title: London congestion charge

text: The ULEZ, which went into effect in April 2019 and largely replaced the T-charge, covers the same area as the T-charge and the Congestion Charge Zone but applies 24/7, every day of the year (except Christmas Day), with charges of £12.50 a day for cars, vans and motorcycles, and £100 a day for lorries, buses and coaches. The ULEZ caused a 20% reduction in emissions and resulted in a drop of the worst polluting vehicles entering the zone each day from 35,578 to 23,054. The zone was extended to the North and South Circular in October 2021 and will be extended to the whole of Greater London from 2023.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL can and does suspend the congestion charge either in a small local area to cope with incidents and if directed to do so by a police officer. The congestion charge was suspended on 7 and 8 July 2005 in response to the terrorist attacks on London Transport. The congestion charge was also suspended on 2 February 2009, in response to an extreme weather event (heavy snowfall) in the London area.


title: London congestion charge

text: Although avoidance has become more sophisticated, compliance with the scheme and terms of payment has improved over the last few years, as is evidenced by the income from penalties dropping by approximately a quarter between 2005 and 2007. However, even after charges were increased, enforcement charges still made up a significant proportion (42–48%) of total revenues.


title: London congestion charge

text: The 2008 annual report on the operation of the scheme shows that around 26% of penalties go unpaid, because the notice is cancelled on appeal or the amount cannot be recovered, for example if the registered keeper of the vehicle cannot be traced, has died, or is bankrupt.


title: London congestion charge

text: Several newspapers have reported about the use of copied number plates to avoid the congestion charge, resulting in vehicle owners receiving penalty notices for failure to pay when their vehicles have not been inside the zone. Numbers known to be copied are stored in a database and trigger alerts, including police vehicle ANPR camera alerts, when observed in use.


title: London congestion charge

text: Following pressure from the Mayor of London, an increasing number of embassies accepted the charge and by 2008 a total of 99 out of 128 embassies had agreed to the charge. Among others, decliners include Germany, Japan, Russia and the United States, who, by 2015, collectively owed £95 million. The United States and Germany are reported to consider it to be a local tax, from which they are protected by the Vienna Convention, rather than a toll.


title: London congestion charge

text: In May 2011, Johnson raised the issue with the President of the United States, Barack Obama, who was fined £120 after driving through London in the Presidential state car without paying the toll during a state visit to Buckingham Palace. The United States subsequently claimed diplomatic immunity. A TfL spokesperson noted that US embassies do pay tolls in Oslo and Singapore. In 2014 Transport for London estimated that, by the end of 2013, £82 million was owed by foreign embassies in London: since the charge was introduced in 2003, the US Embassy owed the most with £8.78 million, followed by Japan at £6.0 million, Russia with £5.22 million, and Nigeria with £4.92 million.


title: London congestion charge

text: The government's Smeed Report of 1964 was the first full assessment of the practicality of road pricing in a British city on the basis of congestion. It recommended a method of "car user restraint" by a variable system of charging for road usageif the government had the will to do so. During the early years of the Greater London Council, which was formed in 1965, the first plans were drawn up for a system of cordon charging or supplementary licensing for use in the central area. A formal study was undertaken into the merits of the scheme, and in 1973 concluded that it would improve traffic and environmental conditions in the centre. These plans were being developed at the same time as the London Ringways, a series of four orbital motorways around and within London including Ringway 1 (the London Motorway Box) leading to widespread public protest by Homes before Roads and others. Only a small section of these road schemes had been implemented by the time Labour gained control in the 1973 Greater London Council elections, and the new administration abandoned the road building plans in favour of public transport and traffic management. The new administration, to which Ken Livingstone had just been elected for the first time, studied a congestion scheme similar to the one which was eventually adopted the following year.


title: London congestion charge

text: In 1995, the London Congestion Research Programme concluded that the city's economy would benefit from a congestion charge scheme, the Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997 required local authorities to study and reduce traffic volumes and any future London mayors were given the power to introduce "Road user charging" by the Greater London Authority Act 1999. In his manifesto for the 2000 London Mayoral election, Ken Livingstone had proposed to introduce a £5 charge for vehicles entering central London.


title: London congestion charge

text: Following his victory, the Mayor made a draft order and requested a report from TfL, which summarised the reasons for introducing the scheme. The scheme was to be introduced to reduce congestion in the centre of the capital following the "Draft Transport Strategy" of January 2001 which had highlighted the importance that the Mayor placed on tackling this issue. The charge was to be part of a series of measures to improve the transport system in London and was to combined with public transport improvements and increased enforcement of parking and traffic regulations. The report stated that the scheme was expected to be the most effective in reducing through traffic, reducing congestion both within and outside the zone, improving the speed of buses and the quality of life in central London. It was stated that improved traffic flows would make London more attractive to business investment. Substantial net revenues were anticipated, which were to be invested in London's transport system. It also states that 90% of those who responded to a consultation on the scheme, viewed reducing traffic congestion in central London as 'important'.


title: London congestion charge

text: In July 2002, Westminster City Council launched a legal challenge against the plans, arguing that they would increase pollution and were a breach of human rights of residents on the boundary of the zone. The High Court rejected the claim. The London Ambulance Service (LAS) anticipated increased volumes of traffic around the edge of the zone and an increase in demand within the zone, that might both adversely affect clinical outcomes.


title: London congestion charge

text: Before the charge's introduction, there were fears of a very chaotic few days as the charge bedded down. Indeed, Ken Livingstone, then Mayor of London and key proponent of the charge, himself predicted a "difficult few days" and a "bloody day".


title: London congestion charge

text: The charge was introduced on 17 February 2003 covering the approximate area of the London Inner Ring Road. Starting at the northernmost point and moving clockwise, the major roads defining the boundary were Pentonville Road, City Road, Old Street, Commercial Street, Mansell Street, Tower Bridge Road, New Kent Road, Elephant and Castle, Vauxhall Bridge Road, Park Lane, Edgware Road, Marylebone Road and Euston Road (other roads filled the small gaps between these roads). The zone therefore included the whole of the City of London, the financial district, and the West End, London's primary commercial and entertainment centre.


title: London congestion charge

text: On the launch date of the original zone, an extra 300 buses (out of a total of around 8,000) were introduced. Bus and London Underground managers reported that buses and tubes were a little, if at all, busier than normal.


title: London congestion charge

text: Originally, Capita Group maintained the system under a five-year contract worth around £230m. Having been threatened with the termination of the contract by Ken Livingstone, then Mayor of London, for poor performance, when the zone was subsequently extended, Capita was awarded an extension to the original contract up until February 2009 to cover the expanded zone. Capita employed sub-contractors including India-based Mastek, who were responsible for much of the Information Technology infrastructure. Due to the wide spread of sub-contractors around the world and due to varying data protection regulations in different countries, the scheme had prompted concerns about privacy.


title: London congestion charge

text: On the first day 190,000 vehicles moved into or within the zone during charging hours, a decrease of around 25% on normal traffic levels, partly due to it also being the half-term school holiday. A report from the Bow Group stated that historically, London congestion is at its worst during the morning rush hour, and that the early days of congestion charging had little impact on that critical time, the main effect occurring after 11:00 am. Just over 100,000 motorists paid the charge personally, 15–20,000 were fleet vehicles paying under fleet arrangements, and it was believed around 10,000 liable motorists did not pay the due charge.


title: London congestion charge

text: Initial suggestions that school holidays were responsible for part of the traffic drop during the first week of operation of the charge were confirmed when traffic rose again by 5% following the return to school at the beginning of the second week of the charge. Reports indicated that, over the first month or so of operation, traffic was consistently down at least 15% on pre-charge levels, with the second week seeing the reduction drop to 20%.


title: London congestion charge

text: The AA Motoring Trust suggested that changes to the timing of traffic lights and the end of major road works had also impacted congestion.


title: London congestion charge

text: The effect of the congestion charge zone on local businesses is a contested issue. The TfL estimates that the effect on business has been overall neutral. However the effect on business differs significantly between stores. Some shops and businesses are reported to be heavily affected by the charge, both in terms of lost sales due to reduced traffic and increased delivery costs, as recognised by the London Chamber of Commerce. In August 2003, the John Lewis Partnership, a large department store, announced that in the first six months of the charge's operation, sales at their Oxford Street store fell by 7.3% whilst sales at other stores in the Greater London area but outside the Congestion Charge Zone rose by 1.7%. To partly compensate for the loss of revenue they extended opening hours and introduced regular Sunday opening for the first time. However London First's own report indicated that business was broadly supportive. Subsequently, another report stated that there had been a reduction in some employment in the charging zone. TfL criticised the reports as unrepresentative and that its own statistics reported no effect on business.


title: London congestion charge

text: After the introduction of the charge, there were a number of suggestions for its future. Soon after charging commenced, Livingstone announced that he would carry out a formal review of the charge's success or failure six months after its introductionbrought forward from one year, following the smooth start. On 25 February 2003 Livingstone stated, "I can't conceive of any circumstances in the foreseeable future where we would want to change the charge, although perhaps ten years down the line it may be necessary" referring to the amount that drivers have to pay, indicating that £5 was sufficient to bring about the reduction in traffic that he had hoped for.


title: London congestion charge

text: The London Assembly Budget Committee 2003 report on the company criticised the contract with Capita as not providing value for money. It was reported in July 2003 that TfL agreed to subsidise Capita by paying it £31 million because it was making no profits from the project, and that the most critical problem was the 103,000 outstanding penalty notices not paid.


title: London congestion charge

text: On 23 October 2003 TfL published a report reviewing the first six months of the charge. The report's main findings were that the average number of cars and delivery vehicles entering the central zone was 60,000 fewer than the previous year. Around 50–60% of this reduction was attributed to transfers to public transport, 20–30% to journeys avoiding the zone, 15–25% switching to car share, and the remainder to reduced number of journeys, more travelling outside the hours of operation, and increased use of motorbikes and bicycles. Journey times were found to have been reduced by 14%. Variation in journey time for a particular route repeated on many occasions also decreased. The report also claimed that although the charge was responsible for about 4,000 fewer people visiting the zone daily, that the charge was responsible for only a small fraction of the 7% drop in retail sales reported.


title: London congestion charge

text: The report also stated that around 100,000 penalty fines were issued each month, of which about 2,000 were contested. By comparison, the initial seven-month trial in 2006 of the Stockholm congestion tax in the Swedish capital saw an average 25% reduction in traffic numbers.


title: London congestion charge

text: In November 2003, "Scientific American" magazine listed Ken Livingstone as one of the top 50 visionaries building a better world and who were considered to have contributed most to science and technology during the year. They praised the mayor for his "guts and leadership" in introducing the charge which had reduced traffic and his "courage" in combating a classic case of externality, i.e. "the exploitation of common resources by some people at the expense of others". They noted that other cities were now considering similar projects.


title: London congestion charge

text: In February, shortly before the June 2004 mayoral election TfL issued a consultation document on the expansion of the zone to the west that would cover the rest (western portion) of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. The proposed extension was to cover around 230,000 residents, compared with the 150,000 in the original zone.


title: London congestion charge

text: Steven Norris, the Conservative Party candidate for mayor in 2004, has been a fierce critic of the charge, branding it the "Kengestion charge", a blend of "Ken" Livingstone and Con"gestion"). A few days before the scheme came into operation, he wrote in a BBC report that it had been "shambolically organised", that the public transport network had insufficient spare capacity to cater for travellers deterred from using their cars in the area by the charge. Further, he said that the scheme would affect poorer sections of society more than the rich, with the daily charge being the same for all, regardless of vehicle size. He pledged to scrap it if he became mayor in June 2004 and said he would grant an amnesty to anyone with an outstanding fine for non-payment of the charge.


title: London congestion charge

text: The Liberal Democrat candidate, Simon Hughes, however, supported the basic principles of the scheme. Amongst some of the changes he proposed were changing the end time from 6:30 pm to 5 pm and automatically giving all vehicles five free days each year so as not to affect occasional visitors.


title: London congestion charge

text: In August 2004, following Livingstone's re-election, the results of the consultation on the Western Extension were published which showed that a substantial majority of respondents did not want the extension; however, Livingstone said he was going ahead and that the polls were a "charade" which did not diminish his electoral mandate. "A consultation is not a referendum" he said. Protests continued against the extension, with residents arguing that only 5% of the road space in the selected area was congested. Following on in May 2005 a further TfL consultation began with specific proposals about the extensions. These included a plan to reduce the operating hours of the charge by half-an-hour to "boost trade at London's theatres, restaurants and cinemas".


title: London congestion charge

text: In October 2004, TfL stated that only seven of the 13 government aims for London transport would be met by 2010. The target on reducing congestion for Greater London overall will not be met, the report said.


title: London congestion charge

text: By November 2004, Livingstone directly contradicted his belief that the charge would not be raised, saying: "I have always said that during this term [his second term in office] it will go up to at least £6." By the end of the month, Livingstone announced that, in fact, the rise would be to £8 for private vehicles and £7 for commercial traffic. Business groups such as London First said following the announcement that the charges were "totally unsatisfactory and unacceptable". The rise to £8 was announced formally on 1 April 2005, along with discounts for drivers buying month or year-long tickets. On 10 May 2006, in a live TV debate, Livingstone supported a rise in the charge to £10 by 2008.


title: London congestion charge

text: A report in May 2005 stated that the number of shoppers had declined by 7% year-on-year in March, 8% in April and 11% in the first two weeks of May. TfL countered that an economic downturn, the SARS outbreak and threat of terrorism were likely factors. At the same time, a London Chamber of Commerce report indicated that 25% of businesses were planning on relocation following the charge's introduction. However, an independent report six months after the charge was implemented suggested that businesses were then supporting the charge. London First commissioned the study which reported that 49% of businesses felt the scheme was working and only 16% that it was failing. The Fourth Annual Review by TfL in 2004 indicated that business activity within the charge zone had been higher in both productivity and profitability and that the charge had a "broadly neutral impact" on the London-wide economy. The Fifth Annual Review continued to show the central congestion zone outperforming the wider London economy.


title: London congestion charge

text: In May 2005, businessman Miguel Camacho set up fivepounds.co.uk (referring to the then-current pricing), whose sole function was to sign up private drivers to their "fleet", thus offering the convenience of not having to pay the charge pro-actively, avoiding fines in the case of a forgotten journey and also potentially getting a "free journey" if undetected by the cameras. TfL moved quickly to quash the loophole, by demanding that fleet operators provide the registration document for each vehicle in their fleet. Fivepounds went out of business on 26 February 2006.


title: London congestion charge

text: The June 2005 increase in charges by 60% only resulted in a relatively small rise in revenues, as there were fewer penalty payments. The anticipated start-up costs of the Western extension were £125 million with operating costs of £33 million; expected gross revenues were expected to be £80 million, resulting in net revenues of £50 million.


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2005, the Liberal Democrats claimed that Capita had been fined £4.5 million for missing the targets set for the congestion charge, that was equivalent to £7,400 for every day that the charge had existed.


title: London congestion charge

text: At the end of September 2005, London Mayor Ken Livingstone confirmed the western expansion of the congestion charge, which came into effect on 19 February 2007. It was expected that the extension would increase congestion in the zone by around 5% as the 60,000 residents in the new zone will be entitled to the discounts available. Several roads were also to be left charge-free between the original zone and the extension.


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2005, "The Guardian" obtained documentation under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 which showed that out of 65,534 penalty tickets issued to non UK-registered vehicles, only 1,993 had been paid.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL ran a six-month trial of "tag and beacon" (transponder) from February 2006 to replace the camera-based system. This uses an electronic card affixed to the windscreen of a vehicle and can be used to produce "smart tolls" where charges can be varied dependent on time and direction of travel. This system automatically deducts the charge so that the 50,000 drivers a year who forget to pay the fine would not be penalised. TfL has suggested that this scheme could be introduced from 2009.


title: London congestion charge

text: Shortly before it was introduced, the Centre for Economics and Business Research (CEBR) predicted that the West London extension would cause 6,000 job losses. This was later contested by the Greater London Authority economist unit in a report, arguing the CEBR results were "unfounded".


title: London congestion charge

text: The boundary of the zone, as of 19 February 2007, started at the northern end of Vauxhall Bridge and (travelling in a clockwise direction) heads along the northern bank of the River Thames as Grosvenor Road, the Chelsea Embankment and Cheyne Walk. From there, it heads north, along the eastern edges of the Kensington and Earl's Court one-way systems, part of the A3220, with the roads in between charged, before continuing to the A40 Westway as the Holland Road and the West Cross Route. The boundary then includes parts of North Kensington, but the actual boundary is defined by the West London Line railway track, which runs between Latimer Road (inside the zone) and Wood Lane (outside the zone), until Scrubs Lane, before turning east, following the Great Western Main Line out of Paddington towards Ladbroke Grove. Here, the boundary followed the Grand Union Canal and rejoined the existing zone at Edgware Road after skirting Paddington, by way of the Bishop's Bridge Road, Eastbourne Terrace, Praed Street and Sussex Gardens.


title: London congestion charge

text: The Western Extension was officially removed from the charging zone beginning 4 January 2011, with charging on the Western extension effectively ended on 24 December 2010 and enacted during the week of Christmas to New Year holiday period.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL provided some free through routes, where drivers do not have to pay the charge. The main route was defined by the western boundary of the original zone Vauxhall Bridge Road, Grosvenor Place, Park Lane and Edgware Road, with some additions around Victoria. To the north, the through route is the Marylebone Road, Euston Road and Pentonville Road. The Westway flyover at the eastern end is the other exempt route even though it cuts across the north-west corner of the zone.


title: London congestion charge

text: In May 2007, a survey of 150 local businesses stated they had seen an average drop in business of 25% following the introduction of the charge. TfL disputed the findings, stating that there had been "no overall effect" on business and that it had outperformed the rest of the UK in the central zone during 2006.


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2007 a green motoring website alleged to TfL that owners of luxury cars were registering their vehicles as minicabs to qualify for exemption from the charge. Registering a vehicle as a minicab costs £82 plus £27 per year licence fee, much less than the congestion charge. TfL responded that it carried out regular checks to confirm that cars were being used for the purposes they were registered for, and that they had not discovered any such cases.


title: London congestion charge

text: Transport for London consulted on a charge for the Blackwall Tunnel in east London, but these proposals were suspended in November 2007 following significant opposition from the public. Former Mayor Ken Livingstone has stated that he had "absolutely no plans to set up a congestion charging zone to charge vehicles that use the Blackwall Tunnel or the Blackwall Tunnel Approach Road. But if Greenwich wishes to do so on any of its roads then I will support them".


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2006 mayor Ken Livingstone proposed variable charges based on CO emission rate Vehicle Excise Duty bands. Charges would be reduced or eliminated for "Band A" vehicles, but would be increase it to up to £25 a day for the most polluting "Band G" vehicles. Consultation on these proposals began in August 2007 and ended on 19 October 2007. On 12 February 2008 TfL announced that they would introduce a new charging structure for vehicles entering the congestion zone, based on potential CO emission rates on 27 October 2008 following the imminent mayoral elections. The main change would be the introduction of two new fees:


title: London congestion charge

text: According to a report commissioned by Land Rover, the scheme would increase traffic delays and air pollution. Porsche announced they intended to request a judicial review, claiming that the new charges were disproportionate and would make no "meaningful difference" to the environment. Acting director of the RAC Sheila Raingner commented that "The congestion charge was originally developed to reduce congestion and that the changes would confuse the public and reduce support and trust for future initiatives."


title: London congestion charge

text: At the request of Porsche, King's College released the full report of the possible effects of the new system that was originally commissioned by Transport for London which indicated that the proposed new system would reduce CO emissions in central London by 2,200 tonnes by 2012, but would increase CO emissions by 182,000 tonnes in outer London, due to drivers of more polluting vehicles avoiding congestion charge zones. A spokesman Transport for London stated that the methodology used by King's was "less robust and accurate than TfL's methodology" and that their findings suggested reductions of up to 5,000 tonnes of CO by 2009. They claimed that King's College agreed with these results and were making revisions to their report.


title: London congestion charge

text: The congestion charge remained an issue during the run up to the 2008 mayoral election. Boris Johnson, the Conservative Party candidate said he would look at a graduated charging scheme, would consult on whether to reduce the size of the charging zone and would not introduce the proposed emissions based charging system. Brian Paddick, the Liberal Democrat candidate, suggested exempting delivery vehicles from the charge. Johnson was elected and immediately announced that the emissions based charges would not be implemented.


title: London congestion charge

text: Following his election, Johnson announced that the CO emissions based charging would not go ahead, saying "I am delighted that we have been able to scrap the £25 charge, which would have hit families and small businesses hardest. I believe the proposal would actually have made congestion worse by allowing thousands of small cars in for free". Porsche announced that they had been successful in the high court and had been awarded their legal costs which would run to "a six-figure sum". Their managing director said: "The charge was clearly unfair and was actually going to increase emissions in London... Porsche is proud to have played a decisive role in striking down such a blatantly political tax increase targeting motorists."


title: London congestion charge

text: Johnson also announced that he would review the Western Extension following a public consultation planned for September 2008. Having held this consultation with residents he announced that the extension would be removed by 2010. Out of 28,000 people who responded to the consultation, 67% of the respondents, including 86% of businesses, said they wanted the extended zone removed.


title: London congestion charge

text: On 20 October 2010, TfL announced that Western Extension would formally be removed on 4 January 2011, noting that charging on the Western Extension would in practice end on 24 December 2010 at the start of the Christmas break. Other changes implemented on 4 January 2011 included an increase of the charge to £10 if paid in advance or on the day and to £12 if paid by midnight the charging day after travel, with a reduced charge of £9 for people who sign up to CC Autopay (with a £10 registration fee) which allowed users to nominate up to five vehicles with all fees being automatically debited from a nominated bank account at the end of each month.


title: London congestion charge

text: In the lead-up to the 2012 London mayoral election Johnson announced that he would give the Metropolitan Police access to cameras used to monitor vehicles travelling in the London congestion charge zone and the region-wide low emission zone, to help detect crime and would ensure that automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR) was used "across all London" to help track down the vehicles of criminals. Ken Livingstone said he would freeze the congestion charge for 4 years. The election was won by Johnson.


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2020, the congestion charge was suspended from 23 March to 18 May in order to facilitate travel around the city for critical workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. NHS and care workers are exempt from the charge.


title: London congestion charge

text: The congestion charge became controversial again with the proposed expansion of the charge to the Greater London area. Critics cite the charge's failure to reduce congestion, and see the charge as a tax on those living close to London.


title: London congestion charge

text: On the 22 June 2021 temporary measures were introduced under the terms of Transport for London's £1.6bn rescue package from the government resulting in charge rises to £15 a day and being extended from 5 to 7 days a week.


title: London congestion charge

text: A number of studies have been made of its effects on congestion, traffic levels, road safety, the use of public transport, the environment, and business activity matters. These effects cannot be causally attributed to the congestion charge, as the trends in these factors began before the introduction of the congestion charge, and continued largely unchanged after the introduction of the charge.


title: London congestion charge

text: A year before the congestion zone, TfL set up automatic traffic counters and augmented them with regular classified traffic counts at key locations, to monitor flows.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL's report in June 2007 found that the number of chargeable vehicles entering the zone had reduced by 30% (primarily cars and minicabs, although vans and lorries had decreased by 13%), while there were overall increases in the numbers of taxis, buses, and especially bicycles. The daily profile of traffic flows had changed, with less traffic after 9:30 am and a peak immediately before and after the end of the charging period. The level of traffic entering the zone during the morning peak had not reduced as much as at other times. The overall level of traffic of all vehicle types entering the central Congestion Charge Zone was consistently 16% lower in 2006 than the pre-charge levels in 2002. Year on year, counts of inbound traffic approaching the zone had also seen a distinct and significant 5–7% decline in the number of chargeable vehicles, which was unexplained. They had noted a small but pervasive long-term trend of less traffic entering the zone, expected to be a result of people changing their location and lifestyle, perhaps influenced by the charge. The conservative Bow Group noted that the main effect occurred after 11 am.


title: London congestion charge

text: Once within the charging zone car and delivery traffic remained unchanged, suggesting that the journeys made by residents and businesses within the zone were broadly unaffected. Changes to the road network over the years has made direct comparisons difficult, but TfL suspect that certain routes used heavily by taxis and buses within the zone have seen substantially increased traffic. On some of the boundary roads traffic numbers had increased slightly but congestion and delays were largely unchanged from 2002 levels.


title: London congestion charge

text: Following the introduction of the Western Extension, TfL stated that traffic had fallen around 10 to 15% in the extended zone. The original zone showed a 4% increase in congestion, following expansion of the congestion charging area and the introduction of discounts extended to residents of the new zone and buffer zone. TfL assessed the increase in charges in 2005 to have had only a slight impact overall.


title: London congestion charge

text: In February 2013, ten years after the scheme introduction, TfL reported a 10% reduction in traffic levels from baseline conditions. TfL assessed that the scheme has had a significant impact in shifting people away from using cars, contributing to an overall reduction of 11% in vehicle kilometres in London between 2000 and 2012.


title: London congestion charge

text: The charge operates for under one third of the hours in a year and covers around two-thirds of the central London traffic. In total 8% of traffic kilometres (miles) are affected by the scheme. TfL have extrapolated the trends in road speed in the congestion zone; they have suggested that speeds would have dropped from 17 km/h (10 mph) in 2003 to 11.5 km/h (7 mph) by 2006, had the scheme not been put in place.


title: London congestion charge

text: A report by TfL in early 2007 indicated that there were 2.27 traffic delays per kilometre (3.65 per mile) in the original charging zone. This compared with a figure of 2.3 per kilometre (3.7 per mile) before the introduction of the congestion charge. After the scheme was introduced they had measured an improvement in journey times of 0.7 minutes per km (1.1 per mile), or 30%. This improvement had decreased to 22% in 2006, and during 2006 congestion levels had increased so that the improvement, compared to the year before the scheme, was just 7%. TfL explained this as a result of changes to road priorities within the zone, delays caused by new pedestrian and road user safety schemes, and, most particularly, a doubling of road works in the latter half of 2006. Utilities were encouraged to complete planned road works in the year preceding the congestion charge, so it would appear that the first year of measurement used for later comparisons would also have been affected by streetworks to some extent.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL reported in January 2014, that despite a reduction of traffic volume within London, traffic speeds have also been getting progressively slower over the past decade, particularly in central London. TfL explains that the historic decline in traffic speeds is most likely due to interventions that have reduced the effective capacity of the road network to improve the urban environment, increase road safety and prioritise public transport, pedestrian and cycle traffic, as well as an increase in road works by utilities and general development activity since 2006. This explains the lower levels of congestion reduction compared to the pre-charge baseline: 8% in 2006, compared to 30% in 2004. Since 2006 this trend towards slower traffic movement has ceased and traffic speeds have remained more stable, as evidenced by GPS satellite tracking data from 2006 to 2012. Indicators of excess delay or congestion also suggest a stable overall picture, with some improvements in the past two years. TfL concludes that while levels of congestion in central London are close to pre-charging levels, the effectiveness of the congestion charge in reducing traffic volumes means that conditions would be worse without the Congestion Charging scheme.


title: London congestion charge

text: The pre-commencement report from TfL noted that the scheme was not expected to significantly affect air quality, but that offering a discount to encourage the use of greener fuels would be a positive measure.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL reported that levels of nitrogen oxides (NO), fell by 13.4% between 2002 and 2003, and carbon dioxide, as well as the levels of airborne particulates (PM10) within and alongside the Inner Ring Road boundary of the zone.


title: London congestion charge

text: Since 2002, the nitrogen dioxide (NO) produced by diesel exhaust has become a serious problem, with the London Air Quality Network of Imperial College reporting that the annual mean NO objective (of 40 μgm-3 or 21 ppb) was exceeded at all kerbside and roadside monitoring sites across central and greater London during 12 months between 2005 and 2006. Although no areas within the Congestion Charge Zone reported NO levels above an upper limit of 200 μgm-3 (105 ppb), some monitoring areas near the zone boundary experienced very long periods at such levels, notably the A23 near Brixton (3741 hours) and the Marylebone Road (849 hours).


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2007, the "Fifth Annual Monitoring Report" by TfL stated that between 2003 and 2006, NO emissions fell by 17%, PM10 by 24% and CO by 3%, with some being attributed to the effects of reduced levels of traffic flowing better, with the majority being as a result of improved vehicle technology. In total, the rate of fall in CO has been almost 20% as of 2007.


title: London congestion charge

text: The 2007 TfL report makes it clear that only a one-off reduction of emissions could be expected from the introduction of the charge, whilst further reductions are unlikely to be as a result of the charge. It notes that lower vehicles emissions may not necessarily feed through into improvements in air quality as vehicle emissions are only one contributor to total emissions of a particular pollutant along industrial sources and that weather conditions play a significant role, and that pollutant concentrations were being affected by changes in the make up of the vehicle fleet. It also suggests that the rate of decline in certain pollutants is decreasing.


title: London congestion charge

text: A 2011 independent study published by the Health Effects Institute (HEI), and led by a researcher from King's College London, found that there is little evidence the congestion charge scheme has improved air quality. This research used modelling and also compared actual air pollutant measurements within the congestion charge zone with those of control sites located in Outer London. The investigators concluded that "it is difficult to identify significant air quality improvements from a specific programespecially one targeted at a small area within a large cityagainst the backdrop of broader regional pollutant and weather changes." National trends had already shown a rapid decline of some other emissions during the late 1990s, notably carbon monoxide, and levels have been relatively stable since 2002 across London.


title: London congestion charge

text: A 2020 study of London found that the London congestion charge led to reductions in pollution and reductions in driving, but it increased pollution from diesel taxis and buses (which are exempt from the charge).


title: London congestion charge

text: On the launch date of the original zone, an extra 300 buses (out of a total of around 8,000) were introduced. Bus route changes have been made to take advantage of the presumed higher traffic speeds and the greater demand for public transport; route 452 was introduced and three others (routes 31, 46 and 430) were extended. The frequency of buses on other routes through the zone extension were also increased.


title: London congestion charge

text: In 2007 TfL reported that bus patronage in the central London area (not the same as the Congestion Charge Zone) had increased from under 90,000 pre-charge to stabilise at 116,000 journeys per day by 2007. It also reported that usage of the Underground has increased by 1% above pre-charge levels, having fallen substantially in 2003–2004. They could not attribute any change in National Rail patronage to the introduction of the central zone charge.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL estimated that the charge has led to a small reduction in road traffic casualties against a background trend of improvement across London and across the rest of Great Britain over the period. Cars and motorcycles have seen the biggest reduction in accidents, whereas bicyclists have seen a slight increase, which may reflect their increased numbers.


title: London congestion charge

text: Of the reduction from 2,598 personal injury crashes inside the zone in the year before the scheme to 1,629 by 2005 TfL estimated that some 40 and 70 injuries may have been avoided annually due to the introduction of the charging zone, with most of the remaining reduction attributed to other changes to the road network favouring its people-moving capacity.


title: London congestion charge

text: Whilst TfL is responsible for the scheme, the operation is sub-contracted to a number of outside companies. Since 2009, IBM has been responsible for the day-to-day operation of the charging system, whilst Siemens Traffic Solutions provides and operates the physical enforcement infrastructure. Transport for London announced that from 2009 IBM would operate the charge, along with the London low emission zone under contract.


title: London congestion charge

text: The scheme makes use of purpose-built automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR) cameras, manufactured by PIPs Technology, to record vehicles entering and exiting the zone. Cameras can record number plates with a 90% accuracy rate through the technology. The majority of vehicles within the zone are captured on camera. The cameras take two still pictures in colour and black and white and use infrared technology to identify the number plates. The camera network and other roadside equipment is managed largely automatically by an installation system developed by Roke Manor Research Ltd, which delivers number plates to the billing system. These identified numbers are checked against the list of payers overnight by computer. In those cases when a number plate has not been recognised then they are checked manually. Those that have paid but have not been seen in the central zone are not refunded, and those that have not paid and are seen are fined. The registered keeper of such a vehicle is looked up in a database provided by the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), based in Swansea.


title: London congestion charge

text: TfL's annual report for 2017–18 shows that revenues from the congestion charge were £229.8m over the financial year, representing 4.3% of TfL's annual revenues. A quarter of this was spent on the cost of running the toll system, at £57.7 million. Once other charges were deducted, the congestion charge brought in an annual operating net income of £155.9m for TfL. This income compares with TfL's total revenue that year from bus and tube fares of £4.319 billion.


title: London congestion charge

text: The initial operating revenues from the congestion charge did not reach the levels that were originally expected. Within six months of the start of the scheme, the reduction in traffic had been such that TfL were predicting a £65 million revenue shortfall.


title: London congestion charge

text: By law, all surpluses raised must be reinvested into London's transport infrastructure; at the start of the scheme it was anticipated that this would be around £200 million. According to a report issued in February 2007, the initial costs of setting up the scheme were £161.7 million, with an annual operating cost of about £115m anticipated. Total revenues over the first three-and-a-half years had been £677.4 million, with TfL reporting a surplus over operating costs of £189.7 million. The Bow Group, using TfL data, estimated that by 2007 the project had only returned a modest £10 million profit.


title: London congestion charge

text: Although Parliament has limited the amount that authorities can borrow, for some time it had been speculated that the regular income obtained from the congestion charge and other revenues could be used to securitise a bond issue that finances other transport projects across London. TfL issued their first bond for £200 million in 2005, to be repaid at 5% interest over 30 years. TfL plans to borrow £3.1 billion more to fund a five-year transport programme across London, including works on London Underground and road safety schemes.


title: London congestion charge

text: From the scheme's introduction in 2003 until December 2013, gross revenue reached about £2.6 billion, of which, over £1.2 billion (46%) has been invested in transport, including £960 million on improvements to the bus network; £102 million on roads and bridges; £70 million on road safety; £51 million on local transport/borough plans; and £36 million on sustainable transport and the environment.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: Eugène Rose de Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg (; 3 September 1781 – 21 February 1824) was a French nobleman, statesman, and military commander who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: Through the second marriage of his mother, Joséphine de Beauharnais, he was the stepson of Napoleon Bonaparte. Under the French Empire, he also became Napoleon's adopted son (but not the heir to the imperial throne). He commanded the Army of Italy during the Napoleonic Wars and was Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy under his stepfather. Historians consider him one of Napoleon's most able relatives.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: Eugène Rose de Beauharnais was born in Paris on 3 September 1781 to the noble Beauharnais family. He was the son of Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais and Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie, both born in the French colony of Martinique. Alexandre was executed by guillotine in 1794, a few days before the end of the revolutionary Reign of Terror.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: Eugène began his military career in the War in the Vendée, serving under General Lazare Hoche, and fought at Quiberon. However, within a year his mother Joséphine had arranged his return to Paris. In the Italian campaigns of 1796–1797, Eugène served as aide-de-camp to his stepfather, whom he also accompanied to Egypt. In Egypt, Eugène was wounded during the Siege of Acre (1799) and returned to France with Napoleon in the autumn of 1799, helping to bring about the reconciliation of the General and his mother, who had become estranged due to their mutual extramarital affairs. During the Coup of Brumaire, Eugène accompanied Napoleon to Saint-Cloud, where they brought the legislative assemblies into submission.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: When Napoleon became First Consul following Brumaire, Eugène became a captain in the "Chasseurs à Cheval" of the Consular Guard. With his squadron he took part in the Battle of Marengo where, though half his men fell, he led charge after charge.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: As commander of the Imperial Guard (successor to the Consular Guard), Eugène preceded his stepfather to Milan ahead of Napoleon's coronation as King of Italy on 26 May 1805. Napoleon had originally intended to place his brother Joseph on the Italian throne and then, after Joseph's refusal, his nephew Napoléon Charles, the son of Louis Bonaparte and Eugène's sister, Hortense. However, both Joseph and Louis refused, so Napoleon placed the Iron Crown upon his own head instead. During the coronation, Napoleon handed the royal ring and mantle to his stepson and on 7 June 1805 announced Eugène's appointment as Viceroy of Italy to the Italian Legislative Assembly.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: During the War of the Fifth Coalition, Eugène was put in command of the Army of Italy with some highly competent generals like Grenier, Charpentier, and the future marshal MacDonald accompanying him as advisers and officers. In April 1809, he fought and lost the Battle of Sacile against the Austrian army of the Archduke John, but Eugène's troops won the rematch at the Battle of the Piave in May and the Battle of Raab in June. After the Battle of Aspern-Essling, Napoleon recalled the Army of Italy to Austria. After joining the main army on the island of Lobau in the Danube, Eugène took part in the Battle of Wagram.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: Napoleon considered making Eugene regent of France during the Russian campaign but ultimately decided against this. During the campaign, Eugène again commanded the Army of Italy (IV Corps) with which he fought in the Battle of Borodino and the Battle of Maloyaroslavets. After Napoleon and then Joachim Murat had left the retreating army, Eugène took command of the remnants and led it back to Germany in 1813.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: During the campaign of 1813, Eugène fought in the Battle of Lützen. Napoleon then sent him back to Italy, where he organised the defence against the Austrians, holding out on the Mincio until the abdication in 1814. After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Eugène retired to Munich and at the behest of his father-in-law, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. He soon returned to Paris on the death of his mother, where Louis XVIII and Alexander I of Russia welcomed him, renounced his political activity, and returned to his wife's family in Bavaria immediately. Accordingly, he remained neutral during Napoleon's return to power in the Hundred Days.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: As Duke of Leuchtenberg, Eugène lived his last years in Munich managing his estates and expanding his art collection. At the same time, he provided assistance for Antoine Marie Chamans de Lavalette, a proscript under the Bourbon Restoration who had fled France, and lobbied for the alleviation of the harsh treatment imposed on Napoleon in his captivity in Saint-Helena. In 1822, Eugène's health began deteriorating. After he suffered two attacks of apoplexy in 1823, he died on 21 February 1824 in Munich, aged 42.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: On 14 June 1804 he was made an official member of the imperial family as "His Imperial Highness", French Prince ("Prince français") Eugène de Beauharnais. By a statute of 5 June 1805 the Emperor added "Viceroy of Italy" to his titles.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: Eugène was adopted by Napoleon on 12 January 1806, though excluded from succession to the French Empire. On 16 February 1806, Eugène was declared heir presumptive to the Kingdom of Italy, in the absence of a second son of Napoleon. On 20 December 1807 he was given the title of "Prince de Venise" ("Prince of Venice"), a title created on 30 March 1806, when the Venetian Province taken from Austria in 1805 was united to Bonaparte's Kingdom of Italy.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: In 1810, Napoleon used his influence over Karl von Dalberg, Archbishop of Regensburg and Grand Duke of Frankfurt, to name Eugène as constitutional heir of the grand duchy. Von Dalberg abdicated on 26 October 1813 due to Frankfurt's imminent conquest by the allied armies, and Eugène became nominal grand duke until Frankfurt was occupied by the allies in December of that same year.


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: A further imperial sinecure was "Archichancelier d'État de l'Empire de France" ("Archchancellor of State of the Empire of France").


title: Eugène de Beauharnais

text: On 14 January 1806, two days after his adoption by Napoleon, Eugène married Princess Augusta Amalia Ludovika Georgia of Bavaria (1788–1851), eldest daughter of Napoleon's ally, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. On 14 November 1817, his father-in-law made him Duke of Leuchtenberg and Prince of Eichstätt.


title: Topical medication

text: A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often topical medication means application to body surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes including creams, foams, gels, lotions, and ointments. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin. Topical medications may also be inhalational, such as asthma medications, or applied to the surface of tissues other than the skin, such as eye drops applied to the conjunctiva, or ear drops placed in the ear, or medications applied to the surface of a tooth. The word "topical" derives from Greek τοπικός "topikos", "of a place".


title: Topical medication

text: Topical drug delivery is a route of administering drugs via the skin to provide topical therapeutic effects. As skin is one of the largest and most superficial organs in the human body, pharmacists utilise it to deliver various drugs. This system usually provides a local effect on certain positions of the body. In ancient times, people used herbs to put on wounds for relieving the inflammatory effect or as pain relievers. The use of topical drug delivery system is much broader now, from smoking cessation to beauty purposes. Nowadays, there are numerous dosage forms that can be used topically, including cream, ointment, lotion, patches, dusting powder and much more. There are many advantages for this drug delivery system - avoiding first pass metabolism which can increase its bioavailability, being convenient and easy to apply to a large area, being easy to terminate the medication and avoiding gastro-intestinal irritations. All these can increase the patient compliance. However, there are several disadvantages for this system - causing skin irritations and symptoms like rashes and itchiness may occur. Also, only small particles can pass through the skin, which limits the choice of drugs. Since skin is the main medium of topical drug delivery system, its conditions determine the rate of skin penetration leading to affecting the pharmacokinetics of the drug. The temperature, pH value and dryness of the skin need to be considered. There are some novel topical drugs in the market which can utilise the system as much as possible.


title: Topical medication

text: This localized system provides topical therapeutic effects via skin, eyes, nose and vagina to treat [diseases]. The most common usage is for local skin infection problems. Dermatological products have various formulations and range in consistency though the most popular dermal products are semisolid dosage forms to provide topical treatment.


title: Topical medication

text: The first factor concerns body structure effects on the drugs. The degradation of drugs can be affected by the site of applications. Some studies discovered different Percutaneous absorption patterns. Apart from the place, age also affects the absorption as the skin structure changes with age. The lowered collagen and broadened blood capillary networks happen with ageing. These features alter the effectiveness of absorption of both hydrophilic and lipophilic substances into stratum corneum underneath the surface of skin. The skin surface integrity can also affect the permeability of drugs such as the density of hair follicles, sweat glands or disintegrated by inflammation or dehydration.


title: Topical medication

text: The other factor concerns metabolism of medications on skin. When the percutaneous drug is applied on skin, it will be gradually absorbed down the skin. Normally, when the drugs are absorbed, they will be metabolised by various enzymes in our body and the amount will be lower. The exact amount delivered to the target action site determines the potency and bioavailability of the drugs. If the concentration is too low, the therapeutic effect is impeded; if the concentration is too high, drug toxicity may happen to cause side effects or even do harm to our body. For the topical drug delivery way, degradation of drugs in skin is very low compared to liver. The metabolism of drugs is mainly by metabolic enzyme cytochrome P450, and this enzyme is not active in skin. The CYP450 actively metabolized drugs can then maintain high concentration when being applied on skin. Despite CYP450 enzyme action, the partition coefficient (K) determines the activity of topical drugs. The ability of drug particles to go through the skin layer also affects the absorption of drugs. For transdermal activity, medicines with higher K value are harder to get rid of the lipid layer of skin cells. The trapped molecules then cannot penetrate into the skin. This reduces the efficacy of the transdermal drugs. The drugs target cells underneath the skin or need to diffuse into blood capillary to exert their effect. Meanwhile, the size of particles affects this transdermal process. The smaller the drug molecules, the faster the rate of penetration. Polarity of the drugs can affect this diffusion rate too. If the drug shows lower degree of ionization, it is less polar. Therefore, it can have a faster absorption rate.


title: Topical medication

text: The definition of the topical route of administration sometimes states that both the application location and the pharmacodynamic effect thereof is local.


title: Topical medication

text: In other cases, "topical" is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect. By this definition, topical administration also includes transdermal application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is absorbed into the body to attain systemic distribution. Such medications are generally hydrophobic chemicals, such as steroid hormones. Specific types include transdermal patches which have become a popular means of administering some drugs for birth control, hormone replacement therapy, and prevention of motion sickness. One example of an antibiotic that may be applied topically is chloramphenicol.


title: Topical medication

text: If defined strictly as having local effect, the topical route of administration can also include enteral administration of medications that are poorly absorbable by the gastrointestinal tract. One poorly absorbable antibiotic is vancomycin, which is recommended by mouth as a treatment for severe "Clostridium difficile" colitis.


title: Topical medication

text: A medication's potency often is changed with its base. For example, some topical steroids will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment. As a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base.


title: Topical medication

text: The manufacturer of each topical product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the same active ingredients, one manufacturer's cream might be more acidic than the next, which could cause skin irritation or change its absorption rate. For example, a vaginal formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different clinical outcomes, even though the active ingredient is the same. No comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids (percentage of oil vs water dramatically affect the potency of topical steroid). Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand. An example of this is the case of brand name Valisone cream and Kenalog cream in clinical studies have demonstrated significantly better vasoconstrictions than some forms of this drug produced by generic drug manufacturers. However, in a simple base like an ointment, much less variation between manufacturers is common.


title: Topical medication

text: In dermatology, the base of a topical medication is often as important as the medication itself. It is extremely important to receive a medication in the correct base, before applying to the skin. A pharmacist should not substitute an ointment for a cream, or vice versa, as the potency of the medication can change. Some physicians use a thick ointment to replace the waterproof barrier of the inflamed skin in the treatment of eczema, and a cream might not accomplish the same clinical intention.


title: Topical medication

text: There are many general classes, with no clear dividing line among similar formulations. As a result, what the manufacturer's marketing department chooses to list on the label of a topical medication might be completely different from what the form would normally be called.


title: Topical medication

text: A cream is an emulsion of oil and water in approximately equal proportions. It penetrates the stratum corneum outer layer of skin wall. Cream is thicker than lotion, and maintains its shape when removed from its container. It tends to be moderate in moisturizing tendency. For topical steroid products, oil-in-water emulsions are common. Creams have a significant risk of causing immunological sensitization due to preservatives and have a high rate of acceptance by patients. There is a great variation in ingredients, composition, pH, and tolerance among generic brands.


title: Topical medication

text: Gels are thicker than liquids. Gels are often a semisolid emulsion and sometimes use alcohol as a solvent for the active ingredient; some gels liquefy at body temperature. Gel tends to be cellulose cut with alcohol or acetone. Gels tend to be self-drying, tend to have greatly variable ingredients between brands, and carry a significant risk of inducing hypersensitivity due to fragrances and preservatives. Gel is useful for hairy areas and body folds. In applying gel one should avoid fissures in the skin, due to the stinging effect of the alcohol base. Gel enjoys a high rate of acceptance due to its cosmetic elegance.


title: Topical medication

text: Lotions are similar to solution but are thicker and tend to be more emollient in nature than solution. They are usually oil mixed with water, and more often than not have less alcohol than solution. Lotions can be drying if they contain a high amount of alcohol.


title: Topical medication

text: An ointment is a homogeneous, viscous, semi-solid preparation, most commonly a greasy, thick oil (oil 80% - water 20%) with a high viscosity, that is intended for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. Ointments have a water number that defines the maximum amount of water that they can contain. They are used as emollients or for the application of active ingredients to the skin for protective, therapeutic, or prophylactic purposes and where a degree of occlusion is desired.


title: Topical medication

text: Ointments are used topically on a variety of body surfaces. These include the skin and the mucous membranes of the eye (an "eye ointment"), chest, vulva, anus, and nose. An ointment may or may not be medicated.


title: Topical medication

text: Ointments are usually very moisturizing, and good for dry skin. They have a low risk of sensitization due to having few ingredients beyond the base oil or fat, and low irritation risk. There is typically little variability between brands of drugs. They are often disliked by patients due to greasiness.


title: Topical medication

text: The vehicle of an ointment is known as the "ointment base". The choice of a base depends upon the clinical indication for the ointment. The different types of ointment bases are:


title: Topical medication

text: The medicaments are dispersed in the base and are divided after penetrating the living cells of the skin.


title: Topical medication

text: The water number of an ointment is the maximum quantity of water that 100g of a base can contain at 20 °C.


title: Topical medication

text: Ointments are formulated using hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or water-emulsifying bases to provide preparations that are immiscible, miscible, or emulsifiable with skin secretions. They can also be derived from hydrocarbon (fatty), absorption, water-removable, or water-soluble bases.


title: Topical medication

text: Paste combines three agents - oil, water, and powder. It is an ointment in which a powder is suspended.


title: Topical medication

text: Powder is either the pure drug by itself (talcum powder), or is made of the drug mixed in a carrier such as corn starch or corn cob powder (Zeosorb AF - miconazole powder). Can be used as an inhaled topical (cocaine powder used in nasal surgery).


title: Topical medication

text: A shake lotion is a mixture that separates into two or three parts over time. Frequently, an oil mixed with a water-based solution needs to be shaken into suspension before use and includes the instructions: "Shake well before use".


title: Topical medication

text: Medication may be placed in a solid form. Examples are deodorant, antiperspirants, astringents, and hemostatic agents. Some solids melt when they reach body temperature (e.g. rectal suppositories).


title: Topical medication

text: Certain contraceptive methods rely on sponge as a carrier of a liquid medicine. Lemon juice embedded in a sponge has been used as a primitive contraception in some cultures.


title: Topical medication

text: Cordran tape is an example of a topical steroid applied under occlusion by tape. This greatly increases the potency and absorption of the topical steroid and is used to treat inflammatory skin diseases.


title: Topical medication

text: A tincture is a skin preparation that has a high percentage of alcohol. It would normally be used as a drug vehicle if drying of the area is desired.


title: Topical medication

text: Topical solutions can be marketed as drops, rinses, or sprays, are generally of low viscosity, and often use alcohol or water in the base. These are usually a powder dissolved in alcohol, water, and sometimes oil; although a solution that uses alcohol as a base ingredient, as in topical steroids, can cause drying of the skin. There is significant variability among brands, and some solutions may cause irritation, depending on the preservative(s) and fragrances used in the base.


title: Topical medication

text: Transdermal patches can be a very precise time released method of delivering a drug. Cutting a patch in half might affect the dose delivered. The release of the active component from a transdermal delivery system (patch) may be controlled by diffusion through the adhesive which covers the whole patch, by diffusion through a membrane which may only have adhesive on the patch rim or drug release may be controlled by release from a polymer matrix. Cutting a patch might cause rapid dehydration of the base of the medicine and affect the rate of diffusion.


title: Topical medication

text: Some medications are applied as an ointment or gel, and reach the mucous membrane via vaporization. Examples are nasal topical decongestants and smelling salt.


title: Topical medication

text: Topical drug classification system (TCS) is proposed by the FDA. It is designed from the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) for oral immediate release solid drug products which is very successful for decades. There are 3 aspects to assess and 4 classes in total. The 3 aspects include qualitative (Q1), quantitative (Q2) and similarity of in vitro release (IVR) rate (Q3).


title: Topical medication

text: In the early 1970s, the Alza Corporation, through their founder Alejandro Zaffaroni, filed the first US patents describing transdermal delivery systems for scopolamine, nitroglycerin and nicotine. People found that applying medicines on the body surfaces is beneficial in many aspects. Skin medicines can give faster onset and local effect on our body as the surface cream can bypass first pass metabolism such as hepatic and intestinal metabolism. Apart from the absorption, dermal drugs effectively prevent oral delivery limitations such as nausea and vomiting and poor appliances due to unpalatable tastes of the drugs . Topical application is an easy way for patients to tackle skin infections in a painless and non-invasive way. From a patient perspective, applying drugs on skin also provides stable dosage in blood so as to give the optimal bioavailability and therapeutic effects. In case of overdose or unwanted side effects, patients can take off or wash out the medicines quickly to eliminate toxicity by simply removing the patch to stop the delivery of drugs.


title: Topical medication

text: The site of putting the patches for topical drugs may get irritated and have rashes and feel itchy. Hence, some topical drugs including nicotine patches for smoking cessation are advised to change places for each application to avoid continuous irritation of the skin. Also, since the drug needs to penetrate the skin, some drugs may not be able to pass through the skin. Some drugs are then “wasted” and the bioavailability of the drug will decrease.


title: Topical medication

text: Skin penetration is the main challenge for any topical dosage form. The drug needs to penetrate the skin in order to get into the body to apply its function. The drug follows the Fick’s first law of diffusion. One of the most common versions of Fick’s first law of diffusion is:


title: Topical medication

text: Assuming concentration gradient is constant for all newly applied topical drugs and the temperature is constant (normal body temperature: 37 °C), the viscosity and radius of the drug determine the flux of diffusion. The higher the viscosity or the larger the radius of the drug is, the lower the diffusion flux of the drug is.


title: Topical medication

text: The first one is the effect of the vehicle. The medium to carry the topical drugs can affect the penetration of the drug active ingredient and efficacy. For example, this carrier can have a cooling, drying, emollient or protective action to suit the required conditions of the application site such as applying gel or lotion for hairy areas. Meanwhile, scientists need to match the type of preparation with the type of lesions. For example, they need to avoid oily ointments for acute weepy dermatitis. Chemists also need to consider the irritation or any sensitization potential to ensure that the topical application can be stable during storage and transport to maintain its efficacy. Another potential material is nanofiber-based dispersion to improve the adhesion of active ingredients on the skin.


title: Topical medication

text: In order to enhance drug penetration into the skin, scientists have several ways to achieve their purposes by using chemical, biochemical, physical and super saturation enhancement. Advanced Emulgel technology is a breakthrough of painkilling topical drugs. It helps the gel to enter deeply down the skin layer to strengthen delivery of diclofenac to the point of pain so as to achieve better therapeutic effects by modifying the above properties.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.

text: Cassius Marcellus Clay (November 11, 1912 – February 8, 1990) was an American painter and musician. He was the father of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the paternal grandfather of Laila Ali. He married Odessa Lee O'Grady in 1934 and worked as a painter. He was described as "a handsome, mercurial, noisy, combative failed dreamer" and a "hard-drinking, skirt-chasing dandy of a daddy". His son Muhammad Ali described him as "the fanciest dancer in Louisville".


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.

text: Clay was born in Jefferson County, Kentucky, the son of Herman H. Clay (March 1876 – February 1, 1954) and Edith E. Greathouse (December 1889 – December 30, 1972). He was named in honor of the 19th-century Republican politician and staunch abolitionist, Cassius Marcellus Clay. He had a sister and four brothers, including Nathaniel Clay. Clay's paternal grandparents were John Clay and Sallie Anne Clay. His sister Eva said that Sallie was a native of Madagascar. According to DNA research, Muhammad Ali's paternal grandmother was Archer Alexander's (1815-1880) great-granddaughter.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.

text: Clay painted billboards and signs. He also played the piano, took piano lessons and wrote music. Around 1933, he married Odessa Lee O'Grady. He was a heavy drinker, which led to legal entanglements for reckless driving, disorderly conduct, and assault and battery. When asked in 1970 why he had not become a Muslim as his son had done, he said: "my religion is my talent, that which supports me."


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.

text: Clay died at the age of 77 on February 8, 1990, after suffering a heart attack while leaving a department store in Kentucky.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.

text: Clay was portrayed by Arthur Adams in the 1977 film "The Greatest" and by Giancarlo Esposito in the 2001 Oscar-nominated film "Ali".


title: You Really Got Me

text: "You Really Got Me" is a song written by Ray Davies for English rock band the Kinks. The song, originally performed in a more blues-oriented style, was inspired by artists such as Lead Belly and Big Bill Broonzy. Two versions of the song were recorded, with the second performance being used for the final single. Although it was rumoured that future Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page had performed the song's guitar solo, the myth has since been proven false.


title: You Really Got Me

text: "You Really Got Me" was built around power chords (perfect fifths and octaves) and heavily influenced later rock musicians, particularly in the genres of heavy metal and punk rock. Built around a guitar riff played by Dave Davies, the song's lyrics were described by Dave as "a love song for street kids."


title: You Really Got Me

text: "You Really Got Me" was released in the UK on 4 August 1964 by Pye Records as the group's third single, and reached number one on the "Record Retailer" chart the following month, remaining there for two weeks. It was released in the US on 2 September by Reprise Records. The song became the group's breakthrough hit; it established them as one of the top British Invasion acts in the United States, reaching number seven there later in the year. "You Really Got Me" was later included on the Kinks' debut album, "Kinks". American rock band Van Halen adapted the song for their 1978 self-titled debut album; it was released as their first single and peaked at No. 36 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: You Really Got Me

text: "You Really Got Me" was written by Ray Davies, the Kinks' vocalist and main songwriter, sometime between 9 and 12 March 1964. Created on the piano in the front room of the Davies' home, the song was stylistically very different from the finished product, being much lighter and somewhat jazz-oriented. Ray said of the song's writing, "When I came up with ['You Really Got Me'] I hadn't been writing songs very long at all. It was one of the first five I ever came up with."


title: You Really Got Me

text: Davies said that he had been inspired to write the song one night during his college days playing with the Dave Hunt Band, when he saw an attractive girl on the dance floor. He said: "When we finished, I went off to find her, but she was gone and never returned to the club. She really got me going."


title: You Really Got Me

text: During the spring of 1964, Ray Davies played an early version of "You Really Got Me" on piano to rock photographer Allan Ballard during a photo shoot. Ballard later remembered, "It was quite a small, pokey, Victorian Terrace, a bit scruffy, and in the hallway they had an upright piano. Ray sat down and plonked out, 'Der-der, der, Der-der!' He said, 'What do you reckon to this?' It meant nothing to me at the time, but it ended up as 'You Really Got Me'."


title: You Really Got Me

text: Ray, initially planning for the song to be a "more laid-back number", later played the chords of the song to brother Dave Davies, the Kinks' lead guitarist. However, upon hearing the track, Dave decided that the riff would be much more powerful on a guitar. Ray said of the track's change to a guitar-centred track, "I wanted it to be a jazz-type tune, because that's what I liked at the time. It's written originally around a sax line ... Dave ended up playing the sax line in fuzz guitar and it took the song a step further." The band then began to perform the new track in some of their live shows, where it was well received.


title: You Really Got Me

text: In 1998, Ray said, "I'd written 'You Really Got Me' as tribute to all those great blues people I love: Lead Belly and Big Bill Broonzy." Dave cited Gerry Mulligan as an inspiration, saying, "Ray was a great fan of Gerry Mulligan, who was in [the "Jazz on a Summer's Day" movie], and as he sat at the piano at home, he sort of messed around in a vein similar to Mulligan and came up with this figure based on a 12-bar blues". Dave has also said that song had been inspired by Jimmy Giuffre's song "The Train and the River". According to the band's manager, Larry Page, the song's characteristic riff came about while working out the chords of the Kingsmen's "Louie Louie". Lyrically, the song was said to be influenced by an encounter with one of the band's "first serious female fans."


title: You Really Got Me

text: The song was recorded by the Kinks at least twice in the summer of 1964. The band's demo was in a "bluesy" style, while a full studio version recorded in June was slower and less emphatic than the final single. Shel Talmy had, according to Davies, covered the track in reverb, all but burying the lead guitar. The band wanted to rerecord the song, but their record company Pye refused to fund another session on the grounds that the band's first two singles had failed to chart. Ray Davies, however, threatened that he would refuse to perform or promote the single unless it was re-recorded. Manager Larry Page also refused to publish the original recording. When Pye stood its ground, the band's own management broke the stalemate by funding the session themselves. Ray Davies' adamant attitude on behalf of the career-making song effectively established him as the leader and chief songwriter of the Kinks. Davies later said, "I was floundering around trying to find an identity. It was in 1964 that I managed to do that, to be able to justify myself and say, 'I exist, I'm here.' I was literally born when that song hit."


title: You Really Got Me

text: The influential distortion sound of the guitar track was created after guitarist Dave Davies sliced the speaker cone of his guitar amplifier with a razor blade and poked it with a pin. The amplifier was affectionately called "little green", after the name of the amplifier made by the Elpico company, and purchased in Davies' neighbourhood music shop, linked to a Vox AC-30. In 2014, Dave Davies accused brother Ray of lying about participating in Dave's guitar distortion sound. Dave wrote on his Facebook page, "My brother is lying. I don't know why he does this but it was my Elpico amp that I bought and out of frustration I cut the speaker cone up with a razor blade and I was so shocked and surprised and excited that it worked that I demonstrated the sound to Ray and [Kinks bassist] Pete [Quaife]... Ray liked the sound and he had written a riff on the piano which formed the basis of the song 'You Really Got Me' and I played the riff on my guitar with my new sound. I alone created this sound."


title: You Really Got Me

text: According to recent Kinks' releases that give full official performance credits of the track, group members Ray Davies (vocals and rhythm guitar), Dave Davies (lead guitar), Pete Quaife (bass) are joined by session men Bobby Graham (drums), and Arthur Greenslade (piano). Regular Kinks drummer Mick Avory plays the tambourine.


title: You Really Got Me

text: The guitar solo on the recording has been the subject of the persistent myth that it was not played by the Kinks' lead guitarist Dave Davies, but by then-session player Jimmy Page, who later joined the Yardbirds and Led Zeppelin. Among those claiming Page played lead guitar was Jon Lord of Deep Purple, who also claimed to play piano on the track. Page has always denied playing the song's guitar solo, going so far as to state in a 1970s interview cited in "Sound on Sound" magazine that "I didn't play on 'You Really Got Me' and that's what pisses him [Ray Davies] off." Rock historian and author Doug Hinman makes a case that the rumour was begun and fostered by the established British rhythm and blues community, many of whose members were resentful that an upstart band of teenagers such as the Kinks could produce such a powerful and influential blues-based recording, seemingly out of nowhere.


title: You Really Got Me

text: Shel Talmy, the producer on the track, has gone on record and put the controversy to rest in an interview with "The Guardian", saying "contrary to myth, Jimmy didn't play on 'You Really Got Me'." In a 7 November 2014 interview with SiriusXM's "Town Hall" series, Page confirmed again that he did not play on the song, saying "Oh, Crikey! I wasn't on 'You Really Got Me,' but I did play on the Kinks' records. That's all I'm going to say about it. But every time I do an interview, people ask me about 'You Really Got Me.' So maybe somebody can correct Wikipedia so people won't keep asking me."


title: You Really Got Me

text: In his 1998 autobiographical release "The Storyteller", Ray Davies discusses the guitar solo. He confirms that his brother Dave played the solo and it was preceded by some bantering between the two:


title: You Really Got Me

text: Commentators have described "You Really Got Me" as garage rock, hard rock, rock and roll, and proto-punk. While Ray Davies had been instructed at the time to write "Beatle-type" material for commercial reasons, "You Really Got Me" was written as a more R&B-based composition. The song is centred on a guitar riff by Dave Davies, which has since been referred to as "instantly identifiable." American musicologist Robert Walser described "You Really Got Me" as "the first hit song built around power chords." The song has since been labeled as an early influence of the heavy metal genre, with critic Denise Sullivan of AllMusic writing, You Really Got Me' remains a blueprint song in the hard rock and heavy metal arsenal." However, Dave Davies has since rejected the idea that the song is heavy metal, saying "I've never really like that term, heavy metal. I think, in all humility, it was the first heavy guitar riff rock record. Just because of the sound—if you played it on a ukulele, it might not have been so powerful."


title: You Really Got Me

text: The lyrics of the song are about lust and sex. Dave Davies said of the song's lyrics, You Really Got Me' [is] such a pure record, really. It's a love song for street kids. They're not going to wine and dine you, even if they knew how to chat you up. [They say] 'I want you—come here.


title: You Really Got Me

text: "You Really Got Me" was released as the band's third single on 4 August 1964, backed with "It's All Right" (also spelled "It's Alright"). Within three days of the single's release, "You Really Got Me" began to appear on local charts. Eventually, the song climbed to the top of the British charts, the band's first single to do so. Ray Davies later claimed that, due to the single's high demand, Pye Records put all their other records on hold to solely produce copies of "You Really Got Me". Due to the high level of success the single achieved in the UK, a rush-release of "You Really Got Me" was put out in the US on 2 September 1964, despite being delayed from its initial release date of 26 August. Although it did not enter the charts until 26 September, the record rose to number seven on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The song later appeared on the band's debut album, "Kinks", with the title of the American release of the album being changed to "You Really Got Me". Plans for Ray to sing versions of the song in French, German, Spanish, and Japanese for their respective markets were proposed by Shel Talmy, but they never materialized. The single B-side, "It's All Right", was included on the UK EP "Kinksize Hits" (1964). It was first issued on an album in the US, where it was included on the Kinks' third album "Kinkdom" (1965). Music writers have described the song as "shockingly different" to the Kinks' recorded work up to this point, and a "frenetic lost gem". The song is included on a 1998 CD reissue of the group's debut album.


title: You Really Got Me

text: Upon release, the single received a positive review from "Record Mirror", which said, "Highly promising group with strong guitar sound and a compact sort of vocal performance. Mid-tempo but bustling song should sell well." In "Melody Maker", singer Dave Berry was featured in a blindfold test of the song, with Berry at first guessing the song was by the Kingsmen. He said, "It's fabulous, this one. I like these records that sound as if they've gone into a recording studio and done what they wanted to on the spot. It's a good chance of being a big hit." The "Melody Maker" review had a lasting impact on Ray Davies, who said that Berry "had a few hits – so he mattered" and that Berry's belief that the band had "done what they wanted" had "said it all" for him. In the U.S., "Cash Box" described the single as "a pulsating, blues-flavored rock-a-rhythmic...that builds along the way."


title: You Really Got Me

text: The Kinks' use of distorted guitar riffs continued with songs like "All Day and All of the Night", "Tired of Waiting for You", and "Set Me Free", among others. Pete Townshend of the Who, a band also produced by Talmy at that time, has stated that their first single, "I Can't Explain", was influenced by the Kinks' work at the time. Other artists influenced by "You Really Got Me" include Tom Petty, John Lydon, Joe Jackson, Chris Bell of Big Star, and Jimi Hendrix, who, according to Dave Davies, described the song as "a landmark record".


title: You Really Got Me

text: In 1999, "You Really Got Me" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. "Rolling Stone" magazine placed the song at number 82 on their list of the 500 greatest songs of all time and at number four on their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time. In early 2005, the song was voted the best British song of the 1955–1965 decade in a BBC radio poll. In March 2005, "Q" magazine placed it at number nine in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. In 2009, it was named the 57th Greatest Hard Rock Song by VH1.


title: You Really Got Me

text: Prior to its release, the Kinks performed "You Really Got Me" in some of their early concerts. It was a crowd favourite, with Ray Davies later claiming to feel a connection with the crowd as he performed the song. Ray later said, "Our success came from playing [the song] live. When we played 'You Really Got Me' people actually took notice. They realised we had something original."


title: You Really Got Me

text: The Kinks continued to perform successfully for over 30 years through many musical styles, but "You Really Got Me" remained a mainstay in concert. During some shows, the song was played in a medley with its follow-up single "All Day and All of the Night," while in 1977, a performance on "Saturday Night Live" featured a four-song medley of "You Really Got Me", "All Day and All of the Night", "A Well Respected Man", and "Lola". In a live performance on the "Don Lane Show" in 1982, "You Really Got Me" was featured in a medley with the band's 1981 song, "Destroyer." In 1984, Dave Davies claimed that, even after twenty years of performing "You Really Got Me," the track was "still fun to play live."


title: You Really Got Me

text: A live version of "You Really Got Me" was released on the band's 1980 live album, "One for the Road". This version, following the minor success of the same album's live version of "Lola", was released as a single in America, backed with the live take of "Low Budget's" "Attitude". However, the single failed to chart. This version was later included on the 1986 compilation album, "Come Dancing with the Kinks: The Best of the Kinks 1977–1986".


title: You Really Got Me

text: Other live renditions of "You Really Got Me" have also been released. A version on "Live at Kelvin Hall" recorded at Kelvin Hall in Glasgow, Scotland, was released in 1967, while a performance at the Mann Music Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, appeared on 1994's "To the Bone". The Davies brothers also performed a live version in Boston, Massachusetts with the Smithereens in November 1991, which later appeared on the latter band's 1995 compilation album "Attack of the Smithereens". Both Ray and Dave Davies still perform the song in solo shows, generally as a closing number.


title: You Really Got Me

text: In December 2015, Ray Davies joined brother Dave onstage at one of his concerts to perform "You Really Got Me". The event marked the first time the brothers performed on stage together in nearly twenty years, sparking rumors of a possible Kinks reunion.


title: You Really Got Me

text: The American hard rock band Van Halen released a cover of "You Really Got Me" for their 1978 debut album, "Van Halen". As the band's first single, it was a popular radio hit that helped jump-start the band's career, as it had done for the Kinks 14 years earlier. This version, which was cited by Eddie Van Halen as an "updated" version of the original, featured "histrionic" guitar playing by Eddie Van Halen and "vocal shenanigans" by David Lee Roth. The song had been played by the band live for years before its studio release. On the radio, it is often featured with "Eruption", the instrumental that precedes it on the album, as an intro.


title: You Really Got Me

text: The song was released as a single as a result of an encounter between Eddie Van Halen and members of the band Angel. Eddie Van Halen and Angel drummer Barry Brandt had both been bragging about their new material to one another, resulting in Eddie Van Halen showing a demo of "You Really Got Me" to Brandt. On the following day, the band's producer, Ted Templeman told Van Halen that Angel was recording their own cover of "You Really Got Me" to release before Van Halen's version. As a result, the song was rush-released as a single before Angel could do so.


title: You Really Got Me

text: Eddie Van Halen later expressed dissatisfaction with the use of "You Really Got Me" as the band's debut single. He said, "It kind of bummed me out that Ted [Templeman] wanted our first single to be someone else's tune. I would have maybe picked "Jamie's Cryin, just because it was our own."


title: You Really Got Me

text: The Kinks' Dave Davies has claimed to dislike Van Halen's rendition of the song, saying "There's the thing: good art isn't always about having the comfiest technique. I shouldn't encourage him, but I'm sure Eddie Van Halen played better when he was drunk." He also told of how a concert-goer approached him after a live show and congratulated him on performing a "great cover of the Van Halen song." Ray Davies, on the other hand, claimed to like the track because it made him laugh.


title: Aftersun

text: Aftersun is a 2022 drama film written and directed by Charlotte Wells, starring Paul Mescal, Frankie Corio and Celia Rowlson-Hall. It was released in the United States on 21 October 2022 by A24 and in the United Kingdom on 18 November 2022 by Mubi.


title: Aftersun

text: "Aftersun" is a period film set in the late '90s and follows Sophie, an 11 year old Scottish girl, on vacation with her father at a Turkish resort on the eve of his 31st birthday.


title: Aftersun

text: The film received universal acclaim from critics, who praised Wells' direction and screenplay, and Mescal's performance. It was also named one of the best films of 2022 by the National Board of Review.


title: Aftersun

text: 11-year-old Sophie takes a summer holiday to Turkey with her loving and idealistic but troubled 30-year-old Scottish father, Calum. Sophie is a curious, intelligent and observant girl, grappling with her burgeoning feelings of growth and the onset of her adolescence as she observes the teenagers on the Turkish resort engage in and discuss sexual and romantic activity.


title: Aftersun

text: Sophie also can sense the distance that exists between her father and herself during the holiday. Calum deeply loves her but exhibits signs of general detachment, which he tries to hide from his daughter, keeping up a façade of contentment during the holiday. He is amicably separated from Sophie’s mother and is dealing with occupational and financial struggles. Calum makes unsuccessful attempts to quell his feelings of self-hatred and sadness; he tries to keep his negative emotions contained by engaging in Tai chi patterns and reading self-help books.


title: Aftersun

text: Sophie’s observant nature allows her to recognise that her father is dealing with a plethora of adult things she fails to understand. On one occasion, they go scuba diving and she loses her expensive scuba mask to the sea. Calum feigns nonchalance, but Sophie knows that her father is upset by her mistake and expresses that she understood the mask cost a lot and comforts her father. Calum later expresses to the diving instructor next to them that he’s surprised that he made it to the age of 30, and is not expecting to make it to 40.


title: Aftersun

text: In another instance, Calum and Sophie go to a rug merchant and she observes him grapple with the cost of purchasing a rug he likes. At first, Calum, Sophie with him, declines purchasing the rug. Later, without Sophie, he returns and buys the rug from the merchant despite it costing a lot.


title: Aftersun

text: Sophie’s perceptiveness surprises Calum and inadvertently causes him to become more depressed. But a climactic moment occurs late in the holiday; Calum and Sophie share a dance together to the music of "Under Pressure" that brings them together for one of their last times in a loving embrace.


title: Aftersun

text: Interspersed throughout the film are strobe-lit dance rave sequences featuring a crowd of dancing people, Calum in a stupor dancing, and a confused Sophie watching the rave unfold from afar. She attempts multiple times to close the distance between herself and Calum but fails, and an adult Sophie appears and angrily pushes her father over when she reaches him.


title: Aftersun

text: Later, Calum and Sophie are at the airport, signalling the end of their holiday and the last moment they spend in each other’s presence. He, waving goodbye, sends her off on her flight back home to her mother. Calum then turns around and walks down the hallway to the room of the dance rave.


title: Aftersun

text: 20 years later, Calum is not present in Sophie’s life now. A 31-year-old Sophie looks back on the trip to Turkey with her father in the form of DVR-recorder footage that both she and Calum took on the trip. She uses the video footage to reminisce about the experience, reflecting on their relationship and the parts of him she wasn't able to know or understand as an 11-year-old, but understands with poignance now.


title: Aftersun

text: "Aftersun" is the feature film debut of director and writer Charlotte Wells. Calling it "emotionally autobiographical", she sought to delve into "a different period" in a relationship between a young parent and a daughter than what she explored in her 2015 debut short film, "Tuesday". Frankie Corio was one of over 800 applicants before being cast. Filming took place in Turkey.


title: Aftersun

text: The film premiered as part of International Critics' Week during the 2022 Cannes Film Festival, where it won a jury prize. It screened at the Edinburgh International Film Festival, the Melbourne International Film Festival, the Telluride Film Festival, the Toronto International Film Festival, the London Film Festival, the New York Film Festival and the Adelaide Film Festival.


title: Aftersun

text: "Aftersun" was distributed in Austria, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Latin America, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom by Mubi and in the United States and Canada by A24. It was released in the United States on 21 October 2022 and in the United Kingdom on 18 November 2022.


title: Aftersun

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, "Aftersun" holds an approval rating of 96% based on 180 reviews, with an average rating of 8.9/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Led by Frankie Corio's tremendous performance, "Aftersun" deftly ushers audiences to the intersection between our memories of loved ones and who they really are." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 95 out of 100 based on 45 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Aftersun

text: "The New York Times" critic A. O. Scott described the film as "astonishing and devastating" and commended Wells for "very nearly reinventing the language of film, unlocking the medium's often dormant potential to disclose inner worlds of consciousness and feeling." "Screen Daily"s Fionnuala Halligan wrote that Wells' "measured but relentless probing ... mark her out as one of the most promising new voices in British cinema in recent years". Guy Lodge of "Variety" described the film as "sensuous, sharply moving". Carlos Aguilar of "The Wrap" praised Gregory Oke's "visually fluid" cinematography and thought that it "evokes a radiant melancholia".


title: RStudio

text: RStudio is an integrated development environment for R, a programming language for statistical computing and graphics. It is available in two formats: RStudio Desktop is a regular desktop application while RStudio Server runs on a remote server and allows accessing RStudio using a web browser.


title: RStudio

text: The RStudio integrated development environment (IDE) is available with the GNU Affero General Public License version 3. The AGPL v3 is an open source license that guarantees the freedom to share the code.


title: RStudio

text: RStudio Desktop and RStudio Server are both available in free and fee-based (commercial) editions. OS support depends on the format/edition of the IDE. Prepackaged distributions of RStudio Desktop are available for Windows, macOS, and Linux. RStudio Server and Server Pro run on Debian, Ubuntu, Red Hat Linux, CentOS, openSUSE and SLES.


title: RStudio

text: The RStudio IDE is partly written in the C++ programming language and uses the Qt framework for its graphical user interface. The bigger percentage of the code is written in Java. JavaScript is also used.