title: Hartlepool

text: Since November 2014 the Headland has hosted the annual Wintertide Festival, which is a weekend long event that starts with a community parade on the Friday and culminating in a finale performance and fireworks display on the Sunday.


title: Hartlepool

text: On 28 June 2006 Hartlepool celebrated after winning its bid to host The Tall Ships' Races. The town welcomed up to 125 tall ships in 2010, after being chosen by race organiser Sail Training International to be the finishing point for the race. Hartlepool greeted the ships, which sailed from Kristiansand in Norway on the second and final leg of the race.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool Art Gallery is located in Church Square within Christ Church, a restored Victorian church, built in 1854 and designed by the architect Edward Buckton Lamb (1806–1869). The gallery's temporary exhibitions change frequently and feature works from local artists and the permanent Fine Art Collection, which was established by Sir William Gray. The gallery also houses the Hartlepool tourist information centre.


title: Hartlepool

text: The Heugh Battery Museum is located on the Headland. It was one of three batteries erected to protect Hartlepool's port in 1860. The battery was closed in 1956 and is now in the care of the Heugh Gun Battery Trust and home to an artillery collection.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool is home to a National Museum of the Royal Navy (The other in Portsmouth). Previously known simply as The Historic Quay, the museum is a re-creation of an 18th-century seaport and host to Hartlepool's Maritime Experience. The centre-piece of the exhibition is a sailing frigate, HMS Trincomalee.


title: Hartlepool

text: Willows was the Hartlepool mansion of the influential Sir William Gray of William Gray & Company and he gifted it to the town in 1920, after which it was converted to be the town's first museum and art gallery. Fondly known locally as "The Gray" it was closed as a museum in 1994 and now houses the local authority's culture department.


title: Hartlepool

text: There are six libraries in Hartlepool, the primary one being the Community Hub Central Library. Others are Throston Grange Library, Community Hub North Library, Seaton Carew Library, Owton Manor Library and Headland Branch Library.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool is served by two primary routes which are the A179 road and the A689 road, both linking the town to the A19 road. The A179 road is the main road to the north-west which leads to the A19 road, Durham, Sunderland and Tyneside. The A689 road is the main road to the south-west towards the A19 & Billingham, Stockton, Middlesbrough and York. The A178 road leads south to Seaton Carew, Graythorp, Seal Sands, Port Clarence and Middlesbrough via the Transporter bridge. The A1086 road leads north to Crimdon, Blackhall, Horden, Peterlee and Easington.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool is served by and railway stations, both of which lie on the Durham Coast Line with hourly services to , and , which are operated by Northern. A service to from Sunderland, operated by Grand Central that uses Class 180 trains capable of operates from the former of the two stations. The service marks the first time since the 1980s that Hartlepool has had a direct rail link with London which takes around three and a half hours.


title: Hartlepool

text: Local bus services are provided around the town mainly by Stagecoach North East. The operator has the service 36 from Hartlepool to Billingham, Stockton and Middlesbrough, as well as the faster service 1 to Middlesbrough via Seaton Carew and Port Clarence.


title: Hartlepool

text: Other services are provided by Arriva North East and Go North East from Hartlepool to Peterlee, Durham, Seaham, Hetton-le-Hole, Houghton-le-Spring and Sunderland.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool has been a major seaport virtually since it was founded, and has a long fishing heritage. During the industrial revolution massive new docks were created on the southern side of the channel running below the Headland, which gave rise to the town of West Hartlepool.


title: Hartlepool

text: Now owned by PD Ports, the docks are still in use today and still capable of handling large vessels. However, a large portion of the former dockland was converted into a marina capable of berthing 500 vessels. Hartlepool Marina is home to a wide variety of pleasure and working craft, with passage to and from the sea through a lock.


title: Hartlepool

text: The town had planned to receive funding from central government to improve school buildings and facilities as a part of the Building Schools for the Future programme, but this was cancelled because of government spending cuts.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool College of Further Education is an educational establishment located in the centre of the town, and existed in various forms for over a century. Its former 1960s campus was replaced by a £52million custom-designed building, it was approved in principle in July 2008, opened in September 2011.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool also has Hartlepool Sixth Form College. It was a former grammar and comprehensive school, the college provides a number of AS and A2 Level student courses. The English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College also offers AS, A2 and other BTEC qualification to 16- to 18-year-olds from Hartlepool and beyond.


title: Hartlepool

text: A campus of The Northern School of Art is a specialist art and design college and higher education, located adjacent to the art gallery on Church Square. The college has a further site in Middlesbrough that facilitates further education.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool United is the town's professional football club and they play at Victoria Park. The club's most notable moment was in 2005 when, with 8 minutes left in the 2005 Football League One play-off Final, the team conceded a penalty, allowing Sheffield Wednesday to equalise and eventually beat Hartlepool to a place in the Championship. The club currently play in EFL League Two.


title: Hartlepool

text: Supporters of the club bear the nickname of Monkey Hangers. This is based upon a legend that during the Napoleonic wars a monkey, which had been a ship's mascot, was taken for a French spy and hanged. Hartlepool has also produced football presenter Jeff Stelling, who has a renowned partnership with Chris Kamara who was born in nearby Middlesbrough. Jeff Stelling is a keen supporter of Hartlepool United Football Club and often refers to them when presenting Sky Sports News. It is also the birthplace and childhood home of Pete Donaldson, one of the co-hosts of the Football Ramble podcast as well as co-host of the Abroad in Japan podcast, and a prominent radio DJ.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool is something of an anomaly in England having historically maintained a disproportionate number of clubs in a town of only c.90,000 inhabitants. These include(d) West Hartlepool, Hartlepool Rovers, Hartlepool Athletic RFC, Hartlepool Boys Brigade Old Boys RFC (BBOB), Seaton Carew RUFC (formerly Hartlepool Grammar School Old Boys), West Hartlepool Technical Day School Old Boys RUFC (TDSOB or Tech) and Hartlepool Old Boys' RFC (Hartlepool). Starting in 1904 clubs within of the headland were eligible to compete for the Pyman Cup which has been contested regularly since and that the Hartlepool & District Union continue to organise.


title: Hartlepool

text: Perhaps the best known club outside the town is West Hartlepool R.F.C. who in 1992 achieved promotion to what is now the Premiership competing in 1992–93, 1994–95, 1995–96 and 1996–97 seasons. This success came at a price as soon after West was then hit by bankruptcy and controversially sold their Brierton Lane stadium and pitch to former sponsor Yuills Homes. There then followed a succession of relegations before the club stabilised in the Durham/Northumberland leagues. West and Rovers continue to play one another in a popular Boxing Day fixture which traditionally draws a large crowd.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool Rovers, formed in 1879, who played at the Old Friarage in the Headland area of Hartlepool before moving to West View Road. In the 1890s Rovers supplied numerous county, divisional and international players. The club itself hosted many high-profile matches including the inaugural Barbarians F.C. match in 1890, the New Zealand Maoris in 1888 and the legendary All Blacks who played against a combined Hartlepool Club team in 1905. In the 1911–12 season, Hartlepool Rovers broke the world record for the number of points scored in a season racking up 860 points including 122 tries, 87 conversions, five penalties and eleven drop goals.


title: Hartlepool

text: Although they ceased competing in the RFU leagues in 2008–09, West Hartlepool TDSOB (Tech) continues to support town and County rugby with several of the town's other clubs having played at Grayfields when their own pitches were unavailable. Grayfields has also hosted a number of Durham County cup finals as well as County Under 16, Under 18 and Under 20 age group games.


title: Hartlepool

text: At the 2012 Summer Olympics, 21-year-old Savannah Marshall, who attended English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College in the town of Hartlepool, competed in the Women's boxing tournament of the 2012 Olympic Games. She was defeated 12–6 by Marina Volnova of Kazakhstan in her opening, quarter-final bout. Savannah Marshall is now a professional boxer, currently unbeaten as a pro and on 31 October 2020 in her 9th professional fight Marshall became the WBO female middleweight champion with a TKO victory over opponent Hannah Rankin at Wembley Arena.


title: Hartlepool

text: In August 2012 Jemma Lowe, a British record holder who attended High Tunstall College of Science in the town of Hartlepool, competed in the 2012 Olympic Games. She finished sixth in the 200-metre butterfly final with a time of 58.06 seconds. She was also a member of the eighth-place British team in the 400m Medley relay.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool is known for allegedly executing a monkey during the Napoleonic Wars. According to legend, fishermen from Hartlepool watched a French warship founder off the coast, and the only survivor was a monkey, which was dressed in French military uniform, presumably to amuse the officers on the ship. The fishermen assumed that this must be what Frenchmen looked like and, after a brief trial, summarily executed the monkey.


title: Hartlepool

text: Historians have pointed to the prior existence of a Scottish folk song called "And the Boddamers hung the Monkey-O". It describes how a monkey survived a shipwreck off the village of Boddam near Peterhead in Aberdeenshire. Because the villagers could only claim salvage rights if there were no survivors from the wreck, they allegedly hanged the monkey. There is also an English folk song detailing the later event called, appropriately enough, "The Hartlepool Monkey". In the English version the monkey is hanged as a French spy.


title: Hartlepool

text: "Monkey hanger" and Chimp Choker are common terms of (semi-friendly) abuse aimed at "Poolies", often from footballing rivals Darlington. The mascot of Hartlepool United F.C. is "H'Angus the monkey". The man in the monkey costume, Stuart Drummond, stood for the post of mayor in 2002 as H'angus the monkey, and campaigned on a platform which included free bananas for schoolchildren. To widespread surprise, he won, becoming the first directly elected mayor of Hartlepool, winning 7,400 votes with a 52% share of the vote and a turnout of 30%. He was re-elected by a landslide in 2005, winning 16,912 on a turnout of 51% – 10,000 votes more than his nearest rival, the Labour Party candidate.


title: Hartlepool

text: The monkey legend is also linked with two of the town's sports clubs, Hartlepool Rovers RFC, which uses the hanging monkey as the club logo. Hartlepool (Old Boys) RFC use a hanging monkey kicking a rugby ball as their tie crest.


title: Hartlepool

text: Hartlepool has an oceanic climate typical of Great Britain. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb"(Marine West Coast Climate).


title: Christopher Massey

text: Christopher Michael Massey (born January 26, 1990) is an American actor, best known for his role as Michael Barret on the Nickelodeon television series "Zoey 101" (2005–2008).


title: Christopher Massey

text: Massey started his acting career at a young age, appearing in commercials for Cap'n Crunch and Pop Tarts. He also has made a guest appearance on "Punk'd". He won 2002's Young Artist Award for Outstanding Young Performer in Live Theatre for his role as Young Simba in The Lion King.


title: Christopher Massey

text: Massey had his first starring role as Michael Barret in the Nickelodeon television show "Zoey 101". When the show debuted in January 2005, it drew a larger number of viewers aged 9–14 than any premiere on the network in the preceding eight years. "Zoey 101" was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Children's Program in 2005.


title: Christopher Massey

text: Massey is the older brother of Kyle Massey, star of Disney shows "Cory in the House", "That's So Raven", and "Fish Hooks". He guest-starred alongside his brother in a "That's So Raven" episode titled "Five Finger Discount". The Massey brothers have also had small roles on the sitcom "The Parkers", have appeared together on "The Steve Wilkos Show", and have released music together as the Massey Boyz.


title: Christopher Massey

text: Massey has three children, a daughter named Mariah by reality TV personality Cassalei "Cassie" Jackson, whose mother is actress Shar Jackson, and a daughter named Bella and a son named Carter by Bria Miller, to whom he was previously engaged in 2020. He is an older brother to actor Kyle Massey.


title: Christopher Massey

text: In March 2015, Massey was assaulted and robbed by rapper Lil Twist at his brother's home in Los Angeles. The rapper reportedly brought four others to aid him in the assault and robbery of the brothers, as well as brass knuckles, and stole Massey's Rolex watch before leaving. Lil Twist pleaded no contest to burglary, grand theft, making criminal threats, battery, and two counts of assault with a deadly weapon and was sentenced to one year in prison.


title: Christopher Massey

text: In April 2016, TMZ reported that Massey had been arrested and charged with domestic violence, following an incident involving Jackson as they were leaving a nightclub. Massey denied the allegations that he had shoved Jackson, saying the two had been arguing loudly when Jackson fell down, causing security to assume he'd shoved her. Jackson declined to press charges against Massey.


title: Christopher Massey

text: In July 2017, Massey was granted a temporary restraining order against Shar Jackson, his daughter Mariah's maternal grandmother. He told courts that he'd left Mariah in the care of her mother and grandmother for several weeks and that during the time, Jackson had struck Mariah and left a four-inch long gash in her forehead from a razor. A representative for Jackson denied Massey's claims of abuse.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The Ilyushin Il-86 (; NATO reporting name: Camber) is a short- to medium-range wide-body jet airliner that served as the USSR's first wide-bodied aircraft. Designed and tested by the Ilyushin design bureau in the 1970s, it was certified by the Soviet aircraft industry, manufactured and marketed by the USSR.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Developed during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev, the Il-86 was marked by the economic and technological stagnation of the era: it used engines more typical of the late 1960s, spent a decade in development, and failed to enter service in time for the Moscow Olympics, as was originally intended. The type was used by Aeroflot and successor post-Soviet airlines and only three of the total 106 constructed were exported.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: At the beginning of 2012, only four Il-86s remained in service, all with the Russian Air Force. By the end of 2020 the number in active service was reduced to three.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In the mid-1960s, the United States and Western Europe planned airliners seating twice the then-maximum of some 200 passengers. They were known as "airbuses" at the time. The Soviet leadership wanted to match them with an "aerobus" (). Alongside the propaganda motive, the USSR genuinely needed an "aerobus". Aeroflot expected over 100 million passengers a year within a decade (the 100th million annual passenger was indeed carried on 29 December 1976.)


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: First to respond was OKB-153, the bureau led by Oleg Antonov. It proposed a 724-seat version of the An-22 airlifter. The project was promoted until 1969, ultimately with a 605-passenger interior (383 on the upper deck and 223 on the lower). It did not go ahead due to fears that it would be old-fashioned and because the Kyiv-based bureau was close to the deposed Nikita Khrushchev.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Many airports had terminals too small for "aerobuses". In the West, the solution to this involved constructing greater airport capacity. By contrast, Soviet aviation research institutes addressed ways of increasing passenger throughput without the need for additional airport capacity.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Many Soviet airports also had surfaces too weak for "aerobuses". The Soviet solution again favoured adapting aircraft to existing conditions, rather than reconstructing airports. The "aerobus" thus had to match the ground loadings of existing airliners. This called for complex multi-wheel landing gear.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The Soviet solution to the airport capacity issue involved passengers loading and unloading their own luggage into and from the aircraft. This was eventually called "the luggage at hand system" (; transliterated: ""sistyema bagazh s soboy""). Soviet aviation journalist Kim Bakshmi described it (at its ultimate) thus: "One arrives five minutes prior to departure, buys oneself a ticket on board the aircraft, hangs one's coat next to the seat and places one's bag or suitcase nearby.".


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Taking suitcases into the cabin, as in trains, was studied, but necessitated a 3 m fuselage extension with a 350-seat capacity. To avoid this, passengers were to deposit their luggage in underfloor compartments as they entered the airliner.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Ideas similar to the "luggage at hand system" were briefly addressed in the West. Airbus studied such an arrangement in the mid-1970s. Lockheed implemented it into the L-1011 TriStar in 1973 at the request of Pacific Southwest Airlines (who used the baggage compartment as an entertainment lounge) and possibly also to suit potential Soviet buyers (see below).


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In October 1967, the Soviet government approved a Ministry of Civil Aviation (Aeroflot) specification for an "aerobus". This called for 350 seats and a range of 3,600 km (1,900 nmis) with a 40-tonne payload or 5,800 km/3,100 nmi with seats taken but no freight. The airliner had to operate from smaller airports (classified as "Klass "B"" and ""V"" [Russian: класс "Б", "В"] or "Class B/C" by the Soviets) 2,600 m (8,500 ft) runways.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In the second half of the 1960s, OKB-240 (as the Ilyushin bureau was formally known) was restoring positions lost (with Yakovlev, in favour of Tupolev and Antonov) during the Khrushchev era and was well placed to secure design of the "aerobus". When the Soviet cabinet's defence industry committee promoted the Aeroflot specification on September 8, 1969 to a preliminary project, (Russian: аванпроект; transliterated: "avanproyekt"), it entrusted it to Ilyushin. The bureau received specific operational requirements for the "aerobus" on February 22, 1970.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In developing the concept which had been agreed, Ilyushin faced four challenges: configuration (layout or "shape"), powerplant, automation (avionics) and manufacturing capacity.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Ilyushin began work on the "aerobus" in late 1969, initially by assessing the development potential of existing aircraft. An enlarged Il-62 (the Il-62-250) would have had a 30-tonne payload, 259 seats and a 6.8 metre/22 ft longer fuselage: a virtual analogue of the Douglas DC-8 "Super Sixty" series. Other proposed Il-62 modifications involved double-deck and "two fuselages side-by-side" developments. There was also a project to "civilianise" the Il-76.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: From March 1970 the bureau developed all-new designs under the Il-86 designation. Instead of the "appropriate technology" approach of the Il-62, these designs were to have powered controls, complex high-lift devices and advanced automation which would reduce the number of flightdeck crew.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: An early "avanproyekt" was shown to the Soviet leadership at an exhibition of civil aviation innovations at Vnukovo-2 Airport near Moscow on May 17, 1971. A scale model with the designation of "Il-86" showed the "self-loading" concept with integral boarding stairs, below-deck luggage stores, and below-deck midships galley. It had a twin-aisle interior with nine-abreast seating in a "3–3–3" layout. Ilyushin considered it politic to make the interior wider than any planned airliner except the Boeing 747. The 6.07 m (19.9 ft) fuselage diameter was partly dictated by the need to provide standing room in the underfloor luggage compartments. The Il-86 had the second-widest fuselage of any airliner until the Boeing 777.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: On this basis, on 9 March 1972, the bureau was asked to proceed with detailed design. The difference between the 1971 model and the eventual Il-86 was in configuration: the model had looked like an Il-62. At that time, the Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute (TsAGI) favoured the clean-winged, rear-engined, T-tailed configuration for airliners. The BAC Three-Eleven and BAC/CASA/MBB Europlane projects had similar configurations.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The configuration of heavy jet aircraft was a politically sensitive issue in the USSR. Aircraft designer Leonid Selyakov states this of the underwing-engine US-pioneered layout which gradually became standard for jet airliners: "The configuration of the В-47, taken on strength by the US Air Force ... brought forth a veritable storm of critical opinions from [Soviet] aviation scientists. Responsible TsAGI officials and industry leaders robustly called that aircraft 'utter nonsense' (similar opinions were expressed of the Boeing 747)."


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Similar controversies were known in Western aeronautical circles but this Soviet approach showed a typical streak of dogmatism which held that problems had immutable, "scientifically correct" solutions. However, not all Soviet aviation engineers were so fixed in their ideas, and the configuration issue figured prominently in a remarkable meeting held discreetly in Paris in the late 1960s between Boeing engineers (notably Joe Sutter, chief project engineer for the 747, and Bob Withington, a senior engineer who was deeply involved in the SST program) and some of their Soviet counterparts. This meeting had been approved at the highest levels of both governments because each side had something the other wanted very badly: the Soviets wanted to know exactly why Boeing had put the 747 engines in under-wing pods instead of at the rear of the fuselage, while Withington and the Boeing engineers had a long list of questions about the processing and use of titanium in airframes (at the time Boeing badly needed this for their proposed Boeing 2707 SST, at Mach 3 too fast and hot for Concorde-style aluminium, and the Soviets then led the world in titanium technology). According to Sutter's account, both sides left the meeting well satisfied with the exchange of information.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: It seems (again according to Sutter's account of the aftermath) that this meeting may have made a real difference to Soviet aircraft design, but Boeing's contribution could naturally not be acknowledged publicly by the Soviet side. Ilyushin therefore had to stress that it had been the first in the world to use podded engines suspended from pylons beneath and ahead of the wing, on the experimental Ilyushin Il-22 four-engined jet bomber of 1946 (first use of this designation). Having thus presented the Il-86's ultimate configuration as indigenously Soviet, the bureau could at last show it in public in 1973, six years after publication of the "aerobus" specification and four years after the design assignment. A modern six-window flightdeck followed, in place of the 18-to-20 window glazing of the Il-18, Il-62 and Il-76.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The main problem facing the Il-86 project was the lack of a suitable engine. It was never resolved. By the close of the 1960s, the US and the UK had turbofans with bypass ratios of 4 or 5 to 1. The first Soviet large turbofan, the Lotarev D-18T, did not appear before the mid-1980s. The Soloviev D-30, originally intended for the Il-86, was the most advanced Soviet civil aeroengine. It had a bypass ratio of 2.4 to 1 and aerodynamic clamshell thrust reversers. It failed to attain the required thrust, however: "only after the lapse of three years that were spent on preparing the advanced development project did it become clear that these engines would not provide the necessary take-off performance." The less-advanced Kuznetsov NK-8 series engine, adopted on March 26, 1975, had a bypass ratio of 1.15 to 1 and drag-inducing grilles over its cascade thrust reversers. Both these engines had high specific fuel consumptions and were noisy. Being ultimate developments of smaller engines, they could not offer growth to future Il-86s.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The appropriate/intermediate technology principles to which most Soviet airliners before the Il-86 had been designed meant that they had typically five-member flight crews. The design and entry into service in 1972 of the Tu-154, an airliner built to high technology principles (more automation, less human input), showed that Soviet science lagged behind in the development of avionics which would remove the need for navigators and radio operators. A programme of avionics development was mounted to enable the Il-86 to operate in most weather with a three-member flight crew, matching Western technology of the time.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The shortage of manufacturing facilities for the Il-86 was a problem from the outset: "The rapid modernisation of the Soviet Air Force ... has left limited scope for the expansion of commercial production ... the lack of production capacity is being remedied partly by ... international cooperation." This meant involving the Polish aircraft industry in the project.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The Soviets tried to import technology to solve the issues with the powerplant, avionics and manufacturing capacity. The attempts took two directions. First was wholesale technology transfer similar to the Li-2 deal of the 1930s. This would have delayed Il-86 development, since the programme would have been demoted to a reserve status. The second direction was to import individual systems and items. This would have speeded Il-86 development. The fact that Il-86 development was protracted indicates that for long periods the programme was pursued as backup insurance in case wholesale technology transfer failed.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Before the Boeing 747 had flown, a Ministry of Civil Aviation delegation visited the United States for a series of detailed sales presentations on the type lasting three days. At the 1971 Paris Salon, Ilyushin bureau head Genrikh Novozhilov and Boeing's Joe Sutter are claimed to have arranged an informal technology trade-off. Over supper in a Paris restaurant, the Soviet side ceded information on titanium technology to the Americans, while the latter, "sketching on the tablecloth," ceded information on pylon-mounted podded engines and "the structural and aerodynamic amity of the aeroelastic wing." Soviet interest in buying the 747s continued until the end of détente in the late 1970s.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: At the peak of "détente", on March 11, 1974, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar arrived in Moscow for three days of sales presentations and demonstrations. The TriStar matched the Il-86 in size and performance and had development potential. Negotiations to buy 30 TriStars of the L-1011-385-250 version and licence-produce up to 100 a year in a new factory employing 80,000 people continued until mid-1976. Any residual will to export TriStars was scotched when US President Jimmy Carter made human rights a US foreign policy factor. TriStar exports would have needed Coordinating Committee clearance: the type embodied advanced technology banned from potential enemies. In 1978, the US Department of Commerce vetoed export of 12 General Electric CF6-50 engines ordered by the USSR for planned long-range Il-86s.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: By analogy with other aircraft programmes, a third direction in the efforts to acquire foreign technology may have involved illicit action along the lines of the reverse engineering of the Tu-4 from the B-29 and the copying of the Rolls-Royce Nene jet engine as the Klimov VK-1. Oblique reference to this comes in an account of the An-124 by the then-powerplant head of the Antonov bureau, V. G. Anisyenko: "The MAP leadership wanted to have a uniform large engine also capable of civil aviation applications, such as the Il-86. The most suitable analogue from this viewpoint was considered to be the Rolls-Royce RB.211-22. To purchase it, in 1976 a MAP procurement party went to Great Britain, headed by engine construction deputy minister Dondukov ... Our ultimate task was to copy the RB.211-22, for which purpose we had to buy not fewer than eight examples ... The English ... would only sell us the engine in quantities ... to power no fewer than 100 aircraft. As a result, we did not get a sample ... "


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The design process at Ilyushin was managed by Sergey Ilyushin's successor as head of the bureau, Genrikh Novozhilov. The timescale announced in 1973 envisaged first flight in 1976 and service entry in time for the Moscow Olympics in 1980.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The prototype flew at Khodynka airfield (where Ilyushin's experimental factory was) on December 22, 1976 (Soviet airliners often flew before the close of calendar years to meet the requirements of five-year plans). It was announced that the type had a patented electromagnetic pulse deicing system. which used 500 times less energy than conventional deicers. It is claimed that over 50 new technological processes were introduced into Soviet practice as a result of the Il-86 programme.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The initial test programme was flown by Ilyushin staff, ending two months ahead of schedule on October 20, 1978. Other sources claim that these tests were completed on 22 September 1978. (According to a faster schedule announced at the time of the first flight, Ilyushin tests were to have ended in time for the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution on November 7, 1977.) In-house testing involved speeds up to Mach 0.93 and bank angles up to 11 degrees greater than specified.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Initial certification flying by pilots independent of Ilyushin ended on June 6, 1977. State acceptance trials began on April 24, 1979 and ended on December 24, 1980. Certification by Gosaviaregistr SSSR [the USSR State Aviation Registry] was granted under certificate number 10–86. The Il-86 entered Aeroflot service on 26 December the same year. The service-entry deadline of summer 1980, announced by Minister of Civil Aviation Boris Bugayev in 1977 had passed, however, and the Il-86 missed the Moscow Olympics in the summer of 1980.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Overall development of the Il-86 occupied over a decade. The length of this period was due to the sensitivity of the airliner's configuration, problems with its powerplant, prolonged avionics development and the low priority of civil as opposed to military aircraft. In its earlier stages, the Il-86 programme was also held back by hopes of US airliner imports. Certificating the Il-86 to the very demanding set of Soviet and Comecon standards called NLGS-2 also delayed progress; it was the first Soviet aircraft to undergo a full certification programme since certification was introduced in the USSR in 1967 and became mandatory five years later.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Production of the Il-86 began in late 1976 and continued until 1991. There was no prototype. The first two machines were handmade by Ilyushin at the bureau's own Moscow facility in 1976 and 1977. One was used for flight testing and the other for static ground testing.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Beyond these initial examples, Ministry of Aircraft Manufacture ("MAP," "Minaviaprom") Factory 64 at Voronezh (today VASO) was tasked with building more than half of each Il-86 and performing final assembly. Three aircraft were assembled at Voronezh by 1979. The first (flown on October 25, 1977) was built largely by hand, subsequent machines making increasing use of production equipment. These aircraft were used in certification and development flying before handover to Aeroflot. Voronezh factory production engineers conducted a "redesign cycle" of over 50 areas, cutting some 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) of airframe weight.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Capacity at Voronezh was insufficient and the Polish aircraft industry was involved in the Il-86 project from the start. The arrangement involved significant technology transfer to Poland: PZL (Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze) Amalgamation Mielec factory Director Jerzy Belczak said it involved “… a radical retooling of our enterprise” involving “over 50 new processes.” Observers noted that "work on the Il-86 will bring Poland's ... WSK-Mielec to a new level of capability ... in the manufacturing processes involved with an aircraft of this size, including titanium structures, chemical milling and the machining of integral panels."


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: By the mid-1980s, PZL was planned to produce half of the Il-86, including the entire wing, and also to work on Il-86 developments (“Now we are preparing to manufacture units for the next model of the Il wide-body plane,” according to Belczak). From May 1977, the Polish factory manufactured entire empennages including tailplanes and the fin, all control surfaces, high-lift devices and engine pylons for the Il-86, representing "about 16 per cent of these aircraft." Amid labour and political unrest in Poland from 1980 onwards, the Voronezh factory was instructed to retain wing manufacture.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: After certification in 1980, annual Il-86 outputs were: 1980, 1; 1981, 0; 1982, 11; 1983, 12; 1984, 8; 1985, 9 (including the four for 8 ADON); 1986, 11; 1987, 10; 1988, 10; 1989, 9; 1990, 11 (including the three for export to China), 1991, 3. Of the 106 examples built, one never flew (being used for static tests) and three were exported.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The five-year plan in force when the USSR ceased to exist called for 40 more aircraft to be manufactured by 1995, but the manufacturing facility closed in early 1992.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Cantilever three-spar structure of modified trapezoid planform. Centre section integral with fuselage. Inboard sections, outboard sections and detachable leading and trailing edges. High-lift devices comprise full-span six-segment leading edge slats (contiguous at engine pylons) at up to 17.5% of chord (drooping to 35°), two-segment fixed-vane double-slotted trailing edge flaps occupying some 75% of the span (deploying to 40°) and five-segment spoilers (outboards used as spoilerons at high speeds, inboards used as lift dumpers on the ground). Two-segment outboard ailerons for low speed roll control. Boundary layer fences over pylons. Engines suspended from the wing on pylons act as anti-flutter weights. Trim range is 16–33% of mean aerodynamic chord.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Circular-section structure of frames and stringers with a continuous main deck and lower decks fore and aft of the centre section. Rectangular windows in most interframe bays, eight ICAO Type 1a passenger doors on the main deck and three more on the lower deck portside; two freight hold doors and a galley supply door on the lower deck starboard. The main deck houses the flightdeck, two wardrobes, eight toilets, two pantries and a three-section passenger cabin. The lower deck houses three entry vestibules/luggage stores with hydraulic boarding stairs to ground level and fixed stairs to the main deck, a midships galley linked with the main deck by an electric lift, two freight holds (fore and aft of the passenger facilities), an avionics bay and two technical bays. The entire accommodation is pressurised and air-conditioned with "earphones for music or on-board cinema."


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Cantilevered trapezoid planform swept-back surfaces. Two-segment elevators and rudder. Tailplane area ; incidence adjustable between 2° and 12° by electric motors commanded by yoke trim thumbwheels and console trim wheels. Fin area . Landing gear of near-conventional layout, with a twin-wheeled nose leg and three four-wheel bogie main gear legs (centreline and two outers). Track is .


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Four Kuznetsov NK-86 two-spool with five-stage LP compressors, six-stage HP compressors, annular combustor cans, single-stage HP turbine and two-stage LP turbine turbofan engines power the Il-86. The cascade thrust reversers are canted 15° in respect to the horizontal axis. Pneumatic starters start the engines (airborne relights use the windmill effect). The forward-facing ejectors blow away detritus during taxi. International Standard Atmosphere hourly fuel consumption per engine is 7.7 t (16,975 lb) at maximum continuous rated thrust, 6 t/13,230 lb at nominal maximum thrust, 5.1 t (11,243 lb) at 85% thrust, 4.2 t/9260 lb at 70%, 3.6 t (7,937 lb) at 60%, 2.45 t (5,400 lb) at 40% and 1 t (2,205 lb) at idle. Overall hourly fuel consumption at long-range cruise and 190 t (419,000 lb) is 9.75 t (21,495 lb) reducing to 7.79 t (17,174 lb) at 140 t (308,650 lb). Outboard engine pylons on the latter two-thirds of all Il-86s are marginally extended to cut drag.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The VSU-10 APU generates power and heats/cools the interior on the ground, and provides engine start air.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Hydraulically driven. An SAU-1T-2 automatic flight control system offers assisted manual or automatic flight, with no manual option. Four independent hydraulic systems power all flight controls and the built-in airstairs. Fluid is to the NGZh, rather than AMG, formula.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Pizhma-1 navigational system with OMEGA inputs. GPS transceivers and a TCAS fitted retroactively during the 1990s. Pizhma-1 can be used throughout the flight from departure terminal area to landing and taxi to stand. Pizhma-1 has full-time roll and yaw dampers.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Airfield approach aids enable instrument landing system-coupled approaches to ICAO Category II weather minima.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Other radio aids include VOR and DME receivers, a weather radar, and Warsaw Pact identification aids. Cockpit voice recorders and flight data recorders standard.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Four GT-40PCh6 engine generators generate energy from the Kuznetsov NK-86. The APU or ground sources supply 200/115 V, 400 Hz current to the primary system or two secondary systems (36 V/400 Hz AC and 27 V DC). Recipients include high-lift devices, tailplane trim, deicing, galley lift (elevator) and interior services.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The expected service life of an Il-86 is twenty years (up to 25) or 10,000 landings (from 20,000 up to 35,000 hours) prior to major servicing.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: An inaugural service from Moscow to Tashkent was flown on December 26, 1980 but services-proper commenced after February 1, 1981. Aeroflot first operated the Il-86 on peak domestic routes. Foreign services began in June 1981 to Eastern Europe. Services to larger West European cities began with the winter timetable starting in October that year. Charter flights to European points followed, with services on high-density medium/long-range routes within the Soviet Union coming last.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Although the Il-86 was a medium-range airliner, from 1982 Aeroflot put it into scheduled service from Moscow to Havana via Shannon and Gander, "perhaps with limited payload or with additional tankerage." Other scheduled long-range services flown by the type were to Buenos Aires, Montevideo and Lima, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, all via Sal, Cape Verde.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, national airlines emerged in the 15 successor republics. Il-86s serving with Aeroflot administrations ("Directorates") in these nations accrued to their airlines and many were traded.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: From April 2002, the European Union, the US and much of the rest of the world banned noisier aircraft, including the Il-86. On October 23, 2006, Aeroflot Deputy Director General Igor Desyatnichenko said that the Il-86 was to be withdrawn from service starting November 15 that year as it operated for just two or three months in the summer."


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In March 2022, due to sanctions against Russia by the EU due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, S7 Airlines has confirmed that they will bring back three Il-86s as passenger aircraft, converted from cargo aircraft. This will be the first time that the Il-86 has flown commercially since 2011.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The Il-86's "luggage at hand" carry-on luggage facility was rarely used. Vul'fov, A, notes: "Thank God no civil servant got it into his head to refuse the parallel opportunity offered to passengers of electing to drop their luggage when checking-in at airports. Otherwise, the loading of luggage into the aircraft by passengers would have turned into a proper nightmare lasting hours."


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In 1987 Radio Moscow reported that Aeroflot "resisted the change" to a three-person crew. Vul'fov further reports that the type continued to be operated by four-member crews. Navigators, occupying the observer seat (devoid of instrumentation), stood unsecured on final approach to oversee the pilots' instruments and read-out indications (despite voice synthesizers being fitted). Soviet operations of the Tu-154 airliner similarly employed four or five flightdeck crew, despite foreign operators using three-person flightdeck crews.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: With its built-in stairs and below deck holds, the Il-86 was widely expected to serve in the personnel transport role with the Soviet air forces: "The wide-bodied Il-86 can perform not only as a troop transport ... but may also in the future form the basis for a command and control aircraft for airborne coordination of Warsaw Pact forces."


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In the event, four airframes (c/n 042, 043, 046 and 048, carrying quasi-civil registrations SSSR-86146, '7, '8 and '9) were delivered to the 8th Special Purposes Aviation Division at the Chkalovsky air base near Moscow. These are variously claimed to be designated Il-80, Il-82, Il-87 or Il-86VKP (Russian: “ВКП” for “воздушный командный пост”; transliterated: "vozdushniy komandnyi post" “veh-kah-peh” and meaning "aerial command post"). This version has the NATO reporting name "Maxdome".


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Il-86 provision to Aeroflot did not constitute a sale: it was part of the centralised Soviet supply and allocation system coordinated by offices called Gosplan and Gossnab which controlled the entirety of planning and distribution in the USSR (except the black market). Built aircraft were allocated to Aeroflot regions and Soviet Air Force units as follows (in order of first acceptance): the Vnukovo Aviation Entreprise, 21; the TsUMVS Administration of International Air Communications centred on Sheremetyevo Airport, 22; the Tashkent Air Enterprise, 9; the Sheremetyevo Air Enterprise, 10; the Pulkovo Air Enterprise, 8; the Alma-Ata Air Enterprise, 8; the Chkalovsky Soviet Air Force Base 8 ADON (or 8th Special Purposes Aviation Division), 4; the Kol'tsovo Air Enterprise, 6; the Tolmachevo Air Enterprise, 6; the Erevan Air Enterprise, 2; the Yemelyanovo Air Enterprise, 3.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Selling the Il-86 commercially (which under the Soviet system meant solely exports) was the job of the Soviet foreign trade organisation V/O Aviaeksport. The division of responsibilities between the influential TsAGI research establishment, design bureaux (acting like naval architects) which designed aeroplanes, factories (independent of the bureaux) which constructed them, independent service facilities which repaired them and an independent organisation which marketed them alongside designs by all other bureaux, has been seen as diluting responsibility for the fate of a product.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: As part of supply provisions within the Comecon, Lot was allocated four Il-86s as barter for component manufacture; the airline deferred deliveries which were cancelled by 1987. In 1988 the East German airline Interflug is said to have prepared to take delivery of two Il-86s and to have allocated them the registrations DDR-AAA and DDR-AAB. Instead, that same year the airline took delivery of two Airbus A310s. The sole export order for the Il-86 − and the sole commercial transactions involving factory-built rather than secondhand examples − was by China Xinjiang Airlines which received three aircraft in 1990.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: The Il-86 prototype was displayed at the Paris Salon International de l'Aéronautique in 1977. It was noted that its interior used patented fire-resistant materials and hydraulics employed a fire-resistant fluid. At that time a version without the "luggage at hand" system was offered, seating 375 or alternatively weighing 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) less and having longer range. This version offered 7% lower seat-mile operational costs. The type was again displayed at Paris in 1979, 1981, 1983 and 1985, the Farnborough Air Show in 1984 and other world air events.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Setting records was a traditional Soviet way of promoting aviation products. On Tuesday September 22, 1981, an Il-86 flown by Commander G Volokhov and Second Pilot A Tyuryumin set Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records for flying payloads of 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 and 65 tonnes over a 2,000 km closed circuit at an average of 975.3 km per hour. Two days later, the same crew and machine set FAI records for flying payloads of 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75 and 80-tonne payloads over a 1,000 km closed circuit at an average of 962 km/h. Of these 18 records, one was broken by a Tu-144 in 1983, five were superseded or discontinued and 12 still stood in 2010.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In September 1982 the type made a sales call on Bulgaria, followed by calls in July 1983 on Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Potential buyers received no hard information on the type in advance. Little solid information was given during the sales calls: "constructor Novosilov sidestepped all questions [on fuel consumption] ... [the] chief pilot ... provided a measure of veiled explanation: 'The consumption of the Il-86 is not higher than that of the Il-18,' he said." While welcomed as “proof of friendship with the USSR,” these sales calls failed to attract orders. Observers tacitly noted that the aircraft marked a 10/15-year lag by Soviet civil aviation compared with the West.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Only the base version of the Il-86 and a small batch of military derivatives entered service. Further versions were mooted but none entered service. Freight or combined passenger-freight versions are not known to have been proposed.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: On June 26, 1972, a long-range version of the Il-86, the Il-86D (for Russian: "дальний"; transliterated: "dal’niy"; meaning "long-range"), was ordered into development by the Soviet cabinet. Design was completed in June 1976. The Il-86D would have had a marginally extended wing span, carried additional fuel, and had a range of some 8,500 km (4,600 nmi). Later announcements stated that a version of the Il-86D with Lotarev D-18 engines had entered development in March 1975. This version would have had a 147,500 kg (325,000 lb) empty weight, a 300,000 kg/660,000 lb maximum take-off weight, a fuel capacity of some 150,000 kg (330,000 lb), a wing area of 325 m (5,300 ft), and a range of 10,200 km (5,500 nmi). It evolved into the Il-96.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: A "minimum-change" development of the Il-86, stated to have been designated Il-86V, was test-flown on 1 June 1982 and was ready for service by 27 April 1985. It was said to have 450 seats, with the underfloor vestibules fitted with seats and possible changes to main-deck seating. The version is not known to have entered passenger service but may have been used by the military.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In the 1980s, there were moves to fit the Il-86 with RB211-22 engines. Designated Il-86V (second use of this designation), this would have had a range of over 9,000 km (4,860 nmi) and/or increased payload. Another 450-seater Il-86V powered by RB211-524G engines was also projected. Amid the disintegration of the Soviet economy, these versions did not progress.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: In 1991, there were moves to fit the Il-86 with Franco-American CFM56-5C2 engines. Finances precluded progress. In 1995, International Aero Engines offered the V2500 engine to five Il-86 operators with proposals to re-engine 25 aircraft. The offer was not taken up.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: As of August 2013, the Il-86 is known to have been involved in at least 10 incidents, including 4 hull losses with a total of 23 fatalities unrelated to passengers. During its passenger-carrying operations the Il-86 has not been involved in any fatal accident.


title: Ilyushin Il-86

text: Following the Moscow crash in July 2002, the MAK Interstate Aviation Committee withdrew the Il-86's certificate of airworthiness, temporarily grounding the type. The certificate was rapidly restored in stages by early 2003. The accident prompted the Egyptian civil aviation authorities to attempt to ban Il-86 operations to Egypt. Amid continuing negotiations, by 2007 the intention had lapsed, with intensive Il-86 operations to and from Egypt continuing.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: William Ray Collins Jr. (September 21, 1961 – March 6, 1984) was an undefeated American professional boxer who competed from 1981 to 1983. His career was cut short after his final fight when he sustained serious injuries against Luis Resto in their ten-round bout. Aided by his trainer Panama Lewis, Resto used illegal, tampered gloves with an ounce of the gloves' cushioning removed, along with hand wraps which had been soaked in plaster of Paris.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: Billy Collins was born to a working-class Irish family in Antioch, Tennessee. His father (whose mother was native American) was a former welterweight professional boxer who had once fought world champion Curtis Cokes. He trained his son to follow in his footsteps since before kindergarten. Also a welterweight, Collins won his first 14 fights as a professional, among them a decision over future world title challenger Harold Brazier.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: Collins was matched against Puerto Rican journeyman Luis Resto at Madison Square Garden in New York on June 16, 1983, on the undercard of the Roberto Durán vs. Davey Moore light middleweight title fight. Collins entered the fight as a betting favorite but took a heavy beating and lost by a unanimous decision.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: At the end of the fight, Collins' father and trainer, Billy Sr., noticed that Resto's gloves felt thinner than normal and demanded that they be impounded. A subsequent investigation by the New York State Boxing Commission concluded that Resto's trainer, Panama Lewis, had removed an ounce of padding from each glove. It made Resto's punches harder and more damaging to Collins. The fight result was changed to a no contest.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: Lewis' New York boxing license was permanently revoked, effectively banning him from any official role in American boxing for life. Resto was suspended indefinitely and never fought again. In 1986, Lewis and Resto were tried and convicted of assault, conspiracy, and criminal possession of a deadly weapon (Resto's plaster of paris wraps); prosecutors felt that Lewis' actions made the fight an illegal assault on Collins. Both served 2 years in prison.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: In the Resto fight, Collins' eyes were swollen shut. He suffered a torn iris and permanently blurred vision, which left him unable to box again.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: On March 6, 1984, Collins was killed when the car in which he and his best friend were driving crashed into a culvert near his home in Antioch, Tennessee, a suburb of Nashville. The autopsy showed he died a short time later at the scene of the accident. Many commentators, as well as Collins' family, believe that the loss of his livelihood broke him emotionally and physically.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: In July 1983, Collins and his family sued Lewis, Resto, fight promoter Top Rank Boxing, the inspectors, the bout's referee and Everlast (the manufacturer of Resto's gloves) for gross negligence and loss of income. The suit against Everlast was dismissed by the Federal Court which found that there was no liability since the gloves had been tampered with after they were delivered by Everlast. Collins, Sr. and Collins' widow Andrea then sued the New York State Boxing Commission for failing to protect Collins. The commission argued that the term "inspection" was so broad that there was no way to determine whether the fight's inspectors could have done more than they did. It also claimed that Top Rank actually hired the inspectors and bore more responsibility for their behavior. A court ruled in favor of the commission, and the court also noted that Collins' death ended any potential future damages. However, Collins' widow, now known as Andrea Collins-Nile, attempted to reopen the suit. The request was denied. The state subsequently changed its rules to prevent a repeat of what happened to Collins. The Collins family never saw any compensation.


title: Billy Collins Jr.

text: In 2007, Resto made a tearful apology to Collins-Nile for his role in the scheme unexpectedly during the making of a Showtime documentary about the fight. He also admitted that his hand wraps had been soaked in plaster of Paris before the fight. This caused them to harden into plaster casts like those used to set broken bones. The hand wraps were never confiscated and did not figure into the official investigation of the tampering incident. However, the combined effect of the plaster casts and unpadded gloves meant that Resto was effectively striking Collins with rocks. At a 2008 press conference, Resto not only admitted to knowing that Lewis had tampered with the gloves, but had done so at least twice before. The 1983 incident and subsequent aftermath is covered in the 2008 Showtime documentary "Assault in the Ring".


title: Dabbawala

text: The dabbawalas (also spelled dabbawallas or dabbawallahs, called tiffin wallahs in older sources) constitute a lunchbox delivery and return system that delivers hot lunches from homes and restaurants to people at work in India, especially in Mumbai. The lunchboxes are picked up in the late morning, delivered predominantly using bicycles and railway trains, and returned empty in the afternoon.


title: Dabbawala

text: In the late 1800s, an increasing number of migrants were moving to Bombay from different parts of the country, and fast food and canteens were not prevalent. All these people left early in the morning for offices, and often had to go hungry for lunch. They belonged to different communities, and therefore had different types of tastes, which could only be satisfied by their own home-cooked meals. So, in 1890, Mahadeo Havaji Bachche started a lunch delivery service in Bombay with about a hundred men. This proved to be successful, and the service grew from there. In 1930, he informally attempted to unionize the dabbawalas. Later, a charitable trust was registered in 1956 under the name of Nutan Mumbai Tiffin Box Suppliers Trust. The commercial arm of this trust was registered in 1968 as Mumbai Tiffin Box Suppliers Association.


title: Dabbawala

text: When literally translated, the word "dabbawala" means "one who carries a box". "Dabba" means a box (usually a cylindrical tin or aluminium container) from , while "wala" is an agentive suffix, denoting a doer or holder of the preceding word. An English translation would be "tiffin box delivery man".


title: Dabbawala

text: A colour-coding system identifies the destination and recipient. Each dabbawala is required to contribute a minimum capital in kind, in the form of two bicycles, a wooden crate for the tiffins, white cotton kurta-pyjamas, and the white Gandhi cap (topi). Each month there is a division of the earnings of each unit. Fines are imposed for alcohol, tobacco, being out of uniform, and absenteeism.


title: Dabbawala

text: A collecting dabbawala, usually on bicycle, collects dabbas either from a worker's home or from the dabba makers. As many of the carriers are of limited literacy (the average literacy of Dabbawallahs is that of 8th grade), the dabbas (boxes) have some sort of distinguishing mark on them, such as a colour or group of symbols.


title: Dabbawala

text: The dabbawala then takes them to a sorting place, where he and other collecting dabbawalas sort the lunch boxes into groups. The grouped boxes are put in the coaches of trains, with markings to identify the destination of the box (usually there is a designated car for the boxes). The markings include the railway station to unload the boxes and the destination building delivery address. Some modern infrastructure improvements such as the Navi Mumbai Metro are not used in the supply chain, as cabins do not have the capacity for hundreds of tiffins.


title: Dabbawala

text: At each station, boxes are handed over to a local dabbawala, who delivers them. The empty boxes are collected after lunch or the next day and sent back to the respective houses. The dabbawalas also allow for delivery requests through SMS.


title: Dabbawala

text: Most dabbawalas are related to each other, belong to the Varkari sect of Maharashtra, and come from the same small village near Pune. Tiffin distribution is suspended for five days each March as the dabbawalas go home for the annual village festival.


title: Dabbawala

text: Dabbawalas have traditionally been male, but as of 2013, a few women had begun joining the profession. A dabbawala can be either a foreman, "mukadam", or a simple delivery man, "gaddi". Typically, they begin between the ages of 15 and 20. While they take pride in their freedom and the fact that they work in a network of their relatives, the relatively low compensation provided for their physical exertion makes them discourage their own children from joining the profession.


title: Dabbawala

text: In a typical day, a dabbawala picks up tiffins every morning and then sorts them once before they are loaded onto the morning train (at approximately 10a.m.). The tiffins are sorted another time in the luggage compartment of the train. At the destination station, the tiffins are loaded into carts and deposited in stacks at the entrances of the various workplaces. Following lunch, the same procedure is carried out in the reverse order with the empty tiffins.


title: Dabbawala

text: The earliest meetings of the Mumbai Tiffin Box Suppliers Association were held in the open air. They took up premises in 1943 and settled the headquarters at Dadar in 1962. Located on the first floor of a building, the premises consist of a large, simply furnished room. A large mirrored painting of Saint Dnyaneshwar with Vithoba adorns one corner. Other portraits adorning the room include those of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the founder of the association, Mahadeo Havaji Bachche.


title: Dabbawala

text: The association was reportedly started after a dabbawalla was ill-treated by a customer, resulting in the dabbawallas deciding to form a "united front" while dealing with injustices or difficulties, such as funerals. The association also helps with managing legal issues, including conflicts between "mukadams" and "gaddis". All conflicts are resolved in the presence of 20 "mukadams", which are selected every six years.


title: Dabbawala

text: The charitable Nutan Mumbai Tiffin Box Suppliers Trust consists of nine members who are elected every five years. Its main role is to collect funds for dharamshalas.


title: Dabbawala

text: Each "dabbawala", regardless of role, is paid around 8,000 rupees per month (about US$131 in 2014). Between 175,000 and 200,000 lunch boxes are moved each day by 4,500 to 5,000 dabbawalas. Tiffin-wallahs are self-employed. The union initiation fee is 30,000 rupees, which guarantees a 5,000-rupee monthly income and a job for life. The 150 rupee a month fee provides for delivery six days a week. (2002)


title: Dabbawala

text: It is frequently claimed that "dabbawalas" make less than one mistake in every six million deliveries; however, this is only an estimation from Ragunath Medge, the president of the Mumbai Tiffinmen's Association in 1998, and is not from a rigorous study. Medge told Subrata Chakravarty, the lead author of the "Fast Food" article by "Forbes" where this claim first appeared, that "dabbawalas" make a mistake "almost never, maybe once every two months" and this statement was extrapolated by Subrata Chakravarty to be a rate of "one mistake in 8 million deliveries." Chakravarty recalled the affair in an interview and said:


title: Dabbawala

text: "The New York Times" reported in 2007 that the 125-year-old dabbawala industry continues to grow at a rate of 5–10% per year.


title: Dabbawala

text: The , a special episode of the British TV series "Top Gear", had the presenters Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May attempting to outdo the dabbawalas in efficiency and accuracy, by delivering the lunches with their cars, rather than by train and bicycle.


title: Dust explosion

text: A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air within an enclosed location. Dust explosions can occur where any dispersed powdered combustible material is present in high-enough concentrations in the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous medium, such as pure oxygen. In cases when fuel plays the role of a combustible material, the explosion is known as a fuel-air explosion.


title: Dust explosion

text: Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in coal mines, grain elevators, and other industrial environments. They are also commonly used by special effects artists, filmmakers, and pyrotechnicians, given their spectacular appearance and ability to be safely contained under certain carefully controlled conditions.


title: Dust explosion

text: Thermobaric weapons exploit this principle by rapidly saturating an area with an easily combustible material and then igniting it to produce explosive force. These weapons are the most powerful non-nuclear weapons in existence.


title: Dust explosion

text: If rapid combustion occurs in a confined space, enormous overpressures can build up, causing major structural damage and flying debris. The sudden release of energy from a "detonation" can produce a shockwave, either in open air or in a confined space. If the spread of flame is at subsonic speed, the phenomenon is sometimes called a "deflagration", although looser usage calls both phenomena "explosions".


title: Dust explosion

text: Dust explosions may be classified as being either "primary" or "secondary" in nature. Primary dust explosions may occur inside process equipment or similar enclosures, and are generally controlled by pressure relief through purpose-built ducting to the external atmosphere. Secondary dust explosions are the result of dust accumulation inside a building being disturbed and ignited by the primary explosion, resulting in a much more dangerous uncontrolled explosion that can affect the entire structure. Historically, fatalities from dust explosions have largely been the result of secondary dust explosions.


title: Dust explosion

text: Many common materials which are known to burn can generate a dust explosion, such as coal dust and sawdust. In addition, many otherwise mundane organic materials can also be dispersed into a dangerous dust cloud, such as grain, flour, starch, sugar, powdered milk, cocoa, coffee, and pollen. Powdered metals (such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium) can form explosive suspensions in air, if finely divided.


title: Dust explosion

text: A gigantic explosion of flour dust destroyed a mill in Minnesota on May 2, 1878, killing 18 workers at the Washburn A Mill and another four in adjacent buildings. A similar problem occurs in sawmills and other places dedicated to woodworking.


title: Dust explosion

text: Since the advent of industrial production–scale metal powder–based additive manufacturing (AM) in the 2010s, there is growing need for more information and experience with preventing dust explosions and fires from the traces of excess metal powder sometimes left over after laser sintering or other fusion methods. For example, in machining operations downstream of the AM build, excess powder liberated from porosities in the support structures can be exposed to sparks from the cutting interface. Efforts are underway not only to build this knowledgebase within the industry but also to share it with local fire departments, who do periodic fire-safety inspections of businesses in their districts and who can expect to answer alarms at shops or plants where AM is now part of the production mix.


title: Dust explosion

text: Although not strictly a dust, paper particles emitted during processing – especially rolling, unrolling, calendaring/slitting, and sheet-cutting – are also known to pose an explosion hazard. Enclosed paper mill areas subject to such dangers commonly maintain very high air humidities to reduce the chance of airborne paper dust explosions.


title: Dust explosion

text: In special effects pyrotechnics, lycopodium powder and non-dairy creamer are two common means of producing safe, controlled fire effects.


title: Dust explosion

text: To support rapid combustion, the dust must consist of very small particles with a high surface area to volume ratio, thereby making the collective or combined surface area of all the particles very large in comparison to a dust of larger particles. Dust is defined as powders with particles less than about 500 micrometres in diameter, but finer dust will present a much greater hazard than coarse particles by virtue of the larger total surface area of all the particles.


title: Dust explosion

text: Below a certain value, the lower explosive limit (LEL), there is insufficient dust to support the combustion at the rate required for an explosion. A combustible concentration at or below 25% of the LEL is considered safe. Similarly, if the fuel to air ratio increases above the upper explosive limit (UEL), there is insufficient oxidant to permit combustion to continue at the necessary rate.


title: Dust explosion

text: Determining the minimum explosive concentration or maximum explosive concentration of dusts in air is difficult, and consulting different sources can lead to quite different results. Typical explosive ranges in air are from few dozens grams/m for the minimum limit, to few kg/m for the maximum limit. For example, the LEL for sawdust has been determined to be between 40 and 50 grams/m. It depends on many factors including the type of material used.


title: Dust explosion

text: Typically, normal atmospheric oxygen can be sufficient to support a dust explosion if the other necessary conditions are also present. High-oxygen or pure oxygen environments are considered to be especially hazardous, as are strong oxidizing gases such as chlorine and fluorine. Also, particulate suspensions of compounds with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides, chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates, can increase risk of an explosion if combustible materials are also present.


title: Dust explosion

text: There are many sources of ignition, and a naked flame need not be the only one: over one half of the dust explosions in Germany in 2005 were from non-flame sources. Common sources of ignition include:


title: Dust explosion

text: However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an explosion. When a source cannot be found, ignition will often be attributed to static electricity. Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can be internally generated by friction at the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another.


title: Dust explosion

text: Dusts have a very large surface area compared to their mass. Since burning can only occur at the surface of a solid or liquid, where it can react with oxygen, this causes dusts to be much more flammable than bulk materials. For example, a sphere of a combustible material with a density of 1 g/cm would be about in diameter, and have a surface area of . However, if it were broken up into spherical dust particles 50 µm in diameter (about the size of flour particles) it would have a surface area of . This greatly-increased surface area allows the material to burn much faster, and the extremely small mass of each particle allows them to catch on fire with much less energy than the bulk material, as there is no heat loss to conduction within the material.


title: Dust explosion

text: When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or silo, a significant increase in pressure is created, often more than sufficient to demolish the structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as nonflammable (such as aluminum), or slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and can be ignited by even a small spark.


title: Dust explosion

text: A dust explosion can cause major damage to structures, equipment, and personnel from violent overpressure or shockwave effects. Flying objects and debris can cause further damage. Intense radiant heat from a fireball can ignite the surroundings, or cause severe skin burns in unprotected persons. In a tightly enclosed space, the sudden depletion of oxygen can cause asphyxiation. Where the dust is carbon based (such as in a coal mine), incomplete combustion may cause large amounts of carbon monoxide (the miners' after-damp) to be created. This can cause more deaths than the original explosion as well as hindering rescue attempts.


title: Dust explosion

text: Much research has been carried out in Europe and elsewhere to understand how to control these dangers, but dust explosions still occur. The alternatives for making processes and plants safer depend on the industry.


title: Dust explosion

text: In the coal mining industry, a methane explosion can initiate a coal dust explosion, which can then engulf an entire mine pit. As a precaution, incombustible stone dust may be spread along mine roadways, or stored in trays hanging from the roof, to dilute the coal dust stirred up by a shockwave to the point where it cannot burn. Mines may also be sprayed with water to inhibit ignition.


title: Dust explosion

text: Some industries exclude oxygen from dust-raising processes, a precaution known as "inerting". Typically this uses nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or argon, which are incombustible gases which can displace oxygen. The same method is also used in large storage tanks where flammable vapors can accumulate. However, use of oxygen-free gases brings a risk of asphyxiation of the workers. Workers who need illumination in enclosed spaces where a dust explosion is a high risk often use lamps designed for underwater divers, as they have no risk of producing an open spark due to their sealed waterproof design.


title: Dust explosion

text: Good housekeeping practices, such as eliminating build-up of combustible dust deposits that could be disturbed and lead to a secondary explosion, also help mitigate the problem.


title: Dust explosion

text: Best engineering control measures which can be found in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Combustible Dust Standards include:


title: Dust explosion

text: Dust clouds are a common source of explosions, causing an estimated 2,000 explosions annually in Europe. The table lists notable incidents worldwide.


title: Son in Law

text: 18-year-old Rebecca “Becca" Warner (Carla Gugino) moves from her small South Dakota farm town to attend college at the fictional University of Los Angeles. On her first day, she and her parents Walter (Lane Smith) and Connie (Cindy Pickett) meet Crawl (Pauly Shore) resident advisor of Becca's coed dormitory. After they leave, the clash of cultures causes Becca to consider returning home, but Crawl convinces her to give the college a chance. She soon begins to acclimate, cutting and dyeing her hair, dressing in a Californian style, and even getting a tattoo of a butterfly on her ankle. Becca invites Crawl to spend the Thanksgiving break with her family back home.


title: Son in Law

text: When Becca and Crawl arrive in South Dakota, the Warners and Becca's boyfriend Travis (Dan Gauthier) are shocked by the changes in Becca. At dinner, Becca realizes that Travis wants to propose marriage to her and she urges Crawl to speak. Unable to come up with anything off the cuff, Crawl tells them that he has already proposed and she had accepted. This upsets Becca's family, who begin to disdain Crawl, and Travis, punches Crawl in the face.


title: Son in Law

text: Now acting as a future son-in-law, Crawl expresses an interest in farming but bumbles his way through daily chores, to the amusement of Walter and his farmhand Theo (Dennis Burkley). However, Crawl begins to prove himself as an avid farmer, quickly learning how to perform each task he's given. He also begins to endear himself to the rest of the family. He impresses Becca's little brother Zack (Patrick Renna) with his computer skills, and Zack begins to see him as a big brother. He compliments Connie's appearance and helps to bring her out of her shell for Walter. When Walter's father has a heart attack, Crawl performs CPR and earns Walter's trust for aiding his father.


title: Son in Law

text: While shopping for clothes, Crawl meets Becca's friend Tracy (Tiffani Thiessen). Travis apologizes to Crawl for hitting him and invites him to a bachelor party, where Tracy dances for Crawl.


title: Son in Law

text: The next morning, Becca finds Crawl and Tracy waking up in the barn and furiously calls off the wedding, but Crawl and Tracy cannot remember what happened. Crawl leaves to head back to L.A. while Travis, who had been seeing Tracy on the side, berates her for behavior the previous night. Tracy finds her car seat suspiciously left all the way back and discovers a bottle of pills underneath it.


title: Son in Law

text: After picking up Crawl, who was attempting to hitchhike, Tracy visits the Warner house to confront Travis and Theo while the Warners are sitting down to Thanksgiving dinner. Theo confesses that they drugged them and that he set them up in the barn. Walter immediately fires Theo despite his honesty. Becca stands up to Travis and Crawl knocks him down, revealing that he had majored in karate for two semesters.


title: Son in Law

text: After Travis and Theo leave, Tracy is invited to sit with the Warners while Walter asks his son-in-law to cut the turkey. Becca tries to speak the truth about Crawl's proposal, but he stops her, saying that they have not yet decided on a wedding date and need wait a while before making the decision, hinting that he intends to legitimately propose to Rebecca and have a proper relationship that the Warners will respect.


title: Son in Law

text: Brendan Fraser reprises his role of Linkovich "Link" Chomovsky from "Encino Man" in a cameo appearance.


title: Son in Law

text: After "Encino Man", Shore was considering a project with New Line Cinema, but was heavily pressured by Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg to stay with Disney and make "Son in Law".


title: Son in Law

text: The promotional poster for the film is a parody of the painting "American Gothic". The opening title sequence and graduation ceremony scene were filmed at Wasco High School in Wasco, California.


title: Son in Law

text: To promote the film, MTV ran a contest to marry Pauly Shore in Las Vegas, won by Tanya Cinotti of Salisbury, Mass. Though there was a ceremony on July 2, 1993, no marriage certificates were signed.


title: Son in Law

text: In the "Los Angeles Times", reviewer Michael Wilmington suggested that the film "... tries to pretend that it’s about tolerance: a kind of "Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner" about anti-L.A. freak bigotry". He also criticized the film's premise:


title: Son in Law

text: In the United States and Canada, the film grossed $36.4 million. By the end of 1993, it had grossed $4.6 million internationally.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: "Final Fantasy X-2" was the first game in the series to feature just three player characters and an all-female main cast. The battle system incorporates "Final Fantasy" character classes—one of the series' signature gameplay concepts—and is one of the few entries to have multiple endings. The soundtrack was created by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi in lieu of long-time "Final Fantasy" composer Nobuo Uematsu.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: The game was positively received by critics and was commercially successful, selling over 5.4 million copies on PlayStation 2 and winning a number of awards. It was the last "Final Fantasy" game to be released by Square before it merged with Enix in April 2003. The game was re-released in high-definition for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in 2013, alongside "Final Fantasy X", as "Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster". "Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster" was later released for the PlayStation 4 in 2015, Microsoft Windows in 2016, and the Xbox One and Nintendo Switch in 2019. As of September 2021, the "Final Fantasy X" series had sold over 20.8 million units worldwide, and at the end of March 2022 had surpassed 21.1 million.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: "Final Fantasy X-2" is a role-playing video game in which players take on the role of Yuna as she explores the fictional world of Spira. In contrast to its predecessor, "Final Fantasy X", players may visit almost every location in Spira from an early point in the game via airship. The field-map navigation system is largely unchanged from "Final Fantasy X"; players navigate large, continuous three dimensional areas by controlling the on-screen character. A few upgrades have been implemented, providing the player with extended interaction with the environment through jumping, climbing, and rotating camera angles. The game's sidequests include minor tasks and quests, optional bosses and dungeons, and the most minigames of any "Final Fantasy" at the time of its release. These minigames include Gunner's Gauntlet (a shooter game) and Sphere Break (a math-based coin game), and a management sim based on blitzball, the fictional underwater sport from "Final Fantasy X".


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Unlike its predecessor, in which the player's course through the world was largely linear, "Final Fantasy X-2" allows players to visit almost any location at any time. The game consists of five chapters, with each location featuring one scenario per chapter. Together, the five scenarios in one locale form a subplot of the game called an "Episode". Players are free to engage with as many or as few optional scenarios as they choose; only a few scenarios per chapter are required to advance the game's central plot and are marked on the world navigation system as "Hotspots". Both Hotspots and optional scenarios contribute to a story completion tracker and the latter may indirectly influence the main narrative. Achieving 100% completion unlocks a secret ending. When the game is finished, a New Game Plus option gives players the opportunity to replay the game with different choices with all of the items and storyline completion percentage previously achieved intact. However, all character levels are reset.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: The combat in "Final Fantasy X-2" uses an enhanced version of the Active Time Battle (ATB) system, in which characters and enemies take actions according to their speed. This implementation of ATB allows characters to interrupt enemies while they are preparing to take an action. With precise timing, it is possible to chain attacks together for greater damage. Characters may change their character class mid-battle using dresspheres and the Garment Grid. These dresspheres, based on "Final Fantasy" character classes, allow access to different abilities to alter the course of battle. The Garment Grid is a placard featuring a geometric shape connected by nodes. Characters have access to dresspheres placed in the nodes. Depending on the properties of the Garment Grid, changing dresspheres in battle will grant bonuses such as increased strength or added elemental effects. Characters can learn new skills for each dressphere with the use of Ability Points (AP). AP is earned by defeating enemies and by the use of items and abilities for that sphere.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: "Final Fantasy X-2" takes place two years after "Final Fantasy X" and is set in the fictional world of Spira, which consists of one large landmass divided into three subcontinents, surrounded by small tropical islands. It features diverse climates, ranging from the tropical Besaid and Kilika islands, to the temperate Mi'ihen region, to the frigid Macalania and Mt. Gagazet areas. Spira is distinct from the mainly European-influenced worlds found in previous "Final Fantasy" games, being much more closely modeled on Southeast Asia, most notably with respect to vegetation, topography, architecture, and names. Although predominantly populated by humans, Spira features a variety of races. Among them are the Al Bhed, a technologically advanced but previously disenfranchised sub-group of humans with distinctive green eyes and unique language. The Guado are less human in appearance, with elongated fingers and other arboreal features. The lion-like Ronso and the frog-like Hypello comprise the remaining sentient races. The "unsent" are the strong-willed spirits of the dead that remain in corporeal form. In Spira, the dead who are not sent to the Farplane by a summoner come to envy the living and transform into "fiends", the monsters that are encountered throughout the game. Unsent with strong attachments to the world of the living may retain their human form.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Aesthetically, the world of Spira is largely unchanged in the two years since "Final Fantasy X" and many locations return. There are, however, major changes in the ideology of Spira's people. Spira had been terrorized by a gargantuan monster called Sin for 1000 years, inhibiting technological advancement and trapping its people in a cycle of religious asceticism in hopes of praying Sin away. After Sin's destruction during the events of "Final Fantasy X", an era of enlightenment known as "the Eternal Calm" began. Yuna, a main character of the previous game, is heralded as High Summoner for her pivotal role in this battle. The priests of the Yevon religion chose to expose the truth about the order's role in perpetuating the cycle, leaving the populace to decide for themselves how to live in a world without Sin. Advanced technology and the Al Bhed are embraced by the people, who have begun to pursue leisures such as attending musical concerts and participating in the sport of blitzball. Others have become hunters of ancient treasures, ranging from coins and machinery to arcane spheres in forgotten caves and ruins. These "sphere hunters" pursue the knowledge of ancient civilizations contained within.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: In the absence of Yevon, various factions have formed. Young people were especially quick to abandon Yevon and embrace technology, while many of the older generation felt that cultural changes were happening too quickly. The most influential of the groups are the progressive Youth League led by Mevyn Nooj, the reformist New Yevon Party led by Praetor Baralai, and the Machine Faction led by Gippal which supplies weapons to both sides. By the start of the game, there are rising tensions between the Youth League and the New Yevon Party. Both groups have sought High Summoner Yuna's endorsement.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: The three main playable characters of "Final Fantasy X-2" are Yuna, Rikku, and Paine, members of the sphere hunter group called the Gullwings. Yuna was inspired to join after viewing a sphere recording that appeared to depict Tidus, her lost love who vanished during the ending of "Final Fantasy X". Yuna and Rikku reprise their roles and, though their personalities are much the same as before, Square decided that their appearances would be heavily altered to give a greater impression of activity. Furthermore, it was decided that the pervading cultural changes occurring in Spira as they and others began trying to live positively would be reflected in the new clothing of these two characters. Paine is a new character designed for "Final Fantasy X-2", to accommodate the game's intended action-adventure style revolving around a trio of female characters. Several characters from "Final Fantasy X" appear in the game in supporting roles, including Brother, Wakka, and Lulu. Additionally, other characters are introduced in "Final Fantasy X-2", such as the faction leaders and the Leblanc Syndicate, a group of sphere hunters who serve as the Gullwings' rivals for much of the game. The game's main antagonist is Shuyin, the unsent spirit of a fallen soldier during the Machina War 1000 years ago.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Two years after Sin's defeat, Yuna, Rikku, and Paine recover Yuna's stolen Garment Grid from the Leblanc Syndicate in the first of several encounters in which they vie for spheres. The game is punctuated by a narration of Yuna addressing Tidus, as though she is recounting the events of the game to him as they occur. Meanwhile, the Gullwings discover a sphere containing images of an ancient machina weapon called "Vegnagun" that was secretly buried beneath Bevelle. The weapon has enough power to threaten all of Spira. The Gullwings join forces with the Leblanc Syndicate to investigate the underground areas of the city in an attempt to destroy the machine before it can be used by either side in the upcoming conflict. However, discovering a large tunnel recently dug into the floor of the weapon's chamber, they realize that Vegnagun has apparently moved to the Farplane, located deep below ground.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Disagreements between Spira's factions are exacerbated by the disappearance of their leaders, Baralai, Nooj, and Gippal. In the underground areas of Bevelle, the Gullwings discover the missing faction leaders discussing Vegnagun and learn that the machine's artificial intelligence allows it to detect hostility and respond by fleeing. Paine had once been comrades with all three men during an operation in the "Den of Woe". Two years earlier, their squad explored the cave but a vengeful spirit drove them to kill one another. The four were the only survivors. The spirit—Shuyin, a soldier from the Machina War that led to the creation of Vegnagun—possessed Nooj and later forced him to shoot his comrades. Under Bevelle, Shuyin possesses Baralai and follows Vegnagun to the Farplane. Nooj and Gippal pursue, asking Yuna to keep things under control on the surface.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Yuna falls into the Farplane and meets Shuyin, who mistakes her for a woman named Lenne, whose memories are recorded in the Songstress dressphere. One thousand years ago, Shuyin was a famous blitzball player in the high-tech metropolis of Zanarkand and Lenne's lover. Desiring to save Lenne who had been conscripted into the Machina War between Zanarkand and Bevelle, he infiltrated Bevelle to hijack their secret weapon, Vegnagun. Lenne begged him to stop and Shuyin yielded, but a group of Bevelle soldiers arrived a moment later and executed the couple. In the present, Shuyin's spirit expresses anger that the people have still not understood the pain of war and plans to use Vegnagun to destroy all of Spira in retribution. The Gullwings organize a concert to which everyone in Spira is invited, supporters of the Youth League and New Yevon alike. The Songstress dressphere displays the scene of Shuyin and Lenne's last moments to all the concertgoers, opening their eyes to the unproductive nature of their disagreements.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Although the factional fighting had ceased, Shuyin's plan proceeds. Joining forces with the Leblanc Syndicate again, the Gullwings make their way to the Farplane and find Gippal and Nooj already battling Vegnagun. Once the group destroys Vegnagun, Yuna masquerades as Lenne to convince Shuyin to let go. However, Shuyin eventually sees through her and attacks. The Gullwings defeat him and Lenne's spirit appears to soothe him as they depart together. By fulfilling certain conditions, the ancient spirits known as fayth agree to restore Tidus to life and reunite him with Yuna. Players who achieve 100% completion see an additional reunion scene in Zanarkand where the pair discuss whether he is truly real or still a dream.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Development of "Final Fantasy X-2" began in late 2001 in response to the success of "Final Fantasy X", particularly fan reaction to the "Eternal Calm" video included in the Japanese version of "Final Fantasy X International", which depicts Yuna's everyday life after the game. "Final Fantasy X-2" was released in Japan shortly before the merger between Square and Enix. The production team initially disliked the name "X-2", but it was eventually accepted since the story was a direct continuation of the previous story and thus could not be the next numbered game in the "Final Fantasy" series. Kazushige Nojima, the previous game's writer, was also skeptical about the creation of a sequel. He was particularly averse to the happy ending, which he felt was wrong for the story. The production team was one third the size of its predecessor. This was because the team was already familiar with the material, which allowed them to give a hand-crafted feel to the game. A significant number of character models, enemies, and location designs were reused from "Final Fantasy X". Character designer Tetsuya Nomura explained that this enabled the team to create the game in one year and at half the scope "Final Fantasy" games are normally produced. Maya and Softimage 3D were the two main programs used to create the graphics.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Producer Yoshinori Kitase and director Motomu Toriyama explained that the objective in mind when designing "Final Fantasy X-2" was to embrace the concept of change as the game's theme and establish a more upbeat atmosphere than its predecessor. Retaining the engine and locations from the original game meant that the team could spend most of their time on the gameplay systems and plot. To portray the drastic change in Spira, the developers excluded summons, redesigned towns, and included vehicles. The low-flying vehicles were added to allow the player quicker access and mobility to the areas that were already available in the previous game. "Final Fantasy X-2" incorporated a number of elements from modern Japanese pop culture.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: The ending of "Final Fantasy X" meant that the Aeon summoning system could not be used in the sequel, necessitating a new gameplay system. Because of the more optimistic setting, they drew inspiration from the magical girl subgenre of anime and manga to create the elaborate transformation sequences of the dressphere system. The influence of J-pop is prominent in the game's opening sequence. They also drew inspiration from "Charlie's Angels". Toriyama explained that one of the goals during development was to provide a large variety of minigames, such that "if you bought "Final Fantasy X-2" you wouldn't need any other game". The dressphere system and a lead cast of three non-"macho" girls were intended to keep the tone of the game light and lively. Lulu was excluded from the playable cast because, in addition to being married, her presence would have given her an "older sister" role to Yuna, rather than allow Yuna to discover herself on her own. Though work on the opening song and motion capture began early in development, the opening sequence was actually the last portion of the game to be completed.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi composed the soundtrack to "Final Fantasy X-2" instead of regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu. The soundtrack included two J-pop songs: "Real Emotion" and "1000 Words". Koda Kumi performs the Japanese versions of the songs and did the motion capture for the "Real Emotion" full motion video shown in the game's opening. She also voices Lenne in the Japanese version of the game. Jade Villalon of Sweetbox recorded the song's English versions and she released extended versions as bonus tracks for the Japanese release of the album "Adagio". Koda released her own English versions of "Real Emotion" and "1000 Words" on the CD single for "Come with Me", although it had a slightly different translation.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: As with "Final Fantasy X", Square Enix released an expanded version of the game, "Final Fantasy X-2 International + Last Mission", in 2004 for the PlayStation 2. It introduces two new dresspheres, an additional "Last Mission" at a location called "Yadonoki Tower", and the option to capture and battle with numerous monsters and characters including Tidus, Auron and Seymour Guado from "Final Fantasy X". This version was not released outside Japan, although the English voice track was used for the main story in this version. Due to this change, parts of the Japanese subtitles were changed or altered to fit the voice-overs. This was detailed in the strategy book for the international version. In 2005, a compilation featuring "Final Fantasy X" and "Final Fantasy X-2" was released in Japan as "Final Fantasy X/X-2 Ultimate Box".


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Several action figures, books, and soundtracks were released by Square Enix, including three "Ultimania" guidebooks, a series of artbooks and strategy guides published in Japan. They feature original artwork from "Final Fantasy X-2", offer gameplay walkthroughs, expand upon many aspects of the game's storyline, and feature several interviews with the game's developers. There are three books in the series: "Final Fantasy X-2 Ultimania", "Final Fantasy X-2 Ultimania Ω", and "Final Fantasy X-2: International+Last Mission Ultimania". A similar three-book series was produced for "Final Fantasy X".


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: Gaming peripheral company Hori produced PlayStation 2 controllers modeled after the Tiny Bee guns Yuna uses in "Final Fantasy X-2". These controllers were released only in Japan. They were re-released in a new silver box to coincide with the release of "Final Fantasy X-2: International + Last Mission". Hori released a vertical stand for the PlayStation 2 console with a "Final Fantasy X-2" logo that lights up in blue color when plugged in.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: In September 2011, Square Enix announced that "Final Fantasy X" would be re-released in high-definition for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita, in celebration of the game's 10-year anniversary. Production had started by January 2012 with Yoshinori Kitase involved. In March 2013, Square Enix confirmed that the remaster project would include both "Final Fantasy X" and "X-2" and that they would be based on the expanded editions previously only released in Japan. The collection on PlayStation 3 was titled "Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster". The two games were sold separately on PlayStation Vita in Japan. Outside of Japan, the Vita games were sold together as a collection. The remasters support the "cross save" feature, in which saved games from one platform may be transferred to another platform over the internet. The remaster collection was also released on the PlayStation 4 in 2015, PCs in 2016, followed by Nintendo Switch and Xbox One in 2019.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: According to review aggregator Metacritic, reviews for "Final Fantasy X-2" were "generally favorable". In 2006, readers of Japanese video game magazine "Famitsu" ranked "Final Fantasy X-2" as number 32 in a poll on best video game of all time. The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences recognized the character Rikku for "Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance" in 2004. Despite largely positive reviews from the video games press, "Destructoid" observed a significant backlash among fans against the game.


title: Final Fantasy X-2

text: "IGN" summarized "Final Fantasy X-2" as "a brilliant and addictive romp through Spira that we're certainly glad to experience". "GameSpot" remarked that it was as endearing and poignant as its forebears, with strengths that outweighed any of its flaws. "RPGamer" regarded the battle system as innovative and "very simple to navigate". While "GameSpot" praised the battle system as a "welcome addition", the reviewer disliked the increased inclusion of minigames. "GameSpy", while initially unsure about the new system, praised it as a solid alternative with unexpected depth.