title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The economy of Theresienstadt was highly corrupt. Besides the "prominent" prisoners, young Czech Jewish men had the highest status in the ghetto. As the first prisoners in the ghetto (whether in the "Aufbaukommando" or through connections to the "Aufbaukommando") most of the privileged positions in the ghetto fell to this group. Those in charge of distributing food typically skimmed off the deliveries to save more for themselves or their friends, which heightened the starvation for elderly Jews in particular. The SS also stole deliveries of food intended for prisoners. Many of the functionaries in the Transport Department enriched themselves by accepting bribes. Powerful individuals attempted, and often succeeded, to exempt their friends from deportation, a fact that was noted by prisoners at the time. Because Czech Zionists had a disproportionate influence in the self-administration, they were often able to secure better jobs and exemptions to transport for other Czech Zionists.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Because of the unhygienic conditions in the ghetto and shortages of clean water, medicine, and food, many prisoners fell ill. 30% of the ghetto's population was classified as sick with scarlet fever, typhoid, diphtheria, polio, or encephalitis in 1942; cold weather in the fall of that year increased the lice problem. Makeshift hospitals, staffed mostly by female nurses, were organized in each barracks for the most serious cases. Most of the nurses were untrained and had to do all the work, including cleaning sickrooms, disposing of human waste, serving food, and keeping the patients entertained. Although nurses, who were in short supply, were exempt from deportation until October 1944, they faced the danger of contracting disease and had to work 18- to 20-hour days. After the deportations in 1944, the number of nurses was severely reduced and each nurse had to care for 65 or more prisoners.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The SS dictated quotas for the number of people to be deported by age and nationality. Within this framework, the Transport Department selected which people would be deported. If someone were selected for a transport, it was possible to appeal, but in practice such appeals were rarely accepted. The self-administration's role in organizing transports has led to significant criticism. However, Ruth Bondy argues that the self-administration used its power over transports to save children and young people as much as possible, and the success of this policy is indicated by the fact that 20,000 such individuals remained at Theresienstadt until the deportations in fall 1944, when the SS directly selected individuals for deportation.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Over the lifetime of the ghetto, about 15,000 children lived in Theresienstadt, of whom about 90% perished after deportation. The Youth Welfare Office () was responsible for their housing, care, and education. Before June 1942, when the Czech civilians were evicted from the town, children lived with their parents in the barracks and were left unsupervised during the day. After the eviction, some of the houses were taken over by the Youth Welfare Office for use as children's homes. The intention was to keep the children somewhat insulated from the harsh conditions in the ghetto so that they would not succumb to "demoralization". Aided by teachers and helpers recruited from former educators and students, the children lived in collectives of 200–300 per house, separated by language. Within each house, children were assigned to rooms by gender and age. Their housing was superior to that of other inmates and they were also better fed.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The leadership of the Youth Welfare Office, including its head, , and Redlich's deputy Fredy Hirsch, were left-wing Zionists with a background in the youth movements. However, Redlich agreed that a good-quality non-Zionist education was preferred to a bad Zionist one. Because of this, the ideological quality of education depended on the inclination of the person who ran the home; this was formalized in a 1943 agreement. According to historian Anna Hájková, Zionists regarded the youth homes as hakhshara (preparation) for future life on a kibbutz in Palestine; Rothkirchen argues that the intentional community of the children's homes resembled kibbutzim. Different educators used assimilationism, Communism, or Zionism as the basis of their educational philosophies; Communist philosophy increased after the Red Army's military victories on the Eastern Front in 1943 and 1944.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Although education was forbidden, the teachers continued to clandestinely teach general education subjects including Czech, German, history, geography, and mathematics. Study of the Hebrew language was mandatory despite the increased danger to educators if they were caught. Children also participated in cultural activities in the evenings after their lessons. Many of the children's homes produced magazines, of which the best known is "Vedem" from Home One (L417). Hundreds of children made drawings under the guidance of the Viennese art therapist Friedl Dicker-Brandeis. According to Rothkirchen, caring for the children was the self-administration's greatest achievement and the drawings left by children were Theresienstadt's "most precious legacy".


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Conditions in the ghetto varied depending on a prisoner's status. Most prisoners had to live in overcrowded collective dormitories with sixty to eighty people per room; men, women, and children lived separately. A few prisoners, especially those who had connections, managed to create private "cubbyholes" () in the attics of the barracks. Some "prominent" prisoners and Danish Jews were granted private apartments in spring 1944 for the Red Cross visit. Even before the Red Cross visit, "prominent" individuals received better living conditions and more food, and their deportation could only be ordered by the SS (not the self-administration), resulting in a significantly higher possibility of surviving.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Food was generally inadequate and its distribution was also inequitable. Those who did not work, mostly the elderly, received 60% less food than heavy laborers, leading many to starve to death. 92% of deaths were among those over sixty, and almost all elderly prisoners who were not deported died at Theresienstadt. Younger people did not face starvation, although many lost weight.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Most Jews between the ages of 16 and 60 or 65 were forced to work an average of 69 hours per week, often in physically demanding jobs. Many women worked as housekeepers, nurses, or in lower-ranking positions in the kitchens, or in the vegetable gardens. Men controlled the administration and also worked in various workshops, including carpentry, leather, and tailoring, and in the mines of Kladno. Some also worked on SS military projects. However, the high population of elderly people and the decrepit state of the ghetto infrastructure prevented the ghetto from becoming a useful industrial center for the German war effort. Over 90% of labor was used for maintenance.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Theresienstadt was characterized by a rich cultural life, especially in 1943 and 1944, which greatly exceeded that in other Nazi concentration camps and ghettos. The inmates were free from the usual rules of Nazi censorship and the ban on "degenerate art". The origins began in the spontaneous "friendship evenings" organized by the first prisoners in December 1941; many promising artists had arrived in the "Aufbaukommando" transports, including the musicians Karel Švenk, Rafael Schächter, and Gideon Klein. Švenk's "Terezín March" became the unofficial anthem for the ghetto. Later, the activities were sponsored by the self-administration and organized by the "Freizeitgestaltung" ("Free Time Department", FZG), led by Otto Zucker. Zucker's department had a wide variety of artists to choose from. Although most performers had to work full-time at other jobs in addition to their creative activity, a few were hired by the FZG. However, the FZG was unusually effective at exempting performers from deportation. Because women were expected to take care of domestic chores in addition to full-time work and men were appointed as the conductors and directors who selected performers, very few women were able to participate in cultural life. Official efforts to improve the quality of performances increased during the "beautification" process that began in December 1943.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Many musicians performed at the ghetto. Karel Ančerl conducted an orchestra composed largely of professional musicians. Karl Fischer, a Moravian cantor, led various choirs. The Ghetto Swingers performed jazz music, and Viktor Ullmann composed more than 20 works while imprisoned at Theresienstadt, including the opera "Der Kaiser von Atlantis". The children's opera "Brundibár", composed in 1938 by Hans Krása, was first performed at Theresienstadt on 23 September 1943. A hit, it was performed 55 times (about once a week) until the transports of autumn 1944. The work of the musicians was exploited by the Nazis in the two propaganda films made in the ghetto. Only the social elite could get tickets for events, and attending musical and theatrical performances became a status symbol.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The visual arts were developed by a circle of artists, including Bedřich Fritta, Norbert Troller, Leo Haas, Otto Ungar, and Petr Kien, who were officially employed by the Arts Department of the self-administration to create drawings and graphs of work at Theresienstadt on the orders of the SS. The artists, however, depicted the ghetto's actual conditions in their spare time. Several of these artists were caught smuggling their work out of the ghetto. Accused of "atrocity propaganda", they were arrested on 20 July 1944 and tortured at the Small Fortress. Much of their artwork was not rediscovered until many years later, but has been a useful tool for historians to glimpse the ghetto elite as well the widespread misery in the ghetto.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The Ghetto Central Library opened in November 1942 and contained 60,000 books and 15 full-time librarians by the end of 1943. As head of the library, the Central Secretariat appointed the philosopher Emil Utitz, who individually approved borrowers. It eventually grew to over 100,000 volumes from Jewish libraries all over Europe or brought by prisoners to the ghetto. The library was criticized for the high proportion of Hebrew-language works and the lack of fiction, but prisoners were desperate for any kind of reading material. At least 2,309 lectures were delivered in the ghetto, on a variety of subjects including Judaism, Zionism, art, music, science, and economics, by 489 different people, leading the ghetto to be described as an "open university".


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Theresienstadt was the only Nazi concentration center where religious observance was not banned. Although they were all Jewish according to the Nuremberg Laws, deportees came from a wide variety of strains of Judaism and Christianity; others were atheists. Some communities and individuals, particularly from Moravia, brought their Torah scrolls, Shofar, tefillin, and other religious items with them to the ghetto. Edelstein, who was religious, appointed a team of rabbis to oversee the burial of the dead. The believers, who were largely elderly Jews from Austria and Germany, frequently gathered in makeshift areas to pray on Shabbat. Rabbis and Leo Baeck ministered not just to Jews but to Christian converts and others needing comfort.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Theresienstadt's cultural life has been viewed differently by different prisoners and commentators. Adler stresses that an unusually high number of inmates were culturally active; however, cultural activity could lead to a kind of self-deception about reality. Ullmann believed that the activities represented spiritual resistance to Nazism and a "spark of humanity": "By no means did we sit weeping by the rivers of Babylon; our endeavors in the arts were commensurate with our will to live."


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: In June 1943, a delegation of the German Red Cross (DRK) visited the ghetto. Despite the fact that the DRK was led by SS doctors who were involved in Nazi human experimentation, the report by accurately described the ghetto's conditions: "dreadful" and "frightfully overcrowded". Hartmann reported that the prisoners were severely undernourished and medical care was completely inadequate. In July, the Vatican requested and was refused permission to send a delegation to the ghetto.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The ICRC, having come under increasing pressure from Denmark, Jewish organizations and the Czechoslovak government-in-exile to intervene in favor of Jews, requested to visit Theresienstadt in November 1943. It is unclear to what extent the ICRC valued making an accurate report on Theresienstadt, given that it had access to independent information confirming that prisoners were transported to Auschwitz and murdered there. The Danish government also pressured the Nazis to allow a visit, because of the Danish Jews who had been deported there in late 1943. On a visit to Denmark in November 1943, Eichmann promised the Danish representatives that they would be allowed to visit in the spring of 1944. In late May, Eppstein, Zucker, and other Theresienstadt leaders were allowed to sign SS-dictated letters, which were sent to the Aid and Rescue Committee, a Jewish organization in Budapest. Rudolf Kastner, the leader of the committee, forwarded the letter abroad, causing an unduly positive impression of Theresienstadt to develop outside German-occupied territory. The commission that visited on 23 June 1944, included Maurice Rossel, a representative of the ICRC; E. Juel-Henningsen, the head physician at the Danish Ministry of Health; and Franz Hvass, the top civil servant at the Danish Foreign Ministry.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The visitors spent eight hours inside Theresienstadt, led on a predetermined path and only allowed to speak with Danish Jews and selected representatives, including Paul Eppstein. Driven in a limousine by an SS officer posing as his driver, Eppstein was forced to deliver an SS-written speech describing Theresienstadt as "a normal country town" of which he was "mayor", and give the visitors fabricated statistical data on the ghetto. He still had a black eye from a beating administered by Rahm, and attempted to warn Rossel that there was "no way out" for Theresienstadt prisoners. A soccer game and performance of the children's opera "Brundibár" were also staged for the guests. Rossel reported that conditions in the ghetto were favorable—even superior than for civilians in the Protectorate—and that no one was deported from Theresienstadt.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: While the preparations for the Red Cross visit were underway, the SS had meanwhile ordered a prisoner, probably Jindřich Weil, to write a script for a propaganda film. It was directed by the German Jewish prisoner Kurt Gerron and the Czech filmmaker Karel Pečený under close SS supervision, and edited by Pečený's company, Aktualita. One scene was filmed on 20 January 1944, but most of the filming took place during eleven days between 16 August and 11 September 1944. The film, officially "Theresienstadt. Ein Dokumentarfilm aus dem jüdischen Siedlungsgebiet" ("Theresienstadt: A Documentary Film from the Jewish Settlement Area"), was dubbed "Der Führer schenkt den Juden eine Stadt" ("The Führer Gives a City to the Jews") by Jewish prisoners. Completed on 28 March 1945, the film was intended to discredit reports of the genocide of Jews reaching the Western Allies and neutral countries, but it was only screened four times and did not achieve its objective.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Approximately 141,000 Jews, mostly from the Protectorate, Germany, and Austria, were sent to Theresienstadt before 20 April 1945. The majority came from just five cities: Prague (40,000), Vienna (15,000), Berlin (13,500), Brno (9,000), and Frankfurt (4,000). Between 13,500 and 15,000 survivors of death marches arrived after that date, including some 500 people who were at Theresienstadt twice, which brought the total to 154,000. Before 20 April, 33,521 people died at Theresienstadt, and an additional 1,567 people died between 20 April and 30 June. 88,196 people were deported from Theresienstadt between 9 January 1942 and 28 October 1944. Of prisoners who arrived before 20 April, 17,320 were liberated at Theresienstadt, about 4,000 survived deportation, and 1,630 were rescued before the end of the war. In all, there were about 23,000 survivors.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: A further 239 people were transferred to the Small Fortress before 12 October 1944; most were murdered there. 37 others were taken by the Gestapo on 20 February 1945. Before 1945, 37 people escaped, and twelve were recaptured and returned to Theresienstadt; according to Adler it is unlikely that most of the remainder were successful. A further 92 people escaped in early 1945 and 547 departed by their own unauthorized action after the departure of the SS on 5 May.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: Czechoslovak authorities prosecuted several SS members who had served at Theresienstadt, including all three commandants. Seidl and Rahm were both tried, convicted, and executed for their crimes, Seidl in Austria and Rahm in Czechoslovakia. Convicted in absentia and sentenced to death, Burger managed to evade arrest and lived under a false name in West Germany until his death in 1991. The Czech gendarme commander, Theodor Janeček, died in prison in 1946 while awaiting trial. A Czech court in Litoměřice found a perimeter guard, Miroslaus Hasenkopf, guilty of treason and sentenced him to 15 years imprisonment; he died in prison in 1951.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: In 1947, it was decided to convert the Small Fortress into a memorial to the victims of Nazi persecution. Adler rescued a large number of documents and paintings from Theresienstadt after the war and lodged them with the Jewish Museum in Prague; this material formed the bedrock of the collections now held at the Jewish Museum in Prague and in Theresienstadt itself. However, the Jewish legacy was not recognized in the post-war era because it did not fit into the Soviet ideology of class struggle promoted in the postwar Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, and discredited the official position of anti-Zionism (exemplified by the 1952 Slánský trial and intensified following the 1967 Six-Day War). Although there were memorial plaques in the former ghetto, none mentioned Jews.


title: Theresienstadt Ghetto

text: The Terezín Ghetto Museum was inaugurated in October 1991, after the Velvet Revolution ended Communist rule in Czechoslovakia, as part of the fiftieth anniversary commemorations of the former ghetto. The museum is funded by the Czech Ministry of Culture and includes a section devoted to researching the history of Theresienstadt. In 2001, the director reported that about 250,000 people visit Theresienstadt every year; prominent visitors have included the German presidents Richard von Weizsäcker and Roman Herzog, Israeli presidents Chaim Herzog and Ezer Weizmann, as well as Václav Havel, the President of the Czech Republic. In 2015, former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright unveiled a plaque at the former ghetto commemorating her 26 relatives who had been imprisoned there.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: Christiane Susanne Kubrick (née Harlan; born 10 May 1932) is a German actress. She was born into a theatrical family (her uncle was the film director Veit Harlan), and was the wife of filmmaker Stanley Kubrick from 1958 until his death in 1999.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: Christiane Susanne Harlan was born in Braunschweig, Lower Saxony, Germany in 1932, the daughter of two opera singers, Ingeborg ("née" de Freitas) and Fritz Moritz Harlan. She was trained as an actress, but became better known as a painter. Success in her early career as an actress led to her being cast in the film "Paths of Glory" by Stanley Kubrick, being credited as Susanne Christian.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: In the final scene of "Paths of Glory", the young woman she plays is forced to sing to a tavern full of rowdy and disillusioned French soldiers. Her rendition in German of the German folk song "Ein treuer Husar" ("The Faithful Hussar") slowly wins the hearts of the crowd of men, who stop their mocking and carousing, and, one by one, begin to hum and sing along, many of them in tears.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: She and Kubrick married in 1958, shortly after filming was completed. Their marriage lasted until Kubrick's death in 1999; they had two daughters, Anya and Vivian. Christiane also has a daughter, Katharina, the only child of her first marriage to that ended in 1957. Anya died in 2009 from cancer, aged 50.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: The Kubrick family moved to England in the early 1960s, where Christiane continued to paint and exhibit. She became a highly accomplished and avidly collected artist with a passion for floral settings and still life paintings. Her works were featured in two Stanley Kubrick films. In "A Clockwork Orange" (1971), a large floral oil painting adorns the living room of "Home", the abode of two of the characters, a reclusive writer, Frank Alexander (Patrick Magee), and his wife (Adrienne Corri), being visible during the ""Singin' in the Rain"" scene.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: Nearly thirty years later, in "Eyes Wide Shut" (1999), Christiane's vivid paintings adorn nearly every wall of the characters Dr. and Mrs. Harford's (Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman) Manhattan apartment and a few paintings by her daughter, Katharina, also are shown. More of Christiane's paintings are featured in the billiard room and the upstairs bathroom of the Manhattan mansion of the character Ziegler (Sydney Pollack).


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: In March 2001, Christiane traveled to the Vatican in Rome to screen a newly remastered version of her late husband's film "" (1968). The film was shown at the Vatican on the evening of Thursday 1 March under the aegis of the Pontifical Council for Social Communications. In 1996, that council listed the Kubrick film among the most important films of the twentieth century. The screening at the Vatican in 2001 was also attended by Archbishop John Foley, who then was the president of the Pontifical Council for Social Communications.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: Christiane's brother, Jan Harlan, was the executive producer for all of Stanley Kubrick's films from "Barry Lyndon" (1975) onward. Following Kubrick's death in 1999, he became the director of the documentary "", in which Christiane took full part. Although the project was never realized, Stanley Kubrick had considered making a film about their uncle, Veit Harlan, the German filmmaker who made the antisemitic "Jud Süß" (1940). The two siblings are very active in preservation, exhibit production, and publishing related to Stanley Kubrick's life and work, including the Taschen mega-book "The Stanley Kubrick Archives" and the touring major museum exhibit.


title: Christiane Kubrick

text: As of 2018, Kubrick continues to live in England, where she and her daughter, Katharina, hold regular painting courses at their home, Childwickbury Manor, in Hertfordshire.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is a medication used to reduce pressure inside the eye and treat dry mouth. As eye drops it is used to manage angle closure glaucoma until surgery can be performed, ocular hypertension, primary open angle glaucoma, and to bring about constriction of the pupil following its dilation. However, due to its side effects it is no longer typically used in the long term management. Onset of effects with the drops is typically within an hour and lasts for up to a day. By mouth it is used for dry mouth as a result of Sjögren syndrome or radiation therapy.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Common side effects of the eye drops include irritation of the eye, increased tearing, headache, and blurry vision. Other side effects include allergic reactions and retinal detachment. Use is generally not recommended during pregnancy. Pilocarpine is in the miotics family of medication. It works by activating cholinergic receptors of the muscarinic type which cause the trabecular meshwork to open and the aqueous humor to drain from the eye.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine was isolated in 1874 by Hardy and Gerrard and has been used to treat glaucoma for more than 100 years. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It was originally made from the South American plant "Pilocarpus".


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine stimulates the secretion of large amounts of saliva and sweat. It is used to prevent or treat dry mouth, particularly in Sjögren syndrome, but also as a side effect of radiation therapy for head and neck cancer.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is sometimes used immediately before certain types of corneal grafts and cataract surgery. It is also used prior to YAG laser iridotomy. In ophthalmology, pilocarpine is also used to reduce symptomatic glare at night from lights when the patient has undergone implantation of phakic intraocular lenses; the use of pilocarpine would reduce the size of the pupils, partially relieving these symptoms. The most common concentration for this use is pilocarpine 1%. Pilocarpine is shown to be just as effective as apraclonidine in preventing intraocular pressure spikes after laser trabeculoplasty.


title: Pilocarpine

text: In 2021, the US Food and Drug Administration approved pilocarpine hydrochloride as an eyedrop treatment for presbyopia, age-related difficulty with near-in vision. It works by causing the pupils to constrict, increasing depth of field, similar to the effect of pinhole glasses. Marketed as Vuity, the effect lasts for more than 6 hours.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is used to stimulate sweat glands in a sweat test to measure the concentration of chloride and sodium that is excreted in sweat. It is used to diagnose cystic fibrosis.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Use of pilocarpine may result in a range of adverse effects, most of them related to its non-selective action as a muscarinic receptor agonist. Pilocarpine has been known to cause excessive salivation, sweating, bronchial mucus secretion, bronchospasm, bradycardia, vasodilation, and diarrhea. Eye drops can result in brow ache and chronic use in miosis. It can also cause temporary blurred vision or darkness of vision, temporary shortsightedness, hyphema and retinal detachment.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is a drug that acts as a muscarinic receptor agonist. It acts on a subtype of muscarinic receptor (M) found on the iris sphincter muscle, causing the muscle to contract - resulting in pupil constriction (miosis). Pilocarpine also acts on the ciliary muscle and causes it to contract. When the ciliary muscle contracts, it opens the trabecular meshwork through increased tension on the scleral spur. This action facilitates the rate that aqueous humor leaves the eye to decrease intraocular pressure. Paradoxically, when pilocarpine induces this ciliary muscle contraction (known as an accommodative spasm) it causes the eye's lens to thicken and move forward within the eye. This movement causes the iris (which is located immediately in front of the lens) to also move forward, narrowing the Anterior chamber angle. Narrowing of the anterior chamber angle increases the risk of increased intraocular pressure.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Plants in the genus "Pilocarpus" are the only known sources of pilocarpine, and commercial production is derived entirely from the leaves of "Pilocarpus microphyllus" (Maranham Jaborandi). This genus grows only in South America, and "Pilocarpus microphyllus" is native to several states in northern Brazil.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is extracted from the powdered leaf material in a multi-step process. First the material is treated with ethanol acidified with hydrochloric acid, and the solvents removed under reduced pressure. The resultant aqueous residue is neutralized with ammonia and put aside until the resin has completely settled. It is then filtered and concentrated by sugar solution to a small volume, made alkaline with ammonia, and finally extracted with chloroform. The solvent is removed under reduced pressure.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is available under several trade names such as: Diocarpine (Dioptic), Isopto Carpine (Alcon), Miocarpine (CIBA Vision), Ocusert Pilo-20 and -40 (Alza), Pilopine HS (Alcon), Salagen (MGI Pharma), Scheinpharm Pilocarpine (Schein Pharmaceutical), Timpilo (Merck Frosst), and Vuity (AbbVie).


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is used to induce chronic epilepsy in rodents, commonly rats, as a means to study the disorder's physiology and to examine different treatments. Smaller doses may be used to induce salivation in order to collect samples of saliva, for instance, to obtain information about IgA antibodies.


title: Pilocarpine

text: Pilocarpine is given in moderate doses (about 2 mg) to induce emesis in cats that have ingested foreign plants, foods, or drugs. One feline trial determined it was effective, even though the usual choice of emetic is xylazine.


title: Samm Levine

text: Samuel Franklin Levine (born March 12, 1982) is an American actor, comedian and podcaster. He is known for his portrayal of Neal Schweiber on NBC's "Freaks and Geeks" and PFC Hirschberg in the 2009 film "Inglourious Basterds". Levine was also the sidekick and fill-in host on the internet talk show "Kevin Pollak's Chat Show". Levine was a regular competitor on Collider's "Movie Trivia Schmoedown". He returned to the Schmoedown in 2019 and was the manager of The Usual Suspects faction until he disbanded them before the start of the 2022 season. He returned to the Schmoedown as a competitor for the 2022 season, defeating Marisol McKee for the singles championship.


title: Samm Levine

text: Levine was born in Park Ridge, Illinois, the son of Lynne, a mortgage broker, and Harris Levine, a dentist. He was raised in Fort Lee, New Jersey. Levine is Jewish.


title: Samm Levine

text: Levine began performing stand-up comedy at bar mitzvahs at age 12. After having seen him perform, Lisa Kudrow advised him that he should start auditioning in Manhattan.


title: Samm Levine

text: When Levine began his acting career, he added the extra "M" to his name as there was already a Sam Levine registered with the Screen Actors Guild.


title: Samm Levine

text: Levine was cast as a character in the sixth and final season of ABC's "Lost" in a small role that was written for him by "Lost" co-creator Damon Lindelof. Lindelof had frequently told Levine, "I'm going to write you something on the show". Levine played a clerk in the twelfth episode, "Everybody Loves Hugo."


title: Samm Levine

text: He also regularly appears on Doug Benson's "Doug Loves Movies" podcasts and fills in as host of the Leonard Maltin Game when not taped in front of a live studio audience so Doug can play the game as a contestant. Benson has nicknamed Levine both "Samm the Ma'am Levine" and "Lil' Wolverine". Benson referred to 2011 as "The Summer of Samm" because Levine played the game so frequently and competitively.


title: Samm Levine

text: Levine has also been a regular participant on "Kevin Pollak's Chat Show" since the 1st episode on March 22, 2009, when he was the second guest. He was a guest on Episode 19 as well, just as the show was about to evolve to one guest for the duration of an episode.


title: Samm Levine

text: Levine was a regular competitor on Collider's "Movie Trivia Schmoedown" where, on December 22, 2017, he won the singles championship. On May 15, 2018, he won the team championship.


title: Samm Levine

text: In March 2020, editor and fellow "Movie Trivia Schmoedown" competitor Rachel Cushing announced that she and Levine were engaged. The couple married in May 2022.


title: Misery index (economics)

text: The misery index is an economic indicator, created by economist Arthur Okun. The index helps determining how the average citizen is doing economically and it is calculated by adding the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate to the annual inflation rate. It is assumed that both a higher rate of unemployment and a worsening of inflation create economic and social costs for a country.


title: Misery index (economics)

text: Harvard Economist Robert Barro created what he dubbed the "Barro Misery Index" (BMI), in 1999. The BMI takes the sum of the inflation and unemployment rates, and adds to that the interest rate, plus (minus) the shortfall (surplus) between the actual and trend rate of GDP growth.


title: Misery index (economics)

text: In the late 2000s, Johns Hopkins economist Steve Hanke built upon Barro's misery index and began applying it to countries beyond the United States. His modified misery index is the sum of the interest, inflation, and unemployment rates, minus the year-over-year percent change in per-capita GDP growth.


title: Misery index (economics)

text: Hanke has recently constructed a World Table of Misery Index Scores by exclusively relying on data reported by the Economist Intelligence Unit. This table includes a list of 89 countries, ranked from worst to best, with data as of December 31, 2013 (see table below).


title: Misery index (economics)

text: Political economists Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler found a negative correlation between a similar "stagflation index" and corporate amalgamation (i.e. mergers and acquisitions) in the United States since the 1930s. In their theory, stagflation is a form of political economic sabotage employed by corporations to achieve differential accumulation, in this case as an alternative to amalgamation when merger and acquisition opportunities have run out.


title: Misery index (economics)

text: A 2001 paper looking at large-scale surveys in Europe and the United States concluded that unemployment more heavily influences unhappiness than inflation. This implies that the basic misery index underweights the unhappiness attributable to the unemployment rate: "the estimates suggest that people would trade off a 1-percentage-point increase in the employment rate for a 1.7-percentage-point increase in the inflation rate."


title: Misery index (economics)

text: Some economists posit that the components of the Misery Index drive the crime rate to a degree. Using data from 1960 to 2005, they have found that the Misery Index and the crime rate correlate strongly and that the Misery Index seems to lead the crime rate by a year or so. In fact, the correlation is so strong that the two can be said to be cointegrated, and stronger than correlation with either the unemployment rate or inflation rate alone.


title: Misery index (economics)

text: The data for the misery index is obtained from unemployment data published by the U.S. Department of Labor (U3) and the Inflation Rate (CPI-U) from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The exact methods used for measuring unemployment and inflation have changed over time, although past data is usually normalized so that past and future metrics are comparable.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Cognitive functions, also referred to as psychological functions, as described by Carl Jung in his book "Psychological Types", are particular mental processes within a person's psyche that are present regardless of common circumstance. This is a concept that serves as one of the foundations for his theory on personality type. In his book, he noted four main psychological functions: "thinking", "feeling", "sensation", and "intuition". He introduced them with having either an internally focused ("introverted") or externally focused ("extraverted") tendency which he called "attitudes". He also categorizes the functions as either "rational" (thinking and feeling) or "irrational" (intuition and sensation).


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes:


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e. the external environment) or subjective (experienced within the mind, or "processes inherent in the psyche"). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, but with one direction being that final judge.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: To summarize Jung's views, as discussed in "Psychological Types" and maintained until his death, Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extraversion for extraverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not limiting the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude, but offers the "decisive determination". The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extraversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious. Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation, if it remains less differentiated of that of the primary. His views on the primary and auxiliary functions both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions can be noted as early as Psychological Types.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: The four basic psychological functions, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection." Jung said that the thinking function should be delegated solely to 'active thinking' in contrast to 'passive thinking'. According to him, active thinking uses concepts to connect information, being considered judgement as a result. He writes that passive thinking "lacks any sense of direction", since it is not in accordance with an aim. He refers to it as 'intuitive thinking' instead.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean other than the function of thought as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively. In Adler and Hull's translation of Jung's "Psychological Types", Jung states:


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: "Apart from the qualities I have mentioned, the undeveloped functions possess the further peculiarity that, when the conscious attitude is introverted, they are extraverted and vice versa. One could therefore expect to find extraverted feelings in an introverted intellectual..."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Extraverted thinking is the thinking function that is "objective" (being extraverted). Extraverted thinking often places information such as facts in high order; it is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: "In accordance with his definition, we must picture a, man whose constant aim -- in so far, of course, as he is a [p. 435] pure type -- is to bring his total life-activities into relation with intellectual conclusions, which in the last resort are always orientated by objective data, whether objective facts or generally valid ideas. This type of man gives the deciding voice-not merely for himself alone but also on behalf of his entourage-either to the actual objective reality or to its objectively orientated, intellectual formula. By this formula are good and evil measured, and beauty and ugliness determined. All is right that corresponds with this formula; all is wrong that contradicts it; and everything that is neutral to it is purely accidental."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is "subjective" (being introverted). The nature of introverted thinking means that it is primarily concerned with its "subjective idea" and insights gained by formulation over facts and objective data. Whereas Extraverted Thinking is most like Empiricism, Introverted Thinking is most similar to Rationalism.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: "Just as Darwin might possibly represent the normal extraverted thinking type, so we might point to Kant as a counter-example of the normal introverted thinking type. The former speaks with facts; the latter appeals to the subjective factor. Darwin ranges over the wide fields of objective facts, while Kant restricts himself to a critique of knowledge in general. But suppose a Cuvier be contrasted with a Nietzsche: the antithesis becomes even sharper."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: "The introverted thinking type is characterized by a priority of the thinking I have just described. Like his [p. 485] extraverted parallel, he is decisively influenced by ideas; these, however, have their origin, not in the objective data but in the subjective foundation. Like the extravert, he too will follow his ideas, but in the reverse direction: inwardly not outwardly. Intensity is his aim, not extensity. In these fundamental characters he differs markedly, indeed quite unmistakably from his extraverted parallel. Like every introverted type, he is almost completely lacking in that which distinguishes his counter type, namely, the intensive relatedness to the object."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment, in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection." Also Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function, and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervation's." Von Franz wrote that there are "clichés" with regard to the feeling function, which are that musicians and people with "good eros" are feeling types. She also wrote that another cliché was the notion that woman are better at feeling "just because they are women".


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean other than the function of feeling as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Overall, extraverted feeling is concerned with phenomena to be harmonious with its external environment. Jung writes of extraverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character -- it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Introverted feeling is "very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed." Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers: "[Introverted feeling] is continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality, but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives after inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessed—it can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult to access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defense." Introverted Feeling can therefore be thought of as subjective, personal ideals and values, that the person protects and defends against the thoughts and judgements of others.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function which transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli, but also to the inner, i.e. to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e. perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Extraverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives sensations from the external world in an objective manner. For example, since an extraverted sensors type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, he often has a good sense of aesthetic — whether this be the taste of food, or a new trend in clothing. Extraverted Sensors may be more attuned with spatial awareness and physical reality. Note that a bodily sensation is still considered extraverted sensing, as the sensation is being perceived in objective reality. Such as, drinking caffeine will objectively create a stimulating sensation in the person’s physiology. This is contrasted to the subjective sensor who may be concerned with a subjective response to the same drink (e.g. nostalgia that is tied to that specific cup of coffee, or whether or not they prefer the flavor).


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extraverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. Jung wrote that "the subject perceives the same things as everybody else, only, he never stops at the purely objective effect, but concerns himself with the subjective perception released by the objective stimulus. Subjective perception differs remarkably from the objective. It is either not found at all in the object, or, at most, merely suggested by it[...] Subjective sensation apprehends the background of the physical world rather than its surface. The decisive thing is not the reality of the object, but the reality of the subjective factor, i.e. the primordial images, which in their totality represent a psychic mirror-world. It is a mirror, however, with the peculiar capacity of representing the present contents of consciousness not in their known and customary form but in a certain sense sub specie aeternitatis, somewhat as a million-year old consciousness might see them. Such a consciousness would see the becoming and the passing of things beside their present and momentary existence, and not only that, but at the same time it would also see that Other, which was before their becoming and will be after their passing hence."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Intuition is also presented as a basic psychological function as hunches and visions provide an alternative means of perception to sensation: "It is that psychological function which transmits perceptions in an unconscious way. Everything, whether outer or inner objects or their associations, can be the object of this perception. Intuition has this peculiar quality: it is neither sensation, nor feeling, nor intellectual conclusion, although it may appear in any of these forms."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Extraverted Intuition takes in intuitive information from the world around. Whereas Introverted Intuition refers to Jung’s idea of the collective unconscious, Extraverted Intuition is concerned with the collective conscious. People with high extraverted intuition are attuned to current events, media, trends, and developments. The collective unconscious sees the world in terms of primordial archetypes such as The Hero, The Sage, or The Outlaw, etc. The collective conscious used by the Extraverted Intuitive, however, sees archetypes reflected through the subcultures, celebrities, organizations, events, and ideas of their times.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted and thus, subjective manner. Jung wrote: "Intuition, in the introverted attitude, is directed upon the inner object, a term we might justly apply to the elements of the unconscious. For the relation of inner objects to consciousness is entirely analogous to that of outer objects, although theirs is a psychological and not a physical reality. Inner objects appear to the intuitive perception as subjective images of things, which, though not met with in external experience, really determine the contents of the unconscious, i.e. the collective unconscious, in the last resort. [...] Although this intuition may receive its impetus from outer objects, it is never arrested by the external possibilities, but stays with that factor which the outer object releases within. [...]


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Introverted intuition apprehends the images which arise from the a priori, i.e. the inherited foundations of the unconscious mind. These archetypes, whose innermost nature is inaccessible to experience, represent the precipitate of psychic functioning of the whole ancestral line, i.e. the heaped-up, or pooled, experiences of organic existence in general, a million times repeated, and condensed into types. Hence, in these archetypes all experiences are represented which since primeval time have happened on this planet. Their archetypal distinctness is the more marked, the more frequently and intensely they have been experienced. The archetype would be—to borrow from Kant—the noumenon of the image which intuition perceives and, in perceiving, creates."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Jung differentiates introverted intuition and introverted sensation by writing that introverted sensation is 'confined' to the perception of events, while introverted intuition instead perceives "the image which has really occasioned the innervation", repressing its actual qualities. He uses an example of "a psychogenic attack of giddiness", writing that sensation will perceive the qualities and sensations of the giddiness without paying attention to the image that caused it. Intuition, on the other hand, does perceives on the image that caused it, perceiving it and its course in a very detailed manner rather than the giddiness itself, which is "the image of a tottering man pierced through the heart by an arrow".


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: "For intuition, therefore, the unconscious images attain to the dignity of things or objects. But, because intuition excludes the cooperation of sensation, it obtains either no knowledge at all or at the best a very inadequate awareness of the innervation-disturbances or of the physical effects produced by the unconscious images. Accordingly, the images appear as though detached from the subject, as though existing in themselves without relation to the person.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Consequently, in the above-mentioned example, the introverted intuitive, when affected by the giddiness, would not imagine that the perceived image might also in some way refer to himself. Naturally, to one who is rationally orientated, such a thing seems almost unthinkable, but it is none the less a fact, and I have often experienced it in my dealings with this type."


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric formalized these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ENTP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, intuition, thinking and perceiving).


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant, though some views differ. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extravert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted".


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on the sentence from Jung:


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: The tables below give different theorists' ideas about personality types in terms of "cognitive functions".


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book "Psychological Types" in which he defined only four psychological functions which can take introverted or extraverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition). He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior, in which there is one dominant function, two auxiliary functions, and one inferior function. Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more conscious a function is, the higher the tendency and potential it has to develop. The less differentiation is hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious, and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control. Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: The following table is a summarized model of Jung's conception of personality types based on the four functions, introversion, and extraversion.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. John Beebe's model is based on Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, which is not part of the current scientific consensus and may be unfalsifiable.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same.


title: Jungian cognitive functions

text: Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, "Personality Type: An Owners Manual", Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brain and the Perception functions in the back-left and front-right brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Nadia Sawalha (; born 18 November 1964) is a British actress, television personality and YouTuber. She played the role of Annie Palmer on the BBC One soap opera "EastEnders" from 1997 to 1999 and Gina in ITV comedy Second Thoughts from 1992 to 1994. She has been a long-term panellist on the ITV daytime talk show "Loose Women", being one of the original panellists from its start in 1999 until 2002, before returning to the show in 2013 after a panellist revamp. She has also had roles in The Bill, Casualty, Benidorm and 99-1 and presented numerous television programmes.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: After winning the 2007 series of "Celebrity MasterChef", Sawalha has continued to make appearances on cookery shows as a presenter and as a chef.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: After training at the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts, Sawalha began her career in theatre. From 1997 to 1999, she starred in "EastEnders" as businesswoman Annie Palmer. Her other acting television credits include "Casualty", "Which Way to the War" and ITV police drama, "The Bill". Sawalha has also appeared in the films "Clockwise" (1986), "Which Way to the War" (1994), "Slave of Dreams" (1995), "The Vanishing Man" (1996) and the BBC Victorian drama "Station Jim" (2001), "Caught in the Act" (1997).


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: From 1999 to 2002, Sawalha was a regular panellist on the lunchtime chat show "Loose Women". She returned in October 2013.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In 2001, Sawalha presented the short-lived ITV quiz programme "It's Not the Answer" with Peter Dickinson as the announcer.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: For the BBC, Sawalha has fronted four series of "Passport to the Sun", the "Total" series, "TV Mail", "Heir Hunters", "Perfect Partner" and "Family Exchange". She is also a co-host on the live documentary "City Hospital". Sawalha has previously hosted the BBC One show "Living in the Sun", about British expats living in Spain, made by Ricochet, and "Wanted Down Under", which shows families who want to make the move Down Under (Australia, occasionally New Zealand) and what it would be like to live and work in those Antipodean nations. She can also be seen on "Accidents Can Happen", a daytime BBC One programme produced by Twofour, which follows families as they try to rebuild their homes and their lives following disaster.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In 2005, Sawalha presented the BBC One programme "Mirror, Signal, Manoeuvre" which followed learner drivers as they learnt to drive and took their driving tests with varying degrees of success. Sawalha was one of the learner drivers who ended up passing her driving test at the end of the second series. In the same year and on the same network, Sawalha also co-presented with Jeremy Milnes for the programme "Keeping Up with the Joneses".


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In the summer of 2006, Sawalha began co-presenting "The One Show" with Adrian Chiles. However, due to her pregnancy, she did not return to the show in the summer of 2007 and was replaced by Christine Bleakley.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: After winning "Celebrity MasterChef", Sawalha went on to co-present the children's version of the show "Junior Masterchef", she was said to be 'delighted' to be given the chance to host the show.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In 2008, Sawalha returned to BBC One, to present the daytime programme, "Wanted Down Under". She presented the 2009 programme "Eating in the Sun", produced by her husband Mark Adderley and has Sawalha challenged by celebrity chefs to cook in their favourite holiday restaurants.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: From 15 February until 20 August 2010, Sawalha presented the reality programme "Instant Restaurant" for BBC Two.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In December 2010, Sawalha presented in a fitness DVD entitled "Nadia Sawalha: Fat To Fab", after losing three and a half stone.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In July 2011, Sawalha guest presented ITV Breakfast programme "Lorraine" and has since made regular appearances on the show, not only as a stand-in presenter but also as a resident chef.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In January 2011, Sawalha starred in the sixth series of ITV's "Dancing on Ice" with Scottish professional Mark Hanretty, but was voted out in a double elimination in the first week along with Angela Rippon and her partner Sean Rice.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: From 27 October to 29 December 2013, Sawalha and Kaye Adams co-hosted one series of "Sunday Scoop", a cookery show.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: From 7 January 2015, Sawalha took part in the fifteenth series of "Celebrity Big Brother" on Channel 5. She lasted 24 days in the house before being evicted.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Sawalha presented her own cookery show, "Nadia's Family Feasts", on ITV. She took inspiration from busy households around the world as she searched for new ideas for recipes that would fit into hectic schedules. Each week, she was joined by a guest chef with a passion or expertise in that cuisine.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Sawalha now hosts a few podcasts with her husband, Mark Adderley. In "How to Stay Married (So Far)" Nadia and Mark talk about the ups and downs of married life. In "Confessions of a Modern Parent", they discuss the modern issues that face teenagers, with an insight from Sawalha's daughter Maddie, and Carlitos, Lisa Mejuto's son.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Sawalha started a YouTube channel with fellow "Loose Women" panellist Kaye Adams. They had their own YouTube account, Instagram account and Facebook page where they did weekly vlogs, cooking videos, film and TV programme reviews. They also focused on daily normal family routines as well. This account, however, is now inactive.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Sawalha launched a Sawalha-Adderley YouTube channel. "The Sawalha-Adderleys" (Originally "Nadia Sawalha and Family") on Monday 25 August 2014, featuring Sawalha with her husband Mark Adderley. Also regularly appearing are their two children, Sawalha's parents, Adderley's mother Nanni Di, Sawalha 's sister Dina and Sawalha 's best friend and make-up artist, Lisa and her two children.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: The channel began as a film and TV show review where Sawalha, Adderley and sometimes their children would review films coming out in the cinema, or a popular TV show on television. But by the end of 2014, her family decided to make varied content with the first being Vlogmas where the family do a vlog every day in December. This proved to be a hit with their followers. From 2015 onwards the channel has been releasing at least two videos daily.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In December 2016 the channel launched a subscription to the channel. It had a monthly cost of £1.99 and included their weekly "The No-Named Sunday show" which features different segments from memes, cooking, newspapers, book reviews, 'Teddy Talks', 'Lisa Loves...' and a weekly livestream for members only.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: In February 2019 the channel reached 50,000 subscribers. On 4 May 2020 the channel reached 100k and received a "silver play button".


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Sawalha was raised and still lives in Croydon, South London. She is the daughter of the Jordanian-born British actor Nadim Sawalha and his English wife Roberta Lane. She is the sister of television actress Julia Sawalha and has appeared on "Lily Savage's Blankety Blank" with her. In 1997, the three starred together in "Dearest Daddy... Darling Daughter" at the Young Vic Theatre in South London.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: Sawalha has suffered from psoriasis and has used homeopathy rather than conventional treatment. In 2019, Sawalha revealed on Loose Women she suffers from tinnitus.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: On 25 December 1997, Sawalha's first husband Justin Mildwater ended his life by suicide. They had been married for five years, but had split up a few months before.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: On 31 May 2017, Sawalha spoke in an emotional video online about losing her hair at the age of 52. Sawalha said that her curls were fake and she was going through the perimenopause, the start of the menopause. She said that a doctor told her in September 2016 she had the balding gene.


title: Nadia Sawalha

text: On 25 November 2022, Sawalha announced that she had been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder at the age of 58.


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian (North Karelian and Livvi Karelian: ; Ludic: ; Tver Karelian: ) is a Finnic language spoken mainly in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically, Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, and some Finnish linguists have even classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, though in the modern day it is widely considered a separate language. Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as ("Karelian dialects") in Finland.


title: Karelian language

text: There is no single standard Karelian language. Each writer writes in Karelian according to their own dialectal form. Three main written standards have been developed, for North Karelian, Olonets Karelian (also known as Livvi Karelian) and Tver Karelian. Ludic Karelian also appears in writing. All variants are written with the Latin-based Karelian alphabet, though the Cyrillic script has been used in the past.


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, and is closely related to Finnish. Finnish and Karelian have common ancestry in the Proto-Karelian language spoken in the coast of Lake Ladoga in the Iron Age, and Karelian forms a dialect continuum with the Eastern dialects of Finnish. Earlier, some Finnish linguists classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, sometimes known in older Finnish literature as ('Border Karelian dialects'), but today Karelian is seen as a distinct language. Besides Karelian and Finnish, the Finnic subgroup also includes Estonian and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea.


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian is spoken by about 100,000 people, mainly in the Republic of Karelia, Russia, although notable Karelian-speaking communities can also be found in the Tver region (Tver Oblast) northwest of Moscow. Previously, it was estimated that there were 5,000 speakers in Finland, mainly belonging to the older generations, but more recent estimates have increased that number to 30,000. Due to post-World War II mobility and internal migration, Karelians now live scattered throughout Finland, and Karelian is no longer spoken as a local community language.


title: Karelian language

text: In the Republic of Karelia, Karelian has official status as a minority language, and since the late 1990s there have been moves to pass special language legislation, which would give Karelian an official status on par with Russian. Karelians in Tver Oblast have a national-cultural autonomy which guarantees the use of the Karelian language in schools and mass media. In Finland, Karelian has official status as a non-regional national minority language within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.


title: Karelian language

text: The Karelian language has two main varieties, which can be considered as dialects or separate languages: Karelian Proper, which comprises North Karelian and South Karelian (including the Tver enclave dialects); and Olonets Karelian. These varieties constitute a continuum of dialects, the ends of which are no longer mutually intelligible. Varieties can be further divided into individual dialects:


title: Karelian language

text: The Ludic language, spoken along the easternmost edge of Karelian Republic, is in the Russian research tradition counted as a third main dialect of Karelian, though Ludic shows strong relationship also to Veps, and it is today also considered a separate language.


title: Karelian language

text: Like Finnish, the Karelian language has 8 phonemic vowel qualities, totalling 11 vowel phonemes when vowel length is considered:


title: Karelian language

text: Only the close vowels , and may occur long. The original Proto-Finnic long mid and open vowels have been diphthongized: > (as also in Finnish); *aa, *ää > (as also in Savonian dialects of Finnish).


title: Karelian language

text: Some palatalized consonants exist: /lʲ nʲ sʲ tʲ/ in Karelian Proper (North), /dʲ lʲ nʲ rʲ sʲ tʲ/ (/zʲ/ also exists, but only in loanwords) in Olonets Karelian, /dʲ lʲ nʲ rʲ sʲ tʲ zʲ/ in Ludic and Tver Karelian. Palatalized labials are also present in some loanwords: North Karelian "b'urokratti" 'bureaucrat', Livvi "b'urokruattu" 'bureaucrat', "kip'atku" 'boiling water', "sv'oklu" 'beet', Tver Karelian "kip'atka" 'boiling water', "s'v'okla" 'beet' (from Russian бюрократ, кипяток, свёкла).


title: Karelian language

text: Olonets, Ludic, and Tver Karelian also have the voiced affricate //, represented in writing by the digraph .


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian is today written using a Latin alphabet consisting of 29 characters. It extends the ISO basic Latin alphabet with the additional letters Č, Š, Ž, Ä, Ö and ' and excludes the letters Q, W and X. This unified alphabet is used to write all Karelian varieties including Tver Karelian. The very few texts that were published in Karelian from medieval times through the 19th century used the Cyrillic alphabet. With the establishment of the Soviet Union, Finnish, written with the Latin alphabet, became official. However, from 1938 to 1940 Karelian written in Cyrillic replaced Finnish as an official language of the Karelian ASSR (see "History" below).


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian is written with orthography similar to Finnish orthography. However, some features of the Karelian language and thus orthography are different from Finnish:


title: Karelian language

text: Notice that /c/ and /č/ have length levels, which is not found in standard Finnish. For example, in Kalevala, Lönnrot's orthography hides the fact that the pronunciation of the original material is actually , with palatalization of the affricate. The exact details depend on the dialect, though. See "Yleiskielen ts:n murrevastineet".


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian actually uses as a voiced alveolar fricative. (In Finnish, "z" is a foreign spelling for .) The plosives , and may be voiced. (In most Finnish dialects, they are not differentiated from the unvoiced , , and . Furthermore, in Karelian except North Karelian, voiced consonants occur also in native words, not just in loans as in standard Finnish.)


title: Karelian language

text: The sounds represented by "č, š" and "ž" are native to Karelian, but not Finnish. Speakers of Finnish do not distinguish and from , nor from (medial) or (initial). For example, the native Karelian words and are and in standard Finnish.


title: Karelian language

text: As all other Finnic languages, Karelian descends from Proto-Finnic, which in turn ultimately descends from Proto-Uralic. The most recent ancestor of the Karelian dialects is the language variety spoken in the 9th century at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, known as Old Karelian (Finnish: ).


title: Karelian language

text: Karelian is usually considered a part of the Eastern Finnic subgroup. It has been proposed that Late Proto-Finnic evolved into three dialects: Northern dialect, spoken in western Finland; Southern dialect, spoken in the area of modern-day Estonia and northern Latvia, and Eastern dialect, spoken in the regions east of the Southern dialect. In the 6th century, Eastern dialect arrived at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, and in the 9th century, Northern dialect reached the same region. These two dialects blended together and formed Old Karelian.


title: Karelian language

text: By the end of the 13th century, speakers of Old Karelian had reached the Savo region in eastern Finland, increasingly mixing with population from western Finland. In 1323 Karelia was divided between Sweden and Novgorod according to the Treaty of Nöteborg, which started to slowly separate descendants of the Proto-Karelian language from each other. In the areas occupied by Sweden, Old Karelian started to develop into dialects of Finnish: Savonian dialects and Southeastern dialects.


title: Karelian language

text: Birch bark letter no. 292 is the oldest known document in any Finnic language. The document is dated to the beginning of the 13th century. It was found in 1957 by a Soviet expedition, led by Artemiy Artsikhovskiy in the Nerev excavation on the left coast side of Novgorod. The language used in the document is thought to be an archaic form of the language spoken in Olonets Karelia, a dialect of the Karelian language. A later manuscript, no. 403 (second half of the 14th century), apparently belonging to a tax collector, includes a short glossary of Karelian words and their translations.


title: Karelian language

text: In the regions ruled by Novgorod, the protolanguage started to evolve into Karelian language. In 1617 Novgorod lost parts of Karelia to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo, which led the Karelian-speaking population of the occupied areas to flee from their homes. This gave rise to the Karelian speaking population in the Tver and Valday regions.


title: Karelian language

text: In the 19th century, a few books were published in Karelian using the Cyrillic script, notably "A Translation of some Prayers and a Shortened Catechism" into North Karelian and Olonets (Aunus) dialects in 1804, and the gospel of St. Matthew in South Karelian Tver dialect, in 1820. Karelian literature in 19th century Russia remained limited to a few primers, songbooks and leaflets.


title: Karelian language

text: In 1921, the first all-Karelian congress under the Soviet regime debated whether Finnish or Karelian should be the official language (next to Russian) of the new "Karelian Labour Commune" (, in Cyrillic Karelian), which two years later would become the Karelian ASSR. Finnish communists as well as ethnic Finns from North America, who came to live in Soviet Karelia, dominated the political discourse, as they were in general far better educated than local Karelians. They favored the use of Finnish, which had just been through an 80-year period of standardization based on a variety of dialects across Finland — and the Finns saw Karelian simply as additional Finnish dialects. In the end Finnish was established as the official "local" language.


title: Karelian language

text: An intense program of Finnicization, but called "Karelianization", began and Finnish-language schools were established across Soviet Karelia. Newspapers, literary journals were established and Russian literature was translated into Finnish, while much literature from Soviet Karelia in Finnish was published.


title: Karelian language

text: While this was happening in Soviet Karelia, in 1931–33, a Karelian literary language using the Latin alphabet was standardized for the Tver Karelian community of about 127,000 people, hundreds of kilometers to the south.


title: Karelian language

text: Between 1935 and 1938 the Finnish-dominated leadership of Soviet Karelia including leader Edvard Gylling, was removed from power, killed or sent to concentration camps. The Finnish language was branded a language of the bourgeois Finnish society in Finland proper, and was later regarded as a "fascist" language of the Finnish enemy.


title: Karelian language

text: From early 1938 to April 1940, the Soviet authorities ceased publication in Finnish, all Finnish-language schools were closed and the children were prohibited from speaking Finnish even during recess. The Soviet government replaced Finnish in the Karelian ASSR with Karelian written in the Cyrillic alphabet.


title: Karelian language

text: A new form of standardized Karelian was hurriedly introduced in 1938, written in Cyrillic, with only nine grammatical cases, and with a very large and increasing number of words taken directly from Russian but with Karelian grammatical endings. During this period about 200 titles were published, including educational materials, children's books, readers, Party and public affairs documents, the literary journal "Karelia". The newspaper "Karjalan Sanomat" was written in this new Karelian Cyrillic, rather than in Finnish. Karelians who did not speak Russian could not understand this new official language due to the amount of Russian words, for example, the phrase "Which party led the revolution" in this form of Karelian was given as () where the word for party, led, and revolution are all Russian words with Karelian grammatical endings, whereas the Finnish equivalent words have completely different roots:


title: Karelian language

text: After the Winter War, in April 1940, political considerations changed again. The USSR established the Karelo-Finnish SSR with the idea that Finland proper would eventually be annexed to the USSR as part of that Republic. Finnish, written in the Latin alphabet, was once again made the official "local" language of Soviet Karelia, alongside Russian.


title: Karelian language

text: In the 1980s, publishing began again in various adaptations of the Latin alphabet for Olonets Karelian and the White Sea and Tver dialects of Karelian Proper.


title: Karelian language

text: In 2008, Joensuu University launched Finland's first Karelian language professorship, in order to save the language. A year later, Finland's first Karelian language nest (pre-school immersion group) was established in the town of Nurmes.


title: Fahriye Evcen

text: Fahriye Evcen Özçivit (born 4 June 1986) is a German-born Turkish actress and model. She is known for her roles as Necla Tekin in the TV series "Yaprak Dökümü" based on the novel by Reşat Nuri Güntekin, and as Feride in the TV series "Çalıkuşu", based on the novel by Reşat Nuri Güntekin.


title: Fahriye Evcen

text: At young age while she was on a vacation in Turkey, she took part in a program of Oya Aydoğan, who introduced her to producer İbrahim Mertoğlu. One of her first prominent roles was that of the character of "Necla" in the TV series "Yaprak Dökümü ." Her first cinematic debut with the movie "Cennet", released in 2008, and at the same year she was cast in a leading role in the movie "Aşk Tutulması." As Evcen had not finished her studies in Germany, she enrolled in Boğaziçi University and studied history. She later played the character Feride in the TV series "Çalıkuşu" produced by TİMS Productions. She later acted in the movie "Aşk Sana Benzer opposite Burak Özçivit ." In 2017 she acted in the TV series "Ölene Kadar" opposite Engin Akyürek and also played in the movie "Sonsuz Aşk opposite Murat Yıldırım ." In 2021, she acted in "Alparslan: Büyük Selçuklu" as "Akça Hatun", same year she launched her own line of clothing under the name Ivy People.


title: Fahriye Evcen

text: Her maternal family is of Circassian descent. Her paternal family is of Turkish descent who immigrated from Kavala, Ottoman Empire. On 29 June 2017, she married actor and model Burak Özçivit in Istanbul. Their son, named Karan, was born on 13 April 2019. Fahriye is reportedly pregnant with the couple's second child.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: The sovereign prince () is the monarch and head of state of the Principality of Monaco. All reigning princes have taken the name of the House of Grimaldi, although some have belonged to other families (Goyon de Matignon or Polignac) in the male line. When Prince Rainier III died in 2005, he was Europe's longest reigning monarch. The Grimaldi family, which has ruled Monaco for eight centuries, is Europe's longest-ruling royal family.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: Monaco, along with Liechtenstein and Vatican City, is one of only three states in Western Europe where the monarch still plays an active role in day-to-day politics.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: The Prince of Monaco exercises their authority in accordance with the Constitution and laws. They represent the principality in foreign relations and any revision, either total or partial, of the Constitution must be jointly agreed to by the monarch and the National Council.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: Legislative power is divided between the Prince who initiates the laws, and the National Council which votes on them. Executive power is retained by the monarch, who has veto power over all legislation proposed by the National Council.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: The minister of state and the Government Council are directly responsible to the Prince for the administration of the principality.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: Judiciary powers also belong to the monarch. The present Constitution states that the prince has full authority in the courts and tribunals which render justice in his or her name.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: Pursuant to Article 16 of the 1962 Constitution, the Prince confers orders, titles and other distinctions (see Awards and decorations of Monaco) as the "fons honorum" of the Principality of Monaco.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: In 2005, "The New York Times" reported that loyalty to the princely family is fierce; few residents of Monaco want to be quoted saying anything negative about the monarchy.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: The Prince is styled His Serene Highness. Although used only formally, the Prince also bears several other hereditary titles, some of which are occasionally bestowed on his relatives or their spouses. Some of these titles have merged with the Crown of Monaco as a result of the Grimaldi family's acquisition of various fiefs; they no longer imply ownership or territorial authority, although the princes of Monaco have long been substantial owners of land and in France. Most were granted or recognised by the Kingdom of France or the Papal States and could only pass through the male line; they therefore became extinct as French dignities on the death of Albert's great-grandfather Prince Louis II in 1949. Thereafter, some of these titles were implicitly re-created as distinctly Monegasque titles.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: The tradition of the monarchy of Monaco was that the flag flying from the staff on the tower above his office be hoisted when the prince was present in Monaco. The current prince flies the flag whether he is present or not, preferring to keep his location private.


title: Monarchy of Monaco

text: Monaco is officially protected by France, according to terms set forth in the Treaty of Versailles in 1918.


title: Jameson Parker

text: Francis Jameson Parker Jr. (born November 18, 1947) is an American actor, best known for his roles as the first Brad Vernon in soap opera "One Life to Live", and as A.J. Simon on the 1980s television series "Simon & Simon".


title: Jameson Parker

text: Jameson Parker Jr. was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on November 18, 1947. He is the son of Jameson and Sydney Buchanan ( Sullivan) Parker. His father had been general legal counsel for the Parker family steel mill, an investment analyst, and government attorney (working first with the Maryland Public Expenditure Council and later with the United States Naval Reserve). In 1947, he was in private practice, but about to embark on a career as a diplomat with the United States Department of State.


title: Jameson Parker

text: His mother was the daughter of Mark Sullivan Sr., a former editor of "Collier's" and later columnist with the "New York Herald Tribune" newspaper. She was a short story author (under a pen name), and a reporter for "The Washington Post". His parents eloped on June 8, 1933, and married in Rockville, Maryland.


title: Jameson Parker

text: Jameson Parker Sr. died in 1972. His widow married her husband's Harvard Law School friend, Lewis Metcalfe Walling, a former New Deal labor attorney, in 1974.


title: Jameson Parker

text: Jameson Jr. attended St. Albans School, Washington, D.C., and a Swiss prep school. He studied drama at Beloit College.


title: Jameson Parker

text: At Beloit College, he acted in student theater productions, and, while living in Washington, D.C., he landed a job with a production of "The Great White Hope" at the Arena Stage and then acted in theatrical productions of "Caligula" and "Indians". After completing his degree at Beloit College in 1971, he performed in dinner theater and summer stock in the Washington, D.C., area.


title: Jameson Parker

text: In 1972, he moved to New York City, where he secured several television commercials and appeared in off-Broadway plays. He was cast as Dale Robinson in the daytime drama "Somerset" and created the role of Brad Vernon on "One Life to Live". During this period, Parker guest-starred on the ABC series "Family" and "Hart to Hart".


title: Jameson Parker

text: Parker made his motion picture debut in "The Bell Jar" (1979) and starred in "A Small Circle of Friends" (1980), in which he played one of three radical college students during the 1960s. The United Artists film received a limited theatrical release and grossed under $1 million. Another film from early in his acting career was the controversial "White Dog" (1982).


title: Jameson Parker

text: In addition, he played the leads in several CBS television movies: "Women at West Point" (1979), "Anatomy of a Seduction" (1979), "The Gathering II" (1979), "The Promise of Love" (1980), "Callie and Son" (1981), and "A Caribbean Mystery" (1983).


title: Jameson Parker

text: He became well-known by co-starring in "Simon & Simon" from 1981 to 1989. Thanks to the hit show's popularity, in 1985, Beloit awarded him its Distinguished Service Citation. With his "Simon & Simon" co-star Gerald McRaney he appeared in the theatrical movie "Jackals", which Parker co-produced. After completing this movie, he returned to Beloit College to star in a live summer stock theatrical production as Brick in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof". In 1987, starred alongside Donald Pleasence in John Carpenter's horror movie "Prince of Darkness".


title: Jameson Parker

text: Parker guest-starred on the CBS series "Walker, Texas Ranger" as a corrupt cop. He appeared in the television movies "Who Is Julia?" (1986), "Dead Before Dawn" (1993), and "Violation of Trust" (1991). He guest starred on the sitcom "Major Dad" with his "Simon & Simon" co-star Gerald McRaney.


title: Jameson Parker

text: Parker's last known acting work was in 2003–2004, after a four year hiatus, when he appeared in four episodes of "JAG". In 2003, he co-hosted the show "A Dog's Life" with wife Darleen on the Outdoor Life Network (OLN). In 2009, Parker did voice-over work as the narrator for the documentary "Endangered Species: California Fish and Game Wardens". He became a free-lance writer for a variety of hard-copy and on-line magazines and wrote several books, among them the biography "An Accidental Cowboy" about his life after acting.


title: Jameson Parker

text: Parker has been married three times. On July 19, 1969, he married Anne Taylor Davis in Fairfax County, Virginia, with whom he has one daughter. The two divorced on August 7, 1975 in Alexandria, Virginia. In 1976, Parker married Bonnie Dottley in New York City; the couple had three children. They divorced in 1992. He married Darleen Carr on June 18, 1992.


title: Jameson Parker

text: On October 1, 1992, Parker was shot in the left armpit and right arm by a neighbor during a verbal altercation concerning dog waste. He made a full recovery, and the neighbor was convicted of attempted murder and sentenced to nine years in prison.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: The Edict of Expulsion was a royal decree issued by King Edward I of England on 18 July 1290 expelling all Jews from the Kingdom of England. Edward advised the sheriffs of all counties he wanted all Jews expelled by no later than All Saints' Day (1 November) that year. The expulsion edict remained in force for the rest of the Middle Ages. The edict was not an isolated incident, but the culmination of over 200 years of increasing antisemitism in England. The edict was eventually overturned more than 350 years later, during the Protectorate when Oliver Cromwell permitted the resettlement of the Jews in England in 1657.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: The first Jewish communities of significant size came to England with William the Conqueror in 1066, when William issued an invitation to the Jews of Rouen to move to England, likely because he wanted feudal dues to be paid to the royal treasury in coin rather than in kind (which at the time meant paying a debt with goods and services rather than with money), and for this purpose it was necessary to have a body of men scattered through the country who would supply quantities of coin. After the Norman Conquest, William instituted a feudal system in the country, whereby all estates formally belonged to the Crown; the king then appointed lords over these vast estates, but they were subject to duties and obligations (financial and military) to the king. Under the lords were other subjects such as serfs, who were bound and obliged to their lords and their lords' obligations. Merchants had a special status in the system, as did Jews. Jews were declared to be direct subjects of the king, unlike the rest of the population. This was an ambivalent legal position for the Jewish population, in that they were not tied to any particular lord but were subject to the whims of the king, and it could be either advantageous or disadvantageous. Every successive king formally reviewed a royal charter, granting Jews the right to remain in England. Jews did not enjoy any of the guarantees of the Magna Carta of 1215.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: Economically, Jews played a key role in the country. The Church then strictly forbade the lending of money for profit, creating a vacuum in the economy of Europe that Jews filled because of extreme discrimination in every other economic area, as Jews were prohibited from practicing any art or craft, which were under the monopoly of Christian guilds. Canon law was not considered applicable to Jews, and Judaism does not forbid loans with interest between Jews and non-Jews. Taking advantage of their unique status as his direct subjects, the King could appropriate Jewish assets in the form of taxation. He levied heavy taxes on Jews at will, without having to summon Parliament.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: The reputation of Jews as extortionate money-lenders arose, making them extremely unpopular with the Church and the general public. While an anti-Jewish attitude was widespread in Europe, medieval England was particularly anti-Jewish. An image of the Jew as a diabolical figure who hated Christ started to become widespread, and myths such as the tale of the Wandering Jew and allegations of ritual murders originated and spread throughout England as well as in Scotland and Wales.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: In frequent cases of blood libel, Jews were said to hunt for children to murder before Passover so that they could use their blood to make the unleavened matzah. Anti-Jewish attitudes sparked numerous riots in which many Jews were murdered, most notably in 1190, when over 100 Jews were massacred in York.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: The situation only got worse for Jews as the thirteenth century progressed. In 1218, Henry III of England proclaimed the Edict of the Badge requiring Jews to wear a marking badge. Taxation grew increasingly intense. Between 1219 and 1272, 49 levies were imposed on Jews for a total of 200,000 marks, a vast sum of money. In 1222, Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, convened the Synod of Oxford which passed a set of laws that forbade Jews to build new synagogues, own slaves, or mix with Christians in England. Henry III imposed greater segregation and reinforced the wearing of badges in the 1253 Statute of Jewry. He endorsed the myth of Jewish child murders. Meanwhile, his court and major Barons bought Jewish debts with the intention of securing lands of lesser nobles through defaults. The Second Barons' War in the 1260s brought a series of pogroms aimed at destroying the evidence of these debts and Jewish communities in major towns, including London (where 500 Jews died), Worcester, Canterbury, and many other towns.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: The first major step towards expulsion took place in 1275, with the Statute of the Jewry. The statute outlawed all lending at interest and gave Jews fifteen years to readjust. In 1282, John Peckham, the Archbishop of Canterbury, closed all synagogues in his diocese.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: In the duchy of Gascony in 1287, King Edward ordered the local Jews expelled. All their property was seized by the crown and all outstanding debts payable to Jews were transferred to the King's name. In late 1286, Pope Honorius IV addressed a special rescript to the Archbishops of York and Canterbury claiming that the Jews had an evil effect on religious life in England through free interaction with Christians and called for action to be taken to prevent it. The Church responded with the Synod of Exeter in 1287, restating the Church laws against commensality between Jews and Christians and prohibiting Jews from holding public office, have Christian servants, or appear in public during Easter. Jewish physicians were also forbidden to practice and the ordinances of the Synod of Oxford of 1222 which prohibited the construction of new synagogues and the entry of Jews into Churches were restated.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: By the time he returned to England in 1289, King Edward was deeply in debt. The next summer he summoned his knights to impose a steep tax. To make the tax more palatable, Edward, in exchange, essentially offered to expel all Jews. The heavy tax was passed, and three days later, on 18 July, the Edict of Expulsion was issued.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: One official reason for the expulsion was that Jews had declined to follow the Statute of Jewry and continued to practice usury. This is quite likely, as it would have been extremely hard for many Jews to take up the respectable occupations demanded by the Statute. The edict of expulsion was widely popular and met with little resistance, and the expulsion was quickly carried out.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: Writs were issued to the sheriffs of every county that all Jews should leave England by All Saints' Day. The Jews were allowed to take their portable possessions with them but the vast majority had their houses forfeited to the king. A few favored persons were allowed to sell their homes before they left.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: The Jewish population in England at the time was relatively small, perhaps 2,000 people, although estimates vary. "Holinshed's Chronicles" recounted an incident of a ship chartered by wealthy Jews toward the mouth of the Thames, near Queenborough, en route to France. While the tide was low, the captain convinced the Jews to walk with him on a sandbank. He then returned to the ship before the tide came back in, leaving the Jews to drown, and he returned to London with their possessions. Though several of the mariners were hanged for their involvement, Holinshed also recounted that the captain was thanked and rewarded by the king.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: Many Jews emigrated, to Scotland, France and the Netherlands, and as far as Poland, which guaranteed their legal rights (see Statute of Kalisz).


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: Between the expulsion of Jews in 1290 and their formal return in 1655, there are records of Jews in the "Domus Conversorum" up to 1551 and even later. An attempt was made to obtain a revocation of the edict of expulsion as early as 1310, but in vain. Notwithstanding, a certain number of Jews appeared to have returned; four complaints were made to the king in 1376 that some of those trading as Lombards were actually Jews.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: Occasionally permits were given to individuals to visit England, as in the case of Dr Elias Sabot (an eminent physician from Bologna summoned to attend Henry IV) in 1410, but it was not until the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497 that any considerable number of Sephardic Jews found refuge in England. In 1542 many were arrested on the suspicion of being Jews, and throughout the sixteenth century a number of persons named Lopez, possibly all of the same family, took refuge in England, the best known of them being Rodrigo López, physician to Queen Elizabeth I, and who is said by some commentators to have been the inspiration for Shylock.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: England also saw converts such as Immanuel Tremellius and Philip Ferdinand. Jewish visitors included Joachim Gaunse, who introduced new methods of mining into England and there are records of visits from Jews named Alonzo de Herrera and Simon Palache in 1614. The writings of John Weemes in the 1630s provided a positive view of the resettlement of the Jews in England, effected in 1657.


title: Edict of Expulsion

text: In July 2021, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, announced that the Church of England would in 2022 offer a formal "act of repentance", on the 800th anniversary of the Synod of Oxford in 1222, which passed a set of laws that restricted Jews' rights to engage with Christians in England and eventually led to the expulsion of 1290. Historically, the Synod predated the Church of England's creation in 1534, but the Archbishopric of Canterbury dates to before 600 CE.