text: Responding both to Musk and to February 2017 proposals by European Union lawmakers to regulate AI and robotics, Intel CEO Brian Krzanich argued that artificial intelligence is in its infancy and that it is too early to regulate the technology. Instead of trying to regulate the technology itself, some scholars suggest to rather develop common norms including requirements for the testing and transparency of algorithms, possibly in combination with some form of warranty. Developing well regulated weapons systems is in line with the ethos of some countries' militaries. On October 31, 2019, the United States Department of Defense's (DoD's) Defense Innovation Board published the draft of a report outlining five principles for weaponized AI and making 12 recommendations for the ethical use of artificial intelligence by the DoD that seeks to manage the control problem in all DoD weaponized AI.


title: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence

text: Regulation of AGI would likely be influenced by regulation of weaponized or militarized AI, i.e., the AI arms race, the regulation of which is an emerging issue. At present, although the United Nations is making progress towards regulation of AI, its institutional and legal capability to manage the AGI existential risk is much more limited. Any form of international regulation will likely be influenced by developments in leading countries' domestic policy towards militarized AI, in the US under the purview of the National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence, and international moves to regulate an AI arms race. Regulation of research into AGI focuses on the role of review boards and encouraging research into safe AI, and the possibility of differential technological progress (prioritizing risk-reducing strategies over risk-taking strategies in AI development) or conducting international mass surveillance to perform AGI arms control. Regulation of conscious AGIs focuses on integrating them with existing human society and can be divided into considerations of their legal standing and of their moral rights. AI arms control will likely require the institutionalization of new international norms embodied in effective technical specifications combined with active monitoring and informal diplomacy by communities of experts, together with a legal and political verification process.


title: End-user license agreement

text: An end-user license agreement or EULA () is a legal contract between a software supplier and a customer or end-user, generally made available to the customer via a retailer acting as an intermediary. A EULA specifies in detail the rights and restrictions which apply to the use of the software.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Form contracts for digital services (such as terms of service and privacy policies) were traditionally presented on paper (see shrink-wrap agreement) but are now often presented digitally via browsewrap or clickwrap formats. As the user may not see the agreement until after they have already purchased or engaged with the software, these documents may be contracts of adhesion.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Software companies often make special agreements with large businesses and government entitles that include support contracts and specially drafted warranties.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Many EULAs assert extensive liability limitations. Most commonly, an EULA will attempt to hold harmless the software licensor in the event that the software causes damage to the user's computer or data, but some software also proposes limitations on whether the licensor can be held liable for damage that arises through improper use of the software (for example, incorrectly using tax preparation software and incurring penalties as a result). One case upholding such limitations on consequential damages is "M.A. Mortenson Co. v. Timberline Software Corp., et al." Some EULAs also claim restrictions on venue and applicable law in the event that a legal dispute arises.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Some copyright owners use EULAs in an effort to circumvent limitations the applicable copyright law places on their copyrights (such as the limitations in sections 107–122 of the United States Copyright Act), or to expand the scope of control over the work into areas for which copyright protection is denied by law (such as attempting to charge for, regulate or prevent private performances of a work beyond a certain number of performances or beyond a certain period of time). Such EULAs are, in essence, efforts to gain control, by contract, over matters upon which copyright law precludes control.


title: End-user license agreement

text: A free software license grants users of that software the rights to use for any purpose, modify and redistribute creative works and software, both of which are forbidden by the defaults of copyright, and generally not granted with proprietary software. These licenses typically include a disclaimer of warranty, but this feature is not unique to free software.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Copyleft licenses also include a key addition provision that must be followed in order to copy or modify the software, that requires the user to provide source code for the work and to distribute their modifications under the same license (or sometimes a compatible one); thus effectively protecting derivative works from losing the original permissions and being used in proprietary programs.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Unlike EULAs, free software licenses do not work as contractual extensions to existing legislation. No agreement between parties is ever held, because a copyright license is simply a declaration of permissions on something that otherwise would be disallowed by default under copyright law.


title: End-user license agreement

text: The term shrink-wrap license refers colloquially to any software license agreement which is enclosed within a software package and is inaccessible to the customer until after purchase. Typically, the license agreement is printed on paper included inside the boxed software. It may also be presented to the user on-screen during installation, in which case the license is sometimes referred to as a click-wrap license. The inability of the customer to review the license agreement before purchasing the software has caused such licenses to run afoul of legal challenges in some cases.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Whether shrink-wrap licenses are legally binding differs between jurisdictions, though a majority of jurisdictions hold such licenses to be enforceable. At particular issue is the difference in opinion between two US courts in "Klocek v. Gateway" and "Brower v. Gateway". Both cases involved a shrink-wrapped license document provided by the online vendor of a computer system. The terms of the shrink-wrapped license were not provided at the time of purchase, but were rather included with the shipped product as a printed document. The license required the customer to return the product within a limited time frame if the license was not agreed to. In "Brower", New York's state appeals court ruled that the terms of the shrink-wrapped license document were enforceable because the customer's assent was evident by its failure to return the merchandise within the 30 days specified by the document. The U.S. District Court of Kansas in "Klocek" ruled that the contract of sale was complete at the time of the transaction, and the additional shipped terms contained in a document similar to that in "Brower" did not constitute a contract, because the customer never agreed to them when the contract of sale was completed.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Further, in "ProCD v. Zeidenberg", the license was ruled enforceable because it was necessary for the customer to assent to the terms of the agreement by clicking on an "I Agree" button in order to install the software. In Specht v. Netscape Communications Corp., however, the licensee was able to download and install the software without first being required to review and positively assent to the terms of the agreement, and so the license was held to be unenforceable.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Click-wrap license agreements refer to website based contract formation (see iLan Systems, Inc. v. Netscout Service Level Corp.). A common example of this occurs where a user must affirmatively assent to license terms of a website, by "clicking" "yes" on a pop-up, in order to access website features. This is therefore analogous to shrink-wrap licenses, where a buyer implied agrees to license terms by first removing the software package's shrink-wrap and then utilizing the software itself. In both types of analysis, focus is on the actions of end user and asks whether there is an explicit or implicit acceptance of the additional licensing terms.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Most licenses for software sold at retail disclaim (as far as local laws permit) any warranty on the performance of the software and limit liability for any damages to the purchase price of the software. One well-known case which upheld such a disclaimer is Mortenson v. Timberline.


title: End-user license agreement

text: In addition to the implied exhaustion doctrine, the distributor may include patent licenses along with software.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Forms often prohibit users from reverse engineering. This may also serve to make it difficult to develop third-party software which interoperates with the licensed software, thus increasing the value of the publisher's solutions through decreased customer choice. In the United States, EULA provisions can preempt the reverse engineering rights implied by fair use, c.f. Bowers v. Baystate Technologies.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Some licenses such as the Microsoft .NET Framework redistributable EULA purport to prohibit a user's right to release data on the performance of the software, but this has yet to be challenged in court.


title: End-user license agreement

text: The enforceability of an EULA depends on several factors, one of them being the court in which the case is heard. Some courts that have addressed the validity of the shrinkwrap license agreements have found some EULAs to be invalid, characterizing them as contracts of adhesion, unconscionable, and/or unacceptable pursuant to the U.C.C.—see, for instance, "Step-Saver Data Systems, Inc. v. Wyse Technology", "Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.". Other courts have determined that the shrinkwrap license agreement is valid and enforceable: see "ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg", "Microsoft v. Harmony Computers", "Novell v. Network Trade Center", and "Ariz. Cartridge Remanufacturers Ass'n v. Lexmark Int'l, Inc." may have some bearing as well. No court has ruled on the validity of EULAs generally; decisions are limited to particular provisions and terms.


title: End-user license agreement

text: The 7th Circuit and 8th Circuit subscribe to the "licensed and not sold" argument, while most other circuits do not . In addition, the contracts' enforceability depends on whether the state has passed the Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act (UCITA) or Anti-UCITA (UCITA Bomb Shelter) laws. In Anti-UCITA states, the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) has been amended to either specifically define software as a good (thus making it fall under the UCC), or to disallow contracts which specify that the terms of contract are subject to the laws of a state that has passed UCITA.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Recently, publishers have begun to encrypt their software packages to make it impossible for a user to install the software without either agreeing to the license agreement or violating the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and foreign counterparts.


title: End-user license agreement

text: The DMCA specifically provides for reverse engineering of software for interoperability purposes, so there was some controversy as to whether software license agreement clauses which restrict this are enforceable. The 8th Circuit case of "Davidson & Associates v. Jung" determined that such clauses are enforceable, following the Federal Circuit decision of "Baystate v. Bowers".


title: End-user license agreement

text: Jerry Pournelle wrote in 1983, "I've seen no evidence to show that ... Levitical agreements — full of "Thou Shalt Nots" — have any effect on piracy". He gave an example of an EULA that was impossible for a user to comply with, stating "Come on, fellows. No one expects these agreements to be kept". Noting that in practice many companies were more generous to their customers than their EULAs required, Pournelle wondered "Why, then, do they insist on making their customers sign 'agreements' that the customer has no intention of keeping, and which the company "knows" won't be kept? ... Must we continue making hypocrites out of both publishers and customers?"


title: End-user license agreement

text: One common criticism of end-user license agreements is that they are often far too lengthy for users to devote the time to thoroughly read them. In March 2012, the PayPal end-user license agreement was 36,275 words long and in May 2011 the iTunes agreement was 56 pages long. News sources reporting these findings asserted that the vast majority of users do not read the documents because of their length.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Some critics highlight the hidden privacy implications of end-user license agreements. Many include clauses that allow the computer or device to provide information to third parties on a regular basis without notifying the consumer.


title: End-user license agreement

text: Several companies have parodied this belief that users do not read the end-user-license agreements by adding unusual clauses, knowing that few users will ever read them. As an April Fool's Day joke, Gamestation added a clause stating that users who placed an order on April 1, 2010 agreed to irrevocably give their soul to the company, which 7,500 users agreed to. Although there was a checkbox to exempt out of the "immortal soul" clause, few users checked it and thus Gamestation concluded that 88% of their users did not read the agreement. The program "PC Pitstop" included a clause in their end-user license agreement stating that anybody who read the clause and contacted the company would receive a monetary reward, but it took four months and over 3,000 software downloads before anybody collected it. During the installation of version 4 of the Advanced Query Tool the installer measured the elapsed time between the appearance and the acceptance of the end-user license agreements to calculate the average reading speed. If the agreements were accepted fast enough a dialog window “congratulated” the users to their absurdly high reading speed of several hundred words per second. "South Park" parodied this in the episode "HumancentiPad", where Kyle had neglected to read the terms of service for his last iTunes update and therefore inadvertently agreed to have Apple employees experiment upon him.


title: End-user license agreement

text: End-user license agreements have also been criticized for containing terms that impose onerous obligations on consumers. For example, Clickwrapped, a service that rates consumer companies according to how well they respect the rights of users, reports that they increasingly include a term that prevents a user from suing the company in court.


title: End-user license agreement

text: In a 2019 article published by Kevin Litman-Navarro for "The New York Times", titled "We Read 150 Privacy Policies. They Were an Incomprehensible Disaster", the complexity of 150 terms from popular sites like Facebook, Airbnb, etc. were analyzed and comprehended. As a result, for example, the majority of licenses require college or higher-level degrees: "To be successful in college, people need to understand texts with a score of 1300. People in the professions, like doctors and lawyers, should be able to understand materials with scores of 1440, while ninth graders should understand texts that score above 1050 to be on track for college or a career by the time they graduate. Many privacy policies exceed these standards."


title: End-user license agreement

text: The United Kingdom's National Consumer Council undertook a study published in 2008 which found issues with the way 17 major IT businesses had been using EULA's and asked the Office of Fair Trading to undertake an investigation.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Christopher Dwayne Tomlin (born May 4, 1972) is an American contemporary Christian music singer, songwriter, and worship leader from Grand Saline, Texas, United States, who has sold over 7 million records. He is a member of Passion Conferences and is signed to EMI's sixstepsrecords. Some of his most well-known songs are "How Great Is Our God", "Our God", "Whom Shall I Fear (God of Angel Armies)" and his cover of "Good Good Father".


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin has been awarded 23 GMA Dove Awards, a Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Album for his 2012 album "And If Our God Is for Us...", and two RIAA certified platinum albums. Because of his songs' popularity in many contemporary churches, "Time" magazine stated he may be the "most often sung artist anywhere". Tomlin's 2013 album "Burning Lights" debuted at No. 1 on the "Billboard" 200 chart, becoming the fourth CCM album in history to do so.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin was born in Grand Saline, Texas in 1972 to Donna and Connie Tomlin. He has two younger brothers, Ryan and Cory. Tomlin was given his first guitar by his father and learned how to play along with Willie Nelson records.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin wrote his first worship song at age fourteen. During high school, he learned to lead worship in his youth group. After graduating from Grand Saline High School in 1990, he entered Tyler Junior College (TJC) planning for a medical or physical therapy career. Tomlin graduated in 1992 and enrolled in Texas A&M University to study medicine. He grew active in a campus Christian group called Breakaway, where he became the worship leader. In 1994, Tomlin graduated from Texas A&M with a bachelor's degree in psychology. After college Tomlin participated as a worship leader at various camps in Texas, including Dawson McAllister Youth Conferences. While at Breakaway, Tomlin participated in a Bible study led by then Choice Ministries founder Louie Giglio. In 1997, Tomlin partnered with Giglio to found Passion Conferences.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: In 1995, Tomlin released "Inside Your Love", which was released independently. In 1998, he released "Authentic" on Sparrow Records.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: In 2000, Tomlin signed onto newly founded sixstepsrecords, a subsidiary of Passion Conferences. His first nationally released solo project, titled "The Noise We Make", was released in 2001, featuring the song "Forever". He released the live EP "545" and his second studio album "Not to Us" in 2002.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Since his signing onto sixstepsrecords, Tomlin has released nine full-length studio albums. 2004's "Arriving" was the first to chart on "Billboard"'s Hot Christian Albums chart and the "Billboard" 200. Tomlin has topped the Hot Christian Albums chart six times, and his 2013 album "Burning Lights" topped the "Billboard" 200, making the album only the fourth contemporary Christian album to do so.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin has also released one live album, recorded in Austin Music Hall, and two Christmas albums (2009, 2015), both of which topped the Holiday albums chart on "Billboard".


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin has toured with many contemporary Christian artists, such as Delirious?, Steven Curtis Chapman, Michael W. Smith, and MercyMe. Tomlin has headlined several tours, and has also joined Passion Conferences for national and global tours and events. Tomlin has also participated in various other conferences festivals including Grand Saline's annual Salt Festival in Texas, Hillsong's 2007 conference, and the SoCal Harvest in Anaheim.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: On June 14, 2007, Tomlin's version of the song "Indescribable" was used as the official wake-up call for Mission Specialist Patrick Forrester on Space Shuttle mission STS-117.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin is one of the members of CompassionArt, a charity and songwriting team that released an album in 2008. In 2014, he became a member on the board of directors of CURE International, a nonprofit organization that provides medical care to children in the developing world.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: In May 2008, Tomlin announced a move from the Austin Stone Community Church, to start a new church with Louie Giglio in Atlanta, Georgia. The Passion City Church held its first service on February 15, 2009, and features Tomlin as one of its worship leaders.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: In April 2019, Tomlin and his wife Lauren started Angel Armies, a nonprofit organization that works to bring people and ministry organizations together to attempt to solve issues related to vulnerable youth in the United States.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin married Lauren Bricken on November 9, 2010. Together they have three daughters, Ashlyn, Madison and Elle. They live on a estate on the outskirts of Franklin, Tennessee which they have nicknamed "Peacefield".


title: Chris Tomlin

text: According to Christian Copyright Licensing International's list of the top 25 worship songs in the US in August 2007, Tomlin held five spots with songs he has either written, co-written or performed: "How Great Is Our God" (No. 1), "Forever" (No. 5), "Holy Is the Lord" (No. 7), "We Fall Down" (No. 12), and "Indescribable" (No. 22) (written by Laura Story). In 2008, Tomlin held 6 spots on "20 The Countdown Magazine" top 20 praise and worship songs: "We Fall Down" (No. 14), "Forever" (No. 10), "Holy is the Lord" (No. 8), "Indescribable" (No. 6), "Amazing Grace (My Chains Are Gone)" (No. 3), and "How Great is our God" (No. 1). In 2012, CCLI reported that his songs were performed more than 3 million times in churches around the world. "Time" magazine has called him "most often sung artist anywhere" in 2006, and in 2013, he was also pronounced the most sung songwriter in the world. In 2017, he became only the fourth artist to receive the Sound Exchange Digital Radio Award for surpassing a billion digital radio streams, and in 2018, he became the first Christian artist to receive the Billionaire award from Pandora for reaching a billion Pandora streams.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Throughout his career, Chris Tomlin has been nominated to 32 Dove Awards (6 of them collaborative efforts) and won 19 of them.


title: Chris Tomlin

text: Tomlin was nominated for two 2009 Visionary Award: Male Entertainer of the Year and Song of the Year for "Jesus Messiah".


title: Nitrogen oxide

text: Nitrogen oxide may refer to a binary compound of oxygen and nitrogen, or a mixture of such compounds:


title: Nitrogen oxide

text: Due to relatively weak N–O bonding, all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to and , which is the principle behind the catalytic converter and prevents the combustion of the atmosphere.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Psycho is a 1959 horror novel by American writer Robert Bloch. The novel tells the story of Norman Bates, a caretaker at an isolated motel who struggles under his domineering mother and becomes embroiled in a series of murders. The novel is considered Bloch's most enduring work and one of the most influential horror books of the 20th century.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: The story was famously adapted into Alfred Hitchcock's seminal 1960 film of the same name, and also loosely adapted into the "Bates Motel" television series (2013–2017). Bloch later wrote three sequels, which are unrelated to any of the film sequels.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Norman Bates, a middle-aged bachelor, is dominated by his mother, a mean-tempered, puritanical old woman who forbids him to have a life outside of her. They run a small motel together in the town of Fairvale, but business has suffered since the state relocated the highway. In the middle of a heated argument between them, a customer arrives, a young woman named Mary Crane.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Mary is on the run after impulsively stealing $40,000 from a client of the real estate company where she works. She stole the money so her boyfriend, Sam Loomis, can pay off his debts and they can finally get married. Mary arrives at the Bates Motel after accidentally turning off the main highway. After checking in, she accepts Bates's invitation to have dinner with him at his house, an invitation that sends Mrs. Bates into a jealous rage; she screams, "I'll kill the bitch!", which Mary overhears.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: During dinner, Mary gently suggests that Bates put his mother in a mental institution, but he denies there is anything wrong with her; "We all go a little mad sometimes", he says. Mary says goodnight and returns to her room, resolving to return the money so she will not end up like Bates. Moments later, however, a figure resembling an old woman frightens Mary in the shower with a butcher knife, and then beheads her.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Bates, who had passed out drunk after dinner, returns to the motel and finds Mary's bloody corpse. He is instantly convinced his mother killed her. He briefly considers letting her go to prison, but changes his mind after having a nightmare in which she sinks in quicksand, only to turn into him as she goes under. His mother comes to comfort him, and he decides to dispose of Mary's body, belongings, and car in the swamp, and go on with life as usual.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Meanwhile, Mary's sister, Lila, tells Sam of her sister's disappearance. They are soon joined by Milton Arbogast, a private investigator hired by Mary's boss to retrieve the money. Sam and Lila agree to let Arbogast lead the search for Mary. Arbogast eventually meets up with Bates, who says that Mary had left after one night; when he asks to talk with his mother, Bates refuses. This arouses Arbogast's suspicion, and he calls Lila and tells her that he is going to try to talk to Mrs. Bates. When he enters the house, the same mysterious figure who killed Mary ambushes him in the foyer, and kills him with a razor.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Sam and Lila go to Fairvale to look for Arbogast, and meet with the town sheriff, who tells them that Mrs. Bates has been dead for years, having committed suicide by poisoning her lover and herself. The young Norman had a nervous breakdown after finding them and was sent for a time to a mental institution. Sam and Lila go to the motel to investigate. Sam distracts Bates while Lila goes to get the sheriff—but she actually proceeds up to the house to investigate on her own. There she finds various books on occultism, abnormal psychology, metaphysics, and Marquis de Sade, in his bedroom. During a conversation with Sam, Bates says that his mother had only "pretended" to be dead, and had communicated with him while he was in the institution. Bates then tells Sam that Lila tricked him and went up to the house and that his mother was waiting for her. Bates knocks Sam unconscious with a liquor bottle that he has been drinking from. At the house, Lila is horrified to discover Mrs. Bates' mummified corpse on the floor, in the fruit cellar. As she screams, a figure rushes into the room with a knife—Norman Bates, dressed in his mother's clothes. Sam regains consciousness, enters the room and subdues Norman before he can harm Lila.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: At the police station, Sam talks to a psychiatrist who had examined Bates, while the county highway crew is out dredging the swamp to uncover the automobiles, revealing the bodies of Mary and Arbogast; a media frenzy imagines countless additional victims to be uncovered if the swamp is further drained, but "the newspaper writers didn't have to foot the bill for such a project." Sam learns that Bates and his mother had lived together in a state of total codependence ever since his father deserted them when he was still a young child. Along the way, introverted, awkward, and filled with seething rage, Norman became a secret transvestite, impersonating his mother. A bookworm, he became fascinated with the occult, spiritualism, and Satanism. When his mother took a lover named Joe Considine, Bates went over the edge with jealousy and poisoned them both, forging a suicide note in his mother's handwriting. To suppress the guilt of matricide, he developed an alternate personality—his mother, who is as cruel and possessive as the real Mrs. Bates had been. He retrieved her corpse from the cemetery and preserved it and, whenever the illusion was threatened, would get drunk, dress in her clothes and speak to himself in her voice. The "Mother" personality killed Mary because "she" was jealous of Norman feeling affection for another woman.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Bates is declared psychotic and put in a mental institution for life. Days later, the "Mother" personality completely takes over Bates's mind; he virtually "becomes" his mother. "She" blames Norman for the murders, and resolved to stay quiet and still in order to show Heather’s doctors at the institution that she "wouldn’t even harm a fly".


title: Psycho (novel)

text: In November 1957, two years before "Psycho" was first published, Ed Gein was arrested in his hometown of Plainfield, Wisconsin for the murders of two women. When police searched his home, they found furniture, silverware, and even clothing made of human skin and body parts. Psychiatrists examining him theorized that he was trying to make a "woman suit" to wear so he could pretend to be his dead mother, whom neighbors described as a puritan who dominated her son.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: At the time of Gein's arrest, Bloch was living away from Plainfield in Weyauwega. Though Bloch was not aware of the Gein case at that time, he began writing with "the notion that the man next door may be a monster unsuspected even in the gossip-ridden microcosm of small-town life". The novel, one of several Bloch wrote about insane killers, was almost completed when Gein and his activities were revealed, so Bloch inserted a line alluding to Gein into one of the final chapters. Bloch was surprised years later when news of Gein's living in isolation with a religiously fanatical mother came to his attention. Bloch "discovered how closely the imaginary character I'd created resembled the real Ed Gein both in overt act and apparent motivation".


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Bloch wrote two sequels, "Psycho II" (1982) and "Psycho House" (1990); neither was related to the film sequels. In the novel "Psycho II", Bates escapes the asylum disguised as a nun and makes his way to Hollywood. Universal Pictures allegedly did not want to film it because of its social commentary on splatter films. In the novel "Psycho House", murders begin again when the Bates Motel is reopened as a tourist attraction.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: A fourth installment, titled "Robert Bloch's Psycho: Sanitarium" written by Chet Williamson, was released in 2016. The book is set between the events of the original novel and "Psycho II", recounting the events which took place in a state hospital for the criminally insane where Bates is a patient.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: Bloch's novel was adapted in 1960 into the feature film by director Alfred Hitchcock. It was written by Joseph Stefano and starred Anthony Perkins as Bates and Janet Leigh in an Academy Award-nominated performance as Marion Crane (changed from "Mary" for the film, as there was a Mary Crane in Phoenix at that time). Hitchcock helped devise a promotional and marketing scheme for his film that insisted that critics would not get advance screenings, and that no one would be admitted into the theater after the film had begun. The promotional scheme also exhorted audiences not to reveal the twist ending. Twenty-three years after the release of Hitchcock's film and three years after the director's death came the first of three sequels, all featuring Perkins.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: After "Psycho III", there was also a television pilot named "Bates Motel", in which Bates briefly appears played by another actor. It is not in continuity with the final sequel "". Gus Van Sant directed a 1998 remake of the original film in which virtually every camera angle and line of dialogue was duplicated from the original. It starred Vince Vaughn as Bates and Anne Heche as Marion Crane. It was reviled by critics and performed poorly at the box office.


title: Psycho (novel)

text: A "contemporary prequel" television series, "Bates Motel" was developed by Carlton Cuse, Kerry Ehrin, and Anthony Cipriano. Starring Vera Farmiga as Norma Bates and Freddie Highmore as Norman Bates, the series ran from 2013 to 2017.


title: Giffen good

text: In economics and consumer theory, a Giffen good is a product that people consume more of as the price rises and vice versa—violating the basic law of demand in microeconomics. For any other sort of good, as the price of the good rises, the substitution effect makes consumers purchase less of it, and more of substitute goods; for most goods, the income effect (due to the effective decline in available income due to more being spent on existing units of this good) reinforces this decline in demand for the good. But a Giffen good is so strongly an inferior good in the minds of consumers (being more in demand at lower incomes) that this contrary income effect more than offsets the substitution effect, and the net effect of the good's price rise is to increase demand for it. This phenomenon is known as the Giffen paradox. A Giffen good is considered to be the opposite of an ordinary good.


title: Giffen good

text: Giffen goods are named after Scottish economist Sir Robert Giffen, to whom Alfred Marshall attributed this idea in his book "Principles of Economics", first published in 1890. Giffen first proposed the paradox from his observations of the purchasing habits of the Victorian era poor.


title: Giffen good

text: It has been suggested by Etsusuke Masuda and Peter Newman that Simon Gray described "Gray goods" in his 1815 text entitled "The Happiness of States: Or An Inquiry Concerning Population, The Modes of Subsisting and Employing It, and the Effects of All on Human Happiness". The chapter entitled "A Rise in the Price of Bread Corn, beyond a certain Pitch, tends to increase the Consumption of it," contains a detailed account of what have come to be called Giffen goods, and which might better be called Gray goods.


title: Giffen good

text: For almost all products, the demand curve has a negative slope: as the price increases, demand for the good decreases. (See Supply and demand for background.) Giffen goods are an exception to this general rule. Unlike other goods or services, the price point at which supply and demand meet results in higher prices and greater demand whenever market forces recognize a change in supply and demand for Giffen goods. As a result, when price goes up, the quantity demanded also goes up. To be a true Giffen good, the good's price must be the only thing that changes to produce a change in quantity demanded. A Giffen good should not be confused with products bought as status symbols or for conspicuous consumption (Veblen goods), although there may be some overlap as consumers are more likely to engage in conspicuous consumption as a way to engage in "aspirational spending" as a way to increase their social status.


title: Giffen good

text: The classic example given by Marshall is of inferior quality staple foods, whose demand is driven by poverty that makes their purchasers unable to afford superior foodstuffs. As the price of the cheap staple rises, they can no longer afford to supplement their diet with better foods, and must consume more of the staple food.


title: Giffen good

text: If precondition #1 is changed to "The goods in question must be so inferior that the income effect is greater than the substitution effect" then this list defines necessary and sufficient conditions. The last condition is a condition on the buyer rather than the goods itself, and thus the phenomenon is also called a "Giffen behavior".


title: Giffen good

text: This can be illustrated with a diagram. Initially the consumer has the choice between spending their income on either commodity Y or commodity X as defined by line segment MN (where M = total available income divided by the price of commodity Y, and N = total available income divided by the price of commodity X). The line MN is known as the consumer's budget constraint. Given the consumer's preferences, as expressed in the indifference curve I, the optimum mix of purchases for this individual is point A.


title: Giffen good

text: A price drop for commodity X causes two effects. The reduced price alters relative prices in favour of commodity X, known as the substitution effect. This is illustrated by a movement down the indifference curve from point A to point B (a pivot of the budget constraint about the original indifference curve). At the same time, the price reduction increases consumer purchasing power, known as the income effect (an outward shift of the budget constraint). This is illustrated by the shifting out of the dotted line to MP (where P = income divided by the new price of commodity X). The substitution effect (point A to point B) raises the quantity demanded of commodity X from X to X while the income effect lowers the quantity demanded from X to X. The net effect is a reduction in quantity demanded from X to X making commodity X a Giffen good by definition. Any good where the income effect more than compensates for the substitution effect is a Giffen good.


title: Giffen good

text: Evidence for the existence of Giffen goods has generally been limited. A 2008 paper by Robert Jensen and Nolan Miller made the claim that rice and wheat/noodles are Giffen goods in parts of China.


title: Giffen good

text: Another 2008 paper by the same authors experimentally demonstrated the existence of Giffen goods among people at the household level by directly subsidizing purchases of rice and wheat flour for extremely poor families. In this paper, the field experiment conducted in 2017 consisted of the province of Hunan, where rice is a dietary staple, and the province of Gansu, where wheat is a staple. In both provinces, random households were selected and were offered their dietary staple at subsidized rates. After the completion of the project, it could be found that the demands from Hunan households who are offered by the rice fell drastically. Meanwhile, the demands of wheat in Gansu implies weak evidence of the Giffen paradox. It is easier to find Giffen effects where the number of goods available is limited, as in an experimental economy: DeGrandpre et al. (1993) provide such an experimental demonstration in human subjects. In this study, cigarette smokers chose between puffs on their preferred brand and puffs on a cheaper, inferior one with equal nicotine. As the price of the inferior brand increased, smokers purchased more of them, thereby maintaining nicotine levels.


title: Giffen good

text: In 1991, Battalio, Kagel, and Kogut published an article arguing that quinine water is a Giffen good for some lab rats. However, they were only able to show the existence of a Giffen good at an individual level and not the market level.


title: Giffen good

text: Giffen goods are difficult to study because the definition requires a number of observable conditions. One reason for the difficulty in studying market demand for Giffen goods is that Giffen originally envisioned a specific situation faced by individuals in poverty. Modern consumer behaviour research methods often deal in aggregates that average out income levels, and are too blunt an instrument to capture these specific situations. Complicating the matter are the requirements for limited availability of substitutes, as well as that the consumers are not so poor that they can only afford the inferior good. For this reason, many text books use the term "Giffen paradox" rather than "Giffen good."


title: Giffen good

text: Some types of premium goods (such as expensive French wines, or celebrity-endorsed perfumes) are sometimes called Giffen goods—via the claim that lowering the price of these high status goods decreases demand because they are no longer perceived as exclusive or high status products. However, to the extent that the perceived nature of such high status goods actually changes significantly with a substantial price drop, this behavior disqualifies them from being considered Giffen goods, because the Giffen goods analysis assumes that only the consumer's income or the relative price level changes, not the nature of the good itself. If a price change modifies consumers' perception of the good, they should be analysed as Veblen goods. Some economists question the empirical validity of the distinction between Giffen and Veblen goods, arguing that whenever there is a substantial change in the price of a good its perceived nature also changes, since price is a large part of what constitutes a product. However the theoretical distinction between the two types of analysis remains clear, which one should apply to any actual case is an empirical matter. Based on microeconomic consumer theory, it assumes that the consumer could value a good without knowing the price. However, when the consumers who were constrained by income and price need to choose the optimal goods, the goods must be valued with available prices. Because, in some degrees, the higher price indicates higher values of goods offering to the consumers.


title: Giffen good

text: Potatoes during the Irish Great Famine were once considered to be an example of a Giffen good. Along with the Famine, the price of potatoes and meat increased subsequently. Compared to meat, it is obvious that potatoes could be much cheaper as a staple food. Due to poverty, individuals could not afford meat anymore; therefore, demand for potatoes increased. Under such a situation, the supply curve will increase with the rise in potatoes’ price, which is consistent with the definition of Giffen good. However, Gerald P. Dwyer and Cotton M. Lindsey challenged this idea in their 1984 article "Robert Giffen and the Irish Potato", where they showed the contradicting nature of the Giffen "legend" with respect to historical evidence.


title: Giffen good

text: The Giffen nature of the Irish potato was also later discredited by Sherwin Rosen of the University of Chicago in his 1999 paper "Potato Paradoxes". Rosen showed that the phenomenon could be explained by a normal demand model.


title: Giffen good

text: Charles Read has shown with quantitative evidence that bacon pigs showed Giffen-style behaviour during the Irish Famine, but that potatoes did not.


title: Giffen good

text: Some suggest that a number of other goods, such as cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, rising prices on which fuels further demands, might be Giffen. Given limited supply of cryptocurrencies due to costly currency mining in time, resources and electricity, in relation to the supply curve of potatoes, the curve for bitcoins could be very inelastic as well. While the arguments are theoretically sound (i.e., they accord with Marshall's basic intuition), in each case the supporting empirical evidence has been found unconvincing. As with the Great Famine in Ireland, the emergence of new cryptocurrency and advanced technologies on mining currencies would push back the value of bitcoins. Besides, hackers could be a potential threat to the value of cryptocurrencies, which would break the situation.


title: Giffen good

text: Anthony Bopp (1983) proposed that kerosene, a low-quality fuel used in home heating, was a Giffen good. Schmuel Baruch and Yakar Kanai (2001) suggested that "shochu", a Japanese distilled beverage, "might" be a Giffen good. In both cases, the authors offered supporting econometric evidence. However, the empirical evidence has been generally considered incomplete. In a 2005 article, Sasha Abramsky of "The Nation" conjectured that gasoline, in certain circumstances, may act as a Giffen good. However, no supporting evidence was offered, and evidence from the large increases in oil prices in 2008 would suggest that quantity demanded for gasoline did actually fall as a result of increased prices. Of course, the lack of evidence at the aggregate level does not rule out that the proposed goods may have been Giffen for certain groups of consumers—in particular for poor consumers. As shown by Hildenbrand's model, the aggregate demand will not exhibit any Giffen behavior even when we assume the same preferences for each consumer, whose nominal wealth are uniformly distributed on an interval containing zero. This explains the presence of Giffen-like behavior for individual consumers but the absence of aggregate data.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: William Morgan Sheppard (24 August 1932 – 6 January 2019) was an English actor who appeared in over 100 films and television programmes, in a career that spanned over 50 years.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard graduated from the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in 1958, before spending 12 years as an associate artist with the Royal Shakespeare Company. He appeared on Broadway in "Marat/Sade" (1966) and in "Sherlock Holmes" (1975). He won the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for "The Homecoming" in 1995.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard starred in several episodes of different series of "Star Trek", notably ""s "" and ""s "". In the feature film "", his role was the warden of a Klingon gulag and in the 2009 reboot "Star Trek", he played a member of the Vulcan High Council, but was uncredited.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Outside of "Star Trek", he is best known for his role as Blank Reg on "Max Headroom" and his role as the Confederate general Isaac R. Trimble in the films "Gettysburg" and "Gods and Generals".


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard appeared in two roles on the science-fiction series "Babylon 5", in the episode titled "Soul Hunter", playing the eponymous character and also played Narn war leader G'Sten, an uncle of main character G'Kar, in "The Long Twilight Struggle". He was also a runner-up for the role of Ambassador G'Kar on the series, though the role eventually went to Andreas Katsulas.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard was one of several "Star Trek" actors who voiced characters on the animated series "Gargoyles", wherein he played the father of Jonathan Frakes' character David Xanatos and the Norse god Odin.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard and his son, Mark Sheppard, acted together in a few productions. Sheppard appeared in the television series "NCIS", in the season six episode "Broken Bird", where he played the older version of a man named Marcin Jerek, while his son played the younger version. He appeared in the opening episode of series six of "Doctor Who", "The Impossible Astronaut", playing the character Canton Everett Delaware III. He portrayed an older version of Delaware, while his son portrayed the younger version in the same episode. He and his son are among the few actors who have appeared in both the "Star Trek" and "Doctor Who" franchises.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: In December 2009, Sheppard voiced the part of Santa in Disney's Christmas special "Prep & Landing". Following that, he returned as the voice of Santa in the sequels, "" and "". On 4 December 2010, Sheppard appeared on Hallmark Channel Original Films "Farewell Mr. Kringle" as Kris Kringle.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard voiced several characters in video games. He narrated the introductions and mission briefings for the first four installments of the "Medal of Honor" video-game series. He was cast in the 1996 adventure game "Zork Nemesis", playing the live-action role of Bishop Francois Malveaux, one of the four alchemists central to the plot of the game. In 2000, he voiced the character Ignatius Cheese in the game "Escape from Monkey Island". Sheppard voiced over for the character John Adams in the Wii game "The Conduit". He provided the voice for the character Lucky in the 2002 Xbox (console) game "Whacked!". On 4 August 2010, Sheppard was announced as the voice actor for the video game "Civilization V". and provided the voice overs for loading screens, victory screens, built wonders, and newly researched technologies.


title: W. Morgan Sheppard

text: Sheppard and wife Regina were the parents of actor Mark Sheppard. Sheppard died on 6 January 2019, in Los Angeles, California, aged 86.


title: Beef cattle

text: Beef cattle are cattle raised for meat production (as distinguished from dairy cattle, used for milk production). The meat of mature or almost mature cattle is mostly known as beef.


title: Beef cattle

text: In beef production there are three main stages: cow-calf operations, backgrounding, and feedlot operations. The production cycle of the animals starts at cow-calf operations; this operation is designed specifically to breed cows for their offspring. From here the calves are backgrounded for a feedlot. Animals grown specifically for the feedlot are known as feeder cattle, the goal of these animals is fattening. Animals not grown for a feedlot are typically female and are commonly known as replacement heifers.


title: Beef cattle

text: While the principal use of beef cattle is meat production, other uses include leather, and beef by-products used in candy, shampoo, cosmetics, and insulin.


title: Beef cattle

text: Besides breeding to meet the demand for beef production, owners also use selective breeding to attain specific traits in their beef cattle. An example of a desired trait could be leaner meat or resistance to illness. Breeds known as dual-purpose are also used for beef production. These breeds have been selected for two purposes at once, such as both beef and dairy production, or both beef and draught. Dual-purpose breeds include many of the Zebu breeds of India such as Tharparkar and Ongole Cattle. There are multiple continental breeds that were bred for this purpose as well. The original Simmental/Fleckvieh from Switzerland is a prime example. Not only are they a dual-purpose breed for beef and dairy, but in the past they were also used for draught. However, throughout the generations, the breed has diverged into two groups through selective breeding.


title: Beef cattle

text: Most beef cattle are mated naturally, whereby a bull is released into a cowherd approximately 55 days after the calving period, depending on the cows' body condition score (BCS). If it was a cow's first time calving, she will take longer to re-breed by at least 10 days. However, beef cattle can also be bred through artificial insemination, depending on the cow and the size of the herd. Cattle are normally bred during the summer so that calving may occur the following spring. However, cattle breeding can occur at other times of year. Depending on the operation, calving may occur all year round. Owners can select the breeding time based on a number of factors, including reproductive performance, seasonal cattle pricing and handling facilities.


title: Beef cattle

text: There are many factors that come into play when selecting for a bull. Some of the most important factors are disease prevention/spread. Buying a bull who hasn't been tested for common diseases is a risk, it would more than likely transmit to a whole herd. Purchasing genetics that will improve the original herd rather than remaining the same or decreasing. Some breed for mothering abilities, some for size, some for meat properties, etc. Breeding Soundness Examination or BSE are essential to the quality of any bull, a general physical exam and inspection of both the genital organs and their productivity. Knowing more information about the animal will help make an educated decision.


title: Beef cattle

text: Cattle handlers are expected to maintain a low stress environment for their herds, involving constant safety, health, comfort, nourishment and humane handling. According to the Canadian National Farm Animal Care Council, beef cattle must have access to shelter from extreme weather, safe handling and equipment, veterinary care and humane slaughter.


title: Beef cattle

text: If an animal is infected or suspected to have an illness, it is the responsibility of the owners to report it immediately to a practicing veterinarian for either treatment or euthanasia. Depending on a multitude of factors (season, type of production system, stocking density, etc.), illness and disease can spread quickly through the herd from animal to animal. Owners are expected to monitor their cattle's condition regularly for early detection and treatment, as some cattle illnesses can threaten both cattle and human health (known as zoonotic) as witnessed with Mad cow disease and Tuberculosis.


title: Beef cattle

text: On average, cattle will consume 1.4 to 4% of their body weight daily. There are a range of types of feed available for these animals. The standard text in the United States, "Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle", has been through eight editions over at least seventy years. The 1996 seventh edition substituted the concept of "metabolizeable protein" for the sixth edition's "crude protein". In the 20th century, Canadian practice followed the American guidance. Already in 1970, the Food and Drug Administration was regulating pharmaceutical supplements in beef cattle feed such as hormones and prophylactic antibiotics.


title: Beef cattle

text: Some animals live on pasture their entire lives and therefore only experience fresh grass, these are typically cow-calf operations in more tropical climates. Backgrounded calves and feedlot animals tend to have different diets that contain more grain than the pasture type. Grain is more expensive than pasture but the animals grow faster with the higher protein levels. Since cattle are herbivores and need roughage in their diet, silage, hay and/or haylage are all viable feed options.


title: Beef cattle

text: Despite this 3/4th of the 32 pounds (14.52 kg) of feed cattle consume each day will be corn. Cattle weighing 1000 lbs. will drink an average of 41 L a day, and approximately 82 L in hot weather. They need a constant supply of good quality feed and potable water according to the 5 Freedoms of Animal Welfare.


title: Beef cattle

text: Most Beef cattle are finished in feedlots. The first feedlots were constructed in the early 1950s. Some of these feedlots grew so large they warranted a new designation, "Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation" (CAFO). Most American beef cattle spend the last half of their lives in a CAFO.


title: Beef cattle

text: A steer that weighs when alive makes a carcass weighing approximately , once the blood, head, feet, skin, offal and guts are removed. The carcass is then hung in a cold room for between one and four weeks, during which time it loses some weight as water dries from the meat. It is then deboned and cut by a butcher or packing house, the carcass would make about of beef. Depending on what cuts of meat are desired, there is a scale of marbled meat used to determine the quality. Marbling is the fat that is within the muscle, not around it. The more marbled a cut is, the higher it will grade and be worth more.


title: Beef cattle

text: Slaughtering of livestock has three distinct stages: preslaughter handling, stunning and slaughtering. The biggest concern is preslaughter handling, how the animal is treated before it is stunned and slaughtered. Stress at this time can cause adverse effects on the meat, water access and lower stocking densities have been allowed to minimize this. However, access to feed is restricted for 12–24 hours prior to slaughtering for ease of evisceration. Stunning is done when the animal is restrained in a chute so movement is limited. Once restrained the animal can be stunned in one of three methods: penetrating captive bolt, non-penetrating captive bolt and gunshot. Most abattoirs use captive bolts over guns. Stunning ensures the animal feels no pain during slaughtering and reduces the animals stress, therefore increasing the quality of meat. The final step is slaughtering, typically the animal will be hung by its back leg and its throat will be slit to allow exsanguination. The hide will be removed for further processing at this point and the animal will be broken down with evisceration and decapitation. The carcass will be placed in a cooler for 24–48 hours prior to meat cutting.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: Thiruda Thiruda () is a 1993 Indian Tamil-language black comedy caper film directed by Mani Ratnam written along with Ram Gopal Varma. The film stars Prashanth, Anand, Anu Aggarwal and Heera Rajagopal while S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and Salim Ghouse play supporting roles. The film's soundtrack and background score were composed by A. R. Rahman while the cinematography was handled by P. C. Sriram. In 1994, the film premièred at the Toronto International Film Festival. It also won the National Film Award for Best Special Effects.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: Printed Indian currency from the Reserve Bank of India security press at Nasik with an estimated value of 1000 crores, is stolen from a train by T. T. Vikram, a gangster and drug dealer living in London. The container is shipped off by Vikram's henchman and is on the move. The access card of the container goes to the possession of pop star Chandralekha, an acquaintance of Vikram. CBI SP Lakshminarayanan is assigned to track down the stolen currency within the next ten days, on time for the upcoming budget allotment for the fiscal year.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: Lakshminarayanan tracks down Chandralekha who tactfully escapes from him and tries to reach Vikram, when she comes across two small time burglars – Kadhir and Azhagu. The duo are on the run from the police after a successful burglary in the countryside. A village belle Rasathi, who tries to escape from her abusive relatives also tags along with the thieving duo. Chandralekha and the trio end up traveling together due to circumstances. When Chandralekha tries to double cross the thieves and escape, they steal her purse containing the access card as revenge. Realizing this, she comes back to them and only then does the duo realize the actual worth of the access card. They all make a plan to pursue the money container somehow, but Vikram tries to chase down and kill all of them to get the card back at any cost.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: While on the run from the police and Vikram, they come across the very same truck containing the loot and manage to bring it under their possession. They hide it away from prying eyes with the entirety of the loot still intact inside the container. With Lakshminarayanan and his brigade of CBI officers close at his tail, Vikram stops at nothing to get his loot back, but is outwitted repeatedly by the thieves. Vikram finally manages to find Chandralekha, gets the access card from her and she is left to die in the forest, but is rescued and taken into custody by Lakshminarayanan, who interrogates her and she cooperates with them to find the container.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: Meanwhile, Kadhir and Rasathi are mutually attracted to each other but Kadhir sacrifices his love for her after realizing that his best friend Azhagu is also in love with Rasathi. Rasathi, who does not want to continue with this love triangle, opts out and leaves them both, but Vikram captures her. Kadhir and Azhagu, in a bid to save her, point to the location of the currency container and Vikram escapes with the loot on a train, taking Rasathi as a hostage.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: Lakshminarayanan finds that the loot is being transported on a train and is in hot pursuit, while Kadhir and Azhagu also get on the train to save Rasathi from Vikram. They save Rasathi together and subdue Vikram, who falls off the train. Azhagu also steals the access card from him. Now that they are finally in possession of the loot, Kadhir and Azhagu playfully argue about who would marry Rasathi and leave the other to manage the loot, each indicating that they are more interested in the money than their love for Rasathi, so she grabs the access card and throws it away and chases them around.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: Lakshminarayanan arrives at the nick of time and takes the access card and the currency container back to the Indian government where it actually belongs and finally restores order.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: In late 1992, Mani Ratnam chose to make the caper film "Thiruda Thiruda" as his first directorial venture under his newly set-up production studio, Aalayam Productions, alongside his co-producer Sriram. When writing the script of the film, Mani Ratnam went on a recce with Ram Gopal Varma and both filmmakers spent a few days each fine-tuning each other's scripts. While Varma worked on parts of "Thiruda Thiruda", Mani Ratnam helped script Varma's political thriller film, "Gaayam" (1993). With the script of "Thiruda Thiruda", he wanted to attempt the caper genre for the first time and took Rajasekhar's "Vikram" (1986) and Varma's "Kshana Kshanam" (1991) as his initial inspirations. He was also inspired by the ongoing financial scandal involving stockbroker Harshad Mehta, which had made Indian national news during early 1992 and chose to adapt his script accordingly. The American film "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" (1969) was another influence on "Thiruda Thiruda".


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: J. D. Chakravarthy was initially meant to play the role of Kadhir before Anand was selected. Salim Ghouse, a renowned theatre artist, was roped into play an antagonist. Before finalising Anu Aggarwal for a role, Mani Ratnam considered Dimple Kapadia but opted against signing her as he wanted to select an actress new to Tamil cinema. Actress Meena were also approached for role in the film but refused the opportunity due to other commitments K. V. Anand was among P. C. Sriram's assistant cinematographers in the film.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: "Thiruda Thiruda" was released on 13 November 1993. Malini Mannath wrote for "The Indian Express" on 19 November, ""Thiruda Thiruda" is a technique conscious film that may seem sparkling and wondrous to the technique crazy cine-goer though it never really takes off after the interval." The film won the National Film Award for Best Special Effects and National Film Award for Best Choreography for Sundaram.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: The soundtrack features 8 songs composed by A. R. Rahman, with lyrics by Vairamuthu. The film's songs are notable for two reasons—the introduction of relatively unknown vocalists into mainstream Tamil playback singing and the extensive use of experimental sounds in South Indian cinema. While vocalist Annupamaa in the technopop song "Chandralekha" and the Chinese singer Caroline in "Thee Thee" sang their first mainstream songs, the late singer Shahul Hameed was roped in to sing the A capella number "Raasathi". The song "Veerapandi Kottayile" became a big hit across South India.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: The lyrics for Tamil version was penned by Vairamuthu, while Rajashri and P. K. Mishra penned lyrics for Telugu and Hindi versions.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: The song "Kannum Kannum" was also sampled in Hindi as "Kunjam Kunjam Pyar Ki Baatein" for the film album "Deewana Sanam". This sampled version has S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and S. Janaki as the singers and Nikhil-Vinay as the composer.


title: Thiruda Thiruda

text: The song "Kannum Kannum" inspired a 2020 film titled "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal". A film with the same name had earlier been planned by Pandiarajan in 2002, but was later shelved.


title: Contingency theory

text: A contingency theory is an organizational theory that claims that there is no best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions. Instead, the optimal course of action is contingent (dependent) upon the internal and external situation.


title: Contingency theory

text: Contingent leaders are flexible in choosing and adapting to succinct strategies to suit change in situation at a particular period in time in the running of the organization.


title: Contingency theory

text: The contingency approach to leadership was influenced by two earlier research programs endeavoring to pinpoint effective leadership behavior. During the 1950s, researchers at Ohio State University administered extensive questionnaires measuring a range of possible leader behaviors in various organizational contexts. Although multiple sets of leadership behaviors were originally identified based on these questionnaires, two types of behaviors proved to be especially typical of effective leaders: (1) consideration leader behaviors that include building good rapport and interpersonal relationships and showing support and concern for subordinates and (2) initiating structure leader behaviors that provided structure (e.g., role assignment, planning, scheduling) to ensure task completion and goal attainment.


title: Contingency theory

text: About the same time, investigators from the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center conducted interviews and distributed questionnaires in organizations and collected measures of group productivity to assess effective leadership behaviors. The leadership behavior categories that emerged from the University of Chicago were similar to the consideration and initiating structure behaviors identified by the Ohio State studies. The University of Michigan investigators, however, termed these leadership behaviors "relation-oriented behavior" and "task-oriented behavior". This line of research was later extended by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 to suggest that effective leaders score high on both these behaviors.


title: Contingency theory

text: They suggested that previous theories such as Weber's bureaucracy and, Taylor's scientific management had failed because they neglected that management style and organizational structure were influenced by various aspects of the environment: the contingency factors. There could not be "one best way" for leadership or organization.


title: Contingency theory

text: Historically, contingency theory has sought to formulate broad generalizations about the formal structures that are typically associated with or best fit the use of different technologies. The perspective originated with the work of Joan Woodward (1958), who argued that technologies directly determine differences in such organizational attributes as span of control, centralization of authority, and the formalization of rules and procedure.


title: Contingency theory

text: In Fiedler’s piece from 1993, he describes how two main factors contribute to effective or successful leadership and points them out as “the personality of the leader and the degree to which the situation gives the leader power, control and influence over the situation” (p. 333-334). Leadership personality can be broken up into two main motivation schools of thought for leaders. Leaders can be task motivated or relationship motivated. The way that Fiedler suggests individuals determine their motivation preference is through the Least Preferred Co-Worker Score or LPC. The second aspect that Fielder says determines success is the specific situation and the degree to which the leader feels in control of the outcome of their actions.


title: Contingency theory

text: Fred Fiedler's contingency model focused on a contingency model of leadership in organizations. This model contains the relationship between leadership style and the favorable-ness of the situation. Fielder developed a metric to measure a leader's style called the Least Preferred Co-worker. The test consists of 16-22 items they are to rate on a scale of one to eight as they think of a co-worker they had the most difficulty working with. A high score indicates the test taker is relational in style and a low score indicates the test taker is more task orientated in style. Situational favorable-ness was described by Fiedler in terms of three empirically derived dimensions:


title: Contingency theory

text: William Richard Scott describes contingency theory in the following manner: "The best way to organize depends on the nature of the environment to which the organization must relate". The work of other researchers including Paul R. Lawrence, Jay Lorsch, and James D. Thompson complements this statement. They are more interested in the impact of contingency factors on organizational structure. Their structural contingency theory was the dominant paradigm of organizational structural theories for most of the 1970s. A major empirical test was furnished by Johannes M Pennings who examined the interaction between environmental uncertainty, organization structure and various aspects of performance. Pennings carried out an empirical study on a sample of retail brokerage offices in which aspects of their market environment such as competitiveness, change and munificence, versus organizational arrangements such as decision making templates, power distribution were juxtaposed for possible implications for performance. While structural attributes of offices strongly impacted performance, the evidence for "contingency" was less pronounced.


title: Contingency theory

text: It can be concluded that there is ‘no one best way’ or approach in management or doing things, different situation calls for different approach to handle, manage, and solve the arising issue concerned. Management and organization is an ‘Open system’, which embrace anomalies or challenges every now and then, which requires ‘adaptable’ and ‘situational’ solution in order to overcome or solve the problem or issue concerned. Other situational or contingency factors are ‘changes in customer demand for goods and services, change in government policy or law, change in environment or climate change, and so forth.


title: Contingency theory

text: The first major strength of the contingency theory is that it has the support of an abundance of empirical research (Peters, Hartke, & Pohlman, 1985; Strube & Garcia 1981). This is critical as it proves that the theory is reliable, based on various trials and research. The contingency theory is also beneficial as it widened our understanding of leadership, by persuading individuals to consider the various impacts of situations on leaders. Another strength of the contingency theory is its predictive nature that provides an understanding to the types of leaders that will be most effective in specific situations. This theory is also helpful, as it suggests that leaders do not have to be effective in all situations and that there are specific scenarios in which a leader might not be the perfect fit. The last major advantage of the contingency theory is that it provides concrete data on leadership styles, that is applicable to organizations developing their own leadership profiles.


title: José Fonte

text: José Miguel da Rocha Fonte (born 22 December 1983) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Ligue 1 club Lille and the Portugal national team.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte started his professional career with Sporting CP B, moving to England with Crystal Palace in 2007. He signed for Southampton in 2010, where he made 288 appearances in all competitions, until he joined West Ham United in January 2017. He then represented Dalian Yifang in China and Lille in France, winning the Ligue 1 title with the latter in the 2020–21 season.


title: José Fonte

text: A Portuguese international since age 30, Fonte was part of the squad at two UEFA European Championship and the 2018 FIFA World Cup, winning UEFA Euro 2016.


title: José Fonte

text: Born in Penafiel, Fonte finished his football education (after already having played there from ages 10 to 13) at Sporting CP. He only appeared with Sporting CP B as a senior, in the third division. He signed with Salgueiros in 2004, but the club was in severe financial difficulties and was liquidated shortly thereafter; as a result, he terminated his contract and transferred to Felgueiras in the Segunda Liga.


title: José Fonte

text: In the 2005 off-season, Fonte made his Primeira Liga debut with Vitória de Setúbal, where his performances attracted the eye of Benfica, who signed him in January 2006. He was immediately loaned out to fellow league team Paços de Ferreira. He finished the season with 26 league appearances and 1 goal, during a 2–2 away draw against Penafiel in which he also scored two in his own net– as both Paços and Setúbal managed to retain their status.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte spent the 2006–07 season on loan to Estrela da Amadora, still in the top division, only missing five league games as the Lisbon-based club finished in ninth position.


title: José Fonte

text: In July 2007, Fonte moved on loan to Crystal Palace in England, being introduced in the team's starting line-up after a run of injuries. The move was made permanent at the end of the 2007–08 season, as Palace finished fifth and qualified to the promotion play-offs.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte continued to feature regularly with the Londoners in the Football League Championship, even appearing as a makeshift striker when required.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte signed for Southampton on 9 January 2010 for a fee believed to be around the region of £1.2 million, signing a three-and-a-half-year contract. He made his debut one week later alongside two other recent signings, Jon Otsemobor and Danny Seaborne, in a 1–1 draw away to Millwall. His first goal for Southampton came on 28 August, in a 4–0 away win over Bristol Rovers.


title: José Fonte

text: After scoring seven league goals and helping Southampton win promotion to the second tier, Fonte was named in the League One Team of the Year for the 2010–11 season. He was also voted Southampton's Player of Year, achieving 64% of the vote, with Adam Lallana coming second with 18% and Dan Harding finishing third with 7%.


title: José Fonte

text: On 29 December 2011, Fonte signed a new contract keeping him at the club until June 2015. Southampton were top of the table when he signed, with the player having appeared in every league game at that point in the season. He eventually contributed 42 matches and 1 goal, which came against Coventry City in the final match of the season as the team earned a second consecutive promotion.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte made his debut in the Premier League on 19 August 2012, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–2 away loss to Manchester City. He netted his first goals in the competition in a 2–2 home draw with Fulham on 7 October, the second arriving in the last minute. On 24 August 2013, he scored a header in the 89th minute of the home game against Sunderland, rescuing a point for his team.


title: José Fonte

text: On 23 January 2014, Fonte was attacked by teammate Dani Osvaldo during a training session. Subsequently, the latter was loaned out to Juventus during the winter transfer window.


title: José Fonte

text: On 8 August 2014, Fonte penned a new three-year deal with Southampton running until June 2017, and was also named team captain. He made his 250th league appearance for the club on 16 October 2016, in a 3–1 home win against Burnley.


title: José Fonte

text: On 20 January 2017, Fonte signed for Premier League club West Ham United for a reported fee of £8 million (plus potential add-ons) on a two-and-a-half-year contract. He made his league debut on 1 February, in a 4–0 home defeat by Manchester City in which he conceded a penalty by bringing down Raheem Sterling.


title: José Fonte

text: On 4 November 2017, after a league match against one of his former teams, Crystal Palace, it was confirmed Fonte had suffered a foot injury that would sideline him for the rest of the year.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte completed a transfer to Chinese Super League club Dalian Yifang on 23 February 2018, joining for a reported fee of £5 million. On 15 July, he terminated his contract.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte signed for French Ligue 1 club Lille on 20 July 2018, signing a two-year contract. The 37-year-old captained the team to the 2020–21 Ligue 1 title, their first since 2010–11, making 36 appearances and scoring 3 goals in the process.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte was called up to the Portuguese B squad for the Vale do Tejo tournament in 2006. On 24 January, he played against Slovenia as the match ended with a penalty shoot-out loss after a 1–1 draw.


title: José Fonte

text: On 3 October 2014, aged nearly 31, Fonte received his first call-up to the senior team, for a friendly with France and a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier against Denmark. He made his debut in another friendly, playing the second half of a 1–0 win over Argentina at Old Trafford on 18 November.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte was selected by manager Fernando Santos for his Euro 2016 squad. His first game in the tournament took place on 25 June, as he started alongside Southampton teammate Cédric Soares in the round-of-16 tie against Croatia, which Portugal won 1–0 after extra time. He went on to retain his position until the final, in which Portugal beat the hosts France 1–0.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte was named in the final 23-man squads for both the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia and Portugal's victorious campaign in the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals, as well as the delayed UEFA Euro 2020, where he didn't manage to leave the bench.


title: José Fonte

text: On 9 October 2021, aged 37, Fonte scored his first goal for the national team, in a 3-0 home win over Qatar.


title: José Fonte

text: On 24 March 2022, aged 38, Fonte earned his 50th cap in Portugal's World Cup qualifying Play-off match, against Turkey, where he gave away a second-half penalty for a kick at Enes Ünal inside the penalty area. However, Burak Yılmaz, his teammate at Lille, missed the shot and the game ended 3–1 for Portugal, who then qualified for the final playoff game.


title: José Fonte

text: In October, he was named in Portugal's preliminary 55-man squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. However, he did not make the final cut.


title: José Fonte

text: Fonte's younger brother, Rui, is also a footballer. A forward, the two were teammates at Sporting (at youth level), Crystal Palace and Lille. Their father, Artur, played 12 seasons in the Portuguese top division.


title: José Fonte

text: "Scores and results list Portugal's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Fonte goal".


title: Daboo Malik

text: Israr Sardar "Daboo" Malik is an Indian music director, composer, singer, actor and scriptwriter in the Indian Music Industry. Malik was born in Bombay, Maharashtra to the veteran music director Sardar Malik.


title: Daboo Malik

text: Malik was born 21 January 1963 in Bombay, the second son of music director Sardar Malik and Bilqis Begum, sister of lyricist Hasrat Jaipuri. He has two brothers, Bollywood music director Anu Malik and Abu Malik. Uncle Hasrat Jaipuri (Malik's mother's brother) was a famous lyricist whose work spans from the 1950s to the 1980s.


title: Daboo Malik

text: After Malik completed his Bachelor of Commerce at Narsee Monjee College, in Mumbai, he followed his family's tradition. Malik pursued various artistic roles, such as singing, acting, and assisting Anu in directing music.


title: Daboo Malik

text: Daboo Malik was initially not interested in singing or composing music, preferring acting. In 1988, he pursued a small role of Devavratha in the TV series "Mahabharat" by B.R. Chopra, on DD National and furthered his career by acting in other movies such as, "Beta Ho To Aisa", "Tirangaa", and "Baazigar". In 2013, however, Malik switched to music—in an interview, he stated: "I was acting and unconsciously working on my inner talent of composing music. I realized I wasted a lot of time. I only wanted to pursue acting for stardom."


title: Daboo Malik

text: His first album as a solo music director, "Yeh Zindagi ka Safar", was released in 2001. The following year, he composed his first song "Thoda Sa Pyaar Hua Hai" for "Maine Dil Tujhko Diya", followed by more movie music such as "Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge" and "Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam" in 2002, "I Proud to Be an Indian" in 2004 and "Kisaan" in 2009.


title: Daboo Malik

text: Malik attributes the discovery of his talent as a music director, to Salim Khan. In a 2013 interview, Malik explained: "My meeting with Salim Khan is [sic] unforgettable. He found me similar to my dad's personality, and I sang for the first time in front of him. Salim told me right away that I’m born to become a composer. I get goosebumps even when I think about it now, as my conversation with Salim Khan changed everything, and my musical journey began."


title: Daboo Malik

text: In 2014, Malik further became both the composer and scriptwriter for a forthcoming musical thriller "W.", directed by Tarun Madan.


title: Daboo Malik

text: Daboo Malik is married to Jyothi Malik, They have two sons, Armaan Malik and Amaal Mallik. Both sons actively participate in the Bollywood industry. Armaan is a singer while Amaal is a music composer. .


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Mulholland Falls is a 1996 American neo-noir crime thriller film directed by Lee Tamahori, written by Pete Dexter, and starring an ensemble cast featuring Nick Nolte, Jennifer Connelly, Chazz Palminteri, Michael Madsen, Chris Penn, Melanie Griffith, Andrew McCarthy, Treat Williams, and John Malkovich.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Nolte plays the head of an elite group of four Los Angeles Police Department detectives (based on the real life "Hat Squad") who are known for stopping at nothing, including outright murder, to maintain control of their jurisdiction, with the tacit approval of the police chief (Bruce Dern). A similar theme is the basis of a 2012 film, "Gangster Squad" (in which Nolte and Chris's brother Sean Penn also appeared), as well as the television miniseries, "Mob City".


title: Mulholland Falls

text: In the early 1950s, a four-man squad of LAPD detectives, frustrated with the rules and weaknesses of the legal system stopping them from more aggressively battling crime, commit an extrajudicial execution when they toss Jack Flynn, a powerful gangster from Chicago, off a cliff on Mulholland Drive, nicknamed "Mulholland Falls" for all the criminals they have thrown to their deaths.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: The squad leader, Lieutenant Maxwell Hoover, and his partners Ellery Coolidge, Eddie Hall, and Arthur Relyea are brought in to investigate the suspicious death of a young woman whose body was found at a construction site. An examination reveals that every bone in her body is broken and the coroner comments that she looks as though she "jumped off a cliff" even though there are no cliffs nearby. The woman turns out to be someone Hoover knew very well: a prostitute named Allison Pond. The detectives receive a film of Allison having sex in a motel room, taken by a camera hidden behind a two-way mirror. Allison's friend, Jimmy Fields, admits that he and Allison made numerous such films, including one with Hoover in it. Fields is subsequently murdered while being guarded by Hall and Relyea.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Radioactive glass is found in Allison's foot, which leads the detectives to the Nevada Test Site, where they are quickly caught by base security. Their superior, Col. Fitzgerald, threatens to have the squad arrested and prosecuted for trespassing on a secret government facility, but the team is able to escape their predicament when the man in the film is identified as the civilian commander of the base, retired Gen. Thomas Timms. Timms, the head of the Atomic Energy Commission, confirms that he slept with Pond, but has an alibi for the day of her death. An FBI agent visits the LAPD and personally asks the chief to stop the investigation; when his request is denied, Hoover's house is ransacked by federal agents with a search warrant, who fail to recover the film. Hoover brutally assaults the FBI agent, after which another film is delivered to his wife Kate, showing her husband and Allison having sex in the motel.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: The blackmailer turns out to be Fitzgerald, who demands the film of Timms with Allison be brought to him. Hoover realizes that Fields' film footage of Allison also includes images of "atomic soldiers", American servicemen who were unwillingly used by Fitzgerald as guinea pigs for A-bomb tests before being transferred to a secure military hospital ward on his orders; the colonel intends to let them die so he can avoid being held accountable. Hoover and Coolidge fly to the base, and secretly deliver the film to Timms, who is terminally ill with cancer himself, so he can expose Fitzgerald's wrongdoing.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: For their return trip to Los Angeles, Hoover and Coolidge board a C-47 cargo plane, where they are joined by Fitzgerald and his aide, the Captain. During the flight, Hoover deduces how Pond was murdered and tells Coolidge that Fitzgerald is going to kill them the same way - by throwing them out of the plane in mid-flight. In a vicious struggle, the detectives fight for their lives. Coolidge charges the Captain as gunshots go off. The detectives are finally able to throw the Captain and Fitzgerald out of the plane, both falling to their deaths. The pilot is also accidentally shot, but manages a crash landing before he dies. Coolidge celebrates the landing until realizing that he, too, has been shot, also dying at the scene.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Hoover cannot reconcile with his wife at Coolidge's funeral because she feels betrayed and heartbroken, and afterwards, she leaves him for good. With the news that his unit has been disbanded in order to protect the LAPD's image, Hoover is left with nothing.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Principal photography took place in Los Angeles, Malibu and Desert Hot Springs in California as well as Wendover, Utah.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: "Mulholland Falls" opened in wide release in the United States on April 26, 1996. The box office receipts were poor, earning $4,306,221 (1,625 screens) and the total receipts for the run were $11,504,190. In its widest release, the film was featured in 1,625 theaters. The film was in circulation seven weeks (45 days).


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 31% of critics gave "Mulholland Falls" a positive review, based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 5.14/10. The website's critics consensus reads: ""Mulholland Falls" vacant characterizations and thin story undercuts its impressive cast and potent style, making for an empty exercise in noir posturing." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: "Chicago Sun-Times" film critic Roger Ebert, a fan of noir, liked "Mulholland Falls", writing: 'This is the kind of movie where every note is put in lovingly. It's a 1950s crime movie, but with a modern, ironic edge: The cops are just a shade over the top, just slightly in on the joke. They smoke all through the movie, but there's one scene where they're disturbed and thoughtful, and they all light up and smoke furiously, the smoke lit by the cinematographer to look like great billowing clouds, and you smile, because you know the scene is really about itself.'


title: Mulholland Falls

text: Kenneth Turan, film critic for the "Los Angeles Times", wrote that "Mulholland Falls" 'goes about its business without a trace of finesse', but he approved of the direction and the acting, especially the 'haunting presence' of Jennifer Connelly, writing, ""Mulholland Falls" combines a vivid sense of place with a visceral directorial style that fuses controlled fury onto everything it touches."


title: Mulholland Falls

text: In "The New York Times", Janet Maslin lauded "Mulholland Falls", writing wrote: 'Mr. Tamahori, who gives "Mulholland Falls" a smashing, insidious L.A.-noir style meant to recall "Chinatown", along with a high-testosterone swagger that is distinctively his own. This director's first Hollywood film has such punch, in fact, that it takes a while to realize how slight and sometimes noxious its concerns really are. But "Mulholland Falls" is so well cast and relentlessly stylish (thanks to some fine technical talent assembled here) that its sheer energy prevails over its shaky plot. After all, when a filmmaker can show Ms. Griffith contentedly reading "A Farewell to Arms," there's not much he won't do. So this film has all the "Chinatown" staples—dangerous sex, corrupt power and a vast environment-damaging conspiracy—along with mushroom clouds, porn movies, a crash-landing airplane and many quick bursts of one-on-one violence.'


title: Mulholland Falls

text: However, many reviewers echoed critic Peter Stack. Writing for the "San Francisco Chronicle", he noted: ""Mulholland Falls" falls flat a lot. The best of the old "noir" detective dramas had lively pacing and crisp tough-guy dialogue. This movie seems at times like an exercise in slow motion and in dull, cumbersome writing (the script is by novelist and former newspaper columnist Pete Dexter, who wrote the screenplay for "Rush")."


title: Mulholland Falls

text: On September 18, 1996, "Mulholland Falls" was released on VHS by MGM/UA Home Video, followed by a laserdisc release on May 27, 1997. In addition, it was re-released on DVD on November 2, 2004.


title: Mulholland Falls

text: The original score for the film was written and recorded by Dave Grusin. An original motion picture soundtrack CD was released on May 21, 1996 on the Edel America label. The CD contained 13 tracks including the old ballad, "Harbor Lights", written by Jimmy Kennedy and Hugh Williams, and sung by crooner Aaron Neville, who also performed the song in the film. There were five Top 10 recordings of the song in 1950.


title: Earth mass

text: An Earth mass (denoted as formula_1 or formula_2, where ⊕ is the standard astronomical symbol for Earth), is a unit of mass equal to the mass of the planet Earth. The current best estimate for the mass of Earth is , with a relative uncertainty of 10. It is equivalent to an average density of . Using the nearest metric prefix, the Earth mass is approximately six ronnagrams, or 6.0 Rg.


title: Earth mass

text: The Earth mass is a standard unit of mass in astronomy that is used to indicate the masses of other planets, including rocky terrestrial planets and exoplanets. One Solar mass is close to Earth masses. The Earth mass excludes the mass of the Moon. The mass of the Moon is about 1.2% of that of the Earth, so that the mass of the Earth+Moon system is close to .


title: Earth mass

text: Most of the mass is accounted for by iron and oxygen (c. 32% each), magnesium and silicon (c. 15% each), calcium, aluminium and nickel (c. 1.5% each).


title: Earth mass

text: Precise measurement of the Earth mass is difficult, as it is equivalent to measuring the gravitational constant, which is the fundamental physical constant known with least accuracy, due to the relative weakness of the gravitational force. The mass of the Earth was first measured with any accuracy (within about 20% of the correct value) in the Schiehallion experiment in the 1770s, and within 1% of the modern value in the Cavendish experiment of 1798.


title: Earth mass

text: The ratio of Earth mass to lunar mass has been measured to great accuracy. The current best estimate is:


title: Earth mass

text: The "G" product for the Earth is called the geocentric gravitational constant and equals . It is determined using laser ranging data from Earth-orbiting satellites, such as LAGEOS-1. The product can also be calculated by observing the motion of the Moon or the period of a pendulum at various elevations. These methods are less precise than observations of artificial satellites.


title: Earth mass

text: The relative uncertainty of the geocentric gravitational constant is just , i.e. times smaller than the relative uncertainty for itself. can be found out only by dividing the product by , and is known only to a relative uncertainty of (2014 NIST recommended value), so will have the same uncertainty at best. For this reason and others, astronomers prefer to use the un-reduced product, or mass ratios (masses expressed in units of Earth mass or Solar mass) rather than mass in kilograms when referencing and comparing planetary objects.


title: Earth mass

text: Earth's density varies considerably, between less than in the upper crust to as much as in the inner core. The Earth's core accounts for 15% of Earth's volume but more than 30% of the mass, the mantle for 84% of the volume and close to 70% of the mass, while the crust accounts for less than 1% of the mass. About 90% of the mass of the Earth is composed of the iron–nickel alloy (95% iron) in the core (30%), and the silicon dioxides (c. 33%) and magnesium oxide (c. 27%) in the mantle and crust. Minor contributions are from iron(II) oxide (5%), aluminium oxide (3%) and calcium oxide (2%), besides numerous trace elements (in elementary terms: iron and oxygen c. 32% each, magnesium and silicon c. 15% each, calcium, aluminium and nickel c. 1.5% each). Carbon accounts for 0.03%, water for 0.02%, and the atmosphere for about one part per million.


title: Earth mass

text: The mass of Earth is measured indirectly by determining other quantities such as Earth's density, gravity, or gravitational constant. The first measurement in the 1770s Schiehallion experiment resulted in a value about 20% too low. The Cavendish experiment of 1798 found the correct value within 1%. Uncertainty was reduced to about 0.2% by the 1890s, to 0.1% by 1930.


title: Earth mass

text: The figure of the Earth has been known to better than four significant digits since the 1960s (WGS66), so that since that time, the uncertainty of the Earth mass is determined essentially by the uncertainty in measuring the gravitational constant. Relative uncertainty was cited at 0.06% in the 1970s, and at 0.01% (10) by the 2000s. The current relative uncertainty of 10 amounts to in absolute terms, of the order of the mass of a minor planet (70% of the mass of Ceres).


title: Earth mass

text: Before the direct measurement of the gravitational constant, estimates of the Earth mass were limited to estimating Earth's mean density from observation of the crust and estimates on Earth's volume. Estimates on the volume of the Earth in the 17th century were based on a circumference estimate of to the degree of latitude, corresponding to a radius of 5,500 km (86% of the Earth's actual radius of about 6,371 km), resulting in an estimated volume of about one third smaller than the correct value.


title: Earth mass

text: The average density of the Earth was not accurately known. Earth was assumed to consist either mostly of water (Neptunism) or mostly of igneous rock (Plutonism), both suggesting average densities far too low, consistent with a total mass of the order of . Isaac Newton estimated, without access to reliable measurement, that the density of Earth would be five or six times as great as the density of water, which is surprisingly accurate (the modern value is 5.515). Newton under-estimated the Earth's volume by about 30%, so that his estimate would be roughly equivalent to .


title: Earth mass

text: In the 18th century, knowledge of Newton's law of universal gravitation permitted indirect estimates on the mean density of the Earth, via estimates of (what in modern terminology is known as) the gravitational constant. Early estimates on the mean density of the Earth were made by observing the slight deflection of a pendulum near a mountain, as in the Schiehallion experiment. Newton considered the experiment in "Principia", but pessimistically concluded that the effect would be too small to be measurable.


title: Earth mass

text: An expedition from 1737 to 1740 by Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine attempted to determine the density of Earth by measuring the period of a pendulum (and therefore the strength of gravity) as a function of elevation. The experiments were carried out in Ecuador and Peru, on Pichincha Volcano and mount Chimborazo. Bouguer wrote in a 1749 paper that they had been able to detect a deflection of 8 seconds of arc, the accuracy was not enough for a definite estimate on the mean density of the Earth, but Bouguer stated that it was at least sufficient to prove that the Earth was not hollow.


title: Earth mass

text: That a further attempt should be made on the experiment was proposed to the Royal Society in 1772 by Nevil Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal. He suggested that the experiment would "do honour to the nation where it was made" and proposed Whernside in Yorkshire, or the Blencathra-Skiddaw massif in Cumberland as suitable targets. The Royal Society formed the Committee of Attraction to consider the matter, appointing Maskelyne, Joseph Banks and Benjamin Franklin amongst its members. The Committee despatched the astronomer and surveyor Charles Mason to find a suitable mountain.


title: Earth mass

text: After a lengthy search over the summer of 1773, Mason reported that the best candidate was Schiehallion, a peak in the central Scottish Highlands. The mountain stood in isolation from any nearby hills, which would reduce their gravitational influence, and its symmetrical east–west ridge would simplify the calculations. Its steep northern and southern slopes would allow the experiment to be sited close to its centre of mass, maximising the deflection effect. Nevil Maskelyne, Charles Hutton and Reuben Burrow performed the experiment, completed by 1776. Hutton (1778) reported that the mean density of the Earth was estimated at formula_6 that of Schiehallion mountain. This corresponds to a mean density about 4 higher than that of water (i.e., about ), about 20% below the modern value, but still significantly larger than the mean density of normal rock, suggesting for the first time that the interior of the Earth might be substantially composed of metal. Hutton estimated this metallic portion to occupy some (or 65%) of the diameter of the Earth (modern value 55%). With a value for the mean density of the Earth, Hutton was able to set some values to Jérôme Lalande's planetary tables, which had previously only been able to express the densities of the major Solar System objects in relative terms.