and dropped Triple H onto the steel chair. Michaels attempted Sweet Chin Music on Triple H but Triple H low blowed Michaels. Triple H performed a DDT and a Pedigree on Michaels but Michaels stood at a 9 count. Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music on Triple H but fell himself, resulting in the match ending in a draw and Triple H retained the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The main event was the annual 30-man Royal Rumble match, where the winner would get to wrestle the world champion of his brand at WrestleMania XX. Chris Benoit and Randy Orton were the first two entrants. As the match started, Benoit and Orton battled each other until Mark Henry entered at #3 and began attacking both Benoit and Orton. Tajiri entered at #4 and performed a Handspring Back Elbow on Orton. Orton battled Henry and Benoit battled Tajiri until Bradshaw entered at #5 and began dominating all the participants by finishing off Orton, then Henry, then Tajiri, with three consecutive Clotheslines from Hell. Bradshaw attempted to perform a Clothesline from Hell on Benoit but Benoit countered it into a Crippler Crossface. Bradshaw got out of the hold by picking Benoit up and tossing him over the top rope. However, Benoit jumped on the apron and eliminated Bradshaw instead. Rhyno entered at #6 and attacked Orton, before focusing on Benoit. Tajiri battled Henry and applied a Tarantula on Henry. Rhyno performed a Spinebuster on Benoit and attempted to perform a Gore on Benoit but Benoit avoided the move and Rhyno instead crashed a rope hung Tajiri. This caused Tajiri to get eliminated from the match. Benoit then tossed Henry over the top rope, eliminating him.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Matt Hardy entered at #7 but was quickly tossed over the top rope by Benoit but Hardy landed on the apron. Rhyno tried to eliminate Hardy but Hardy stayed in the ring. Scott Steiner entered at #8 and started dominating all of the participants of the match. Hardy and Orton battled in the corner, where Hardy had nearly eliminated Orton until Benoit attacked Hardy and Orton was saved from being eliminated. Matt Morgan entered at #9 and he performed a Sitout Powerbomb on Benoit and a Big Boot on Hardy. The Hurricane entered at #10 and performed a Diving Crossbody on Hardy. Hurricane then began fighting Morgan, who dominated Hurricane and eliminated him by tossing him over the top rope. Morgan then tried to eliminate Hardy in the same way, but Hardy landed on the apron and stayed in the ring. Benoit began fighting Rhyno, Steiner battled Orton and Hardy battled Morgan until Booker T entered at #11. Booker attacked Steiner and then performed a Scissors Kick on Orton. Booker then eliminated Steiner from the match. Kane entered at #12. Morgan started attacking Kane but Kane performed a Chokeslam on Morgan. Kane performed a Big Boot on Rhyno and then Kane chokeslammed Orton. Eventually, The Undertaker's entrance theme music began playing in the arena and the lights went out. When the lights came back, Kane was distracted and Booker eliminated Kane from behind. Following Kane's elimination, Spike Dudley entered at #13. Kane was angered at it and he thought that it was Dudley, who played Undertaker's gong. An enraged Kane performed a Chokeslam on Dudley on the ramp and Dudley was knocked out which meant that he was unable to participate in the Royal Rumble. Rikishi entered at #14. Along with Rikishi's entrance, Benoit backdropped Rhyno over the top rope, eliminating him. Rikishi started attacking Hardy and performed a Stink Face on Morgan. René Duprée entered at #15 and started battling Hardy before dropkicking him over the top rope to eliminate him. However, after eliminating Hardy, Duprée was eliminated himself by Rikishi when Rikishi performed a Savate Kick on Duprée, causing him to fall over the top rope. A-Train entered at #16 and began attacking Rikishi. Benoit eventually eliminated Morgan. Orton began dominating the match as he eliminated Rikishi and then backdropped Booker over the top rope to eliminate him. Benoit battled A-Train, while Shelton Benjamin entered at #17. Benoit eliminated A-Train and Benjamin tried to perform a Superkick on Orton, but Orton ducked the move and eliminated Benjamin. The first two entrants of the match, Benoit and Orton were left remaining. Ernest Miller entered at #18, along with his manager Lamont. Instead of using the opportunity of eliminating the knocked out Benoit and Orton, Miller and his manager Lamont danced to Miller's entrance theme. However, Benoit and Orton recovered and ruined the dance as Benoit tossed Lamont over the top rope and Orton eliminated Miller from the match. Following Miller's elimination, Benoit and Orton continued to battle each other. Kurt Angle entered at #19 and began fighting Benoit while Orton recovered in the corner. Rico entered at #20 and began battling Orton. Rico performed a Roundhouse Kick on Orton while Benoit performed three consecutive German Suplexes on Angle in a row. Orton recovered and backdropped Rico over the top rope, eliminating him. Test's music began playing at #21 but Test did not appear, as he was found knocked out at backstage by some doctors and the Raw Sheriff Stone Cold Steve Austin. Austin ordered someone to replace Test and gave him the #21 entry number. This person was revealed to be Mick Foley who immediately started attacking Orton. Foley performed a Flying Clothesline on Orton, eliminating Orton and himself in the process. Foley and Orton continued to fight each other after their eliminations. Christian entered at #22 and started battling Benoit and Angle. Foley and Orton numerously attacked each other, where Foley was about to perform a Mandible Claw on Orton until Nunzio entered at #23 and Foley turned his focus on Nunzio and performed a Mandible Claw on Nunzio, knocking him down. Orton attacked Foley and then retreated to the backstage. Angle battled Christian and Benoit in the ring while Nunzio sat in the ringside, instead of entering the ring. Big Show entered at #24 and began dominating the participants in the match. Chris Jericho entered at #25 and started fighting Angle. Big Show knocked the heads of Jericho and Christian together before battling Jericho. Christian started attacking Big Show. Benoit, Angle, Christian and Jericho tried to eliminate Big Show but failed. Charlie Haas entered at #26 and was double-teamed by Jericho and Christian. Jericho eventually eliminated Christian. Billy Gunn entered at #27 and performed a Legdrop Bulldog, which he called "Fameasser" on Angle. Gunn then performed a Fameasser on Jericho and fought Big Show and Haas. John Cena entered at #28 but instead of entering the ring, he focused on Nunzio, who was sitting in the ringside. Cena tossed Nunzio into the ring and began attacking him until Big Show started attacking Cena. Big Show and Nunzio double-teamed Cena until Nunzio attempted to eliminate Big Show but failed. Cena started attacking Big Show and tried to eliminate him while Nunzio tried to eliminate Benoit. Rob Van Dam entered at #29 and started dominating all the participants of the match. Nunzio tried to eliminate Van Dam but Haas battled Nunzio. Big Show battled Gunn and Cena performed a Fireman's Carry Takeover, which he called "F-U", on Angle. Goldberg entered at #30 and performed a Spear on Big Show and then speared Gunn. Goldberg punched several wrestlers including Angle, Jericho, Van Dam, Cena and Haas. Nunzio jumped on Goldberg's back while Goldberg eliminated Haas from the match. Van Dam kicked Goldberg. Goldberg speared Nunzio and then clotheslined Gunn over the top rope, eliminating him. Goldberg picked up Nunzio in a Military Press and threw him over the top rope, eliminating him from the match. Goldberg started attacking Big Show, until Brock Lesnar interfered in the match and performed a F5 on Goldberg and left the ring. Goldberg was distracted and when he recovered, Angle eliminated him from behind. Benoit, Angle, Jericho, Cena and Van Dam all teamed up against Big Show when Big Show picked up Cena and Angle performed a Chop Block on Big Show. Van Dam performed a Slingshot Legdrop and followed it with a Five-Star Frog Splash on Big Show. All the five participants tried to eliminate Big Show, but Big Show shoved all of them and eliminated Cena. Van Dam attempted to perform a Monkey Flip on Big Show, but Big Show tossed him over the top rope, eliminating Van Dam, leaving Big Show, Benoit, Angle and Jericho as the final four competitors. Big Show backdropped Jericho over the top rope but Jericho landed on the apron and entered the ring. Jericho applied an Elevated Boston Crab, which he calls "Walls of Jericho" on Big Show. Angle attacked Jericho and Big Show picked up Jericho and eliminated him. Big Show chokeslammed Benoit and fought Angle. Angle performed an Olympic Slam, which he calls "Angle Slam" on Big Show and then performed an Angle Slam on Benoit. Big Show eventually tried to perform a Chokeslam on Angle but Angle rolled it into an Ankle Lock. Big Show was near the ropes, and he flipped out of the Ankle Lock, causing Angle to get eliminated. Big Show landed on the apron. Benoit climbed the top rope and performed a Flying Forearm on the back of Big Show's neck, sending Big Show back into the ring. Big Show tried to perform a Chokeslam on Benoit, but Benoit countered it into a Crippler Crossface. Benoit eventually landed on the apron while applying a front headlock on Big Show. He dragged Big Show over the top rope, who flipped over and got tossed on the floor over the top rope, getting eliminated. As a result, Benoit won the Royal Rumble match and became the second person in history to win the match from the #1 spot (after Shawn Michaels in 1995 and later Edge in 2021). He also broke Bob Backlund's longevity record in 1993 by staying in the match for 1:01:30.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: On the following night's episode of "Raw", during a confrontation between Triple H and Shawn Michaels, the Raw Sheriff Stone Cold Steve Austin intervened and announced that even though he could not make a match between the two (Austin having lost his Co-General Manager powers at Survivor Series in November), he would "uphold the law" and announced that Michaels would not get the next shot at Triple H because he did not win the Royal Rumble. Austin revealed that the Royal Rumble winner would face "the champion" at WrestleMania XX, but that there was no specification as to which champion— thus, creating a loophole that Chris Benoit, who was then property of "SmackDown!", exploited to announce that he would join the Raw brand and instead chase the World Heavyweight Championship due in part to bad feelings between himself and SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman. On the February 9 episode of "Raw", Benoit and Triple H were to have their contract signing for the WrestleMania match, but Michaels interfered and hit Sweet Chin Music on Benoit then signed the contract himself. The following week, after Michaels defeated Benoit in a singles match, Austin announced that Triple H would defend the title against Benoit and Michaels in a Triple Threat match at WrestleMania. At WrestleMania, Benoit defeated Michaels and Triple H in a Triple Threat match to win the World Heavyweight Championship. Benoit's defection led to a rule change for the Royal Rumble winner, where he could now choose which world champion he would face at WrestleMania.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Meanwhile, on "SmackDown!", in order to make up for Benoit's defection, Heyman announced that a second Royal Rumble match featuring fifteen of "SmackDown!'s" wrestlers competing for a shot at Brock Lesnar's WWE Championship at No Way Out in February. The thirteen "SmackDown!" wrestlers (Kurt Angle, Rhyno, Charlie Haas, Shelton Benjamin, Bradshaw, Ernest Miller, Tajiri, Billy Gunn, Big Show, John Cena, Nunzio, A-Train, and Rikishi) who competed in the original Royal Rumble match were given entries in the match as were Hardcore Holly and Eddie Guerrero (Holly, who replaced an injured Matt Morgan, wrestled and lost to Lesnar at the Rumble and Guerrero, who replaced Benoit, was continuing his feud with Chavo). Guerrero won the match and earned the title opportunity. At No Way Out, Guerrero defeated Lesnar to win the WWE Championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Chris Benoit murdered his wife and son before committing suicide over the weekend of June 22–24, 2007. Once the details of Benoit's actions became apparent, WWE made the decision to remove nearly all mentions of Benoit from their website and from future broadcasts. As a result, this Royal Rumble and Benoit's victory is often ignored in official publications. When referring to the #1 entrant, WWE personalities occasionally stated, for instance, "two people have won from the number one position, including Hall of Famer Shawn Michaels in 1995", as commentator John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) did in 2015. Edge would since become the third wrestler to win as the first entrant in 2021, which WWE acknowledged he was the third to do so, but only mentioned Shawn Michaels as the other to accomplish this. Coverage of the Royal Rumble has been very selective; no photos of Benoit exist on WWE's webpage for the event, focusing rather on the Last Man Standing match between Triple H and Shawn Michaels, and Benoit is only mentioned on the results page as the winner of the event. Only a few WWE video features include footage from the Royal Rumble match, but those that do use careful shot selection so that Benoit is not seen on screen. WWE's website has also posted photo galleries dedicated to the number one entrants and winners in the Royal Rumble history, both of which completely ignore Chris Benoit and the year of 2004.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: The pay-per-view and the Royal Rumble match, however, exist in their entirety on the WWE Network unedited. Benoit went on to win the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XX (which like this Rumble, it is also available in its entirety on the WWE Network unedited), but like his near erasure from this Royal Rumble, WWE only lists his name in the official title history but have removed the match description (this is also the case for any other WWE-owned title that he has won), as well as the match description for when Randy Orton defeated him for the World Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam.


title: Royal Rumble (2004)

text: Test was originally the 21st entrant but he was found unconscious and replaced by Mick Foley. He entered the ring and eliminated both Randy Orton and himself from the match.


title: Complement (set theory)

text: When all sets in the universe, i.e. all sets under consideration, are considered to be members of a given set , the absolute complement of is the set of elements in that are not in .


title: Complement (set theory)

text: The relative complement of with respect to a set , also termed the set difference of and , written formula_1 is the set of elements in that are not in .


title: Complement (set theory)

text: If is a set, then the absolute complement of (or simply the complement of ) is the set of elements not in (within a larger set that is implicitly defined). In other words, let be a set that contains all the elements under study; if there is no need to mention , either because it has been previously specified, or it is obvious and unique, then the absolute complement of is the relative complement of in :


title: Complement (set theory)

text: Let and be two sets in a universe . The following identities capture important properties of absolute complements:


title: Complement (set theory)

text: The first two complement laws above show that if is a non-empty, proper subset of , then is a partition of .


title: Complement (set theory)

text: If and are sets, then the relative complement of in , also termed the set difference of and , is the set of elements in but not in .


title: Complement (set theory)

text: The relative complement of in is denoted formula_17 according to the ISO 31-11 standard. It is sometimes written formula_18 but this notation is ambiguous, as in some contexts (for example, Minkowski set operations in functional analysis) it can be interpreted as the set of all elements formula_19 where is taken from and from .


title: Complement (set theory)

text: Let , , and be three sets. The following identities capture notable properties of relative complements:


title: Complement (set theory)

text: A binary relation formula_40 is defined as a subset of a product of sets formula_41 The complementary relation formula_42 is the set complement of formula_40 in formula_41 The complement of relation formula_40 can be written


title: Complement (set theory)

text: Here, formula_40 is often viewed as a logical matrix with rows representing the elements of formula_48 and columns elements of formula_49 The truth of formula_50 corresponds to 1 in row formula_51 column formula_52 Producing the complementary relation to formula_40 then corresponds to switching all 1s to 0s, and 0s to 1s for the logical matrix of the complement.


title: Complement (set theory)

text: Together with composition of relations and converse relations, complementary relations and the algebra of sets are the elementary operations of the calculus of relations.


title: Complement (set theory)

text: In the LaTeX typesetting language, the command codice_1 is usually used for rendering a set difference symbol, which is similar to a backslash symbol. When rendered, the codice_1 command looks identical to codice_3, except that it has a little more space in front and behind the slash, akin to the LaTeX sequence codice_4. A variant codice_5 is available in the amssymb package. The symbol formula_54 (as opposed to formula_55) is produced by codice_6. (It corresponds to the Unicode symbol ∁.)


title: Complement (set theory)

text: Some programming languages have sets among their builtin data structures. Such a data structure behaves as a finite set, that is, it consists of a finite number of data that are not specifically ordered, and may thus be considered as the elements of a set. In some cases, the elements are not necessary distinct, and the data structure codes multisets rather than sets. These programming languages have operators or functions for computing the complement and the set differences.


title: Complement (set theory)

text: These operators may generally be applied also to data structures that are not really mathematical sets, such as ordered lists or arrays. It follows that some programming languages may have a function called codice_7, even if they do not have any data structure for sets.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon, also often referred to as Ilonggo or Binisaya/Bisaya nga Hiniligaynon/Inilonggo, is an Austronesian regional language spoken in the Philippines by about 9.1 million people, predominantly in Western Visayas and Soccsksargen, most of whom belong to the Hiligaynon people. It is the second-most widely spoken language in the Visayas and belongs to the Bisayan languages, and is more distantly related to other Philippine languages.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: It also has one of the largest native language-speaking populations of the Philippines, despite it not being taught and studied formally in schools and universities until 2012. Hiligaynon is given the ISO 639-2 three-letter code hil, but has no ISO 639-1 two-letter code.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon is mainly concentrated in the regions of Western Visayas (Iloilo, Capiz, Guimaras, and Negros Occidental), as well as in South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, and North Cotabato in Soccsksargen. It is also spoken in other neighboring provinces, such as Antique and Aklan (also in Western Visayas), Negros Oriental in Central Visayas, Masbate in Bicol Region, Romblon and Palawan in Mimaropa. It is also spoken as a second language by Kinaray-a speakers in Antique, Aklanon/Malaynon speakers in Aklan, Capiznon speakers in Capiz and Cebuano speakers in Negros Oriental. There are approximately 9,300,000 people in and out of the Philippines who are native speakers of Hiligaynon and an additional 5,000,000 capable of speaking it with a substantial degree of proficiency.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Aside from "Hiligaynon", the language is also referred to as "Ilonggo" (also spelled "Ilongo"), as it originated in Iloilo. Many speakers outside Iloilo argue, however, that this is an incorrect usage of the word "Ilonggo". In precise usage, these people opine that "Ilonggo" should be used only in relation to the ethnolinguistic group of native inhabitants of Iloilo and the culture associated with native Hiligaynon speakers in that place, including their language. The disagreement over the usage of "Ilonggo" to refer to the language extends to Philippine language specialists and native laypeople.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Historically, the term "Visayan" had originally been applied to the people of Panay; however, in terms of language, "Visayan" is more used today to refer to what is also known as Cebuano. As pointed out by H. Otley Beyer and other anthropologists, the term "Visayan" was first applied only to the people of Panay and to their settlements eastward in the island of Negros (especially its western portion), and northward in the smaller islands, which now compose the province of Romblon. In fact, at the early part of Spanish Colonization in the Philippines, the Spaniards used the term "Visayan" only for these areas. While the people of Cebu, Bohol and Leyte were for a long time known only as Pintados. The name "Visayan" was later extended to these other islands because, as several of the early writers state, their languages are closely allied to the Visayan dialect of Panay.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Historical evidence from observations of early Spanish explorers in the Archipelago shows that the nomenclature used to refer to this language had its origin among the people of the coasts or people of the "Ilawod" ("") in Iloilo, Panay, whom Spanish explorer Miguel de Loarca called "Yligueynes" (or the more popular term "Hiligaynon", also referred to by the Karay-a people as "Siná"). The term "Hiligaynon" came from the root word ('to go downstream'), referring to a flowing river in Iloilo. In contrast, the "Kinaray-a" has been used by what the Spanish colonizers called "Arayas", which may be a Spanish misconception of the Hiligaynon words or , or the current and more popular version "Karay-a" ('highlanders' – people of "Iraya"/"highlands").


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Similar to many languages in the Philippines, very little research on dialectology has been done on Hiligaynon. Standard Hiligaynon, simply called "Ilonggo", is the dialect that is used in the province of Iloilo, primarily in the northern and eastern portions of the province. It has a more traditional and extensive vocabulary, whereas the Urban Hiligaynon dialect spoken in Metro Iloilo has a more simplified or modern vocabulary. For example, the term for 'to wander,' 'to walk,' or 'to stroll' in Urban Hiligaynon is , which is also widely used by most of the Hiligaynon speakers, whereas in Standard Hiligaynon, is more commonly used, which has rarely or never been used by other dialects of the language. Another example, , ('this is it') in Standard Hiligaynon can be simplified in Urban Hiligaynon and become .


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Some of the other widely recognized dialects of the language, aside from Standard Hiligaynon and Urban Hiligaynon, are Bacolodnon Hiligaynon (Metro Bacolod dialect), Negrense Hiligaynon (provincial Negros Occidental dialect that is composed of three sub-variants: Northern, Central and Southern Negrense Hiligaynon), Guimaras Hiligaynon, and Mindanao Hiligaynon.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Some native speakers also consider Kinaray-a (also known as Hiniraya or Antiqueño) and Capiznon dialects of Hiligaynon; however, linguists have classified Kinaray-a as a Western Bisayan language, while Capiznon is a Central Bisayan language closely related to Hiligaynon.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Consonants and were once allophones but cannot interchange as in other Philippine languages: ('to forgive') [from , 'forgiveness'] but not "," and ('from where') [from , 'where'] but not .


title: Hiligaynon language

text: There are four main vowels: , , , and . and (both spelled i) are allophones, with in the beginning and middle and sometimes final syllables and in final syllables. The vowels and are also allophones, with always being used when it is the beginning of a syllable, and always used when it ends a syllable.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon is written using the Latin script. Until the second half of the 20th century, Hiligaynon was widely written largely following Spanish orthographic conventions. Nowadays there is no officially recognized standard orthography for the language and different writers may follow different conventions. It is common for the newer generation, however, to write the language based on the current orthographic rules of Filipino.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: A noticeable feature of the Spanish-influenced orthography absent in those writing following Filipino's orthography is the use of "c" and "qu" in representing (now replaced with "k" in all instances) and the absence of the letter "w" ("u" was formerly used in certain instances).


title: Hiligaynon language

text: The core alphabet consists of 20 letters used for expressing consonants and vowels in Hiligaynon, each of which comes in an uppercase and lowercase variety.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: The apostrophe and hyphen also appear in Hiligaynon writing, and might be considered separate letters.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: The hyphen, in particular, is used medially to indicate the glottal stop 'when' 'evening; night'. It is also used in reduplicated words: 'daily, every day', from 'day, sun'. This marking is not used in reduplicated words whose base is not also used independently, as in 'bird'.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hyphens are also used in words with successive sounds of and , to separate the letters with the digraph NG. Like in the word 'was given'; without the hyphen, it would be read as as opposed to .


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon has three types of case markers: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. These types in turn are divided into personal, that have to do with names of people, and impersonal, that deal with everything else, and further into singular and plural types, though the plural impersonal case markers are just the singular impersonal case markers + (a contracted spelling for ), a particle used to denote plurality in Hiligaynon.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: (*)The articles and means the following noun is indefinite, while tells of a definite noun, like the use of "a" in English as opposed to "the"; however, it is not as common in modern speech, being replaced by . It appears in conservative translations of the Bible into Hiligaynon and in traditional or formal speech.<br>


title: Hiligaynon language

text: (**)The plural personal case markers are not used very often and not even by all speakers. Again, this is an example of a case marker that has fallen largely into disuse, but is still occasionally used when speaking a more traditional form of Hiligaynon, using fewer Spanish loan words.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: The case markers do not determine which noun is the subject and which is the object; rather, the affix of the verb determines this, though the -marked noun is always the topic.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: In addition to this, there are two verbal deictics, , meaning 'come to speaker', and , meaning 'to go yonder'.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon lacks the marker of sentence inversion of Tagalog/Filipino or of Akeanon. Instead sentences in SV form (Filipino: ) are written without any marker or copula.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: There is no direct translation for the English copula "to be" in Hiligaynon. However, the prefixes and may be used to mean will be and became, respectively.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: The Spanish copula ('to be') has also become a part of the Hiligaynon lexicon. Its meaning and pronunciation have changed compared to its Spanish meaning, however. In Hiligaynon it is pronounced as and means 'to live (in)/location' (Compare with the Hiligaynon word ).


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Example: <br>'I live in tabuk suba'. translates to 'other side of the river' and is also a barangay in Jaro, Iloilo.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Sometimes, if the linker is preceded by a word that ends in a vowel, glottal stop or the letter N, it becomes acceptable to contract it into "-ng", as in Filipino. This is often used to make the words sound more poetic or to reduce the number of syllables. Sometimes the meaning may change as in , '(the) good morning', and , the greeting for 'good morning'.


title: Hiligaynon language

text:
A derivation of , , is used to inquire the birthplace or hometown of the listener.
Example:
'Where are you from?'


title: Hiligaynon language

text:
A derivative of , , asks the numerical order of the person, as in, "What place were you born in your family?"(first-born, second-born, etc.) This word is notoriously difficult to translate into English, as English has no equivalent.
Example:
'What place were you born into your family?'


title: Hiligaynon language

text:
A derivative of , , asks the monetary value of something, as in, "How much is this beef?"
Example:
'How much is this beef?'


title: Hiligaynon language

text: As it is essential for sentence structure and meaning, focus is a key concept in Hiligaynon and other Philippine languages. In English, in order to emphasize a part of a sentence, variation in intonation is usually employed – the voice is stronger or louder on the part emphasized. For example:


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Furthermore, active and passive grammatical constructions can be used in English to place focus on the actor or object as the subject:


title: Hiligaynon language

text: In contrast, sentence focus in Philippine languages is built into the construction by grammatical elements. Focus is marked by verbal affixes and a special particle prior to the noun in focus. Consider the following Hiligaynon translations of the above sentences:


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon, like other Philippine languages, employs reduplication, the repetition of a root or stem of a word or part of a word for grammatical or semantic purposes. Reduplication in Hiligaynon tends to be limited to roots instead of affixes, as the only inflectional or derivational morpheme that seems to reduplicate is "-pa-". Root reduplication suggests 'non-perfectiveness' or 'non-telicity'. Used with nouns, reduplication of roots indicate particulars which are not fully actualized members of their class. Note the following examples.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Reduplication of verbal roots suggests a process lacking a focus or decisive goal. The following examples describe events which have no apparent end, in the sense of lacking purpose or completion. A lack of seriousness may also be implied. Similarly, reduplication can suggest a background process in the midst of a foreground activity, as shown in (5).


title: Hiligaynon language

text: When used with adjectival roots, non-telicity may suggest a gradualness of the quality, such as the comparison in (6). In comparative constructions the final syllables of each occurrence of the reduplicated root are accented. If the stress of the second occurrence is shifted to the first syllable, then the reduplicated root suggests a superlative degree, as in (7). Note that superlatives can also be created through prefixation of to the root, as in . While non-telicity can suggest augmentation, as shown in (7), it can also indicate diminishment as in shown in (9), in contrast with (8) (note the stress contrast). In (8b), , accented in the superlative pattern, suggests a trajectory of improvement that has not been fully achieved. In (9b), suggests a trajectory of decline when accented in the comparative pattern. The reduplicated implies sub-optimal situations in both cases; full goodness/wellness is not achieved.


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Hiligaynon has a large number of words derived from Spanish including nouns (e.g., from , 'saint'), adjectives (e.g., from , 'green'), prepositions (e.g., from , 'before'), and conjunctions (e.g., from , 'but').


title: Hiligaynon language

text: Nouns denoting material items and abstract concepts invented or introduced during the early modern era include (, 'ship'), (, 'shoes'), (, 'knife'), (, 'spoon'), ('fork'), ('plate'), (, 'shirt'), and (, 'change', as in money). Spanish verbs are incorporated into Hiligaynon in their infinitive forms: , , , . The same holds true for other languages such as Cebuano. In contrast, incorporations of Spanish verbs into Tagalog for the most part resemble, though are not necessarily derived from, the "vos" forms in the imperative: , , , . Notable exceptions include , (from ) and (from ).


title: History of cannabis

text: The history of cannabis and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly as far back as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8800–6500 BCE) based on archaeological evidence. For millennia, the plant has been valued for its use for fiber and rope, as food and medicine, and for its psychoactive properties for religious and recreational use.


title: History of cannabis

text: The earliest restrictions on cannabis were reported in the Islamic world by the 14th century. In the 19th century, it began to be restricted in colonial countries, often associated with racial and class stresses. In the middle of the 20th century, international coordination led to sweeping restrictions on cannabis throughout most of the globe. Entering the 21st century, some nations began to take measures to decriminalize or legalize cannabis.


title: History of cannabis

text: Hemp is possibly one of the earliest plants to be cultivated. Cannabis has been cultivated in Japan since the pre-Neolithic period for its fibres and as a food source and possibly as a psychoactive material. An archeological site in the Oki Islands near Japan contained cannabis achenes from about 8000 BC, probably signifying use of the plant. Hemp use archaeologically dates back to the Neolithic Age in China, with hemp fiber imprints found on Yangshao culture pottery dating from the 5th millennium BC. The Chinese later used hemp to make clothes, shoes, ropes, and an early form of paper.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis was an important crop in ancient Korea, with samples of hempen fabric discovered dating back as early as 3000 BC.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis is believed to be consumed by Hindu God Shiva, and has been part of Hindu practice and culture.


title: History of cannabis

text: Hemp is called "ganja" (, IAST: ) in Sanskrit and other modern Indo-Aryan languages. Some scholars suggest that the ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, was cannabis, although this theory is disputed. "Bhanga" is mentioned in several Indian texts dated before 1000 AD. However, there is philological debate among Sanskrit scholars as to whether this "bhanga" can be identified with modern "bhang" or cannabis.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who potentially utilized it as an aromatic. They called it "qunabu" and "qunubu" (which could signify "a way to produce smoke"), a potential origin of the modern word "cannabis". Cannabis was introduced as well to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the "kapnobatai"—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce trance. The classical Greek historian Herodotus (ca. 480 BC) reported that the inhabitants of Scythia would often inhale the vapors of hemp-seed smoke, both as ritual and for their own pleasurable recreation.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis residues have been found on two altars in Tel Arad, dated to the Kingdom of Judah in the 8th century BC. Its discoverers believe that the evidence points to the use of cannabis for ritualistic psychoactive use in Judah. According to Zohar Amar the fact that the Tel Arad altar was eventually closed down (apparently due to religiously opposition by Hezekiah), and the Biblical prohibition on priestly service while intoxicated by wine (), indicate that Israelite religion in general was probably opposed to cannabis use as part of its priestly services.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. In China, the psychoactive uses of cannabis is described in the "Shennong Bencaojing", written around the 3rd century AD. Daoists mixed cannabis with other ingredients, then placed them in incense burners and inhaled the smoke.


title: History of cannabis

text: Around the turn of the millennium, the use of hashish (cannabis resin) began to spill over from the Persian world into the Arab world. Cannabis was allegedly introduced to Iraq in 1230 AD, during the reign of Caliph Al-Mustansir Bi'llah, by the entourage of Bahraini rulers visiting Iraq. Hashish was introduced to Egypt by "mystic Islamic travelers" from Syria sometime during the Ayyubid dynasty in the 12th century AD. Hashish consumption by Egyptian Sufis has been documented as occurrent in the thirteenth century AD, and a unique type of cannabis referred to as Indian hemp was also documented during this time. Smoking did not become common in the Old World until after the introduction of tobacco, so up until the 1500s hashish in the Muslim world was consumed as an edible.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis is thought to have been introduced to Africa by Indian Hindu travelers, which Bantu settlers subsequently introduced to southern Africa when they migrated southward. Smoking pipes uncovered in Ethiopia and carbon-dated to around 1320 AD were found to have traces of cannabis. It was already in popular use in South Africa by the indigenous Khoisan and Bantu peoples prior to European settlement in the Cape in 1652. By the 1850s, Swahili traders had carried cannabis from the east coast of Africa, to the Congo Basin in the west.


title: History of cannabis

text: The Spaniards brought industrial hemp to the Western Hemisphere and cultivated it in Chile starting about 1545. In 1607, "hempe" was among the crops Gabriel Archer observed being cultivated by the natives at the main Powhatan village, where Richmond, Virginia is now situated; and in 1613, Samuell Argall reported wild hemp "better than that in England" growing along the shores of the upper Potomac. As early as 1619, the first Virginia House of Burgesses passed an Act requiring all planters in Virginia to sow "both English and Indian" hemp on their plantations.


title: History of cannabis

text: During Napoléon Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt in 1798, alcohol was not available per Egypt being an Islamic country. In lieu of alcohol, Bonaparte's troops resorted to trying hashish, which they found to their liking. Following an 1836–1840 travel in North Africa and the Middle East, French physician Jacques-Joseph Moreau wrote on the psychological effects of cannabis use; Moreau was a member of Paris' Club des Hashischins (founded in 1844). In 1842, Irish physician William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, who had studied the drug while working as a medical officer in Bengal with the East India company, brought a quantity of cannabis with him on his return to Britain, provoking renewed interest in the West. Examples of classic literature of the period featuring cannabis include "Les paradis artificiels" (1860) by Charles Baudelaire and "The Hasheesh Eater" (1857) by Fitz Hugh Ludlow.


title: History of cannabis

text: Jurisdictions around the world banned cannabis at various times since the Middle Ages. Perhaps the earliest was Soudoun Sheikouni, the emir of the Joneima in Arabia who prohibited use in the 1300s. In 1787, King Andrianampoinimerina of Madagascar took the throne, and soon after banned cannabis throughout the Merina Kingdom, implementing capital punishment as the penalty for its use.


title: History of cannabis

text: As European colonial powers absorbed or came into contact with cannabis-consuming regions, the cannabis habit began to spread to new areas under the colonial umbrella, causing some alarm among authorities. After his invasion of Egypt Syria (1798-1801), Napoleon banned cannabis use among his soldiers. Cannabis was introduced to Brazil either by the Portuguese colonists or by African slaves in the early 1800s. Their intent may have been to cultivate hemp fiber, but the slaves the Portuguese imported from Africa were familiar with cannabis and used it psychoactively, leading the Municipal Council of Rio de Janeiro in 1830 to prohibit bringing cannabis into the city, and punishing its use by any slave. Similarly, the British practice of transporting Indian indentured workers throughout the empire had the result of spreading the longstanding cannabis practices. Concerns about use of "gandia" by laborers led to a ban in British Mauritius in 1840, and use of "ganja" by Indian laborers in British Singapore led to its banning there in 1870. In 1870, Natal (now in South Africa) passed the "Coolie Law Consolidation" prohibiting "the smoking, use, or possession by and the sale, barter, or gift to, any Coolies [Indian indentured workers] whatsoever, of any portion of the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa)..."


title: History of cannabis

text: Attempts at criminalising cannabis in British India were made, and mooted, in 1838, 1871, and 1877. In 1894, the British Indian government completed a wide-ranging study of cannabis in India. The report's findings stated:


title: History of cannabis

text: In the late 1800s, several countries in the Islamic world and its periphery banned cannabis, with the Khedivate of Egypt banning the importation of cannabis in 1879, Morocco strictly regulating cannabis cultivation and trade (while allowing several Rif tribe to continue to produce) in 1890, and Greece's ban on hashish in 1890.


title: History of cannabis

text: At the start of the 20th century, more countries continued to ban cannabis. In the United States, the first restrictions on sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in District of Columbia). It was outlawed by the Ganja Law in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, in South Africa in 1922, and in the United Kingdom and New Zealand in the 1920s. Canada criminalized cannabis in "The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act, 1923", before any reports of the use of the drug in Canada.


title: History of cannabis

text: In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference in The Hague about the International Opium Convention that banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". It also required parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin".


title: History of cannabis

text: In the United States in 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act was passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed—several scholars have claimed that the act was passed in order to destroy the US hemp industry, Shortly thereafter the United States was forced back to promoting rather than discouraging hemp cultivation; hemp was used extensively by the United States during World War II to make uniforms, canvas, and rope. Much of the hemp used was cultivated in Kentucky and the Midwest. During World War II, the U.S. produced a short 1942 film, "Hemp for Victory", promoting hemp as a necessary crop to win the war. In Western Europe, the cultivation of hemp was not legally banned by the 1930s, but the commercial cultivation stopped by then, due to decreased demand compared to increasingly popular artificial fibers. In the early 1940s, world production of hemp fiber ranged from 250,000 to 350,000 metric tonnes, Russia was the biggest producer.


title: History of cannabis

text: In 1972, the Dutch government divided drugs into more- and less-dangerous categories, with cannabis being in the lesser category. Accordingly, possession of 30 grams or less was made a misdemeanor. Cannabis has been available for recreational use in coffee shops since 1976. Cannabis products are only sold openly in certain local "coffeeshops" and possession of up to 5 grams for personal use is decriminalised, however: the police may still confiscate it, which often happens in car checks near the border. Other types of sales and transportation are not permitted, although the general approach toward cannabis was lenient even before official decriminalisation.


title: History of cannabis

text: Cannabis began to attract renewed interest as medicine in the 1970s and 1980s, in particular due to its use by cancer and AIDS patients who reported relief from the effects of chemotherapy and wasting syndrome. In 1996, California became the first U.S. state to legalize medical cannabis in defiance of federal law. In 2001, Canada became the first country to adopt a system regulating the medical use of cannabis.


title: History of cannabis

text: In 2001, Portugal decriminalized all drugs, maintaining the prohibition on production and sale, but changing personal possession and use from a criminal offense to an administrative one. Subsequently, a number of European and Latin American countries decriminalized cannabis, such as Belgium (2003), Chile (2005), Brazil (2006), and the Czech Republic (2010).


title: History of cannabis

text: In Uruguay, President Jose Mujica signed legislation to legalize recreational cannabis in December 2013, making Uruguay the first country in the modern era to legalize cannabis. In August 2014, Uruguay legalized growing up to six plants at home, as well as the formation of growing clubs, a state-controlled marijuana dispensary regime. In Canada, following the 2015 election of Justin Trudeau and formation of a Liberal government, in 2017 the House of Commons passed a bill to legalize cannabis on 17 October 2018.


title: History of cannabis

text: Some U.S. states have legalized marijuana, but Peter Reuter argues that restricting promotion of marijuana once it is legal is more complex than it may initially appear.


title: History of cannabis

text: The United Nations' "World Drug Report" stated that cannabis "was the world's most widely produced, trafficked, and consumed drug in the world in 2010", identifying that between 128 million and 238 million users globally in 2015.


title: Hareesh Peradi

text: He is also a well-known theatre artist in Kerala, having made a mark in stage and also in TV and cinema. Even though he has acted in 36 films so far, it was Malayalam film, "Left Right Left" (2013), that gave him a break. In the film, he played the lead role, that of a politician with shades of grey. "Vikram Vedha" (2017) gave him his big break in Tamil cinema.


title: Hareesh Peradi

text: He was seen in the Tamil Movie, 'Sulthan', directed by Bakkiyaraj Kannan and co-starring Karthi, Rashmika Mandanna, Yogi Babu, Lal, Ponnambalam. He was praised for the portrayal of Mangattachan in the movie released in 2021. Sajin Srijith of "The New Indian Express" wrote that, "Hareesh Peradi, the veteran character artiste proves once again that he can completely disappear into a role, be it negative or positive." Mammotty appreciated him for the same during AMMA's General Body Meeting.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid (AA, sometimes ARA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6), or 20:4(5,8,11,14). It is structurally related to the saturated arachidic acid found in cupuaçu butter. Its name derives from the New Latin word "arachis" (peanut), but peanut oil does not contain any arachidonic acid.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: In chemical structure, arachidonic acid is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and four "cis"-double bonds; the first double bond is located at the sixth carbon from the omega end.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Some chemistry sources define 'arachidonic acid' to designate any of the eicosatetraenoic acids. However, almost all writings in biology, medicine, and nutrition limit the term to "all cis"-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid present in the phospholipids (especially phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylinositides) of membranes of the body's cells, and is abundant in the brain, muscles, and liver. Skeletal muscle is an especially active site of arachidonic acid retention, accounting for roughly 10-20% of the phospholipid fatty acid content typically.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: In addition to being involved in cellular signaling as a lipid second messenger involved in the regulation of signaling enzymes, such as PLC-γ, PLC-δ, and PKC-α, -β, and -γ isoforms, arachidonic acid is a key inflammatory intermediate and can also act as a vasodilator. (Note separate synthetic pathways, as described in section below.)


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid is not one of the essential fatty acids. However, it does become essential if a deficiency in linoleic acid exists or if an inability to convert linoleic acid to arachidonic acid occurs.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Some mammals lack the ability or have a very limited capacity to convert linoleic acid to arachidonic acid, making it an essential part of their diets. Since linoleic acid consumption does not seem to affect levels of arachidonic acid in plasma/serum or erythrocytes, it is uncertain if humans can in fact convert linoleic acid to arachidonic acid. Since little or no arachidonic acid is found in common plants, such animals are obligate carnivores; the cat is a common example of having the inability to desaturate essential fatty acids. A commercial source of arachidonic acid has been derived, however, from the fungus "Mortierella alpina".


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid for signaling purposes appears to be derived by the action of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA, 85 kDa), whereas inflammatory arachidonic acid is generated by the action of a low-molecular-weight secretory PLA (sPLA, 14-18 kDa).


title: Arachidonic acid

text: The production of these derivatives and their actions in the body are collectively known as the "arachidonic acid cascade"; see essential fatty acid interactions and the enzyme and metabolite linkages given in the previous paragraph for more details.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Alternatively, arachidonic acid may be cleaved from phospholipids after phospholipase C (PLC) cleaves off the inositol trisphosphate group, yielding diacylglycerol (DAG), which subsequently is cleaved by DAG lipase to yield arachidonic acid.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid promotes the repair and growth of skeletal muscle tissue via conversion to prostaglandin PGF2alpha during and following physical exercise. PGF2alpha promotes muscle protein synthesis by signaling through the Akt/mTOR pathway, similar to leucine, β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid (HMB), and phosphatidic acids.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid is one of the most abundant fatty acids in the brain, and is present in similar quantities to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The two account for about 20% of its fatty-acid content. Like DHA, neurological health is reliant upon sufficient levels of arachidonic acid. Among other things, arachidonic acid helps to maintain hippocampal cell membrane fluidity. It also helps protect the brain from oxidative stress by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. AA also activates syntaxin-3 (STX-3), a protein involved in the growth and repair of neurons.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid is also involved in early neurological development. In one study, infants (18 months) given supplemental arachidonic acid for 17 weeks demonstrated significant improvements in intelligence, as measured by the Mental Development Index. This effect is further enhanced by the simultaneous supplementation of AA with DHA.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: In adults, the disturbed metabolism of AA may contribute to neuropsychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and bipolar disorder. There is evidence of significant alterations in the conversion of arachidonic acid to other bioactive molecules (overexpression or disturbances in the AA enzyme cascade) in these conditions.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: The biological roles of arachidonic acid and its metabolites have been explored in the context of various neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease. Dietary supplementation of arachidonic acid during the early stages of Alzheimer's disease has been suggested, but the potential for benefit remains unclear.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Increased consumption of arachidonic acid will not cause inflammation during normal metabolic conditions unless lipid peroxidation products are mixed in. Arachidonic acid is metabolized to both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids during and after the inflammatory response, respectively. Arachidonic acid is also metabolized to inflammatory and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids during and after physical activity to promote growth. Chronic inflammation from exogenous toxins and excessive exercise should not be confused with acute inflammation from exercise and sufficient rest that is required by the inflammatory response to promote the repair and growth of the micro tears of tissues. However, the evidence is mixed. Some studies giving between 840 mg and 2,000 mg per day to healthy individuals for up to 50 days have shown no increases in inflammation or related metabolic activities. Others show that increased arachidonic acid levels are actually associated with reduced pro-inflammatory IL-6 and IL-1 levels and increased anti-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor-beta. This may result in a reduction in systemic inflammation.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid does still play a central role in inflammation related to injury and many diseased states. How it is metabolized in the body dictates its inflammatory or anti-inflammatory activity. Individuals with joint pains or active inflammatory disease may find that increased arachidonic acid consumption exacerbates symptoms, presumably because it is being more readily converted to inflammatory compounds. Likewise, high arachidonic acid consumption is not advised for individuals with a history of inflammatory disease, or who are in compromised health. Of note, while AA supplementation does not appear to have proinflammatory effects in healthy individuals, it may counter the anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation.


title: Arachidonic acid

text: Arachidonic acid supplementation in daily doses of 1,000–1,500 mg for 50 days has been well tolerated during several clinical studies, with no significant side effects reported. All common markers of health, including kidney and liver function, serum lipids, immunity, and platelet aggregation appear to be unaffected with this level and duration of use. Furthermore, higher concentrations of AA in muscle tissue may be correlated with improved insulin sensitivity. Arachidonic acid supplementation of the diets of healthy adults appears to offer no toxicity or significant safety risk.