title: Hawker (trade)

text: The street vendors in Argentina are known as "manteros", after the Spanish word for blanket, "manta". They sell varied products in an informal way, in most cases placing them over a blanket. They are, in their most part, illegal immigrants without documents and victims of human trafficking, subject to forced labor. They work at the sidewalks of locations with an important daily traffic, such as the Once railway station, the Retiro railway station, and the Florida Street. This commerce poses an illegal competition with the regular retail shops. The shops at the Avellaneda street estimated that the presence of "manteros" would make them lose 200 million pesos in the Christmas and holiday season.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: According to the Confederación Argentina de la Mediana Empresa (CAME), as of December 2013 there were 463 manteros working in Once, 16.8% of the total in Buenos Aires. The daily sales of "manteros" are worth 300 million pesos in Buenos Aires, and 52 million in Once. A single "mantero" may earn between 2,000 and 3,500 in a day. The "manteros" are helped by retail shops at other locations, which store their products in the night, even if not allowed to work as warehouses.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: The government of Buenos Aires usually attempts to eradicate the "manteros" with police raids, removing them from the sidewalks and seizing their products. The police also made 35 successful search and seizures at illegal warehouses in January 2014. However, despite this operation, "manteros" return days, even hours, after the raids. Still, the government attempts to weaken the organizations that back the "manteros" with constant raids. The "manteros" reacts to the raids with common demonstrations.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: Law enforcement often enters into conflict – sometimes physical – with camelôs, for selling low-quality products (often imported from Asia), making improper use of public space (blocking sidewalks and pedestrian traffic), and for not paying the same taxes that licensed retailers pay. Their presence is considered to be a result of the alarming rise in unemployment, although their lifestyle might be better referred to as "subemployment." Many people who work as camelôs sell their products knowing that they are of low quality, and charge high prices nonetheless.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: The word is borrowed from the French "camelot," meaning "merchant of low-quality goods," and the term "marreteiro" is also sometimes used. The difference between camelôs and so-called "ambulantes" is that camelôs have fixed "storefronts" on a particular sidewalk, whereas "ambulantes" sell their wares throughout an area.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In the English-speaking Caribbean, hawkers are commonly referred to as hagglers or informal commercial importers. They sell items in small roadside stands, public transit hubs, or other places where consumers would want items such as snacks, cigarettes, phone cards, or other less expensive items. Higglers often break larger items into small individual consumable portions for re-sale and use. Buying these items from more traditional vendors, farmers, or merchants for re-sale via their informal network in communities


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In Cuban music and Latin American music, a pregón (announcement or street-seller's cry) is a type of song based on the hawking by street vendor of their goods ("canto de los vendedores ambulantes").


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In Antigua, women, many from the Maya (including Kaqchikel people) and Ladino ethnic groups, peddle handicrafts. Some sell textiles such a po't (blouses) and su't.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: The presence of street vendors in Mexico City dates to the pre-Hispanic era and the government has struggled to control it, with the most recent clearing of downtown streets of vendors occurring in 2007. Still, there is a persistent presence of many thousands illegally. In 2003 it was estimated that there were 199,328 street vendors in Mexico City.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In Oaxaca, Mexico there are many tortilla vendors. In Oaxaca the term regatones (hagglers) is used for those who buy goods to resell for a profit.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In Peru, water cannon were used against the ambulantes in Arequipa, Peru. Many of the ambulantes come from rural areas to sell their goods including prickly pear cactus, bordados (embroideries) and polleras (embroidered skirts).


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In large cities across North America, hawkers are commonly known as street vendors, who sell snack items, such as deep-fried bananas, cotton candy, fried noodles, beverages like bubble tea, and ice cream, along with non-edible items, such as jewelry, clothes, books, and paintings. Hawkers are also found selling various items to fans at a sports venue; more commonly, this person is simply referred to as a stadium vendor.


title: Hawker (trade)

text: In the early 20th century, a street corner hawker of hot potatoes and pies could be referred to as an all-hot man.


title: Hover fly

text: Hover flies, also called flower flies or syrphid flies, make up the insect family Syrphidae. As their common name suggests, they are often seen hovering or nectaring at flowers; the adults of many species feed mainly on nectar and pollen, while the larvae (maggots) eat a wide range of foods. In some species, the larvae are saprotrophs, eating decaying plant and animal matter in the soil or in ponds and streams. In other species, the larvae are insectivores and prey on aphids, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects.


title: Hover fly

text: Insects such as aphids are considered a crop pest, and therefore the aphid-eating larvae of some hover flies serve as an economically (as well as ecologically) important predator and even potential agents for use in biological control, while the adults may be pollinators.


title: Hover fly

text: About 6,000 species in 200 genera have been described. Hover flies are common throughout the world and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. Hover flies are harmless to most mammals, though many species are mimics of stinging wasps and bees, a mimicry which may serve to ward off predators.


title: Hover fly

text: The size of hover flies varies depending on the species. For example "Paragus tibialis" is long while "Criorhina nigriventris" is long. Some, such as members of the genus "Baccha", are small, elongated, and slender, while others, such as members of "Criorhina", are large, hairy, and yellow and black. As members of the Diptera, all hover flies have a single functional pair of wings (the hind wings are reduced to balancing organs). Many species are brightly colored, with spots, stripes, and bands of yellow or brown covering their bodies. Due to this coloring, they are often mistaken for wasps or bees; they exhibit Batesian mimicry. Despite this, hover flies are harmless to humans. Drone flies, "E. tenax," are an example of a species of hover fly who exhibit Batesian mimicry.


title: Hover fly

text: With a few exceptions, hover flies are distinguished from other flies by having a spurious vein, located parallel to their fourth longitudinal wing vein. Adults feed mainly on nectar and pollen. Many species also hover around flowers, lending to their common name.


title: Hover fly

text: Bee flies of the family Bombyliidae often mimic Hymenoptera and hover around flowers, as well, rendering some bombyliid species hard to tell apart from Syrphidae at first glance. Hover flies can, nevertheless, be distinguished in the field by anatomical features such as:


title: Hover fly

text: Unlike adults, the maggots of hover flies feed on a variety of foods; some are saprotrophs, eating decaying plant or animal matter, while others are insectivores, eating aphids, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects. Predatory species are beneficial to farmers and gardeners, as aphids destroy crops, and hover fly maggots are often used in biological control. This includes one of the most common widespread hover fly species, "Episyrphus balteatus", whose larvae feed on aphids. Certain species, such as "Merodon equestris" or "Eumerus tuberculatus", are responsible for pollination.


title: Hover fly

text: An example of a well-known hover fly maggot is the rat-tailed maggot, of the drone fly, "Eristalis tenax". It has a breathing siphon at its rear end, giving it its name. The species lives in stagnant water, such as sewage and lagoons. The maggots also have a commercial use, and are sometimes sold for ice fishing.


title: Hover fly

text: On extremely rare occasions, hover fly larvae have been known to cause accidental myiasis in humans. This occurs when the larvae are accidentally ingested from contaminated food.


title: Hover fly

text: The oldest known fossils of crown group Syrphidae are from the Eocene aged Florissant Formation, Green River Formation and Baltic amber. However, the genus "Prosyrphus" from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) aged Burmese amber appears to represent a stem group to the family.


title: Hover fly

text: Hover flies are a cosmopolitan family found in most biomes, except extreme deserts, tundra at extremely high latitudes, and Antarctica. Certain species are more common in certain areas than others; for example, the American hoverfly, "Eupeodes americanus", is common in the Nearctic realm, and the common hoverfly, "Melangyna viridiceps", is common in the Australasian realm. About 6,000 species and 200 genera are in the family.


title: Hover fly

text: While some hover fly larvae are aquatic and are often found in stagnant water, those of species that prey upon aphids and other plant parasites are usually terrestrial, residing on leaves. Adults are often found near flowers, their principal food source being nectar and pollen. Some species are found in more unusual locations; for example, members of the genus "Volucella" can be found in bumblebee nests, while members of "Microdon" are myrmecophiles, found in ant or termite nests. Others can be found in decomposing vegetation.


title: Hover fly

text: Hover flies are important pollinators of flowering plants in many ecosystems worldwide. Syrphid flies are frequent flower visitors to a wide range of wild plants, as well as agricultural crops, and are often considered the second-most important group of pollinators after wild bees. However, relatively little research into fly pollinators has been conducted compared with bee species. Bees are thought to be able to carry a greater volume of pollen on their bodies, but flies may be able to compensate for this by making a greater number of flower visits.


title: Hover fly

text: Like many pollinator groups, syrphid flies range from species that take a generalist approach to foraging by visiting a wide range of plant species through those that specialize in a narrow range of plants. Although hover flies are often considered mainly nonselective pollinators, some hover flies species are highly selective and carry pollen from one plant species. "Cheilosia albitarsis" is thought to only visit "Ranunculus repens".


title: Hover fly

text: Specific flower preferences differ among species, but syrphid fly species have repeatedly been shown to prefer white- and yellow-coloured flowers. Nonvisual flower cues such as olfactory cues also help these flies to find flowers, especially those that are not yellow. Many syrphid fly species have short, unspecialized mouth parts and tend to feed on flowers that are more open as the nectar and pollen can be easily accessed.


title: Hover fly

text: Also, a number of fascinating interactions occur between orchids and hover flies. The orchid species "Epipactis veratrifolia" mimics alarm pheromones of aphids which attracts pollinating hover flies . Another plant, the slipper orchid in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting the innate yellow color preference of syrphids.


title: Hover fly

text: More than 40 species of syrphid flies are found in New Zealand in a variety of habitats, including agricultural fields and alpine zones. Two hover fly species in Switzerland are being investigated as potential biological control agents of hawkweeds in New Zealand.


title: Hover fly

text: Native hover fly species "Melanostoma fasciatum" and "Melangyna novaezelandiae" are common on agricultural fields in New Zealand. Coriander and tansy leaf are particularly attractive to many species of adults, which feed on their pollen. In organic paddocks, hover flies were found to feed on an average of three and a maximum of six different pollens. "M. fasciatum" has a short proboscis, which restricts it to obtaining nectar from disk flowers.


title: Hover fly

text: Syrphid flies are also common visitors to flowers in alpine zones in New Zealand. Native flies ("Allograpta" and "Platycheirus") in alpine zones show preferences for flower species based on their colour in alpine zones; syrphid flies consistently choose yellow flowers over white regardless of species. However, syrphid flies are not as effective pollinators of alpine herb species as native solitary bees.


title: Hover fly

text: Syrphid flies offer dual services to humans, with adults pollinating and larvae providing other services.


title: Hover fly

text: Larvae of many hover fly species prey upon pest insects, including aphids and leafhoppers, which spread some diseases such as curly top, so they are seen in biocontrol as a natural means of reducing the levels of pests. Gardeners, therefore, sometimes use companion plants to attract hover flies. Those reputed to do so include "Alyssum" spp., "Iberis umbellata", statice, buckwheat, chamomile, parsley, and yarrow. Larvae in the subfamily Eristalinae live in semi-aquatic and aquatic environments, including manure and compost, and can filter and purify water.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, abbreviated as H–R diagram, HR diagram or HRD, is a scatter plot of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities versus their stellar classifications or effective temperatures. The diagram was created independently in 1911 by Ejnar Hertzsprung and by Henry Norris Russell in 1913, and represented a major step towards an understanding of stellar evolution.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: In the nineteenth century large-scale photographic spectroscopic surveys of stars were performed at Harvard College Observatory, producing spectral classifications for tens of thousands of stars, culminating ultimately in the Henry Draper Catalogue. In one segment of this work Antonia Maury included divisions of the stars by the width of their spectral lines. Hertzsprung noted that stars described with narrow lines tended to have smaller proper motions than the others of the same spectral classification. He took this as an indication of greater luminosity for the narrow-line stars, and computed secular parallaxes for several groups of these, allowing him to estimate their absolute magnitude.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: In 1910 Hans Oswald Rosenberg published a diagram plotting the apparent magnitude of stars in the Pleiades cluster against the strengths of the calcium K line and two hydrogen Balmer lines. These spectral lines serve as a proxy for the temperature of the star, an early form of spectral classification. The apparent magnitude of stars in the same cluster is equivalent to their absolute magnitude and so this early diagram was effectively a plot of luminosity against temperature. The same type of diagram is still used today as a means of showing the stars in clusters without having to initially know their distance and luminosity. Hertzsprung had already been working with this type of diagram, but his first publications showing it were not until 1911. This was also the form of the diagram using apparent magnitudes of a cluster of stars all at the same distance.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: Russell's early (1913) versions of the diagram included Maury's giant stars identified by Hertzsprung, those nearby stars with parallaxes measured at the time, stars from the Hyades (a nearby open cluster), and several moving groups, for which the moving cluster method could be used to derive distances and thereby obtain absolute magnitudes for those stars.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: There are several forms of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, and the nomenclature is not very well defined. All forms share the same general layout: stars of greater luminosity are toward the top of the diagram, and stars with higher surface temperature are toward the left side of the diagram.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: The original diagram displayed the spectral type of stars on the horizontal axis and the absolute visual magnitude on the vertical axis. The spectral type is not a numerical quantity, but the sequence of spectral types is a monotonic series that reflects the stellar surface temperature. Modern observational versions of the chart replace spectral type by a color index (in diagrams made in the middle of the 20th Century, most often the B-V color) of the stars. This type of diagram is what is often called an observational Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, or specifically a color–magnitude diagram (CMD), and it is often used by observers. In cases where the stars are known to be at identical distances such as within a star cluster, a color–magnitude diagram is often used to describe the stars of the cluster with a plot in which the vertical axis is the apparent magnitude of the stars. For cluster members, by assumption there is a single additive constant difference between their apparent and absolute magnitudes, called the distance modulus, for all of that cluster of stars. Early studies of nearby open clusters (like the Hyades and Pleiades) by Hertzsprung and Rosenberg produced the first CMDs, a few years before Russell's influential synthesis of the diagram collecting data for all stars for which absolute magnitudes could be determined.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: Another form of the diagram plots the effective surface temperature of the star on one axis and the luminosity of the star on the other, almost invariably in a log-log plot. Theoretical calculations of stellar structure and the evolution of stars produce plots that match those from observations. This type of diagram could be called "temperature-luminosity diagram", but this term is hardly ever used; when the distinction is made, this form is called the "theoretical Hertzsprung–Russell diagram" instead. A peculiar characteristic of this form of the H–R diagram is that the temperatures are plotted from high temperature to low temperature, which aids in comparing this form of the H–R diagram with the observational form.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: Although the two types of diagrams are similar, astronomers make a sharp distinction between the two. The reason for this distinction is that the exact transformation from one to the other is not trivial. To go between effective temperature and color requires a color–temperature relation, and constructing that is difficult; it is known to be a function of stellar composition and can be affected by other factors like stellar rotation. When converting luminosity or absolute bolometric magnitude to apparent or absolute visual magnitude, one requires a bolometric correction, which may or may not come from the same source as the color–temperature relation. One also needs to know the distance to the observed objects ("i.e.", the distance modulus) and the effects of interstellar obscuration, both in the color (reddening) and in the apparent magnitude (where the effect is called "extinction"). Color distortion (including reddening) and extinction (obscuration) are also apparent in stars having significant circumstellar dust. The ideal of direct comparison of theoretical predictions of stellar evolution to observations thus has additional uncertainties incurred in the conversions between theoretical quantities and observations.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: Most of the stars occupy the region in the diagram along the line called the main sequence. During the stage of their lives in which stars are found on the main sequence line, they are fusing hydrogen in their cores. The next concentration of stars is on the horizontal branch (helium fusion in the core and hydrogen burning in a shell surrounding the core). Another prominent feature is the Hertzsprung gap located in the region between A5 and G0 spectral type and between +1 and −3 absolute magnitudes (i.e., between the top of the main sequence and the giants in the horizontal branch). RR Lyrae variable stars can be found in the left of this gap on a section of the diagram called the instability strip. Cepheid variables also fall on the instability strip, at higher luminosities.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: The H-R diagram can be used by scientists to roughly measure how far away a star cluster or galaxy is from Earth. This can be done by comparing the apparent magnitudes of the stars in the cluster to the absolute magnitudes of stars with known distances (or of model stars). The observed group is then shifted in the vertical direction, until the two main sequences overlap. The difference in magnitude that was bridged in order to match the two groups is called the distance modulus and is a direct measure for the distance (ignoring extinction). This technique is known as main sequence fitting and is a type of spectroscopic parallax. Not only the turn-off in the main sequence can be used, but also the tip of the red giant branch stars.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: ESA's Gaia mission showed several features in the diagram that were either not known or that were suspected to exist. It found a gap in the main sequence that appears for M-dwarfs and that is explained with the transition from a partly convective core to a fully convective core. For white dwarfs the diagram shows several features. Two main concentrations appear in this diagram following the cooling sequence of white dwarfs that are explained with the atmospheric composition of white dwarfs, especially hydrogen versus helium dominated atmospheres of white dwarfs. A third concentration is explained with core crystallization of the white dwarfs interior. This releases energy and delays the cooling of white dwarfs.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: Contemplation of the diagram led astronomers to speculate that it might demonstrate stellar evolution, the main suggestion being that stars collapsed from red giants to dwarf stars, then moving down along the line of the main sequence in the course of their lifetimes. Stars were thought therefore to radiate energy by converting gravitational energy into radiation through the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. This mechanism resulted in an age for the Sun of only tens of millions of years, creating a conflict over the age of the Solar System between astronomers, and biologists and geologists who had evidence that the Earth was far older than that. This conflict was only resolved in the 1930s when nuclear fusion was identified as the source of stellar energy.


title: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: Following Russell's presentation of the diagram to a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1912, Arthur Eddington was inspired to use it as a basis for developing ideas on stellar physics. In 1926, in his book "The Internal Constitution of the Stars" he explained the physics of how stars fit on the diagram. The paper anticipated the later discovery of nuclear fusion and correctly proposed that the star's source of power was the combination of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy. This was a particularly remarkable intuitive leap, since at that time the source of a star's energy was still unknown, thermonuclear energy had not been proven to exist, and even that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been discovered. Eddington managed to sidestep this problem by concentrating on the thermodynamics of radiative transport of energy in stellar interiors. Eddington predicted that dwarf stars remain in an essentially static position on the main sequence for most of their lives. In the 1930s and 1940s, with an understanding of hydrogen fusion, came an evidence-backed theory of evolution to red giants following which were speculated cases of explosion and implosion of the remnants to white dwarfs. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution and explosion of a pre-supernova star, a concept put forth by Fred Hoyle in 1954. The pure mathematical quantum mechanics and classical mechanical models of stellar processes enable the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to be annotated with known conventional paths known as stellar sequences—there continue to be added rarer and more anomalous examples as more stars are analysed and mathematical models considered.


title: OMC (band)

text: OMC, or Otara Millionaires Club, were a New Zealand music group, then duo, with vocalist Pauly Fuemana later becoming the sole member. OMC was best known for the 1995 hit "How Bizarre", named one of the greatest New Zealand songs of all time by the Australasian Performing Right Association. The full name of the band is a tongue-in-cheek reference to Otara's status as one of the poorest suburbs of Auckland.


title: OMC (band)

text: The Otara Millionaires Club was formed in 1992 by Phil Fuemana, who had played in the bands Houseparty and Fuemana. Fuemana and his younger brother Pauly Fuemana recorded two tracks as the new band for producer Alan Jansson's Urban Pacifica collection "Proud". Jansson had achieved cult status as composer/producer for the synthpop group Body Electric during the early 1980s.


title: OMC (band)

text: In 1994, after the split of the Otara Millionaires Club, Pauly approached Jansson and the two formed a musical partnership, with Fuemana the public face and Jansson as producer and co-writer. Pauly suggested that they shorten the band's name to just the initials, and thereafter, Fuemana Jansson were OMC. Pauly performed as OMC, serving as the frontman and playing several instruments during performances. However, the music was created by Pauly and Alan Jansson, with Jansson co-writing all of the tracks and handling most of the arrangement and all production duties in the studio.


title: OMC (band)

text: Signed to Simon Grigg's Huh! label, OMC released the single "How Bizarre" in New Zealand in late 1995. It was an immediate smash hit even without a video, reaching number one in early 1996 and staying there for three weeks. It sold over 35,000 copies.


title: OMC (band)

text: The same year, "How Bizarre" went to number one in Australia for five weeks, sold over 150,000 singles, and was certified as a platinum single. Later in the year the single went to number 5 in the UK Singles Chart and number one in countries across Europe and much of the rest of the world.


title: OMC (band)

text: In the United States, "How Bizarre" spent 32 weeks on "Billboard"'s Mainstream Top 40 chart, peaking at number one in August 1997 due to the large amount of radio play it received. This made OMC the first New Zealand artist to reach the number one spot on a "Billboard" chart. The song never charted on the regular "Billboard" Hot 100 as it was not released as a commercially available single in the US, which was a chart-eligibility requirement at the time. It also became a BMI-certified "million airplay" song two years in a row.


title: OMC (band)

text: In 1996, OMC's debut album, also entitled "How Bizarre", was released. The album sold in the United States in excess of a million copies, and charted in many other countries. Between 1995 and 2000, world-wide OMC sales are estimated at between three and four million records.


title: OMC (band)

text: "How Bizarre" was followed by the singles "Land of Plenty" which reached the top 5 in the New Zealand charts; "Right On" which achieved platinum-status in New Zealand; and "On The Run" which was a minor international hit in the Netherlands and the UK. By 1998, Fuemana and Jansson had a falling out over royalties, which ended up in court. It was resolved in arbitration with Fuemana paying a sum to Jansson and Jansson handing over all claim to the name and ongoing artist royalties.


title: OMC (band)

text: Fuemana and Jansson regrouped in 2005 and released the single "4 All of Us", featuring the actress Lucy Lawless as a guest vocalist, in 2007.


title: OMC (band)

text: In 2002, their song "How Bizarre" reached #71 on the "100 Greatest One-hit Wonders" hosted by William Shatner.


title: OMC (band)

text: On 31 January 2010, Pauly Fuemana died at North Shore Hospital in Auckland after suffering for several years from a chronic degenerative disease, progressive demyelinating polyneuropathy, an auto-immune disorder similar to the nerve disease multiple sclerosis. He was 40 years old, and was survived by his wife and six children. In February 2010, "How Bizarre" briefly reentered the charts in New Zealand following news of Pauly Fuemana's death.


title: OMC (band)

text: The New Zealand Music Awards are an annual awards night celebrating excellence in New Zealand music and have been presented annually since 1965.


title: The Nation

text: The Nation is an American liberal biweekly magazine that covers political and cultural news, opinion, and analysis. It was founded on July 6, 1865, as a successor to William Lloyd Garrison's "The Liberator", an abolitionist newspaper that closed in 1865, after ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Thereafter, the magazine proceeded to a broader topic, "The Nation". An important collaborator of the new magazine was its Literary Editor Wendell Phillips Garrison, son of William. He had at his disposal his father's vast network of contacts.


title: The Nation

text: "The Nation" is published by its namesake owner, The Nation Company, L.P., at 520 8th Ave New York, NY 10018. It has news bureaus in Washington, D.C., London, and South Africa, with departments covering architecture, art, corporations, defense, environment, films, legal affairs, music, peace and disarmament, poetry, and the United Nations. Circulation peaked at 187,000 in 2006 but dropped to 145,000 in print by 2010, although digital subscriptions had risen to over 15,000. By 2021, the total for both print and digital combined was 96,000.


title: The Nation

text: "The Nation" was established in July 1865 at 130 Nassau Street ("Newspaper Row") in Manhattan. Its founding coincided with the closure of the abolitionist newspaper "The Liberator", also in 1865, after slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution; a group of abolitionists, led by the architect Frederick Law Olmsted, desired to found a new weekly political magazine. Edwin Lawrence Godkin, who had been considering starting such a magazine for some time, agreed and so became the first editor of "The Nation". Wendell Phillips Garrison, son of "The Liberator"'s editor/publisher William Lloyd Garrison, was Literary Editor from 1865 to 1906.


title: The Nation

text: Its founding publisher was Joseph H. Richards; the editor was Godkin, an immigrant from Ireland who had formerly worked as a correspondent of the London "Daily News" and "The New York Times". Godkin sought to establish what one sympathetic commentator later characterized as "an organ of opinion characterized in its utterance by breadth and deliberation, an organ which should identify itself with causes, and which should give its support to parties primarily as representative of these causes."


title: The Nation

text: In its "founding prospectus" the magazine wrote that the publication would have "seven main objects" with the first being "discussion of the topics of the day, and, above all, of legal, economical, and constitutional questions, with greater accuracy and moderation than are now to be found in the daily press." "The Nation" pledged to "not be the organ of any party, sect or body" but rather to "make an earnest effort to bring to discussion of political and social questions a really critical spirit, and to wage war upon the vices of violence, exaggeration and misrepresentation by which so much of the political writing of the day is marred."


title: The Nation

text: In the first year of publication, one of the magazine's regular features was "The South As It Is", dispatches from a tour of the war-torn region by John Richard Dennett, a recent Harvard graduate and a veteran of the Port Royal Experiment. Dennett interviewed Confederate veterans, freed slaves, agents of the Freedmen's Bureau, and ordinary people he met by the side of the road.


title: The Nation

text: Among the causes supported by the publication in its earliest days was civil service reform—moving the basis of government employment from a political patronage system to a professional bureaucracy based upon meritocracy. "The Nation" also was preoccupied with the reestablishment of a sound national currency in the years after the American Civil War, arguing that a stable currency was necessary to restore the economic stability of the nation. Closely related to this was the publication's advocacy of the elimination of protective tariffs in favor of lower prices of consumer goods associated with a free trade system.


title: The Nation

text: In 1881, newspaperman-turned-railroad-baron Henry Villard acquired "The Nation" and converted it into a weekly literary supplement for his daily newspaper the "New York Evening Post". The offices of the magazine were moved to the "Evening Post"s headquarters at 210 Broadway. The "New York Evening Post" would later morph into a tabloid, the "New York Post", a left-leaning afternoon tabloid, under owner Dorothy Schiff from 1939 to 1976. Since then, it has been a conservative tabloid owned by Rupert Murdoch, while "The Nation" became known for its left-wing ideology.


title: The Nation

text: In 1900, Henry Villard's son, Oswald Garrison Villard, inherited the magazine and the "Evening Post", and sold off the latter in 1918. Thereafter, he remade "The Nation" into a current affairs publication and gave it an anti-classical liberal orientation. Oswald Villard welcomed the New Deal and supported the nationalization of industries – thus reversing the meaning of "liberalism" as the founders of "The Nation" would have understood the term, from a belief in a smaller and more restricted government to a belief in a larger and less restricted government. Villard sold the magazine in 1935. Maurice Wertheim, the new owner, sold it in 1937 to Freda Kirchwey, who served as editor from 1933 to 1955.


title: The Nation

text: Almost every editor of "The Nation" from Villard's time to the 1970s was looked at for "subversive" activities and ties. When Albert Jay Nock, not long afterward, published a column criticizing Samuel Gompers and trade unions for being complicit in the war machine of the First World War, "The Nation" was briefly suspended from the US mail.


title: The Nation

text: During the 1930s, "The Nation" showed enthusiastic support for Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal.


title: The Nation

text: The magazine's financial problems in the early 1940s prompted Kirchwey to sell her individual ownership of the magazine in 1943, creating a nonprofit organization, Nation Associates, out of the money generated from a recruiting drive of sponsors. This organization was also responsible for academic affairs, including conducting research and organizing conferences, that had been a part of the early history of the magazine. Nation Associates became responsible for the operation and publication of the magazine on a nonprofit basis, with Kirchwey as both president of Nation Associates and editor of "The Nation".


title: The Nation

text: Before the attack on Pearl Harbor, "The Nation" repeatedly called on the United States to enter World War II to resist fascism, and after the US entered the war, the publication supported the American war effort. It also supported the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima.


title: The Nation

text: During the late 1940s and again in the early 1950s, a merger was discussed by Kirchwey (later Carey McWilliams) and "The New Republic"s Michael Straight. The two magazines were very similar at that time — both were left of center, "The Nation" further left than "TNR"; both had circulations around 100,000, although "TNR"s was slightly higher; and both lost money. It was thought that the two magazines could unite and make the most powerful journal of opinion. The new publication would have been called "The Nation and New Republic". Kirchwey was the most hesitant, and both attempts to merge failed. The two magazines would later take very different paths: "The Nation" achieved a higher circulation, and "The New Republic" moved more to the right.


title: The Nation

text: In the 1950s, "The Nation" was attacked as "pro-communist" because of its advocacy of detente with the Soviet Union, and its criticism of McCarthyism. One of the magazine's writers, Louis Fischer, resigned from the magazine afterwards, claiming "The Nation"s foreign coverage was too pro-Soviet. Despite this, Diana Trilling pointed out that Kirchwey did allow anti-Soviet writers, such as herself, to contribute material critical of Russia to the magazine's arts section.


title: The Nation

text: During McCarthyism (the Second Red Scare), "The Nation" was banned from several school libraries in New York City and Newark, and a Bartlesville, Oklahoma librarian, Ruth Brown, was fired from her job in 1950, after a citizens committee complained she had given shelf space to "The Nation".


title: The Nation

text: In 1955, George C. Kirstein replaced Kirchway as magazine owner. James J. Storrow Jr. bought the magazine from Kirstein in 1965.


title: The Nation

text: During the 1950s, Paul Blanshard, a former associate editor, served as "The Nation"s special correspondent in Uzbekistan. His most famous writing was a series of articles attacking the Catholic Church in America as a dangerous, powerful, and undemocratic institution.


title: The Nation

text: In June 1979, "The Nation"s publisher Hamilton Fish and then-editor Victor Navasky moved the weekly to 72 Fifth Avenue, in Manhattan. In June 1998, the periodical had to move to make way for condominium development. The offices of "The Nation" are now at 33 Irving Place, in Manhattan's Gramercy Park neighborhood.


title: The Nation

text: In 1977, a group organized by Hamilton Fish V bought the magazine from the Storrow family. In 1985, he sold it to Arthur L. Carter, who had made a fortune as a founding partner of Carter, Berlind, Potoma & Weill.


title: The Nation

text: In 1991, "The Nation" sued the Department of Defense for restricting free speech by limiting Gulf War coverage to press pools. However, the issue was found moot in "Nation Magazine v. United States Department of Defense", because the war ended before the case was heard.


title: The Nation

text: In 1995, Victor Navasky bought the magazine and, in 1996, became publisher. In 1995, Katrina vanden Heuvel succeeded Navasky as editor of "The Nation", and in 2005, as publisher.


title: The Nation

text: In 2015, "The Nation" celebrated its 150th anniversary with a documentary film by Academy Award-winning director Barbara Kopple; a 268-page special issue featuring pieces of art and writing from the archives, and new essays by frequent contributors like Eric Foner, Noam Chomsky, E. L. Doctorow, Toni Morrison, Rebecca Solnit, and Vivian Gornick; a book-length history of the magazine by D. D. Guttenplan (which "The Times Literary Supplement" called "an affectionate and celebratory affair"); events across the country; and a relaunched website. In a tribute to "The Nation", published in the anniversary issue, President Barack Obama said:


title: The Nation

text: In an era of instant, 140-character news cycles and reflexive toeing of the party line, it's incredible to think of the 150-year history of "The Nation". It's more than a magazine — it's a crucible of ideas forged in the time of Emancipation, tempered through depression and war and the civil-rights movement, and honed as sharp and relevant as ever in an age of breathtaking technological and economic change. Through it all, "The Nation" has exhibited that great American tradition of expanding our moral imaginations, stoking vigorous dissent, and simply taking the time to think through our country's challenges anew. If I agreed with everything written in any given issue of the magazine, it would only mean that you are not doing your jobs. But whether it is your commitment to a fair shot for working Americans, or equality for all Americans, it is heartening to know that an American institution dedicated to provocative, reasoned debate and reflection in pursuit of those ideals can continue to thrive.


title: The Nation

text: On January 14, 2016, "The Nation" endorsed Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders for President. In their reasoning, the editors of "The Nation" professed that "Bernie Sanders and his supporters are bending the arc of history toward justice. Theirs is an insurgency, a possibility, and a dream that we proudly endorse."


title: The Nation

text: On June 15, 2019, Heuvel stepped down as editor; D. D. Guttenplan, the editor-at-large, took her place.


title: The Nation

text: On March 2, 2020, "The Nation" again endorsed Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders for President. In their reasoning, the editors of "The Nation" professed: "As we find ourselves on a hinge of history—a generation summoned to the task of redeeming our democracy and restoring our republic—no one ever has to wonder what Bernie Sanders stands for."


title: The Nation

text: Print ad pages declined by 5% from 2009 to 2010, while digital advertising rose 32.8% from 2009 to 2010. Advertising accounts for 10% of total revenue for the magazine, while circulation totals 60%. "The Nation" has lost money in all but three or four years of operation and is sustained in part by a group of more than 30,000 donors called Nation Associates, who donate funds to the periodical above and beyond their annual subscription fees. This program accounts for 30% of the total revenue for the magazine. An annual cruise also generates $200,000 for the magazine. Since late 2012, the Nation Associates program has been called Nation Builders.


title: The Nation

text: Since its creation, "The Nation" has published significant works of American poetry, including works by Hart Crane, Eli Siegel, Elizabeth Bishop, and Adrienne Rich, as well as W.S. Merwin, Pablo Neruda, Denise Levertov, and Derek Walcott.


title: The Nation

text: In 2018, the magazine published a poem entitled "How-To" by Anders Carlson-Wee which was written in the voice of a homeless man and used black vernacular. This led to criticism from writers such as Roxane Gay because Carlson-Wee is white. "The Nation"s two poetry editors, Stephanie Burt and Carmen Giménez Smith, issued an apology for publishing the poem, the first such action ever taken by the magazine. The apology itself became an object of criticism also. Poet and "Nation" columnist Katha Pollitt called the apology "craven" and likened it to a letter written from "a reeducation camp". Grace Schulman, "The Nation"s poetry editor from 1971 to 2006, wrote that the apology represented a disturbing departure from the magazine's traditionally broad conception of artistic freedom.


title: ZillaKami

text: Junius Rogers, professionally known as ZillaKami, is an American rapper, singer and songwriter. He is a member of the hip hop group City Morgue and a former songwriter for 6ix9ine.


title: ZillaKami

text: He has been noted by publications such as "HotNewHipHop" as a pioneer of trap metal. Rogers is the C.E.O. of Dog Years Skate Club, a skate apparel and equipment brand.


title: ZillaKami

text: Rogers was born in Bay Shore, New York. In his teens, Rogers formed a punk rock band called Scud Got Quayle, with some of his friends from school, influenced by the sound of Gorilla Biscuits. His involvement in hip hop music began by ghostwriting for fellow New York rapper 6ix9ine. During this period, he wrote a song which he intended to feature two vocalists, to which 6ix9ine responded by telling him that he should feature on the track, which would eventually be released under the name "Yokai", and the pair followed up with by releasing another collaborative track called "Hellsing Station". However, in August 2017, the pair had a falling out when Rogers posted a photo of 6ix9ine engaging in a sexual act with a girl that he claimed was thirteen, and bringing to light his prior guilty plea to using a child in a sexual performance.


title: ZillaKami

text: On April 30, 2017, he released his debut EP "LifeIsAHorrorMovie", which he later took down due to him no longer feeling a connection with the music that is contained.


title: ZillaKami

text: Soon after, ZillaKami got in contact with the son of the owner of the tattoo parlor that his older brother Righteous P worked at, who went by the stage name SosMula. A few days after his release from prison on drug charges, SosMula formed City Morgue with ZillaKami. In August 2018, after numerous singles scattered throughout the couple years before, they released their debut EP as a group, titled "Be Patient".


title: ZillaKami

text: On September 5, 2018, he featured on the track "Vengeance" from Denzel Curry's third album Ta13oo, which also featured JPEGMafia, which was followed, in the same month, by a feature on Lil Gnar's track "Man Down".


title: ZillaKami

text: On October 12, 2018, City Morgue released their debut album ""City Morgue Vol 1: Hell or High Water"", and soon after, their headline tour in support of it sold out.


title: ZillaKami

text: On November 29, 2018, he featured on Powers Pleasant's track "Please Forgive", along with Jay IDK, Zombie Juice and Denzel Curry.


title: ZillaKami

text: From July 24 to August 23, he joined Suicideboys' "Grey Day" tour as a part of City Morgue, along with Turnstile, Denzel Curry, Trash Talk, Pouya, Germ, Shoreline Mafia and Night Lovell.


title: ZillaKami

text: On December 13, 2019, City Morgue released their second album "City Morgue Vol 2: As Good as Dead". The deluxe version of said album, featuring several new tracks, was released on May 15, 2020.


title: ZillaKami

text: On October 15, 2021, City Morgue released their third studio album "City Morgue Volume 3: Bottom of the Barrel"


title: ZillaKami

text: ZillaKami's music has been described as merging elements of hardcore punk and heavy metal with trap music, by incorporating electric guitars and guttural shouted vocals and aggressive lyrical themes. His lyrics often depict themes of extreme violence, death, masochism and drug-use. In an article by Complex magazine, writer Jacob Moore described his music as "the most merciless rap music since Necro".


title: ZillaKami

text: He cites his biggest influences as Title Fight's albums "Floral Green" and "Hyperview", DMX, as well as Radiohead's album "In Rainbows" and Onyx.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: Born in Oldham, Lancashire, O'Brien grew up in nearby Royton, and was educated at the Bishop Henshaw Roman Catholic Memorial High School in Rochdale.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: O'Brien began acting at an early age and was the star of BBC TV series "Gruey" by the time he was 15. He also featured in several other series at the time in one-off or recurring roles.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: In 1993, he played the role of Joe Egerton and then Craig Lee in "Coronation Street" and then the role of Lee Jones in "Children's Ward". In 1993 he also became a regular in the detective series "Cracker", as the titular character's son.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: In 1999, O'Brien appeared in his first feature film, "Virtual Sexuality". In 2001 he played the role of Private Allen Vest in HBO's acclaimed series "Band of Brothers" where he played a prominent part in the episode 'The Last Patrol'. He also appeared in the 2002 film "24 Hour Party People". In 2003 he appeared in the Cooper Temple Clause music video "Promises, Promises" and can be seen saying he got 'laid' in the Millennium Dome in the making of the video.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: In 2004, O'Brien appeared in the controversial film "9 Songs". According to "The Guardian", "9 Songs" was the most sexually explicit mainstream film to date, largely because it includes several scenes of real sexual acts between the two lead actors. His role is highly unusual in that he had unsimulated and very graphic sex with his co-star Margo Stilley, including genital fondling, female masturbation with and without a vibrator, penetrative vaginal sex, cunnilingus, footjob and fellatio. During a scene in which Stilley stimulates his penis with her hand after performing fellatio on him, he became the only mainstream British actor who has been shown ejaculating in a mainstream UK-produced feature.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: O'Brien strongly defended the film during the controversy that followed, saying that he saw no problem with having sex for a film. He said:


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: "People who say they find it offensive are liars. If they say they find it shocking, I don't believe them. It's only sex. To me they were just scenes we were shooting, to be honest, and I was surprised how ordinary and how natural it was. But it's a different thing for a girl than it is for a lad. I didn't fancy her—I felt protective towards her. On set she was the only woman with a crew of four lads. I know how difficult it was for her. You can't get away from the fact she's a young girl."


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: To date, O'Brien continues both his television and film acting careers. Recent appearances have been made in "The Road to Guantánamo" and "Totally Frank" as well as a reprise of his role in "Cracker".


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: O'Brien was also one of the stars of the BBC's police drama "HolbyBlue", appearing from the first episode until the third episode of the second series.


title: Kieran O'Brien

text: In 2013, O'Brien toured the UK in a stage production of Simon Beaufoy's 1997 comedy-drama film "The Full Monty", in which he plays the "absurdly over-endowed" guy.


title: District magistrate

text: A District Collector-cum-District Magistrate (also known as Deputy Commissioner in some states) is an All India Service officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) cadre who is responsible for "land revenue collection", "canal revenue collection" and "law & order maintenance" of a "District". "District Collector (DC) cum District Magistrate (DM)" come under the general supervision of divisional commissioners wherever the latter post exists. India has 748 districts as of 2021.


title: District magistrate

text: The current district administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj, with the "Collector cum District Magistrate" being the chief administrative officer of the District.


title: District magistrate

text: Warren Hastings introduced the office of the District Collector in the Judicial Plan of 1772. By the Judicial Plan of 1774 the office of the Collector cum District Magistrate was temporarily renamed Diwan. The name, Collector, derived from their being head of the revenue organization (tax collection) for the district. With the passage of the Government of India Act 1858, by the British Parliament. The designation of "Collector cum District Magistrate" is held by any central civil servant who is a member of the Indian Administrative Service cadre and were charged with supervising general administration in the district.


title: District magistrate

text: Sir George Campbell, lieutenant-governor of Bengal from 1871 to 1874, intended "to render the heads of districts no longer the drudges of many departments and masters of none, but in fact the general controlling authority over all departments in each district."


title: District magistrate

text: The office of a collector during the British Raj held multiple responsibilitiesas collector, he was the head of the revenue organization, charged with registration, alteration, and partition of holdings; the settlement of disputes; the management of indebted estates; loans to agriculturists, and famine relief. As district magistrate, he exercised general supervision over the inferior courts and in particular, directed the police work. The office was meant to achieve the "peculiar purpose" of collecting revenue and of keeping the peace. The superintendent of police (SP), inspector general of jails, the surgeon general, the divisional forest officer (DFO) and the Executive Engineer PWD (EE) had to inform the collector of every activity in their departments.


title: District magistrate

text: Until the later part of the nineteenth century, no native was eligible to become a district collector. But with the introduction of open competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Service, the office was opened to natives. Romesh Chandra Dutt, Sripad Babaji Thakur, Anandaram Baruah, Krishna Govinda Gupta and Brajendranath De were the first five Indian ICS officers to become Collectors.


title: District magistrate

text: The district continued to be the unit of administration after India gained independence in 1947. The role of the district collector remained largely unchanged, except for the separation of most judicial powers to judicial officers of the district. Later, with the promulgation of the National Extension Services and Community Development Programme by the Nehru government in 1952, the district collector was entrusted with the additional responsibility of implementing the Government of India's development programs in the district.


title: District magistrate

text: The different names of the office are a legacy of the varying administration systems in British India. While the powers exercised by the officer were mostly the same throughout the country, the preferred name often reflected his primary role in the particular province. In the Bengal Presidency, the post was called District Magistrate and Collector whereas in the Bombay Presidency and Central Provinces, it was known simply as the District Collector even though he was also the District Magistrate. In the Madras Presidency, it was often known simply as Collector.


title: District magistrate

text: Law and order was an important subject in the United Provinces and the post continues to be known as the District Magistrate in present-day Uttar Pradesh. In non-regulation provinces like Punjab, Burma, Assam and Oudh, a simpler form of administration prevailed with many elements of the Criminal Procedure Code suspended and the DM functioning as the District and Sessions Judge as well. Here the post was known as Deputy Commissioner, due to these provinces having a Chief Commissioner who took the place of the usual Governor and High Court and exercised both executive and judicial functions.


title: District magistrate

text: Post Independence, the different names have continued even though the role and powers of the DM are almost the same throughout India.


title: District magistrate

text: In the South Indian states of India especially states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu are known as "Collector". Although he has the role and powers of a District Magistrate, he/she is generally known as the District Collector. This post is known as Deputy Commissioner in Karnataka and District Collector and District Magistrate in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana


title: District magistrate

text: They are posted by the state government, from among the pool of Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officers, who either are on Level 11, Level 12 or Level 13 of the Pay Matrix, in the state. The members of the IAS are either directly recruited by the Union Public Service Commission, promoted from State Civil Service (SCS) or nominated from Non-State Civil Service (Non-SCS). The direct recruits are posted as collectors after five to six years of service, whereas the promoted members from state civil services generally occupy this post after promotion to the IAS, which generally happens after two decades of service. A district magistrate and collector is transferred to and from the post by the state government. The office bearer is generally of the rank of under secretary/deputy secretary or director in Government of India.


title: District magistrate

text: The responsibilities assigned to a district magistrate vary from state to state, but generally, collectors, under the general supervision of divisional commissioners (where such a post exists), are entrusted with a wide range of duties in the jurisdiction of the district, generally involving the following:


title: District magistrate

text: While almost all of the 741 Indian districts are headed by DMs, constitutional developments post Independence in 1947 have led to a reduction in power and realignment of roles for the District Magistrate. The first major change came about in the early 1960s as the Judiciary was separated from the Executive in most Indian states in line with Article 50 of the Constitution of India. This meant that DMs and SDMs could no longer try criminal cases or commit accused to Sessions Court. Their place was taken by Chief Judicial Magistrates and Sub Divisional Judicial Magistrates. The District Magistrate was now the main Executive Magistrate of the district - charged with taking preventive measures for maintenance of law and order. Indirectly, this led to a loss of direct control over the police which now depended on the District Judge and the Judicial Magistrates. This change was institutionalised by the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. In the Union Territories and the North Eastern states, Collectors continued to exercise judicial power for much longer. A separate district judiciary was not created till 1978 in Delhi, 2008 in Mizoram, 2016 in Arunachal Pradesh and 2020 in Meghalaya. South Garo Hills District in Meghalaya, the last remaining district of India with the District Magistrate also exercising judicial powers, finally got a separate District and Sessions Court on 17 December 2020.


title: District magistrate

text: Kolkata in West Bengal is unique in not having a conventional collector. A recently created post with the same name performs the functions of collector of stamp revenue, registration and certain other miscellaneous functions. The Magisterial powers are exercised by a Police Commissioner, one of the earliest such posts in British India, while the Kolkata Municipal Corporation takes care of all other responsibilities.


title: District magistrate

text: At the time of Partition of India, the Indian Civil Service was divided between India and Pakistan. The institution of the DC/DM remained the same in both the countries till the 2001 Devolution of Powers Scheme of President Pervez Musharraf abolished the post of the DM in Pakistan. He was replaced by an officer called the District Coordination Officer with significantly reduced powers. After 2016, almost all Pakistani provinces have reinstated the office of the DC but without the Magistracy powers which are now exercised by the Police and Judiciary. DCs in Bangladesh, however, continue to discharge their role with only minor changes in powers and authority since independence in 1971.


title: Holiness movement

text: The Holiness movement is a Christian movement that emerged chiefly within 19th-century Methodism, and to a lesser extent other traditions such as Quakerism, Anabaptism, and Restorationism. The movement is historically distinguished by its emphasis on the doctrine of a second work of grace, generally called entire sanctification or Christian perfection and by the belief that the Christian life should be free of sin. For the Holiness Movement "the term 'perfection' signifies completeness of Christian character; its freedom from all sin, and possession of all the graces of the Spirit, complete in kind." A number of evangelical Christian denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements emphasize those beliefs as central doctrine.


title: Holiness movement

text: The Holiness Movement believes that the "second work of grace" (or "second blessing") refers to a personal experience subsequent to regeneration, in which the believer is cleansed from original sin. It was actually this doctrine, the attainment of complete freedom from sin that the movement was built upon. "In this line of thinking, a person is first saved, at which point he is justified and born again. Following this, he experiences a period of growth...This ultimately culminates in a second work of grace whereby the Holy Spirit cleanses his heart of original sin, eradicating all inbred sin. The Holy Spirit then imparts His indwelling presence, empowering the believer...This is the baptism of the Holy Spirit. It happens instantaneously as the believer presents himself or herself as a living sacrifice to God with an attitude of full consecration," and faith. This was articulated in the founding documents of the Holiness Movement, the 1885 Declaration of Principles, which explained:"Entire Sanctification... is that great work wrought subsequent to regeneration, by the Holy Ghost, upon the sole condition of faith...such faith being preceded by an act of solemn and complete consecration. This work has these distinct elements:


title: Holiness movement

text: The Church of the Nazarene, a large Wesleyan-Holiness denomination in the Methodist tradition, explains that:


title: Holiness movement

text: According to Stephen S. White, a noted Holiness scholar from the mid-1900s, there are "five cardinal elements" in the doctrine of entire sanctification:


title: Holiness movement

text: This experience of entire sanctification or Perfection is generally identified with the filling of or the baptism of the Holy Ghost. This doctrine is shared with traditional Methodism. John Inskip explains "There is, however, one doctrine, in a great measure peculiar to Methodism. It is that, in which we teach the possibility of man attaining a state of grace in the present life, in which he will be made free from sin." Reflecting this inward holiness, Holiness Methodists, who make up the bulk of the Holiness Movement, have emphasized the Wesleyan-Arminian doctrine outward holiness, which includes practices such as the wearing of modest clothing and not using profanity in speech; Holiness Quakers have likewise emphasized the Friends teaching on testimony of simplicity, while the Holiness Anabaptists (such as Holiness River Brethren and Holiness Mennonites) have upheld their belief in nonconformity to the world. Baptists who have embraced the second work of grace have founded their own denominations, such as the Holiness Baptist Association and Ohio Valley Association of the Christian Baptist Churches of God.


title: Holiness movement

text: Holiness adherents also hold to a distinctive definition of (actual) sin. They believe that "only conscious sins are truly sins." Historian Charles Jones, explains “Believing that sin was conscious disobedience to a known law of God, holiness believers were convinced that the true Christian, having repented of every known act of sin, did not and could not willfully sin again and remain a Christian.” Historian Benjamin Pettit describes the approach of the Wesleyan-Holiness movement as: 1.              “The person who sins is not a Christian but a sinner.


title: Holiness movement

text: 4.              To sin results in spiritual death.”In his study of this question Caleb Black concludes that "the consensus understanding of sin in the Holiness tradition is that sin is an avoidable, voluntary, morally responsible act that those born of God do not commit." Put simply Holiness adherents adhere to the definition of sin, as explained by Wesley himself.


title: Holiness movement

text: "Nothing is sin, strictly speaking, but a voluntary transgression of a known law of God. Therefore, every voluntary breach of the law of love is sin; and nothing else, if we speak properly. To strain the matter farther is only to make way for Calvinism." Dr. Timothy Cooley explains "If this definition is compromised, victorious Christian living becomes meaningless, and entire sanctification an impossibility.” "The definition and consequences of sin are a key theological distinctive of the Holiness Movement as it underlies their entire theological system. To differ on the conception of sin is to destroy the foundation of holiness theology."


title: Holiness movement

text: With this definition of sin, Holiness adherents believe while Christians may fall into sin, they also have the God-given power to avoid committing sin, and in this sense be free from sin. Furthermore, not only does God enable this obedience he also requires it. One of the founders of the movement, J. A. Wood, explains "The lowest type of a Christian sinneth not, and is not condemned. The minimum of salvation is salvation from sinning. The maximum is salvation from pollution -- the inclination to sin." Another founder, C. J. Fowler explains that "We teach that regeneration does not allow the committing of conscious sin." Harry Jessop warns "It should ever be born in mind that believers cannot commit sin without forfeiting justification." The founder of the Church of God Anderson, D. S. Warner, explains "Holiness writers and teachers, as far as my knowledge extends, uniformly hold up a sinless life, as the true test and Bible standard of regeneration." This doctrine follows in the footsteps of Wesley who wrote “If a believer wilfully sins, he casts away his faith. Neither is it possible he should have justifying faith again, without previously repenting."


title: Holiness movement

text: Holiness groups believe the moral aspects of the law of God are pertinent for today, and expect their adherents to obey behavioral rules. Consequently, members of the Holiness movement readily apply Scriptural lifestyle commands to their lives, and view them as generally binding today, and apply these principles in numerous different ways. "Holiness churches have been distinguished from other churches by their more careful lifestyle. Many churches and denominations in the Holiness movement prohibit smoking, drinking, dancing, listening to inappropriate worldly music, or wearing makeup or flashy clothes."


title: Holiness movement

text: Though it became a multi-denominational movement over time and was furthered by the Second Great Awakening which energized churches of all stripes, the bulk of Holiness movement has its roots in John Wesley and Methodism.


title: Holiness movement

text: The Holiness movement traces their roots back to John Wesley, Charles Wesley, John Fletcher, and the Methodists of the 18th century. The Methodists of the 19th century continued the interest in Christian holiness that had been started by their founder, John Wesley in England. They continued to publish Wesley's works and tracts, including his famous "A Plain Account of Christian Perfection". From 1788 to 1808, the entire text of "A Plain Account" was placed in the "Discipline" manual of the Methodist Episcopal Church (U.S.), and numerous persons in early American Methodism professed the experience of entire sanctification, including Bishop Francis Asbury. The Methodists during this period placed a strong emphasis on holy living, and their concept of entire sanctification.


title: Holiness movement

text: By the 1840s, a new emphasis on Holiness and Christian perfection began within American Methodism, brought about in large part by the revivalism and camp meetings of the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840).


title: Holiness movement

text: Two major Holiness leaders during this period were Methodist preacher Phoebe Palmer and her husband, Dr. Walter Palmer. In 1835, Palmer's sister, Sarah A. Lankford, started holding Tuesday Meetings for the Promotion of Holiness in her New York City home. In 1837, Palmer experienced what she called entire sanctification and had become the leader of the Tuesday Meetings by 1839. At first only women attended these meetings, but eventually Methodist bishops and hundreds of clergy and laymen began to attend as well. At the same time, Methodist minister Timothy Merritt of Boston founded a journal called the "Guide to Christian Perfection", later renamed "The Guide to Holiness". This was the first American periodical dedicated exclusively to promoting the doctrine of Christian holiness. In 1865, the Palmers purchased "The Guide" which at its peak had a circulation of 30,000. In New York City, Palmer met with Amanda Smith, a preacher in the African Methodist Episcopal Church who testified that she became entirely sanctified in 1868 and then began to preach Christian holiness throughout the world.


title: Holiness movement

text: Also representative was the revivalism of Rev. James Caughey, an American missionary sent by the Wesleyan Methodist Church to work in Ontario, Canada from the 1840s through 1864. He brought in the converts by the score, most notably in the revivals in Canada West 1851–53. His technique combined restrained emotionalism with a clear call for personal commitment, thus bridging the rural style of camp meetings and the expectations of more "sophisticated" Methodist congregations in the emerging cities. Phoebe Palmer's ministry complemented Caughey's revivals in Ontario circa 1857. Jarena Lee of the African Methodist Episcopal Church and Julia A. J. Foote of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church aligned themselves with the Wesleyan-Holiness movement and preached the doctrine of entire sanctification throughout the pulpits of their connexions.


title: Holiness movement

text: While many holiness proponents stayed in the mainline Methodist Churches, such as Henry Clay Morrison who became president of Asbury College and Theological Seminary, at least two major Holiness Methodist denominations broke away from mainline Methodism during this period. In 1843, Orange Scott organized the Wesleyan Methodist Connection (an antecedent of the Wesleyan Church, as well as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches) at Utica, New York. The major reason for the foundation of the Wesleyan Methodist Church was their emphasis on the abolition of slavery. In 1860, B.T. Roberts and John Wesley Redfield founded the Free Methodist Church on the ideals of slavery abolition, egalitarianism, and second-blessing holiness. In 1900, the Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church was organized to minister to Native Americans, especially the Lumbee tribe. Advocacy for the poor remained a hallmark of these and other Methodist offshoots. Some of these offshoots would currently be more specifically identified as part of the Conservative holiness movement, a group that would represent the more conservative branch of the movement.


title: Holiness movement

text: At the Tuesday Meetings, Methodists soon enjoyed fellowship with Christians of different denominations, including the Congregationalist Thomas Upham. Upham was the first man to attend the meetings, and his participation in them led him to study mystical experiences, looking to find precursors of Holiness teaching in the writings of persons like German Pietist Johann Arndt and the Roman Catholic mystic Madame Guyon.


title: Holiness movement

text: Other non-Methodists also contributed to the Holiness movement in the U.S. and in England. "New School" Calvinists such as Asa Mahan, the first president of Oberlin College, and Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelist associated with the college and later its second president, promoted the idea of Christian holiness and slavery abolition (which Wesleyan Methodists also supported). In 1836, Mahan experienced what he called a baptism with the Holy Spirit. Mahan believed that this experience had cleansed him from the desire and inclination to sin. Finney believed that this experience might provide a solution to a problem he observed during his evangelistic revivals. Some people claimed to experience conversion but then slipped back into their old ways of living. Finney believed that the filling with the Holy Spirit could help these converts to continue steadfast in their Christian life. This phase of the Holiness movement is often referred to as the Oberlin-Holiness revival.


title: Holiness movement

text: Presbyterian William Boardman promoted the idea of Holiness through his evangelistic campaigns and through his book "The Higher Christian Life", which was published in 1858, which was a zenith point in Holiness activity prior to a lull brought on by the American Civil War.


title: Holiness movement

text: Many adherents of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) stressed George Fox's doctrine of Perfectionism (which is analogous to the Methodist doctrine of entire sanctification). These Holiness Quakers formed Yearly Meetings such as the Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. Around the same period, Hannah Whitall Smith, an English Quaker, experienced a profound personal conversion. Sometime in the 1860s, she found what she called the "secret" of the Christian life—devoting one's life wholly to God and God's simultaneous transformation of one's soul. Her husband, Robert Pearsall Smith, had a similar experience at the camp meeting in 1867. The couple became figureheads in the now-famous Keswick Convention that gave rise to what is often called the Keswick-Holiness revival, which became distinct from the holiness movement.


title: Holiness movement

text: Among Anabaptists, the Brethren in Christ Church (as well as the Calvary Holiness Church that later split from it) emerged in Lancaster County as a denomination of River Brethren who adopted Radical Pietistic teaching, which "emphasized spiritual passion and a warm, personal relationship to Jesus Christ." They teach "the necessity of a crisis-conversion experience" as well as the existence of a second work of grace that "results in the believer resulting in the ability to say no to sin". These Holiness Anabaptist denominations emphasize the wearing of a headcovering by women, plain dress, temperance, footwashing, and pacifism. Founded by Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich, the Apostolic Christian Church (Nazarene) is an Anabaptist denomination aligned with the holiness movement, thus being "distinguished by its emphasis on entire sanctifiation". Mennonites who were impacted by Radical Pietism and the teaching of holiness founded the Missionary Church, a holiness church in the Anabaptist tradition.


title: Holiness movement

text: General Baptists who embraced belief in the second work of grace established their own denominations, such as the Holiness Baptist Association (founded in 1894) and the Ohio Valley Association of the Christian Baptist Churches of God (formed in 1931).


title: Holiness movement

text: Following the American Civil War, many Holiness proponents—most of them Methodists—became nostalgic for the heyday of camp meeting revivalism during the Second Great Awakening.


title: Holiness movement

text: The first distinct "Holiness camp meeting" convened at Vineland, New Jersey in 1867 under the leadership of John S. Inskip, John A. Wood, Alfred Cookman, and other Methodist ministers. The gathering attracted as many as 10,000 people. At the close of the encampment, while the ministers were on their knees in prayer, they formed the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness, and agreed to conduct a similar gathering the next year. This organization was commonly known as the National Holiness Association. Later, it became known as the Christian Holiness Association and subsequently the Christian Holiness Partnership The second National Camp Meeting was held at Manheim, Pennsylvania, and drew upwards of 25,000 persons from all over the nation. People called it a "Pentecost." The service on Monday evening has almost become legendary for its spiritual power and influence. The third National Camp Meeting met at Round Lake, New York. This time the national press attended and write-ups appeared in numerous papers, including a large two-page pictorial in "Harper's Weekly". These meetings made instant religious celebrities out of many of the workers. "By the 1880s holiness was the most powerful doctrinal movement in America and seemed to be carrying away all opposition both within the Methodist Church and was quickly spreading throughout many other denominations." This however, was not without objection."The leaders of the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness generally opposed “come-outism,”...They urged believers in entire sanctification and Christian perfection to remain in their denominations and to work within them to promote holiness teaching and general spiritual vitality."


title: Holiness movement

text: Though distinct from the mainstream Holiness movement, the fervor of the Keswick-Holiness revival in the 1870s swept Great Britain, where it was sometimes called the higher life movement after the title of William Boardman's book "The Higher Life". Higher life conferences were held at Broadlands and Oxford in 1874 and in Brighton and Keswick in 1875. The Keswick Convention soon became the British headquarters for this movement. The Faith Mission in Scotland was another consequence of the British Holiness movement. Another was a flow of influence from Britain back to the United States: In 1874, Albert Benjamin Simpson read Boardman's "Higher Christian Life" and felt the need for such a life himself. Simpson went on to found the Christian and Missionary Alliance.


title: Holiness movement

text: American Holiness associations began to form as an outgrowth of this new wave of camp meetings, such as the Western Holiness Association—first of the regional associations that prefigured "come-outism"—formed at Bloomington, Illinois. In 1877, several "general holiness conventions" met in Cincinnati and New York City.


title: Holiness movement

text: In 1871, the American evangelist Dwight L. Moody had what he called an "endowment with power" as a result of some soul-searching and the prayers of two Free Methodist women who attended one of his meetings. He did not join the Wesleyan-Holiness movement but maintained a belief in progressive sanctification which his theological descendants still hold to.


title: Holiness movement

text: While the great majority of Holiness proponents remained within the three major denominations of the mainline Methodist church, Holiness people from other theological traditions established standalone bodies. In 1881, D. S. Warner started the Evening Light Reformation, out of which was formed the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), bringing Restorationism to the Holiness family. The Church of God Reformation Movement held that "interracial worship was a sign of the true Church", with both whites and blacks ministering regularly in Church of God congregations, which invited people of all races to worship there. Those who were entirely sanctified testified that they were "saved, sanctified, and prejudice removed." Though outsiders would sometimes attack Church of God services and camp meetings for their stand for racial equality, Church of God members were "undeterred even by violence" and "maintained their strong interracial position as the core of their message of the unity of all believers". In the 1890s, Edwin Harvey and Marmaduke Mendenhall Farson started the Metropolitan Methodist Mission which became known as the Metropolitan Church Association; it taught communal living, holding that "material possessions could be idols that might threaten one's sanctification experience" and that "while people who do not have the Holy Spirit may give, those who do give all."


title: Holiness movement

text: Palmer's "The Promise of the Father", published in 1859, which argued in favor of women in ministry, later influenced Catherine Booth, co-founder of the Salvation Army (the practice of ministry by women is common but not universal within the denominations of the Holiness movement). The founding of the Salvation Army in 1878 helped to rekindle Holiness sentiment in the cradle of Methodism—a fire kept lit by Primitive Methodists and other British descendants of Wesley and George Whitefield in prior decades.


title: Holiness movement

text: Overseas missions emerged as a central focus of the Holiness people. As one example of this world evangelism thrust, Pilgrim Holiness Church founder Martin Wells Knapp (who also founded the "Revivalist" in 1883, the Pentecostal Revival League and Prayer League, the Central Holiness League 1893, the International Holiness Union and Prayer League, and God's Bible School and College), saw much success in Korea, Japan, China, India, South Africa and South America. Methodist mission work in Japan led to the creation of the One Mission Society, one of the largest missionary-sending Holiness agencies in the world.


title: Holiness movement

text: Though many Holiness preachers, camp meeting leaders, authors, and periodical editors were Methodists, this was not universally popular with Methodist leadership. Out of the four million Methodists in the United States during the 1890s, probably one-third to one-half were committed to the idea of entire sanctification as being brought about instantaneously. Notable scholar Daniel Whedon famously stated "they are not Wesleyan. We believe that a living Wesley would never admit them to the Methodist system.” Proponents of the Holiness Movement however, fiercely resisted this accusation, and defended their doctrine from Wesley's own words. One of the founders of the camp meeting association, J. A. Wood, defended his doctrine with an extensive survey of Wesley's doctrine of Christian Perfection, entitled "Christian Perfection as Taught by John Wesley". In this book he spent several hundred pages exclusively quoting Wesley in defense of the Holiness Movement's view of entire sanctification. In fact the Holiness Movement was able to defend it's doctrine so well that historian Melvin Dieter comments that "The holiness movement was 'so closely identified with traditional Methodism and Wesleyan doctrine and life that Methodist opponents of the revival were forced to distance themselves from Wesley and the standard authors of prevailing Methodist theology to re-solve the struggle with the holiness elements within the church.'" Even still "The leaders of the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness generally opposed “come-outism,”...They urged believers in entire sanctification and Christian perfection to remain in their denominations and to work within them to promote holiness teaching and general spiritual vitality."


title: Holiness movement

text: Southern Methodist minister B. F. Haynes wrote in his book, "Tempest-Tossed on Methodist Seas", about his decision to leave the Methodist church and join what would become Church of the Nazarene. In it, he described the bitter divisions within the Methodist church over the Holiness movement, including verbal assaults made on Holiness movement proponents at the 1894 conference. This tension reached a head at the 1898 conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, when it passed rule 301:


title: Holiness movement

text: Many Holiness evangelists and traveling ministers found it difficult to continue their ministry under this new rule—particularly in mainline Methodist charges and circuits that were unfriendly to the Holiness movement. In the years that followed, scores of new Holiness Methodist associations were formed -- many of these "come-outer" associations and various parties alienated by Mainline Methodism consolidated to form new denominations (e.g. the Free Methodist Church, the Wesleyan Methodist Church, the Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene).


title: Holiness movement

text: Other Holiness Methodists (the “stay-inners”) remained within the mainline Methodist Churches, such as H. C. Morrison who became the first president of Asbury Theological Seminary, a prominent university of the holiness movement that remains influential among holiness adherents in mainline Methodism.


title: Holiness movement

text: Those who left mainline Methodist churches to form Holiness denominations during this time numbered no more than 100,000.


title: Holiness movement

text: Throughout the early 20th century, week-long revival campaigns with local churches (and revival elements brought into the worship service) carried on the tradition of camp meetings.


title: Holiness movement

text: Pentecostalism and the Charismatic movement competed for the loyalties of Holiness advocates (see related section below), and a separate Pentecostal-Holiness movement was born. This new dichotomy gradually dwindled the population of the mainstream of the Holiness movement.


title: Holiness movement

text: Some Holiness advocates found themselves at home with Fundamentalism and later the Evangelical movement. It was during this time (1939) that the Methodist Episcopal Church (North and South) and the Methodist Protestant Church merged to form The Methodist Church. This merger created a Mainline Christian organization which made remaining Holiness elements within U.S. Methodism less influential.


title: Holiness movement

text: Not content with what they considered to be a lax attitude toward sin, several small groups left Holiness denominations of the Methodist tradition, and to a lesser extent Quaker, Anabaptist and Restorationist denominations, to form the conservative holiness movement. Staunch defenders of Biblical inerrancy, they stress modesty in dress and revivalistic worship practices. They identify with classical Fundamentalism more so than Evangelicalism. While some have pointed out that the broader holiness movement has declined in its original strong emphasis of the doctrine of entire sanctification, the conservative holiness movement still frequently promotes, preaches, and teaches this definition of holiness and entire sanctification, both at the scholarly level, and in pastoral teaching.


title: Holiness movement

text: As the Holiness Conservatives were distancing themselves even further, Mainline Methodism was becoming larger with the merger between The Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church, forming the United Methodist Church in 1968. A slow trickle of disaffected Holiness-friendly United Methodists left for Holiness movement denominations, while other Holiness advocates stayed in the United Methodist Church and are represented in the Good News Movement and Confessing Movement. Many United Methodist clergy in the holiness tradition are educated at Asbury Theological Seminary.


title: Holiness movement

text: Meanwhile, the bulk of the Wesleyan-Holiness churches began to developed a disdain for what they considered to be legalism, and gradually dropped prohibitions against dancing and theater patronage, while maintaining rules against gambling, as well as alcohol and tobacco use. Continued stances on the sanctity of marriage and abstinence matched similar convictions. In the 1970s, opposition to abortion became a recurring theme, and by the 1990s statements against practicing homosexuality were increasingly common. A devotion to charity work continued, particularly through the Salvation Army and other denominational and parachurch agencies.


title: Holiness movement

text: Faced with a growing identity crisis and continually dwindling numbers, Wesleyan-Holiness Evangelicals have hosted several inter-denominational conferences and begun several initiatives to draw a clearer distinction between Wesleyan theology and that of other Evangelicals and to explore how to address contemporary social issues and appear winsome to a "post-modern world." As one such example, in 2006 the Wesleyan Holiness Consortium published "The Holiness Manifesto" in conjunction with representatives from historic Holiness Methodist denominations, including the Free Methodist Church, United Methodist Church, Wesleyan Church, and the Church of the Nazarene.


title: Holiness movement

text: The divide between classical Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism became greater following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the U.S. by militant Muslim fundamentalists—as the term "fundamental" became associated with intolerance and aggressive attitudes. Several Evangelical Holiness groups and publications have denounced the term "fundamentalist" (preferring Evangelical) while others are reconciling to what extent the Fundamentalist movement of the 1920s remains a part of their history.


title: Holiness movement

text: The Church of the Nazarene, the Wesleyan Church, and the Free Methodist Church were the largest Wesleyan-Evangelical Holiness bodies as of 2015. Talks of a merger were tabled, but new cooperatives such as the Global Wesleyan Alliance were formed as the result of inter-denominational meetings.


title: Holiness movement

text: The Global Methodist Church is expected to consist of a large number of traditionalists, including those aligned with the Wesleyan-Holiness movement, once a separation agreement is reached by United Methodist Church leadership and conference delegates in 2022 or later. The Book of Discipline of the Global Methodist Church thus teaches that "a life of holiness or 'entire sanctification' should be the goal of each individual’s journey with God."


title: Holiness movement

text: At this point the legacy of the Holiness Movement is fragmented between the more conservative branch, attempting to maintain and revive historic Holiness doctrine and practice, and others more willing to move beyond the doctrine and tradition of the past.


title: Holiness movement

text: The traditional Holiness movement is distinct from the Pentecostal movement, which believes that the baptism in the Holy Spirit involves supernatural manifestations such as speaking in unknown tongues. Many of the early Pentecostals originated from the Holiness movement, and to this day many "classical Pentecostals" maintain much of Holiness doctrine and many of its devotional practices. Several of its denominations include the word "Holiness" in their names, including the Pentecostal Holiness Church.


title: Holiness movement

text: The terms "pentecostal" and "apostolic", now used by adherents to Pentecostal and charismatic doctrine, were once widely used by Holiness churches in connection with the consecrated lifestyle they see described in the New Testament.


title: Holiness movement

text: During the Azusa Street Revival (often considered the advent of Pentecostalism), the practice of speaking in tongues was strongly rejected by leaders of the traditional Holiness movement. Alma White, the leader of the Pillar of Fire Church, a Holiness denomination, wrote a book against the Pentecostal movement that was published in 1936; the work, entitled "Demons and Tongues", represented early rejection of the tongues-speaking Pentecostal movement. White called speaking in tongues "satanic gibberish" and Pentecostal services "the climax of demon worship". However, many contemporary Holiness churches now believe in the legitimacy of speaking in unknown tongues, but not as a sign of entire sanctification as classical Pentecostals still teach.


title: Holiness movement

text: There are an estimated 78 million classical Pentecostals, and 510 million assorted Charismatics who share a heritage or common beliefs with the Pentecostal movement. If the Holiness movement and Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians were counted together the total population would be around 600 million.


title: Holiness movement

text: Several organizations and programs exist to promote the Holiness movement, plan missions, and promote ecumenism among churches:


title: Holiness movement

text: The Holiness movement led to the formation and further development of several Christian denominations and associations. Below are denominations which historically have substantially adhered to Holiness movement doctrine (excluding Conservative Holiness movement and distinctively Holiness Pentecostal bodies).


title: Holiness movement

text: Many institutions of higher learning exist to promote Holiness ideas, as well as to provide a liberal arts education.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: A kitchen utensil is a small hand held tool used for food preparation. Common kitchen tasks include cutting food items to size, heating food on an open fire or on a stove, baking, grinding, mixing, blending, and measuring; different utensils are made for each task. A general purpose utensil such as a chef's knife may be used for a variety of foods; other kitchen utensils are highly specialized and may be used only in connection with preparation of a particular type of food, such as an egg separator or an apple corer. Some specialized utensils are used when an operation is to be repeated many times, or when the cook has limited dexterity or mobility. The number of utensils in a household kitchen varies with time and the style of cooking.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: A cooking utensil is a utensil for cooking. Utensils may be categorized by use with terms derived from the word "ware": kitchenware, wares for the kitchen; ovenware and bakeware, kitchen utensils that are for use inside ovens and for baking; cookware, merchandise used for cooking; and so forth.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: A partially overlapping category of tools is that of eating utensils, which are tools used for eating (c.f. the more general category of tableware). Some utensils are both kitchen utensils and eating utensils. Cutlery (i.e. knives and other cutting implements) can be used for both food preparation in a kitchen and as eating utensils when dining. Other cutlery such as forks and spoons are both kitchen and eating utensils.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Other names used for various types of kitchen utensils, although not strictly denoting a utensil that is specific to the kitchen, are according to the materials they are made of, again using the "-ware" suffix, rather than their functions: earthenware, utensils made of clay; silverware, utensils (both kitchen and dining) made of silver; glassware, utensils (both kitchen and dining) made of glass; and so forth. These latter categorizations include utensils — made of glass, silver, clay, and so forth — that are not necessarily kitchen utensils.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Benjamin Thompson noted at the start of the 19th century that kitchen utensils were commonly made of copper, with various efforts made to prevent the copper from reacting with food (particularly its acidic contents) at the temperatures used for cooking, including tinning, enamelling, and varnishing. He observed that iron had been used as a substitute, and that some utensils were made of earthenware. By the turn of the 20th century, Maria Parloa noted that kitchen utensils were made of (tinned or enamelled) iron and steel, copper, nickel, silver, tin, clay, earthenware, and aluminium. The latter, aluminium, became a popular material for kitchen utensils in the 20th century.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Copper has good thermal conductivity and copper utensils are both durable and attractive in appearance. However, they are also comparatively heavier than utensils made of other materials, require scrupulous cleaning to remove poisonous tarnish compounds, and are not suitable for acidic foods. Copper pots are lined with tin to prevent discoloration or altering the taste of food. The tin lining must be periodically restored, and protected from overheating.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Iron is more prone to rusting than (tinned) copper. Cast iron kitchen utensils are less prone to rust by avoiding abrasive scouring and extended soaking in water in order to build up its layer of seasoning. For some iron kitchen utensils, water is a particular problem, since it is very difficult to dry them fully. In particular, iron egg-beaters or ice cream freezers are tricky to dry, and the consequent rust if left wet will roughen them and possibly clog them completely. When storing iron utensils for long periods, van Rensselaer recommended coating them in non-salted (since salt is also an ionic compound) fat or paraffin.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Iron utensils have little problem with high cooking temperatures, are simple to clean as they become smooth with long use, are durable and comparatively strong (i.e. not as prone to breaking as, say, earthenware), and hold heat well. However, as noted, they rust comparatively easily.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Stainless steel finds many applications in the manufacture of kitchen utensils. Stainless steel is considerably less likely to rust in contact with water or food products, and so reduces the effort required to maintain utensils in clean useful condition. Cutting tools made with stainless steel maintain a usable edge while not presenting the risk of rust found with iron or other types of steel.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Earthenware utensils suffer from brittleness when subjected to rapid large changes in temperature, as commonly occur in cooking, and the glazing of earthenware often contains lead, which is poisonous. Thompson noted that as a consequence of this the use of such glazed earthenware was prohibited by law in some countries from use in cooking, or even from use for storing acidic foods. Van Rensselaer proposed in 1919 that one test for lead content in earthenware was to let a beaten egg stand in the utensil for a few minutes and watch to see whether it became discoloured, which is a sign that lead might be present.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: In addition to their problems with thermal shock, enamelware utensils require careful handling, as careful as for glassware, because they are prone to chipping. But enamel utensils are not affected by acidic foods, are durable, and are easily cleaned. However, they cannot be used with strong alkalis.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Earthenware, porcelain, and pottery utensils can be used for both cooking and serving food, and so thereby save on washing-up of two separate sets of utensils. They are durable, and (van Rensselaer notes) "excellent for slow, even cooking in even heat, such as slow baking". However, they are comparatively "un"suitable for cooking using a direct heat, such as a cooking over a flame.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: James Frank Breazeale in 1918 opined that aluminium "is without doubt the best material for kitchen utensils", noting that it is "as far superior to enamelled ware as enamelled ware is to the old-time iron or tin". He qualified his recommendation for replacing worn-out tin or enamelled utensils with aluminium ones by noting that "old-fashioned black iron frying pans and muffin rings, polished on the inside or worn smooth by long usage, are, however, superior to aluminium ones".