title: Common Gateway Interface

text: The overhead involved in CGI process creation and destruction can be reduced by the following techniques:


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: The optimal configuration for any Web application depends on application-specific details, amount of traffic, and complexity of the transaction; these trade-offs need to be analyzed to determine the best implementation for a given task and time budget. Web frameworks offer an alternative to using CGI scripts to interact with user agents.


title: John Marley

text: John Marley (born Mortimer Marlieb, October 17, 1907 – May 22, 1984) was an American actor who was known for his role as Phil Cavalleri in "Love Story" and as Jack Woltz—the defiant film mogul who awakens to find the severed head of his prized horse in his bed—in "The Godfather" (1972). He starred in John Cassavetes' feature "Faces" (1968) and appeared in "The Glitter Dome" (1984).


title: John Marley

text: Marley was born in Harlem in New York City to Russian-Jewish parents. He dropped out of the City College of New York, turning instead to a career in acting.


title: John Marley

text: Marley was a prolific character actor, appearing in nearly 250 films and television series during a career spanning over forty-five years. Some of the TV series he made an appearance in have included "The Web", "Peter Gunn", "Johnny Staccato", "Bourbon Street Beat", "Perry Mason", "Rawhide", "The Untouchables", "Sea Hunt", "77 Sunset Strip", "The Lloyd Bridges Show", "Dr. Kildare", "The Outer Limits", "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour", "The Twilight Zone", "Gunsmoke", "The Wild Wild West", "Mannix", "Bonanza", "Ironside", "The Name of the Game", "The F.B.I.", "Cannon", "McCloud", "", "Baretta", "Barnaby Jones", and "Hawaii Five-0".


title: John Marley

text: He was cast as George Campbell in the 1961 episode "Jerkwater" of the ABC western series, "The Rebel", starring Nick Adams.


title: John Marley

text: In 1962 he played the role of murderer Matthew Owen in the "Perry Mason" episode, "The Case of the Angry Astronaut." He also showed his acting prowess in a supporting but important role of Charlie Rondell in an episode of "The Virginian" (1968), "The Crooked Path."


title: John Marley

text: Marley also played in two other movies where he attained notoriety. One was the cult movie "The Car," where he played a sheriff of a small town that was victimized by a mysterious black automobile.


title: John Marley

text: The second movie was titled "Framed," where he played mob boss Sal Viccarone, who befriended a gambler while they were both in prison.


title: John Marley

text: One of Marley's most notable roles, albeit short, was that of film producer Jack Woltz in "The Godfather". Marley later spoofed that role in an episode of SCTV Network. He played Max Berns, a film producer who was a caring father figure to Burt Reynolds in the stuntman tribute, "Hooper".


title: John Marley

text: In the late 70's, he appeared in the third season of the popular television series, "The Incredible Hulk" as D.W. Banner, the father of the main character, David Banner, in the "Homecoming" episode.


title: John Marley

text: Marley's Broadway credits include "The Investigation" (1966), "Sing Till Tomorrow" (1953), "The Strong Are Lonely" (1953), "Skipper Next to God" (1947), and "Johnny Doodle" (1942). Elsewhere on stage, Marley appeared in the world premiere production of Edna St. Vincent Millay's poetry drama, "Conversation At Midnight" in 1961 in Los Angeles, in an ensemble cast which included James Coburn, Jack Albertson and Eduard Franz. The production was directed by Robert Gist and produced by Worley Thorne and Susan Davis.


title: John Marley

text: In 1984, Marley died at age 76 following open-heart surgery. He is interred at Cedar Park Cemetery, in Emerson, New Jersey.


title: John Marley

text: In 1968, Marley won the Volpi Cup for Best Actor at the Venice Film Festival for his work in "Faces". In 1970, he was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his role in "Love Story" but lost to John Mills, who won for "Ryan's Daughter". He was also nominated for a 1971 Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting role in Any Motion Picture for his work in "Love Story".


title: Squad (video game)

text: Squad is a tactical first-person shooter video game developed by the Canadian game development studio Offworld Industries. Self-published through Steam, it is a spiritual successor to the "Project Reality" modification for "Battlefield 2". Set in the modern day, the game features a mix of real and semi-fictional content, with most of the game taking place in realistic conflicts, such as insurgencies in the Middle East and conflict in Eastern Europe. "Squad" became available on Steam Early Access on December 15, 2015, and was officially released on Steam on September 23, 2020.


title: Squad (video game)

text: Squad is a tactical shooter based around squad gameplay designed to encourage teamwork and communication. A match is played between two belligerent teams, with each team being made up of squads that cap at nine players. Players in squads select from various soldier classes which play distinct roles in combat, such as suppressive fire from an automatic rifleman, anti-tank support from a MANPATS gunner, or medical support from a combat medic. A squad of players is led by a squad leader, who can communicate with other allied squad leaders and construct structures such as forward operating bases and defensive emplacements. Any squad leader can additionally nominate himself for the position of commander, who, once voted into position, can coordinate his team's battle plan and call in additional support such as UAV recon and artillery.


title: Squad (video game)

text: Squad borrows many of its gameplay aspects from its predecessor, "Project Reality", with its game modes placing heavy emphasis on team coordination. Matches take place on extremely large realistic battlefields up to in size, facilitating the use of a wide variety of vehicles such as main-battle tanks, armored personnel carriers, transport trucks and helicopters. The two teams, utilizing vehicle and infantry warfare, compete over various objectives, such as strategic locations to hold or weapon caches to destroy. To facilitate maneuver warfare, squad leaders can construct forward operating bases around the map, which provide a team-wide location for soldiers to respawn and must be kept supplied by a logistics network. Both teams are kept in check by the "ticket" system, which simulates combat effectiveness. The loss of strategic locations, destruction of forward operating bases or vehicles and soldier deaths all remove tickets from a team's pool, and a match ends once a team's ticket pool has been reduced to zero. A team that fails at defending too many of its strategic objectives will begin to lose tickets rapidly, starting at a loss of one per minute and capping out at a maximum of ten per minute. As such, teams have the ability to achieve victory in multiple ways, such as exhausting the enemy's ability to fight or by completing all of their tactical objectives.


title: Squad (video game)

text: There are nine playable factions in "Squad", which change based on the map and game mode being played. The real-life militaries featured include the United States Army, Russian Ground Forces, Canadian Army, Australian Army, British Army, United States Marine Corps and the recently added People's Liberation Army. Three generic stock factions are also included: the Insurgents, modeled after various Middle Eastern insurgent groups, the Irregular Militia, modeled after the paramilitaries of Eastern Europe and the Balkans, and the Middle East Alliance, a fictional military alliance amalgamation of the armed forces of various Middle Eastern and Central Asian countries.


title: Squad (video game)

text: Development of "Squad" was announced in October 2014 when "Project Reality" developer Sniperdog (a.k.a. Will Stahl) made a post on the "Project Reality" forums. The announcement carried the news that the team of fifteen was making a spiritual successor to "Project Reality" on Epic Games' Unreal Engine 4.


title: Squad (video game)

text: On April 5, 2015, "Squad" appeared in Steam's Greenlight service and was announced in an update called "Vote For Us". It was officially greenlit eight days later.


title: Squad (video game)

text: Squad was released on Steam Early Access on December 15, 2015, and officially released on Steam on September 23, 2020.


title: Squad (video game)

text: The Kickstarter campaign started on May 26, 2015. It featured six backer levels with various rewards such as merchandise, in-game rewards, and pre-alpha testing access. Five days after the Kickstarter launch, the game had raised over $200,000.


title: Anti-racism

text: Anti-racism encompasses a range of ideas and political actions which are meant to counter racial prejudice, systemic racism, and the oppression of specific racial groups. Anti-racism is usually structured around conscious efforts and deliberate actions which are intended to provide equal opportunities for all people on both an individual and a systemic level. As a philosophy, it can be engaged in by the acknowledgment of personal privileges, confronting acts as well as systems of racial discrimination, and/or working to change personal racial biases. Major contemporary anti-racism efforts include Black Lives Matter organizing and workplace antiracism.


title: Anti-racism

text: European racism was spread to the Americas by the Europeans, but establishment views were questioned when they were applied to indigenous peoples. After the discovery of the New World, many of the members of the clergy who were sent to the New World who were educated in the new humane values of the Renaissance, still new in Europe and not ratified by the Vatican, began to criticize Spain's as well as their own Church's treatment and views of indigenous peoples and slaves.


title: Anti-racism

text: In December 1511, Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, was the first European to rebuke openly the Spanish authorities and administrators of Hispaniola for their "cruelty and tyranny" in dealing with the American natives and those forced to labor as slaves. King Ferdinand enacted the "Laws of Burgos" and "Valladolid" in response. However enforcement was lax, and the New Laws of 1542 have to be made to take a stronger line. Because some people like Fray Bartolomé de las Casas questioned not only the Crown but the Papacy at the Valladolid Controversy whether the Indians were truly men who deserved baptism, Pope Paul III in the papal bull "Veritas Ipsa" or "Sublimis Deus" (1537) confirmed that the Indians and other races are fully rational human beings who have rights to freedom and private property, even if they are heathen. Afterward, their Christian conversion effort gained momentum along social rights, while leaving the same status recognition unanswered for Africans of Black Race, and legal social racism prevailed towards the Indians or Asians. However, by then the last schism of the Reformation had taken place in Europe in those few decades along political lines, and the different views on the value of human lives of different races were not corrected in the lands of Northern Europe, which would join the Colonial race at the end of the century and over the next, as the Portuguese and Spanish Empires waned. It would take another century, with the influence of the French Empire at its height, and its consequent Enlightenment developed at the highest circles of its Court, to return these previously inconclusive issues to the forefront of the political discourse championed by many intellectual men since Rousseau. These issues gradually permeated to the lower social levels, where they were a reality lived by men and women of different races from the European racial majority.


title: Anti-racism

text: In 1688, with the "Germantown Petition Against Slavery", German immigrants created the first American document of its kind that made a plea for equal human rights for everyone. After being set aside and forgotten, it was rediscovered by the US abolitionist movement in 1844, misplaced around the 1940s, and once more rediscovered in March 2005. Prior to the American Revolution, a small group of Quakers, including John Woolman and Anthony Benezet, persuaded their fellow members of the Religious Society of Friends to free their slaves, divest from the slave trade, and create unified Quaker policies against slavery. This afforded their tiny religious denomination some moral authority to help begin the abolitionist movement on both sides of the Atlantic. Woolman died of smallpox in England in 1775, shortly after crossing the Atlantic to bring his anti-slavery message to the Quakers of the British Isles.


title: Anti-racism

text: During and after the American Revolution, Quaker ministrations and preachings against slavery began to spread beyond their denomination. In 1783, 300 Quakers, chiefly from the London area, presented the British Parliament with their signatures on the first petition against the slave trade. In 1785, Englishman Thomas Clarkson, enrolled at Cambridge, and in the course of writing an essay in Latin ("Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare" (Is it lawful to enslave the unconsenting?), read the works of Benezet, and began a lifelong effort to outlaw the slave trade in England. In 1787, sympathizers formed the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, a small nondenominational group that could lobby more successfully by incorporating Anglicans, who, unlike the Quakers, could lawfully sit in Parliament. The twelve founding members included nine Quakers and three pioneering Anglicans: Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson, and William Wilberforce – all evangelical Christians.


title: Anti-racism

text: Later successes in opposing racism were won by the abolitionist movement in England and in the United States. Though many Abolitionists did not regard blacks or mulattos as equal to whites, they did, in general, believe in freedom and often even equality of treatment for all people. A few, like John Brown, went further. Brown was willing to die on behalf of, as he said, "millions in this slave country whose rights are disregarded by wicked, cruel, and unjust enactments ..." Many black Abolitionists, such as Frederick Douglass, explicitly argued for the humanity of blacks and mulattoes, and the equality of all people.


title: Anti-racism

text: Due to resistance in the Southern United States, however, and a general collapse of idealism in the North, Reconstruction ended, and gave way to the nadir of American race relations. The period from about 1890 to 1920 saw the re-establishment of Jim Crow laws. President Woodrow Wilson, who regarded Reconstruction as a disaster, segregated the federal government. The Ku Klux Klan grew to its greatest peak of popularity and strength. D. W. Griffith's "The Birth of a Nation" was a movie sensation.


title: Anti-racism

text: In 1911 the First Universal Races Congress met in London, at which distinguished speakers from many countries for four days discussed race problems and ways to improve interracial relations.


title: Anti-racism

text: Friedrich Tiedemann was one of the first people to scientifically contest racism. In 1836, using craniometric and brain measurements (taken by him from Europeans and black people from different parts of the world), he refuted the belief of many contemporary naturalists and anatomists that black people have smaller brains and are thus intellectually inferior to white people, saying it was scientifically unfounded and based merely on the prejudiced opinions of travelers and explorers. The evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin wrote in 1871 that ‘[i]t may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive of a race and is constant’ and that ‘[a]lthough the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet if their whole structure be taken into consideration they are found to resemble each other closely in a multitude of points.’


title: Anti-racism

text: German ethnographer Adolf Bastian promoted the idea known as "psychic unity of mankind", the belief in a universal mental framework present in all humans regardless of race. Rudolf Virchow, an early biological anthropologist criticized Ernst Haeckel's classification of humanity into "higher and lower races". The two authors influenced American anthropologist Franz Boas who promoted the idea that differences in behavior between human populations are purely cultural rather than determined by biological differences. Later anthropologists like Marcel Mauss, Bronisław Malinowski, Pierre Clastres, and Claude Lévi-Strauss continued to focus on culture and reject racial models of differences in human behavior.


title: Anti-racism

text: After the end of seclusion in the 1850s, Japan signed unequal treaties, the so-called Ansei Treaties, but soon came to demand equal status with the Western powers. Correcting that inequality became the most urgent international issue of the Meiji government. In that context, the Japanese delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference proposed the clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations. The first draft was presented to the League of Nations Commission by Makino Nobuaki on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21:The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord, as soon as possible, to all alien nationals of States Members of the League equal and just treatment in every respect, making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality.After Makino's speech, Lord Cecil stated that the Japanese proposal was a very controversial one and he suggested that perhaps the matter was so controversial that it should not be discussed at all. Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos also suggested that a clause banning religious discrimination should also be removed since that was also a very controversial matter. That led to objections from a Portuguese diplomat, who stated that his country had never signed a treaty before that did not mention God, which caused Cecil to remark perhaps this time, they would all just have to a take a chance of avoiding the wrath of the Almighty by not mentioning Him.


title: Anti-racism

text: Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes clarified his opposition and announced at a meeting that "ninety-five out of one hundred Australians rejected the very idea of equality.


title: Anti-racism

text: Hughes had entered politics as a trade unionist and, like most others in the working class, was very strongly opposed to Asian immigration to Australia. (The exclusion of Asian immigration was a popular cause with unions in Canada, the US, Australia, and New Zealand in the early 20th century.)


title: Anti-racism

text: The Chinese delegation, which was otherwise at daggers drawn with the Japanese over the question of the former German colony of Tsingtao and the rest of the German concessions in Shandong Province, also said that it would support the clause. However, one Chinese diplomat said at the time that the Shandong question was far more important to his government than the clause.


title: Anti-racism

text: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George found himself in an awkward situation since Britain had signed an alliance with Japan in 1902, but he also wanted to hold the British Empire's delegation together.


title: Anti-racism

text: Although the proposal received a majority (11 out of 16) of votes, the proposal was still problematic for the segregationist US President Woodrow Wilson, who needed the votes of segregationist Southern Democrats to succeed in getting the votes needed for the US Senate to ratify the treaty. Strong opposition from the British Empire delegations gave him a pretext to reject the proposal. Hughes and Joseph Cook vigorously opposed it as it undermined the White Australia policy.


title: Anti-racism

text: Opposition to racism revived in the 1920s and 1930s. At that time, anthropologists such as Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, and Ashley Montagu argued for the equality of humans across races and cultures. Eleanor Roosevelt was a very visible advocate for minority rights during this period. Anti-capitalist organizations like the Industrial Workers of the World, which gained popularity during 1905–1926, were explicitly egalitarian.


title: Anti-racism

text: In the 1940s Springfield, Massachusetts, invoked The Springfield Plan to include all persons in the community.


title: Anti-racism

text: Beginning with the Harlem Renaissance and continuing into the 1960s, many African-American writers argued forcefully against racism.


title: Anti-racism

text: The struggles against racial segregation in the United States and South African apartheid saw increased articulation of ideas opposed to racism of all kinds.


title: Anti-racism

text: During the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws were repealed in the South and blacks finally re-won the right to vote in Southern states. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was an influential force, and his "I Have a Dream" speech is an exemplary condensation of his egalitarian ideology.


title: Anti-racism

text: Mass mobilization around the Black Lives Matter (#BLM) movement have sparked a renewed interest in antiracism in the U.S. Mass movement organizing has also been accompanied by academic efforts to foreground research regarding antiracism in politics, criminal justice reform, inclusion in higher education, and workplace antiracism.


title: Anti-racism

text: Anti-racism has taken various forms such as consciousness-raising activities aimed at educating people about the ways they may perpetuate racism, enhancing cross-cultural understanding between racial groups, countering "everyday" racism in institutional settings, and combating extremist right-wing neo-Nazi and neo-Fascist groups.


title: Anti-racism

text: When people experience racial microaggressions, it causes harm to their psychological and physical health, which can lead to many negative consequences in a work environment, learning environment, and to their overall sense of self-worth. Antiracism work combats microaggressions and helps to break systemic racism by focusing on actions against discrimination and oppression. Standing up against discrimination can be an overwhelming task for people of color who have been previously targeted. Antiracist microinterventions can be a tool used to act against racial discrimination.


title: Anti-racism

text: Microintervention strategies provide the tools needed to confront and educate racial oppressors. Specific tactics include: revealing the hidden biases or agendas behind acts of discrimination, interrupting and challenging oppressive language, educating offenders, and connecting with other allies and community members are ways to act against discrimination. Using these microinterventions allows the oppressor to see the impact of their words and provides a space for an educational dialogue about how their actions can oppress people of color and marginalized groups.


title: Anti-racism

text: Microaggressions can be conscious acts where the perpetrator is aware of the offense they are causing, or hidden and metacommunicated without the perpetrator's awareness. Regardless of whether microaggressions are conscious or unconscious behaviors, the first antiracist intervention is to name the ways it is harmful for a person of color. Calling out an act of discrimination can be empowering because it provides language for people of color to bring awareness to their lived experiences and justifies internal feelings of discrimination.


title: Anti-racism

text: Antiracist strategies also include confronting the racial microaggression by outwardly challenging and disagreeing against the microaggression that harms a person of color. Microinterventions such as a verbal expression of "I don't want to hear that talk" and physical movements of disapproval are ways to confront microaggressions. Microinterventions are not used to attack others about their biases, but instead they are used to allow the space for an educational dialogue. Educating a perpetrator on their biases can open up a discussion about how the intention of a comment or action can have a damaging impact. For example, phrases such as "I know you meant that joke to be funny, but that stereotype really hurt me" can educate a person on the difference between what was intended and how it is harmful to a person of color. Antiracist microintervention strategies give the tools for people of color, white allies, and bystanders to combat against microaggressions and acts of discrimination.


title: Anti-racism

text: Egalitarianism has been a catalyst for feminist, anti-war, and anti-imperialist movements. Henry David Thoreau's opposition to the Mexican–American War, for example, was based in part on his fear that the U.S. was using the war as an excuse to expand slavery into new territories. Thoreau's response was chronicled in his famous essay "Civil Disobedience", which in turn helped ignite Mahatma Gandhi's successful campaign against the British in India. Gandhi's example in turn inspired the American civil rights movement.


title: Anti-racism

text: As James Loewen writes in "Lies My Teacher Told Me": "Throughout the world, from Africa to Northern Ireland, movements of oppressed people continue to use tactics and words borrowed from our abolitionist and civil rights movements."


title: Anti-racism

text: Some of these uses have been controversial. Critics in the United Kingdom, such as Peter Hain, stated that in Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe had used anti-racist rhetoric to promote land distribution, whereby privately held land was taken from white farmers and distributed to black Africans (see: Land reform in Zimbabwe). Roman Catholic bishops stated that Mugabe framed the land distribution as a way to liberate Zimbabwe from colonialism, but that "the white settlers who once exploited what was Rhodesia have been supplanted by a black elite that is just as abusive."


title: Anti-racism

text: The phrase "Anti-racist is a code word for anti-white", coined by white nationalist Robert Whitaker, is commonly associated with the topic of white genocide, a white nationalist conspiracy theory which states that mass immigration, integration, miscegenation, low fertility rates and abortion are being promoted in predominantly white countries in order to deliberately turn them minority-white and hence cause white people to become extinct through forced assimilation. The phrase has been spotted on billboards near Birmingham, Alabama in 2014, and in Harrison, Arkansas in 2013.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Maulana Ndabezitha Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett, July 14, 1941), previously known as Ron Karenga, is an American activist, author, and professor of Africana studies, best known as the creator of the pan-African and African-American holiday of Kwanzaa.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Born in Parsonsburg, Maryland, to an African-American family, Karenga studied at Los Angeles City College and the University of California, Los Angeles. He was active in the Black Power movement of the 1960s, joining the Congress of Racial Equality and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. In 1965, Karenga and Hakim Jamal co-founded the black nationalist group US Organization, which became involved in violent clashes with the Black Panther Party by 1969. In 1971, he was convicted of felony assault, torture, and false imprisonment of women. He denied involvement and claimed the prosecution was political in nature. Karenga was imprisoned in California Men's Colony until he received parole in 1975.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: In 1966, Karenga notably created Kwanzaa, modeling the holiday after the African "first fruit" traditions. The rituals of the holiday promote African traditions, including the "seven principles of African heritage". During the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said it was meant to be a black alternative to Christmas. Karenga, a secular humanist, challenged the sanity of Jesus and declared Christianity a "White religion" that black people should shun. However, Karenga later changed his opinion, stating that Kwanzaa was not meant to provide people with an alternative to "their own religion or religious holiday."


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga has been awarded two doctorates, one in Political Science in 1976 and one in Social Ethics in 1994. He currently chairs the Africana Studies Department at California State University, Long Beach and has authored several books.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga was born in Parsonsburg, Maryland, the 14th child and seventh son in the family. His father was a tenant farmer and Baptist minister who employed the family to work fields under an effective sharecropping arrangement. Karenga moved to Los Angeles in 1959, joining his older brother who was a teacher there, and attended Los Angeles City College. He became active with civil rights organizations Congress of Racial Equality and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, took an interest in African studies, and was elected as LACC's first African-American student president.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: After earning his associate degree, he matriculated from the University of California, Los Angeles and earned BA and MA degrees in political science. He studied Swahili, Arabic, and other African-related subjects. Among his influences at UCLA were Jamaican anthropologist and Negritudist Councill Taylor, who contested the Eurocentric view of alien cultures as primitive. During this period, he took the name "Karenga" (Swahili for "keeper of tradition") and the title "Maulana" (Swahili-Arabic for "master teacher").


title: Maulana Karenga

text: The Watts riots broke out when Karenga was a year into his doctoral studies. The Black Congress ("BC") was formed as a community-rebuilding organization in the aftermath. Within the BC, a discussion group centered on black nationalist ideas, called the Circle of Seven, was formed, which included Hakim Jamal (a cousin of Malcolm X) and Karenga. The group published "US Magazine" (meaning "Us black people") and in 1966 formed an organization called US. The organization joined in several community revival programs and was featured in press reports. Karenga cited Malcolm X's Afro-American Unity program as an influence on US Organization's work:


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Malcolm was the major African American thinker that influenced me in terms of nationalism and Pan-Africanism. As you know, towards the end, when Malcolm is expanding his concept of Islam, and of nationalism, he stresses Pan-Africanism in a particular way. And he argues that, and this is where we have the whole idea that cultural revolution and the need for revolution, he argues that we need a cultural revolution, he argues that we must return to Africa culturally and spiritually, even if we can't go physically. And so that's a tremendous impact on US.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga soon diverged from Malcolm X's ideas on Black nationalism and took US in a direction more focused on promoting African culture. Jamal and other adherents to Malcolm X's ideas left the group.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: As racial disturbances spread across the country, Karenga appeared at a series of Black power conferences, joining other groups in urging the establishment of a separate political structure for African Americans. US developed a youth component with paramilitary aspects called the Simba Wachanga, which advocated and practiced community self-defense and service to the masses.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: In 1966, Karenga founded the newspaper "Harambee", which started as a newsletter for US and eventually became the newspaper for the Los Angeles Black Congress, an umbrella organization for several groups.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: During the late 1960s, US Organization became bitter rivals with the Black Panther Party over their differing views on Black nationalism. The Federal Bureau of Investigation intensified this antipathy as part of its COINTELPRO operations, sending forged letters to each group which purported to be from the other group, so that each would believe that the other was publicly humiliating them. The rivalry came to a climax during 1969, with a series of armed confrontations and retaliatory shootings that left four Panthers dead, and more injured on both sides. A memorandum of the Los Angeles field office of the FBI dated May 26, 1970, confirmed that the surge of conflict suited their objectives and more would be encouraged:


title: Maulana Karenga

text: According to Louis Tackwood, a former informant with the Los Angeles Police Department's Criminal Conspiracies Section and author of "The Glass House Tapes", Ronald Karenga was knowingly provided financial, arms, and other support by LAPD, with Tackwood as liaison, for US operations against the Black Panthers. Karenga enjoyed a level of trust among figures in government, including LAPD Chief Thomas Reddin and California Governor Ronald Reagan.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966 to be the first pan-African holiday. Karenga said his goal was to "give Blacks an alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and their history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society."


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Kwanzaa is inspired by African "first fruit" traditions, and the name chosen is from Swahili, "matunda ya kwanza." The rituals of the holiday promote African traditions and "Nguzo Saba", the "seven principles of African Heritage" that Karenga described as "a communitarian African philosophy":


title: Maulana Karenga

text: In 1971, Karenga was sentenced to one to ten years in prison on counts of felony assault and false imprisonment. One of the victims gave testimony of how Karenga and other men tortured her and another woman. The woman described having been stripped naked and beaten with an electrical cord. Karenga's estranged wife, Brenda Lorraine Karenga, testified that she sat on the other woman's stomach while another man forced water into her mouth through a hose.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Deborah Jones, who once was given the Swahili title of an African queen, said she and Gail Davis were whipped with an electrical cord and beaten with a karate baton after being ordered to remove their clothes. She testified that a hot soldering iron was placed in Miss Davis' mouth and placed against Miss Davis' face and that one of her own big toes was tightened in a vise. Karenga, head of US, also put detergent and running hoses in their mouths, she said. They also were hit on the heads with toasters.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Jones and Brenda Karenga testified that Karenga believed the women were conspiring to poison him, which Davis has attributed to a combination of ongoing police pressure and his own drug abuse.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga denied any involvement in the torture, and argued that the prosecution was political in nature. He was imprisoned at the California Men's Colony, where he studied and wrote on feminism, Pan-Africanism, and other subjects. The US Organization fell into disarray during his absence and was disbanded in 1974. After he petitioned several black state officials to support his parole on fair sentencing grounds, it was granted in 1975.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga has declined to discuss the convictions with reporters and does not mention them in biographical materials. During a 2007 appearance at Wabash College, he again denied the charges and described himself as a former political prisoner.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: He was awarded his first Ph.D. in 1976 from United States International University (now known as Alliant International University) for a 170-page dissertation titled "Afro-American Nationalism: Social Strategy and Struggle for Community". In 1977, he formulated a set of principles called "Kawaida", a Swahili term for normal. Karenga called on African-Americans to adopt his secular humanism and reject other practices as mythical.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: He was also the director of the Kawaida Institute for Pan African Studies and the author of several books, including his "Introduction to Black Studies", a comprehensive Black/African Studies textbook now in its fourth edition (2010), originally published in 1982. He is also known for having co-hosted, in 1984, a conference that gave rise to the Association for the Study of Classical African Civilizations.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: In 1994, he was awarded a second Ph.D. in social ethics from the University of Southern California for an 803-page dissertation titled "Maat, the moral ideal in ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics." In 1995, he sat on the organizing committee and authored the mission statement of the Million Man March.


title: Maulana Karenga

text: Karenga delivered a eulogy at the 2001 funeral service of New Black Panther Party leader Khalid Abdul Muhammad, praising him for his organizing activities and commitment to black empowerment. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Maulana Karenga on his list of "100 Greatest African Americans".


title: Maulana Karenga

text: As of 2021, Karenga chairs the Africana Studies Department at California State University, Long Beach.


title: IETF language tag

text: An IETF BCP 47 language tag is a standardized code or tag that is used to identify human languages in the Internet. The tag structure has been standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in "Best Current Practice (BCP) 47"; the subtags are maintained by the "IANA Language Subtag Registry".


title: IETF language tag

text: To distinguish language variants for countries, regions, or writing systems (scripts), IETF language tags combine subtags from other standards such as ISO 639, ISO 15924, ISO 3166-1 and UN M.49.


title: IETF language tag

text: For example, the tag "en" stands for English; "es-419" for Latin American Spanish; "rm-sursilv" for Romansh Sursilvan; "sr-Cyrl" for Serbian written in Cyrillic script; "nan-Hant-TW" for Min Nan Chinese using traditional Han characters, as spoken in Taiwan; and "gsw-u-sd-chzh" for Zürich German. In its accordance with ISO 639-3, however, it does not provide codes for distinguishing between Arabic-based scripts, and maintains two duplicate codes for Punjabi, as well as a number of dubious or non-existent language distinctions made by its parents standard.


title: IETF language tag

text: IETF language tags were first defined in RFC 1766, edited by Harald Tveit Alvestrand, published in March 1995. The tags used ISO 639 two-letter language codes and ISO 3166 two-letter country codes, and allowed registration of whole tags that included variant or script subtags of three to eight letters.


title: IETF language tag

text: In January 2001, this was updated by RFC 3066, which added the use of ISO 639-2 three-letter codes, permitted subtags with digits, and adopted the concept of language ranges from HTTP/1.1 to help with matching of language tags.


title: IETF language tag

text: The next revision of the specification came in September 2006 with the publication of RFC 4646 (the main part of the specification), edited by Addison Philips and Mark Davis and RFC 4647 (which deals with matching behaviour). RFC 4646 introduced a more structured format for language tags, added the use of ISO 15924 four-letter script codes and UN M.49 three-digit geographical region codes, and replaced the old registry of tags with a new registry of subtags. The small number of previously defined tags that did not conform to the new structure were grandfathered in order to maintain compatibility with RFC 3066.


title: IETF language tag

text: The current version of the specification, RFC 5646, was published in September 2009. The main purpose of this revision was to incorporate three-letter codes from ISO 639-3 and 639-5 into the Language Subtag Registry, in order to increase the interoperability between ISO 639 and BCP 47.


title: IETF language tag

text: Each language tag is composed of one or more "subtags" separated by hyphens (-). Each subtag is composed of basic Latin letters or digits only.


title: IETF language tag

text: With the exceptions of private-use language tags beginning with an "x-" prefix and grandfathered language tags (including those starting with an "i-" prefix and those previously registered in the old Language Tag Registry), subtags occur in the following order:


title: IETF language tag

text: Subtags are not case-sensitive, but the specification recommends using the same case as in the Language Subtag Registry, where region subtags are UPPERCASE, script subtags are Title Case, and all other subtags are lowercase. This capitalization follows the recommendations of the underlying ISO standards.


title: IETF language tag

text: Optional script and region subtags are preferred to be omitted when they add no distinguishing information to a language tag. For example, "es" is preferred over "es-Latn", as Spanish is fully expected to be written in the Latin script; "ja" is preferred over "ja-JP", as Japanese "as used in Japan" does not differ markedly from Japanese as used elsewhere.


title: IETF language tag

text: Not all linguistic regions can be represented with a valid region subtag: the subnational regional dialects of a primary language are registered as variant subtags. For example, the "valencia" variant subtag for the Valencian variant of the Catalan is registered in the Language Subtag Registry with the prefix "ca". As this dialect is spoken almost exclusively in Spain, the region subtag "ES" can normally be omitted.


title: IETF language tag

text: Furthermore, there are script tags that do not refer to traditional scripts such as Latin, or even scripts at all, and these usually begin with a "Z." For example, "Zsye" refers to emojis, "Zmth" to mathematical notation, "Zxxx" to unwritten documents and "Zyyy" to undetermined scripts.


title: IETF language tag

text: IETF language tags have been used as locale identifiers in many applications. It may be necessary for these applications to establish their own strategy for defining, encoding and matching locales if the strategy described in RFC 4647 is not adequate.


title: IETF language tag

text: The use, interpretation and matching of IETF language tags is currently defined in RFC 5646 and RFC 4647. The Language Subtag Registry lists all currently valid public subtags. Private-use subtags are not included in the Registry as they are implementation-dependent and subject to private agreements between third parties using them. These private agreements are out of scope of BCP 47.


title: IETF language tag

text: The following is a list of some of the more commonly used primary language subtags. The list represents only a small subset (less than 2 percent) of primary language subtags; for full information, the Language Subtag Registry should be consulted directly.


title: IETF language tag

text: Although some types of subtags are derived from ISO or UN core standards, they do not follow these standards absolutely, as this could lead to the meaning of language tags changing over time. In particular, a subtag derived from a code assigned by ISO 639, ISO 15924, ISO 3166, or UN M.49 remains a valid (though deprecated) subtag even if the code is withdrawn from the corresponding core standard. If the standard later assigns a new meaning to the withdrawn code, the corresponding subtag will still retain its old meaning.


title: IETF language tag

text: RFC 4646 defined the concept of an "extended language subtag" (sometimes referred to as "extlang"), although no such subtags were registered at that time.


title: IETF language tag

text: RFC 5645 and RFC 5646 added primary language subtags corresponding to ISO 639-3 codes for all languages that did not already exist in the Registry. In addition, codes for languages encompassed by certain macrolanguages were registered as extended language subtags. Sign languages were also registered as extlangs, with the prefix "sgn". These languages may be represented either with the subtag for the encompassed language alone ("cmn" for Mandarin) or with a language-extlang combination ("zh-cmn"). The first option is preferred for most purposes. The second option is called "extlang form" and is new in RFC 5646.


title: IETF language tag

text: Whole tags that were registered prior to RFC 4646 and are now classified as "grandfathered" or "redundant" (depending on whether they fit the new syntax) are deprecated in favor of the corresponding ISO 639-3–based language subtag, if one exists. To list a few examples, "nan" is preferred over "zh-min-nan" for Min Nan Chinese; "hak" is preferred over "i-hak" and "zh-hakka" for Hakka Chinese; and "ase" is preferred over "sgn-US" for American Sign Language.


title: IETF language tag

text: ISO 639-5 defines language collections with alpha-3 codes in a different way than they were initially encoded in ISO 639-2 (including one code already present in ISO 639-1). Specifically, the language collections are now all defined in ISO 639-5 as inclusive, rather than some of them being defined exclusively. This means that language collections have a broader scope than before, in some cases where they could encompass languages that were already encoded separately within ISO 639-2.


title: IETF language tag

text: For example, the ISO 639-2 code "afa" was previously associated with the name "Afro-Asiatic (Other)", excluding languages such as Arabic that already had their own code. In ISO 639-5, this collection is named "Afro-Asiatic languages" and includes all such languages. ISO 639-2 changed the exclusive names in 2009 to match the inclusive ISO 639-5 names.


title: IETF language tag

text: To avoid breaking implementations that may still depend on the older (exclusive) definition of these collections, ISO 639-5 defines a grouping type attribute for all collections that were already encoded in ISO 639-2 (such grouping type is not defined for the new collections added only in ISO 639-5).


title: IETF language tag

text: BCP 47 defines a "Scope" property to identify subtags for language collections. However, it does not define any given collection as inclusive or exclusive, and does not use the ISO 639-5 grouping type attribute, although the description fields in the Language Subtag Registry for these subtags match the ISO 639-5 (inclusive) names. As a consequence, BCP 47 language tags that include a primary language subtag for a collection may be ambiguous as to whether the collection is intended to be inclusive or exclusive.


title: IETF language tag

text: ISO 639-5 does not define precisely which languages are members of these collections; only the hierarchical classification of collections is defined, using the inclusive definition of these collections. Because of this, RFC 5646 does not recommend the use of subtags for language collections for most applications, although they are still preferred over subtags whose meaning is even less specific, such as "Multiple languages" and "Undetermined".


title: IETF language tag

text: In contrast, the classification of individual languages within their macrolanguage is standardized, in both ISO 639-3 and the Language Subtag Registry.


title: IETF language tag

text: Script subtags were first added to the Language Subtag Registry when RFC 4646 was published, from the list of codes defined in ISO 15924. They are encoded in the language tag after primary and extended language subtags, but before other types of subtag, including region and variant subtags.


title: IETF language tag

text: Some primary language subtags are defined with a property named "Suppress-Script" which indicates the cases where a single script can usually be assumed by default for the language, even if it can be written with another script. When this is the case, it is preferable to omit the script subtag, to improve the likelihood of successful matching. A different script subtag can still be appended to make the distinction when necessary. For example, "yi" is preferred over "yi-Hebr" in most contexts, because the Hebrew script subtag is assumed for the Yiddish language.


title: IETF language tag

text: As another example, "zh-Hans-SG" may be considered equivalent to "zh-Hans", because the region code is probably not significant; the written form of Chinese used in Singapore uses the same simplified Chinese characters as in other countries where Chinese is written. However, the script subtag is maintained because it is significant.


title: IETF language tag

text: Note that ISO 15924 includes some codes for script variants (for example, "Hans" and "Hant" for simplified and traditional forms of Chinese characters) that are unified within Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646. These script variants are most often encoded for bibliographic purposes, but are not always significant from a linguistic point of view (for example, "Latf" and "Latg" script codes for the Fraktur and Gaelic variants of the Latin script, which are mostly encoded with regular Latin letters in Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646). They may occasionally be useful in language tags to expose orthographic or semantic differences, with different analysis of letters, diacritics, and digraphs/trigraphs as default grapheme clusters, or differences in letter casing rules.


title: IETF language tag

text: Two-letter region subtags are based on codes assigned, or "exceptionally reserved", in ISO 3166-1. If the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency were to reassign a code that had previously been assigned to a different country, the existing BCP 47 subtag corresponding to that code would retain its meaning, and a new region subtag based on UN M.49 would be registered for the new country. UN M.49 is also the source for numeric region subtags for geographical regions, such as codice_1 for South America.


title: IETF language tag

text: Region subtags are used to specify the variety of a language "as used in" a particular region. They are appropriate when the variety is regional in nature, and can be captured adequately by identifying the countries involved, as when distinguishing British English ("en-GB") from American English ("en-US"). When the difference is one of script or script variety, as for simplified versus traditional Chinese characters, it should be expressed with a script subtag instead of a region subtag; in this example, "zh-Hans" and "zh-Hant" should be used instead of "zh-CN" and "zh-HK".


title: IETF language tag

text: When a distinct language subtag exists for a language that could be considered a regional variety, it is often preferable to use the more specific subtag instead of a language-region combination. For example, "ar-DZ" (Arabic as used in Algeria) may be better expressed as "arq" for Algerian Spoken Arabic.


title: IETF language tag

text: "Extension subtags" (not to be confused with "extended language subtags") allow additional information to be attached to a language tag that does not necessarily serve to identify a language. One use for extensions is to encode locale information, such as calendar and currency.


title: IETF language tag

text: Extension subtags are composed of multiple hyphen-separated character strings, starting with a single character (other than "x"), called a "singleton". Each extension is described in its own IETF RFC, which identifies a Registration Authority to manage the data for that extension. IANA is responsible for allocating singletons.


title: IETF language tag

text: Extension T allows a language tag to include information on how the tagged data was transliterated, transcribed, or otherwise transformed. For example, the tag "en-t-jp" could be used for content in English that was translated from the original Japanese. Additional substrings could indicate that the translation was done mechanically, or in accordance with a published standard.


title: IETF language tag

text: Extension T is described in the informational RFC 6497, published in February 2012. The Registration Authority is the Unicode Consortium.


title: IETF language tag

text: Extension U allows a wide variety of locale attributes found in the Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) to be embedded in language tags. These attributes include country subdivisions, calendar and time zone data, collation order, currency, number system, and keyboard identification.


title: IETF language tag

text: Extension U is described in the informational RFC 6067, published in December 2010. The Registration Authority is the Unicode Consortium.


title: Crunk

text: Crunk is a subgenre of hip hop music that emerged in the early 1990s and gained mainstream success during the mid 2000s. Crunk is often up-tempo and one of Southern hip hop's more dance and club oriented subgenres. An archetypal crunk track frequently uses a main groove consisting of layered keyboard synths, a drum machine clapping rhythm, heavy basslines, and shouting vocals, often in a call and response manner. The term "crunk" was also used throughout the 2000s as a blanket term to denote any style of Southern hip hop, a side effect of the genre's breakthrough to the mainstream. The word derives from its African-American slang past-participle form, "crunk", of the verb "to crank" (as in the phrase "crank up"). It refers to being excited or high on drugs.


title: Crunk

text: The term has been attributed mainly to African-American slang, in which it holds various meanings. It most commonly refers to the verb phrase "to crank up". It is theorized that the use of the term came from a past-tense form of "crank", which was sometimes conjugated as "crunk" in the South, such that if a person, event, or party was hyped-up, i.e. energetic – "cranked" or "cranked up" – it was said to be "crunk".


title: Crunk

text: In publications, "crunk" can be traced back to 1972 in the Dr. Seuss book "Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!". He uses the term "Crunk-Car" without any given definition. The term has also been traced to usage in the 1980s coming out of Atlanta, Georgia nightclubs and meaning being "full of energy" or "hyped". In the mid-1990s, crunk was variously defined either as "hype", "phat", or "pumped up". "Rolling Stone" magazine published "glossary of Dirty South slang", where "to crunk" was defined as "to get excited".


title: Crunk

text: Outkast has been attributed as the first artist to use the term in mainstream music, in the 1993 track "Player's Ball". A seminal year for the genre was 1996, with the releases of Three 6 Mafia album "" (featuring "Gette'm Crunk"), and Memphis-based underground hip hop artist Tommy Wright III's album "On the Run", which featured the Project Pimp track "Getting Crunk".


title: Crunk

text: Artist Lil Jon was instrumental in bringing the term further into the mainstream with his 1997 album titled "". He later released other songs and albums using the term, and has been credited by other artists and musicians as galvanizing use of the term as well as mainstreaming the music genre itself.


title: Crunk

text: Lil Jon further popularized the word with his 2004 album "Crunk Juice", and has been credited with inventing the potent alcoholic cocktail by that name. This use of "crunk" became synonymous with the meaning "crazy drunk". Non-alcoholic drinks, to which alcohol could be added, were manufactured and marketed under the Crunk brand name, with Lil Jon as spokesman.


title: Crunk

text: The term has continued to evolve, taking on a negative stigma with police, parents and the media. In 2011, the company which manufactured "Crunk" drink brought out an alcoholic version named "Crunk Juice". This drink was allegedly marketed towards 19- to 21-year-olds – those under the US legal drinking age – resulting in Crunk Juice drinking being blamed as a cause of crime or becoming a victim of crime. The mainstream media began publishing stories in which the term "crunk" was used to refer to "crazy and drunk" criminals.


title: Crunk

text: Musically, crunk borrows heavily from Miami bass, Eurodance and 1980s-era call-and-response hip hop. Heavy use of synthesized instruments and sparse, truncated 808 handclaps are staples of the crunk sound. Looped, stripped-down drum machine claps and bass drum rhythms are usually used. The Roland TR-808 and 909 are among the most popular. The drum machines are usually accompanied by simple, repeated synthesizer melodies in the form of ostinato, to create a hypnotic effect, and heavy bass stabs. The tempo of the music is somewhat slower than hip hop, around the speed of reggaeton and funk.


title: Crunk

text: The focal point of crunk is more often the beats and music than the lyrics therein. Crunk rappers, such as Lil Jon, however, often shout and scream their lyrics, creating a heavy, aggressive style of hip hop. These lyrics can often be isolated to simple chants ("Where you from?" and "You can't fuck with me" are common examples). While other subgenres of hip hop address sociopolitical or personal concerns, crunk is almost exclusively party music, favoring call and response slogans in lieu of more substantive approaches.


title: Crunk

text: Crunk music arose from Miami bass music before 1996 in the southern United States, particularly in African American strip clubs of Memphis, Tennessee. Memphis-based hip hop group Three 6 Mafia were "instrumental for the emergence of the crunk style" in the mid-to-late 1990s. Two mixtape DJs from Memphis, DJ Paul and Juicy J, started making their original music, which was distinctive with its "spare, low-BPM rhythms, simplistic chants... and narcotically repetitive, slasher-flick textures". This duo soon became known as Three 6 Mafia. Frequently featuring rappers such as Project Pat, Lord Infamous and Gangsta Boo on their releases, they became instrumental in the formation of crunk music.


title: Crunk

text: In 1997, in Atlanta, Lil Jon, with his group the East Side Boyz, released their first album titled "". These were the first of six albums released by Lil Jon and the East Side Boyz. Lil Jon states that they were the first to use the word "crunk" in a song hook; he claimed that they had started to call themselves a "crunk group" due to this album. However, "The New York Times" denied that "Get Crunk, Who Are You With" was the first crunk album ever. He was one of the key figures in popularizing crunk during 1998 and 1999, and produced two gold records independently, before signing to TVT Records in 2001. After being named the "King of Crunk", Lil Jon went on to make collaborations with many popular artists such as Snoop Dogg, Ice Cube, Ludacris and Britney Spears. Nevertheless, crunk was not exclusively associated with Lil Jon and Three 6 Mafia. In its early stages, such artists as Ying Yang Twins, White Dawg, Bone Crusher, Lil Scrappy, Trillville, YoungBloodZ and Pastor Troy from Atlanta, and David Banner from Mississippi also helped to popularize crunk music.


title: Crunk

text: In the early to mid-2000s, some crunk music hits like "Get Low", "Goodies", "Yeah!" and "Freek-a-Leek" produced by Lil Jon climbed to the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100 charts. Other hits produced by Lil Jon included "Okay", "Cyclone", "Girlfight", "U and Dat" and "Touch". "Yeah!" and "Goodies" were the first tracks to introduce the substyle of crunk music and contemporary R&B, called crunk&B, to the public. Those two tracks (performed by Usher and Ciara, respectively) were mainstream hits of 2004.


title: Crunk

text: The song "Get Low" (2003), performed by Lil Jon & the East Side Boyz with the Ying Yang Twins, is credited as the track which put crunk music into the national spotlight. "Get Low" reached the number two position on the "Billboard" Hot 100 music chart; overall, it spent more than 21 weeks in the charts. Though rappers not from the Southern US had tended to avoid being associated with Southern hip hop music before, Busta Rhymes and Nelly accepted offers to perform on remixes of "Get Low". Lil Jon's album, titled "Kings of Crunk", which contains "Get Low", became double platinum.


title: Crunk

text: In 2004, independent label Crunk Incorporated signed a major distribution deal with Reprise/Warner Bros. Records for the crunk group Crime Mob, who released the platinum single "Knuck If You Buck". They followed this with their 2006 hit, "Rock Yo Hips". In March 2004, R&B singer Houston released his crunk&B hit "I Like That", which reached number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2005, crunk&B reached the "Billboard" Hot 100 number one position with the song "Run It!", performed by Chris Brown. In 2005 and 2006, crunk and crunk&B conquered the American R&B charts (and other charts specializing in music with rapping) and replaced hip hop and older styles of contemporary R&B. Atlanta R&B group Cherish also gained prominence with their summer 2006 song "Do It to It" where the song debuted at number 86 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for the week of May 20, 2006, later peaking at number 12 for the week of September 2, 2006, and staying on the charts for 21 weeks.


title: Crunk

text: The growing interest in crunk music among music producers outside the Southern hip hop scene led to the development of various subgenres of crunk, including Eurocrunk, crunkcore, crunkczar, aquacrunk, acid crunk and most recently, trap music. By the end of 2009, crunk had seen a relative decline in mainstream American music, mostly due to the rising popularity of the trap and drill music subgenres as well as electropop and EDM. In 2015, American singer Tinashe incorporated crunk elements in her single "All Hands on Deck" featuring Iggy Azalea. The song contains themes of girl power and self empowerment. In 2019, rapper Saweetie sampled Petey Pablo's 2004 crunk hit "Freek-a-Leek" for her song "My Type".


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The Russian financial crisis (also called the ruble crisis or the Russian flu) began in Russia on 17 August 1998. It resulted in the Russian government and the Russian Central Bank devaluing the ruble and defaulting on its debt. The crisis had severe impacts on the economies of many neighboring countries.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The Russian economy had set up a path for improvement after the Soviet Union had split into different countries. Russia was supposed to provide assistance to the former Soviet states and, as a result, imported heavily from them. In Russia, foreign loans financed domestic investments. When it was unable to pay back those foreign borrowings, the ruble devalued. In mid-1997 Russia had finally found a way out of inflation. The economic supervisors were happy about inflation coming to a standstill. Then the crisis hit and supervisors had to implement a new policy. Both Russia and the countries that exported to it experienced fiscal deficits. The countries that exported to it used their resources for production but did not get paid for all their production. In essence, their national income could not cover their national expenses (for Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan). Russia’s unemployment rate was not sharply impacted since it was only 13 percent. The employment policy in Kazakhstan was checked on November 9, 1998 to give freely chosen employment. The employment in Tajikistan has not improved much since the 1990s, so exactly how the crisis effected employment in 1998 remains a question. The GDP per capita was one of the lowest after 1996 for Tajikistan. Russia's vast amount of mineral and natural resources allowed it to export those, pay back its debt, and then increase foreign reserves to revalue its currency.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The crisis happened because Russia was not able to pay back its debt. If one ruble could value in more units of foreign currency of the countries to which it owes, then paying back would be easier. Since Russia had to provide assistance to other countries it had parted with after the dissolution of the USSR, it did so by importing heavily from these countries. It continued to import without any check on whether it had enough revenues to pay back. In 1995, the IMF tried to help Russia stabilize unsuccessfully.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: There are two major schools of thought that have explanatory value for the crisis: Keynesian and free market economics. In Keynesian economics, the government intervenes fiscally to boost aggregate demand. Russia was closer to Keynesian economics than free trade since it was the government that handled the majority of trade. In 1999 the organization structure was about to change with presidential election coming up.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Declining productivity, a high fixed exchange rate between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, fatal financial imprudence, and a chronic fiscal deficit led to the crisis. The economic cost of the first war in Chechnya took a significant toll on the Russian economy. In early 1995, it was estimated that the war was costing Russia close to $30 million per day. Following the cessation of hostilities in 1996, it was estimated that the war in Chechnya cost Russia $5.5 billion, causing budget deficits close to 10% of their GDP. In the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify. Two external shocks, the Asian financial crisis that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for (and thus price of) crude oil and nonferrous metals, severely impacted Russian foreign exchange reserves.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: A political crisis came to a head in March when Russian president Boris Yeltsin suddenly dismissed Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin and his entire cabinet on 23 March 1998. Yeltsin named Energy Minister Sergei Kiriyenko, then 35 years old, as acting prime minister.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: In an effort to prop up the currency and stem the capital flight, in June, Kiriyenko hiked GKO interest rates to 150%.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: A $22.6 billion International Monetary Fund and World Bank financial package was approved on 13 July 1998 to support reforms and stabilize the Russian market by swapping out an enormous volume of the quickly maturing GKO short-term bills into long-term Eurobonds. The Russian government decided to keep the exchange rate of the ruble within a narrow band, although many economists, including Andrei Illarionov, urged the government to abandon its support of the ruble.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: On 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, blocking the Trans-Siberian Railway. By 1 August 1998, there was approximately $12.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6.29. In June 1998, despite the bailout, monthly interest payments on Russia's debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Additionally, on 15 July 1998, the State Duma, which was at the time dominated by left-wing parties, refused to adopt most of the government's anti-crisis plan, so the government was forced to rely on presidential decrees. On 29 July, Yeltsin interrupted his vacation in Valdai Hills region and flew to Moscow, prompting fears of a Cabinet reshuffle, but he only replaced Federal Security Service Chief Nikolay Kovalyov with Vladimir Putin.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: At the time, Russia employed a "floating peg" policy toward the ruble, meaning that the Central Bank decided that at any given time the ruble-to-dollar (or RUB/USD) exchange rate would stay within a particular range. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of that range (or "band"), the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. For instance, during the year before the crisis, the Central Bank aimed to maintain a band of 5.3 to 7.1 RUB/USD, meaning that it would buy rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to exceed 7.1 rubles/dollar. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to drop below 5.3.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The inability of the Russian government to implement a coherent set of economic reforms led to a severe erosion in investor confidence and a chain reaction that can be likened to a run on the Central Bank. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets (such as securities), which also put downward pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russia's currency, which in turn further eroded investor confidence and undermined the ruble. It is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U.S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: It was later revealed that about $5 billion of the international loans provided by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund were stolen upon the funds' arrival in Russia on the eve of the meltdown.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: On 17 August 1998, the Russian government devalued the ruble, defaulted on domestic debt, and declared a moratorium on repayment of foreign debt. On that day the Russian government and the Central Bank of Russia issued a "Joint Statement" announcing, in essence, that:


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: On 17 August, the government declared that certain state securities, such as GKOs and OFZs, would be transformed into new securities.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: At the same time, in addition to widening the currency band, authorities also announced that they intended to allow the RUB/USD rate to move more freely within the wider band.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: At the time, the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange (or "MICEX") set a daily "official" exchange rate through a series of interactive auctions based on written bids submitted by buyers and sellers. When the buy and sell prices matched, this "fixed" or "settled" the official MICEX exchange rate, which would then be published by Reuters. The MICEX rate was (and is) commonly used by banks and currency dealers worldwide as the reference exchange rate for transactions involving the Russian ruble and foreign currencies.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: From 17 to 25 August 1998, the ruble steadily depreciated on the MICEX, moving from 6.43 to 7.86 RUB/USD. On 26 August 1998, the Central Bank terminated dollar-ruble trading on the MICEX, and the MICEX did not fix a ruble-dollar rate that day.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: On 2 September 1998, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation decided to abandon the "floating peg" policy and float the ruble freely. By 21 September, the exchange rate reached 21 rubles for one US dollar, meaning it lost two-thirds of its value of less than a month earlier.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: On 28 September, Boris Fyodorov was discharged from the position of the Head of the State Tax Service.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The moratorium imposed by the Joint Statement expired on 15 November 1998, and the Russian government and Central Bank did not renew it.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Russian inflation in 1998 reached 84 percent and welfare costs grew considerably. Many banks, including Inkombank, Oneximbank, and Tokobank, closed as a result of the crisis.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Bankers Trust suffered major losses in the summer of 1998 due to the bank having a large position in Russian government bonds, but avoided financial collapse by being acquired by Deutsche Bank for $10 billion in November 1998. This made Deutsche Bank the fourth-largest money management firm in the world after UBS, Fidelity Investments, and the Japanese post office's life insurance fund.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The main effect of the crisis on Russian agricultural policy has been a dramatic drop in federal subsidies to the sector, about 80 percent in real terms compared with 1997, though subsidies from


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The financial collapse resulted in a political crisis as Yeltsin, with his domestic support evaporating, had to contend with an emboldened opposition in the parliament. A week later, on 23 August 1998, Yeltsin fired Kiriyenko and declared his intention of returning Chernomyrdin to office as the country slipped deeper into economic turmoil. Powerful business interests, fearing another round of reforms that might cause leading enterprises to fail, welcomed Kiriyenko's fall, as did the Communists.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Yeltsin, who began to lose his hold on power as his health deteriorated, wanted Chernomyrdin back, but the legislature refused to give its approval. After the Duma rejected Chernomyrdin's candidacy twice, Yeltsin, his power clearly on the wane, backed down. Instead, he nominated Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov, who was approved by the State Duma by an overwhelming majority on 11 September 1998.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Primakov's appointment restored political stability because he was seen as a compromise candidate able to heal the rifts between Russia's quarreling interest groups. There was popular enthusiasm for Primakov as well. Primakov promised to make payment of wages and pensions his government's first priority and invited members of the leading parliamentary factions into his Cabinet.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Communists and the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia staged a nationwide strike on 7 October 1998 and called on President Yeltsin to resign. On 9 October 1998, Russia, which was also suffering from a poor harvest, appealed for international humanitarian aid, including food.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Russia bounced back from the August 1998 financial crash with surprising speed. Much of the reason for the recovery is that world oil prices increased rapidly during 1999–2000 and Russia ran a large trade surplus in 1999 and 2000. Another reason is that domestic industries, such as food processing, had benefited from the devaluation, which caused a steep increase in the prices of imported goods.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: Also, since Russia's economy was operating to such a large extent on barter and other non-monetary instruments of exchange, the financial collapse had far less of an impact on many producers than it would have had the economy been dependent on a banking system. Finally, the economy was helped by an infusion of cash. As enterprises were able to pay off debts in back wages and taxes, consumer demand for goods and services produced by Russian industry began to rise.


title: 1998 Russian financial crisis

text: The crisis was praised by James Cook, the senior vice president of The U.S. Russia Investment Fund, on the basis that it taught Russian bankers to diversify their assets.


title: All Quiet on the Western Front (1979 film)

text: All Quiet on the Western Front is a television film produced by ITC Entertainment, released on November 14, 1979, starring Richard Thomas and Ernest Borgnine. It is based on the book of the same name by Erich Maria Remarque. The film was directed by Delbert Mann. A joint British and American production, most of the filming took place in Czechoslovakia.


text: In 1916, 18-year-old Paul Bäumer enlists in the German army with five of his high school friends (Behm, Kropp, Muller, Kemmerich and Leer), after being indoctrinated by Kantorek, their teacher, as to the glory and superiority of German culture. After surviving training camp under the brutal Corporal Himmelstoss, the young men board a troop train bound for the front line. Ominously, at the same moment, they notice another train arriving in town loaded with returning wounded soldiers, who are carried off on stretchers.


text: Once at the front line, they are placed in a squad, along with soldiers Tjaden, Westhus, Detering and others, under the supervision of Stanislaus "Kat" Katzinsky. Kat teaches them how to best take cover, how to find extra food, and other survival skills.


text: When Paul and his squad return to a French town for a rest week, they see the new recruits have grown younger and younger. To their delight, the leader of these new recruits is their recently demoted training NCO, Himmelstoss. When Himmelstoss tries to make them obey him, they stand up to him. Later in the trenches, while the Germans are launching an offensive attack, Paul sees another squad cowering in a crater, which includes Himmelstoss. Paul forces Himmelstoss to keep on the offensive.


text: The French and German armies are shown attacking each other repeatedly over a few hundred yards of torn, corpse-strewn land. Kemmerich is wounded, and later dies in an overcrowded army hospital. Paul returns to the trenches with his squad, distraught over Kemmerich's death.


text: When a French soldier falls into a crater Paul is hiding in, Paul stabs the man in the stomach with his trench dagger. Forced to spend the night with him, Paul tries to bandage the dying soldier's wounds, but he dies anyway. Paul escapes from the crater, stricken with guilt. An inexperienced new recruit, after falling into a pit of poison gas, is carried off by the medics to a slow, painful death; the medics had appeared before Kat could put him out of his misery.


text: Although Paul, Kropp and Leer have their first sexual experience with a trio of accommodating French peasant girls, the vast majority of the young men's experiences are horrific. One by one, practically all of Paul's schoolmate friends die. A haughty, stiff Kaiser Wilhelm II (Denys Graham) visits their camp to ceremoniously pin medals on heroic soldiers, which includes Himmelstoss.


text: When Paul's squad is bombed in a French town close to the front, Behm dies while Kropp loses a leg and Paul is seriously wounded. Paul improves and he is granted two weeks' leave. Returning home, Paul's sister tells him that their mother is dying of cancer. In visits to a beer garden and to his former teacher, Paul realises that his town's older men, in their enthusiasm for war, have no sense of the horrors they have sent their youth to. He also visits Kemmerich's mother and lies to her that he did not suffer.


text: Paul returns to duty, Kat is wounded in the leg by an artillery shell and Paul carries him many miles to a field hospital. Only at the hospital does Paul discover that Kat has died, shot at some point during the journey.


text: Paul writes a letter to Kropp, the sole survivor of their class, who is now an amputee. After finishing the letter, Paul walks through the trench checking on the younger soldiers, having taken up Kat's position as a mentor. He spots a bird and begins to sketch it. The bird starts to fly away, and as Paul stands up to see where it went, a lone sniper's shot rings out, killing him. A field communique from the German High Command is captioned over Paul's lifeless body, declaring "All Quiet on the Western Front", the date on the communique showing '11 October 1918', exactly one month before the Armistice.


text: The film maintains a very authentic look throughout its course. Paul and his friends are clearly part of an industrialized war machine that ruthlessly uses them despite the soldiers having only a vague understanding of what they are fighting for. Authentic details such as new replacement soldiers seen in the film getting younger and younger as the story progresses are reflective of how Germany, like most of the combatants, struggled to find new recruits for the ranks of their armies at the front as the war progressed. Norman Rosemont paid Remarque's widow, Paulette Goddard, $100,000 for the film rights.


text: The film won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture Made for Television as well as an Emmy Award for Outstanding Film Editing for a Limited Series or a Special.


text: The original 150-minute US TV version was edited and received a limited worldwide theatrical release. The resulting 129-minute version was the one subsequently released on open matte (4:3 aspect ratio) VHS videos and DVDs. Commencing with the 2009 UK Blu-ray, all DVDs and Blu-rays feature the original, unedited version. All of these, bar the 4:3 UK (ITV) and Australian (Beyond Home Entertainment) Blu-rays, are also in the film's original widescreen aspect ratio.


title: Incisor

text: Incisors (from Latin "incidere", "to cut") are the front teeth present in most mammals. They are located in the premaxilla above and on the mandible below. Humans have a total of eight (two on each side, top and bottom). Opossums have 18, whereas armadillos have none.


title: Incisor

text: Children with a full set of deciduous teeth (primary teeth) also have eight incisors, named the same way as in permanent teeth. Young children may have from zero to eight incisors depending on the stage of their tooth eruption and tooth development. Typically, the mandibular central incisors erupt first, followed by the maxillary central incisors, the mandibular lateral incisors and finally the maxillary laterals. The rest of the primary dentition erupts after the incisors.


title: Incisor

text: Apart from the first molars, the incisors are also the first permanent teeth to erupt, following the same order as the primary teeth, among themselves.


title: Incisor

text: Among other animals, the number varies from species to species. Opossums have 18, whereas armadillos have none. Cats, dogs, foxes, pigs, and horses have twelve. Rodents have four. Rabbits and hares (lagomorphs) were once considered rodents, but are distinguished by having six—one small pair, called "peg teeth", is located directly behind the most anterior pair. Incisors are used to bite off tough foods, such as red meat.


title: Incisor

text: In cats, the incisors are small; biting off meat is done with the canines and the carnassials. In elephants, the upper incisors are modified into curved tusks (unlike with Narwhals, where it is a canine that develops into a straight and twisted tusk). The incisors of rodents grow throughout life and are worn by gnawing. In humans, the incisors serve to cut off pieces of food, as well as in the grip of other food items.


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: Lee Hyun-wook (born June 17, 1985) is a South Korean actor. He is best known for his roles in the television series "Hell Is Other People" (2019) and "Mine" (2021).


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: Lee Hyun-wook became interested in acting when he was in middle school. His parents were against it but his grandmother helped him enroll in an acting academy.


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: Lee Hyun-wook started his acting career playing in short films: "Repatriation" (2000), "The Camel" (2008), "Thorn Hearted" (2010) and "The Out Boxer" (2011). The latter earned him the Face in Shorts Award at the 10th Asiana International Short Film Festival in 2012.


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2013, Lee was appointed special jury member of the 11th Asiana International Short Film Festival alongside Lee Jung-jae.


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2014, Lee made his television debut in the action-thriller series "Three Days" as the right-hand man of Choi Won-young's character. Two months later, he made his commercial film debut in "The Target" which was screened at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. The same year, he was chosen among 400 candidates to play Choi Yoo-bin in the daily drama "Only Love".


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2015, Lee made his theater debut in "True West", playing the main character Austin. He reprised his role the following year before playing Stephen in "Old Wicked Songs". His performance earned him the New Actor Award at the 2016 Stagetalk Audience Choice Awards. The same year, he took on the role of a detective in the crime television series "Mrs. Cop 2" and appeared in the film "No Tomorrow".


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2017, Lee played Min-wook in the play "Judo Boy". The same year, he played two brothers in the web series "Fake". In May 2018, Lee signed an exclusive contract with Management Air. In October 2018, he started playing Bob in "Toc Toc", a role which he reprised in September 2019 for a two-day performance in Gunpo.


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2019, Lee played Oliver in the play "The Pride". He was also cast as a resident of Eden Dormitory in the psychological thriller "Hell Is Other People", making it his first small screen role since his military discharge and for which he was nominated in the Capability Award category at the 1st OCN Awards. Later that year, he made a guest appearance in the tenth episode of "Pegasus Market" which stars his close friend Lee Dong-hwi.


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2020, Lee appeared in the films "Secret Zoo" and "#Alive". He then played a missionary in the first three episodes of "The Good Detective". He was also cast in his first main role in a television series, playing a lieutenant in the military thriller "Search".


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: In 2021, Lee starred in the romantic-comedy "She Would Never Know" alongside Won Jin-ah and Rowoon. He also starred in the highly anticipated tvN drama "Mine" as the husband of actress Lee Bo-young's character. He also appeared in the TVING Original movie "Shark: The Beginning" as Hyun Woo-yong and will reprise his role in the follow-up web series, "Shark: The Storm".


title: Lee Hyun-wook

text: At the 58th Baeksang Arts Awards, Lee was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in a Korean drama for his role as Han Ji-yong in "Mine."


title: M. C. Gainey

text: Michael Connor Gainey (born January 18, 1948) is an American character actor best known for his appearances in "Lost", "Con Air", "Sideways", "Tangled", and "Django Unchained".


title: M. C. Gainey

text: Gainey was born in Jackson, Mississippi. In the early 1970s, he attended the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, California, with Ken Hixon. Prior to this, he attended the University of Southern Mississippi. He worked as a mortician's apprentice before he decided to study acting.


title: M. C. Gainey

text: In 1981, he made his big-screen debut in Herbert Ross's musical "Pennies from Heaven" starring Steve Martin and Bernadette Peters. Since the early 1980s, he has been in over 50 films, including "Two Idiots in Hollywood" (1988), "The Mighty Ducks" (1992), "The Fan" (1996), "Breakdown" (1997), "Con Air" (1997), "" (2003), "Sideways" (2004), "Are We There Yet?" (2005), "The Dukes of Hazzard" (2005), "Wild Hogs" (2007) and "Mr. Woodcock" (2007).


title: M. C. Gainey

text: Gainey was one of the stars of the short-lived series "Against the Law" and played Tom Friendly on the series "Lost". He also played murderous drug dealer Bo Crowder in season one on the hit FX series "Justified". He has guest starred on over 40 television shows, including "The Dukes of Hazzard", "Knight Rider", "Designing Women", "The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.", "Walker, Texas Ranger", "Criminal Minds", "", "Girl Meets World", "Cheers", "Days of Our Lives", "The X-Files", "Desperate Housewives", "The Mentalist", "Burn Notice", and "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air".


title: M. C. Gainey

text: In 2003, Gainey appeared in "The Last Cowboy", playing the role of Lance Henriksen's friend, along with Bradley Cooper and Jennie Garth. In 2004, Gainey appeared as a cuckolded husband in full frontal nudity in the award-winning arthouse film "Sideways". He played Kurtz / The Wizard in the controversial road-revenge short film "Apocalypse Oz". In 2007, he appeared in "Mr. Woodcock", "Wild Hogs", and "Unearthed". In 2010, he appeared in "Love Ranch" and voiced the Captain of the Palace Guard in "Tangled" and he reprised this role for the TV series "Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure" in 2017-2020. In 2012, he appeared in Quentin Tarantino's film "Django Unchained".


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: "Whole Lotta Love" is a song by English rock band Led Zeppelin. It is the opening track on the band's second album, "Led Zeppelin II", and was released as a single in 1969 in several countries; as with other Led Zeppelin songs, no single was released in the United Kingdom. In the United States, it became their first hit and was certified gold. Parts of the song's lyrics were adapted from Willie Dixon's "You Need Love", recorded by Muddy Waters in 1962; originally uncredited to Dixon, a lawsuit in 1985 was settled with a payment to Dixon and credit on subsequent releases.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: In 2004, the song was ranked number 75 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and in March 2005, "Q" placed "Whole Lotta Love" at number three in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. It was placed 11 on a similar list by "Rolling Stone". In 2009 it was named the third greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1. In 2014, listeners to BBC Radio 2 voted "Whole Lotta Love" as containing the greatest guitar riff of all time.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: Jimmy Page came up with the guitar riff for "Whole Lotta Love" in the summer of 1968, on his houseboat on the River Thames at Pangbourne, Berkshire, England. However, John Paul Jones stated that it probably was developed from a live improvisation during performances of "Dazed and Confused". Page denied that the song originated onstage and that he had the riff and the rest took it from there.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: Notation for the song indicates the key of E major and a tempo of 92 beats per minute in a compound AABA form. During the two day mix of the "Led Zeppelin II" album, audio engineer Eddie Kramer discovered that there was some bleed though of Plant's vocals on the "Whole Lotta Love" track which couldn't be removed, so he put some echo on it, and Page liked the sound. Page also employed a backwards echo production technique.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: On 7 November 1969, "Whole Lotta Love" was released as a single in several countries, with "Living Loving Maid (She's Just a Woman)" as the B-side. In the US, Atlantic provided an edited 3:12 version as the flipside for radio stations. "Billboard" described the single as a "powerful, commercial swinger that should have no trouble putting [Led Zeppelin] up the Hot 100." "Cash Box" described it as "a mixture of rock and blues with special production touches and a rousing lead vocal performance." In the UK, Atlantic Records expected to issue an edited version, and pressed initial copies for release on 5 December 1969, but this was cancelled by request of manager Peter Grant.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: In 1962, Muddy Waters recorded a blues vocal, "You Need Love", for Chess Records. As he had done with "You Shook Me", Waters overdubbed vocals on an instrumental track previously recorded by blues guitarist Earl Hooker and his band. Willie Dixon wrote the lyrics, which Dixon biographer Mitsutoshi Inaba describes as being "about the necessity of love":


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: In 1966, the British band Small Faces recorded the song as "You Need Loving" for their eponymous debut Decca album. According to Steve Marriott, the group's vocalist and guitarist, Page and Plant attended several Small Faces gigs, where they expressed their interest in the song. Plant's phrasing is particularly similar to that of Marriott's, who added "he [Plant] sang it the same, phrased it the same, even the stops at the end were the same". Similarities with "You Need Love" led to a lawsuit against Led Zeppelin in 1985, settled out of court in favour of Dixon for an undisclosed amount. On subsequent releases, Dixon's name is included on the credits for "Whole Lotta Love". Plant explained in an interview with "Musician":


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: The single entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on 22 November 1969. It remained on the chart for 15 weeks, peaking at no. 4 and becoming the band's only top 10 single in the US.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: Led Zeppelin first performed "Whole Lotta Love" on 26 April 1969. Other live versions were released officially:


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: "Whole Lotta Love" was the last song Led Zeppelin played live. It was however performed again at the band's reunions at Live Aid in 1985 (with drummers Phil Collins and Tony Thompson), at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert in 1988, and at the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena, London, on 10 December 2007 (both with drummer Jason Bonham).


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: In 2008, a reworked version by Jimmy Page on guitar, with Leona Lewis on vocals, was performed in the "London 2012" presentation during the closing ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing. Both Lewis and the organisers requested that some of the lyrics be changed, notably "I'm gonna give you every inch of my love". Lewis felt that the line made little sense coming from a female singer.


title: Whole Lotta Love

text: "Whole Lotta Love" has been recorded by several artists. Versions that reached the record charts include:


title: Screw thread

text: A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a "straight" thread and the latter called a "tapered" thread. A screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a threaded fastener.


title: Screw thread

text: The mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on its "lead", which is the linear distance the screw travels in one revolution. In most applications, the lead of a screw thread is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent linear motion being converted to rotary, that is so the screw does not slip even when linear force is applied, as long as no external rotational force is present. This characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses. The tightening of a fastener's screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and slight elastic deformation.


title: Screw thread

text: Every matched pair of threads, "external" and "internal", can be described as "male" and "female". Generally speaking, the threads on an external surface are considered male, while the ones on an internal surface are considered female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole (whether in nut or substrate) has female threads. This property is called "gender". Assembling a male-threaded fastener to a female-threaded one is called "mating".


title: Screw thread

text: The helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as "handedness". Most threads are oriented so that the threaded item, when seen from a point of view on the axis through the center of the helix, moves away from the viewer when it is turned in a clockwise direction, and moves towards the viewer when it is turned counterclockwise. This is known as a "right-handed" ("RH") thread, because it follows the right-hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the opposite direction are known as "left-handed" ("LH").


title: Screw thread

text: By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads. Therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. Left-handed thread applications include:


title: Screw thread

text: The cross-sectional shape of a thread is often called its "form" or "threadform" (also spelled "thread form"). It may be square, triangular, trapezoidal, or other shapes. The terms "form" and "threadform" sometimes refer to all design aspects taken together (cross-sectional shape, pitch, and diameters), but commonly refer to the standardized geometry used by the screw. Major categories of threads include machine threads, material threads, and power threads.


title: Screw thread

text: Most triangular threadforms are based on an isosceles triangle. These are usually called "V-threads" or "vee-threads" because of the shape of the letter V. For 60° V-threads, the isosceles triangle is, more specifically, equilateral. For buttress threads, the triangle is scalene.


title: Screw thread

text: The theoretical triangle is usually truncated to varying degrees (that is, the tip of the triangle is cut short). A V-thread in which there is no truncation (or a minuscule amount considered negligible) is called a "sharp V-thread". Truncation occurs (and is codified in standards) for practical reasons—the thread-cutting or thread-forming tool cannot practically have a perfectly sharp point, and truncation is desirable anyway, because otherwise:


title: Screw thread

text: In ball screws, the male-female pairs have bearing balls in between. Roller screws use conventional thread forms and threaded rollers instead of balls.


title: Screw thread

text: The included angle characteristic of the cross-sectional shape is often called the "thread angle". For most V-threads, this is standardized as 60 degrees, but any angle can be used.


title: Screw thread

text: The cross section to measure this angle lies on a plane which includes the axis of the cylinder or cone on which the thread is produced.


title: Screw thread

text: "Lead" () and "pitch" are closely related concepts. They can be confused because they are the same for most screws. "Lead" is the distance along the screw's axis that is covered by one complete rotation of the screw thread (360°). "Pitch" is the distance from the crest of one thread to the next one at the same point.


title: Screw thread

text: Because the vast majority of screw threadforms are "single-start" threadforms, their lead and pitch are the same. Single-start means that there is only one "ridge" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of one ridge. "Double-start" means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of two ridges. Another way to express this is that lead and pitch are parametrically related, and the parameter that relates them, the number of starts, very often has a value of 1, in which case their relationship becomes equality. In general, lead is equal to pitch times the number of starts.