title: Pergamon Altar

text: On the roof of the altar there were various small statues of gods, teams of horses, centaurs, and lion griffins. The finds have not yet been unambiguously described by archaeologists as to their function and placement. On the north wall of the altar sanctuary a 64 meter long pedestal was also found, richly adorned with statues. How extensively the altar area was furnished with bronze and marble statues is still unknown, but it is certain that the embellishments must have been extraordinarily rich and have represented a major expenditure for the donors.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: The upper floor above the Gigantomachy housing the Telephus frieze also had an encircling portico. There were possibly additional statues between the columns. This theory is supported by 30-odd sculptures of women among the finds; they may have personified the cities of the Pergamene kingdom. It is assumed that there were no statues or other decorations on the actual fire altar, but a canopy was possibly installed there in Roman times.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: At many places in the Gigantomachy frieze, other Greek works of art can be recognized as having served as models. For example, Apollo with his idealized stance and good looks recalls a classical statue by the sculptor Leochares, produced about 150 years before the frieze and famous already in antiquity; a Roman copy has survived and is now in the Vatican Museum (the Belvedere Apollo). The important group which includes Zeus and Athena moving in opposite directions recalls the scene showing the struggle between Athena and Poseidon on the western pediment of the Parthenon. Such allusions are not accidental since Pergamon considered itself to be something like a reborn Athens.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: The frieze on its part also influenced later works of classical antiquity. The most famous example is the Laokoon Group mentioned above, which was created about twenty years after the Pergamon relief, as Bernard Andreae could show. The artists who produced the statue group were in the direct tradition of the creator of the relief, or may indeed even have participated in crafting the frieze.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: Long discussed but so far unresolved is the question of how many artists participated in producing the Gigantomachy. Just as disputed is the extent to which the character of individual artists can be identified in this work of art. There is agreement that at least the basic design of the frieze was the work of a single artist. In view of its consistency down to the level of details, the plan must have been worked out to its smallest elements; nothing had been left to chance. Already in the arrangement of the fighting groups it can be noted that each group is unique and, for example, that the hairstyle and the footwear of the goddesses always differ. Each of the pairs of fighters is individually arranged. Thus, the figures in themselves reveal their distinctive character rather than this being the result of the artists' personal styles.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: Although scholars have certainly ascertained differences that can be attributed to individual artists, given the coherence of the whole frieze it is remarkable that these differences are almost irrelevant when the work is viewed in its entirety. According to this interpretation, artists from all over Greece deferred to the plans of a single artist with overall authority. This is substantiated, for example, by the inscriptions of artists from Athens and Rhodes. The sculptors were permitted to sign their sections of the frieze on the lower molding, but only a few such inscriptions have been found. Thus no conclusions can be drawn about the number of participating artists. Only one inscription on the south risalit survived in a manner which permitted attribution. Since there is no lower molding at that location, the name, Theorretos (ΘΕΌΡΡΗΤΟΣ), was chiseled into the marble near the portrayed god. When analyzing the various inscriptions it could be determined on the basis of the typeface that there was an older and a younger sculptor generation at work, which makes the coherence of the entire frieze all the more remarkable. Considering the 2.7 meter distance between the existing signature and the associated έπόησεν inscription (έπόησεν – "made it"), it is suspected that there was possibly another sculptor's signature in this space. If that is the case, an extrapolation suggests at least 40 participating sculptors. The front side of this risalit was signed by two sculptors, but their names did not survive.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: A study by Patrice Foutakis investigated whether the ancient Greeks employed the golden ratio in their architecture. For this purpose, the measurements of 15 temples, 18 monumental tombs, 8 sarcophagi and 58 grave stelae were examined, going from the fifth century BC until the second century AD. Foutakis found that the golden ratio was totally absent from Greek architecture of the fifth century BC, and almost absent for the following six centuries. Four rare examples of golden-section proportions were identified through this research in a tower, a tomb, a grave stele and in the Great Altar of Pergamon. On the two frontal parts of the frieze facing the observer standing in front of the monument, the height to length ratio is 2.29 m to 5.17 m, that is 1:2.25, the ratio of the Parthenon. The city of Pergamon was on excellent terms with Athens, its kings venerated Attic art and offered gifts to the Parthenon, and both cities had the same goddess, Athena, as a protector.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: The temple of Athena Polias Nikephoros in Pergamon, a few meters away from the Great Altar, also had a copy of the chryselephantine statue of Athena made by Phidias for the Parthenon. The two columned constructions flanking the frontal staircase of the Great Altar have the shape of two Ionic temples. The proportions of each of these temples are: width of the stylobate 4.722 m to length of the stylobate 7.66 m, ratio 1:1.62; height with the entablature 2.93 m to width of the stylobate 4.722 m, ratio 1:1.61. When the visitor came up to the top of the staircase and went through the portikon columns, he entered an interior court measuring, within the colonnade surrounding the court, 13.50 m wide by 21.60 m long, ratio 1:1.60. In other words, according to Foutakis, the artists of this Altar wanted the spectator standing on the axis in front of the staircase to see two Ionic temples following the golden ratio, and, coming through these temples, to enter a courtyard proportioned to the golden ratio. The well-known political and cultural antagonism between Pergamon and Alexandria, the city where Euclid was active and defined his geometrical proposition of the extreme and mean ratio, could have contributed to the rapid spread of this proposition to Pergamon, a city already open to new achievements in science, sculpture, architecture and politics.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: The German Empire, which subsidized the excavation not least for reasons of prestige, quickly began to monopolize the altar and other archaeological relics. The "Jubilee Exhibition of the Berlin Academy of Arts" in May and June 1886 devoted a 13,000 square meter site to archaeological acquisitions from recent excavations in Olympia and Pergamon. But since the Greek government had not given permission to export art treasures, no finds from Greece could be shown there. Instead, a "Temple of Pergamon" was constructed. With a true-to-scale model of the western side of the altar base containing selected copies of the frieze—including the Zeus and Athena group from the eastern frieze—an entrance area for a building was erected which resembled the Zeus temple in Olympia. Part of the exhibit was a model of the city of Pergamon in the 2nd century AD reflecting the state of knowledge at that time.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: Possibly the most striking example of the reception of this work of art is the Berlin museum which has on view a reconstruction of the altar. The design of the Pergamon Museum was inspired by the gigantic form of the altar. For viewing the altar, indeed for studying this work of art in itself, the reconstruction in the Pergamon Museum came to be important. The partial reconstruction of the edifice does not however reflect what was the main side in antiquity, the eastern wall, but rather the opposite, western side with the stairway. Opinions about this reconstruction, including the installation of the rest of the frieze on the walls surrounding the central exhibition room, were not entirely favorable. Critics spoke of a frieze "turned inside out like a sleeve" and of "theatrics".


title: Pergamon Altar

text: In Nazi Germany this type of architecture later served as a model worthy of emulation. Wilhelm Kreis chose for his Soldiers' Hall at the Army High Command headquarters in Berlin (1937/38) and for a never realized warriors' monument at the foot of Mount Olympus in Greece a building shape which was very similar to the Pergamon Altar. But for the Soldiers' Hall the frieze was limited to the front face of the risalit. The friezes by the sculptor Arno Breker were, however, never executed. Referencing this architectural form was not least in tune with the ideological concepts of the Nazis; an altar prompted ideas of being ready to sacrifice and heroic death. For the Nazis, the Pergamon Altar and Kreis' two testimonies of Nazi architecture were all "cultic buildings". The Nazis also attempted to appropriate the message behind the altar frieze, namely the victory of good over evil.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: Peter Weiss begins his novel, "The Aesthetics of Resistance", with a description of the Gigantomachy frieze. By way of retrospection Weiss' contemplation is also extended to include the altar's origin, history, discovery, and reconstruction in the museum.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: Some of the media and population criticized the use of the Pergamon Altar as a backdrop for the application submitted by the city of Berlin to host the Olympic summer games in 2000. The Senate of Berlin had invited the members of the IOC executive committee to a banquet taking place in front of the altar. That called to mind Berlin's application to host the games in 1936. Also at that time the Nazi Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick had invited the members of the IOC to a banquet laid out in front of the altar.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: In 2013, the Pergamon 2nd Life project, a fictional, artistically inspired photographic reconstruction of the Gigantomachy frieze, celebrated its public world premiere in the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow.


title: Pergamon Altar

text: This article is based on a translation of the equivalent article "Pergamonaltar" in the German Wikipedia.


title: George Karl

text: George Matthew Karl (born May 12, 1951) is an American former professional basketball coach and player. After spending five years as a player for the San Antonio Spurs, Karl became an assistant with the team before getting the chance to become a head coach in 1981 with the Continental Basketball Association. Three years later, he became one of the youngest NBA head coaches in history when he was named coach of the Cleveland Cavaliers at age 33. By the time his coaching career came to an end in 2016, Karl would coach for nine different teams in three different leagues (CBA, NBA, Liga ACB), which included being named Coach of the Year three combined times (twice in the CBA and once in the NBA) with one championship in the FIBA Saporta Cup. He is one of nine coaches in NBA history to have won 1,000 NBA games (which included twelve seasons with fifty or more wins) and was named NBA Coach of the Year for the 2012-13 season. While he never won an NBA championship, Karl made the postseason 22 times with five different teams, which included a trip to the 1996 NBA Finals with the Seattle SuperSonics.


title: George Karl

text: Born and raised in Penn Hills, Pennsylvania, a suburb northeast of Pittsburgh, Karl starred at Penn Hills High School and graduated in 1969. He played collegiately at the University of North Carolina for three years on the varsity under head coach Dean Smith. In his senior season in 1973, the Tar Heels finished third in the NIT, with an overall record of 25–8. (The NCAA tournament included just 25 teams in 1973.)


title: George Karl

text: Selected in the fourth round of 1973 NBA draft by the New York Knicks, Karl opted instead to sign with the ABA's San Antonio Spurs. He spent three years as the team's starting point guard, playing with George Gervin. After the Spurs joined the NBA in 1976, Karl played limited minutes over the next two years, and retired as a player in 1978.


title: George Karl

text: After his playing career, Karl spent two years with the Spurs coaching staff as an assistant coach. He was then named head coach of the Montana Golden Nuggets of the Continental Basketball Association. Karl guided the team to the CBA Finals in 1981 and 1983, winning Coach of the Year both seasons. Despite the success on the court, the franchise folded in 1983.


title: George Karl

text: In 1983, Karl returned to the NBA with the Cleveland Cavaliers as director of player acquisition. Head coach Tom Nissalke was fired after the season in May 1984, and at age 33, Karl was promoted to head coach in late July. In his first season, the Cavaliers made the playoffs for the first time in six seasons. The success did not carry over to the next season, and Karl was dismissed by the Cavaliers in mid-March after a disappointing 25–42 start; Cleveland finished 4–11 under assistant Gene Littles to end up at . For the


title: George Karl

text: In late May 1986, Karl was named head coach of the Golden State Warriors; he took them from a record of 30–52 the year before, to the playoffs for the first time in ten years. In the first round, they faced the Utah Jazz in a best–of–five series. Each team won two close games at home setting up a decisive fifth game in Utah that the Warriors won to advance to the playoff semifinals.


title: George Karl

text: Matched up in the semifinals against the Los Angeles Lakers, who had won three championships in the past seven seasons, Karl's team was expected to be swept by the much more experienced Lakers, and promptly lost the first three games. Facing elimination in game 4, the Warriors overcame a twelve–point fourth quarter deficit and won 129–121 thanks to Sleepy Floyd’s 51-point game. Game 4 was the only game the Lakers lost in the Western Conference playoffs that year, en route to the first of their back–to–back championships.


title: George Karl

text: During the 1987–88 season, the Warriors got off to a rough start, and team management decided to trade Purvis Short, Sleepy Floyd and Joe Barry Carroll in order to save money and get younger. With Chris Mullin going through alcohol rehabilitation, Karl was now without his top four scorers from the 1987 playoff team. Frustrated with the team's direction, he resigned from the Warriors with 18 games left in the season. Though he resigned, there has been speculation Karl was actually fired, as he signed a non-disclosure agreement and received a buyout of his contract.


title: George Karl

text: On September 5, 1988, Karl was named head coach of the Albany Patroons of the CBA, leading them to a 36–18 record. In 1989, Karl coached Real Madrid of Liga ACB. Madrid finished 69–17, though they dealt with the death of their best player, Fernando Martín Espina. Real Madrid came third in the Spanish league, were Spanish cup semifinalists, and lost the final of the Saporta Cup, Europe's second most important cup competition.


title: George Karl

text: Karl returned to coach the Patroons in 1990, leading them to a 50–6 season, while winning all 28 home games. For his efforts, Karl was named CBA Coach of the Year for the third time. Karl then returned to Real Madrid for the 1991–92 season, until he left to return to the NBA. Real Madrid won the Saporta Cup, came second in the Spanish league, and lost in the quarterfinals of the Spanish cup.


title: George Karl

text: On January 23, 1992, Karl was named head coach of the Seattle SuperSonics, replacing K.C. Jones. Karl led a late season surge going 27–15, and entering the playoffs as the sixth seed. In the first round, they upset his former team, the Golden State Warriors in four games, but lost in the second round to the Utah Jazz.


title: George Karl

text: In his second (and first full) season as the SuperSonics coach in 1992–93, the team improved their 47–35 record to 55–27, and qualified for the playoffs as the third seed in the Western Conference. They defeated the Utah Jazz 3–2 in the first round and the Houston Rockets 4–3 in the semifinals. Seattle lost in the Western Conference Finals to the Charles Barkley–led Phoenix Suns in a full seven-game series, falling just one game short of the NBA Finals.


title: George Karl

text: The following season, Seattle won 63 games and its first Pacific Division title since their 1979 championship season. Despite a rift with mid-season acquisition Kendall Gill, Karl led the Sonics to the top seed in the Western Conference. Playing the eighth–seeded Denver Nuggets in the opening round of the playoffs, Seattle won their first two games at home, but lost the following three, including the closing game at home, to become the first top seed to lose to an eighth-seed in the playoffs history.


title: George Karl

text: The 1994–95 season had a similar result when Seattle suffered another first–round playoff loss after finishing the season 57–25. This time, Karl's fourth-seed SuperSonics were defeated by the fifth–seeded Los Angeles Lakers led by point guard Nick Van Exel, who clashed with Karl during the 1993 NBA rookie workouts. Fans and media called for Karl's dismissal after his back-to-back first round losses, but the team instead traded the disgruntled Kendall Gill to Charlotte for Hersey Hawkins, showing a sign of confidence in Karl.


title: George Karl

text: Karl responded to the disappointing playoff exits with the best regular season in SuperSonics history, posting a 14–game winning streak between February and March to finish the 1995–96 season with a franchise-best 64–18 record. Led by All-Stars Shawn Kemp and Gary Payton, the latter named Defensive Player of the Year, the SuperSonics defeated the Sacramento Kings three games to one in the first round, and then swept the two-time reigning champions Houston Rockets to advance to the Western Conference Finals. They defeated the Utah Jazz in seven games to advance to their first NBA Finals since 1979.


title: George Karl

text: In the NBA Finals, the SuperSonics met the 72–10 Chicago Bulls. Seattle was out-matched by Michael Jordan's scoring, Dennis Rodman's rebounding and the Bulls' team defense, and quickly found themselves in a 0–3 deficit and facing a sweep. Karl and the SuperSonics responded with a 21–point game 4 blowout win and a narrow win in game 5, to narrow the series deficit to 3–2. The Bulls won the series and game 6 in Chicago. The 64 wins and Finals appearance marked what was undoubtedly the zenith of Karl's coaching career.


title: George Karl

text: Seattle amassed a record during the next two seasons, winning the Pacific Division title both years. Seattle overcame a 3–1 deficit to force a seventh game against Houston in the second round of the 1997 NBA playoffs, but lost. The following year, Seattle fell swiftly to the Lakers in the Western Conference semifinals. The back-to-back second round playoff exits and his deteriorating relationship with general manager Wally Walker led to Karl's eventual dismissal in late May, two weeks after their elimination.


title: George Karl

text: The SuperSonics went and averaged 59 wins per season under Karl, second only to Chicago during that span. He took Seattle to the playoffs in all seven seasons of his tenure. The SuperSonics won four division championships and twice finished with the best record in the Western Conference. Despite regular season success, Karl's SuperSonics managed only a 40–40 postseason record, and advanced to the NBA Finals just once.


title: George Karl

text: On August 30, 1998, Karl was named head coach of the Milwaukee Bucks, lured by a particularly lucrative contract offer. Coming to a team that had not made the playoffs in seven seasons, Karl helped rebuild the struggling organization by making the playoffs in each of his first three seasons, steadily increasing their win totals.


title: George Karl

text: In his first two seasons they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Indiana Pacers; after losing in a three-game sweep his first season, the Bucks lost three games to two in his second season. In his third season, Karl guided the Bucks, led by a "Big Three" of Glenn Robinson, Ray Allen and Sam Cassell to their first division championship in 15 years, which culminated with an appearance in the 2001 Eastern Conference Finals (they lost in seven games).


title: George Karl

text: The Bucks entered his fourth season with high expectations, however they finished ninth place in the conference and missed the playoffs. Seeded as high as fourth in the conference halfway through the season, the Bucks collapsed and were eliminated from the playoffs in the final regular season game. Dealing with injuries, Karl was also reportedly at odds with Robinson and Allen.


title: George Karl

text: Following the season, Robinson was traded to Atlanta. At the 2002-03 trade deadline, Allen was traded to Seattle for Gary Payton. Though Payton and Karl had success together in Seattle and the move allowed more minutes for Michael Redd, it made Cassell the odd man out and broke up a core that was within one game of the NBA Finals just two years prior.


title: George Karl

text: The Bucks finished the 2002–03 season 42–40 to qualify for the playoffs, though they were eliminated in the first round in six games. Karl pushed for the team to draft point guard TJ Ford, making Cassell expendable and he was traded to Minnesota. GM Ernie Grunfeld, who was arguably Karl's biggest supporter in Milwaukee, left the team shortly after the draft; new GM Larry Harris decided to move the team in a new direction and fired Karl in July. In the aftermath of Karl's departure, the Bucks did not win a playoff series until 2019.


title: George Karl

text: On January 27, 2005, the Denver Nuggets named Karl their head coach, taking over from interim head coach Michael Cooper (who stayed on as an assistant coach). Karl made an immediate impact on the Nuggets, taking a team floundering at 17–25 to a 32–8 record in the second half of the 2004–05 season to finish 49–33. They lost in the playoffs to the San Antonio Spurs, who went on to win the NBA Championship that season.


title: George Karl

text: On July 27, 2005, the Nuggets announced that Karl had prostate cancer, but was cleared to continue coaching after he had surgery. He led the Nuggets to the Northwest division title that season, Denver's first in 18 years.


title: George Karl

text: Karl was criticized for his role in the Knicks–Nuggets brawl on December 16, 2006, allegedly trying to run up the score and humiliate Isiah Thomas by keeping his starting players in the final minutes of a blowout win. On December 28, 2006, Karl became just the 12th coach in NBA history to reach 800 wins when the Nuggets defeated the SuperSonics 112–98. Carmelo Anthony and Allen Iverson were named All–Stars that season, Denver's first All-Star selections since 2001.


title: George Karl

text: During the 2008–09 season, the Nuggets, led by Karl, Carmelo Anthony, and the newly acquired Chauncey Billups tied a franchise–best 54 wins and entered the playoffs as the Western Conference's #2 seed. On April 27, 2009, the Nuggets handed the Hornets a 58–point loss during Game 4 of their first round playoff series. This tied the biggest margin in NBA playoff history The Nuggets beat the Mavericks in 5 games during the semifinals, then went on to lose to the eventual champion Los Angeles Lakers in 6 games, losing Game 6 by 27.


title: George Karl

text: Karl coached the Western Conference All–Stars at the 2010 NBA All-Star Game on February 14 at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas. This was his fourth selection, and his first since leaving Seattle.


title: George Karl

text: After the 2010 NBA All-Star Game, it was revealed in a press conference that Karl was diagnosed with treatable neck and throat cancer. He was placed on leave of absence from the Nuggets for the remainder of the season while receiving treatment. Assistant coach Adrian Dantley filled in as acting head coach, and the team finished poorly, going from the second to fourth seed, and lost their first round playoff series.


title: George Karl

text: Karl went through chemotherapy treatments, and coached every game of the 2010–11 season, becoming the seventh NBA coach to record 1,000 career wins on December 10, 2010. During the season, Carmelo Anthony requested and was granted a trade to New York, and Karl was now coaching a considerably younger and less experienced team.


title: George Karl

text: Without Anthony, Denver's leading scorer for seven years, Karl put an emphasis on team-oriented play. In their first full season without Anthony, the Nuggets finished the regular season leading the league in points per game (104.12) and assists per game (23.96), though they were also near the bottom of the league in defensive rating. They pushed their first–round playoff series against the Lakers to seven games, but were defeated


title: George Karl

text: The newly acquired Andre Iguodala immediately helped the team's defense, and the Nuggets finished with their best record since joining the NBA in 1977, at 57–25. Noted for his efforts in bringing the team together without Carmelo Anthony, their offensive success with a traditional go–to–scorer, and his leadership for the league's third-youngest team (with an average age of 24.9 years), Karl was awarded his first NBA Coach of the Year Award for the 2012–13 season.


title: George Karl

text: The Nuggets and Karl's historic season came to a disappointing end with a first–round playoff loss to the Golden State Warriors in six games. The Nuggets were without their second–leading scorer Danilo Gallinari, who was out with an ACL injury. The series was noted for its controversy, with Warriors coach Mark Jackson admitting he had "inside information" on Denver's playing style. Karl alleged Iguodala was the "mole" for the Warriors, which fueled speculation when he agreed to a four–year contract with Golden State following the playoff loss.


title: George Karl

text: Following Denver GM Masai Ujiri's departure, Karl pushed the Nuggets for a contract extension, as he was entering the final season of his contract. On June 6, 2013, Karl was fired by Denver, just 29 days after he was named Coach of the Year.


title: George Karl

text: George Karl left the Nuggets with a 423–257 record, just nine wins shy of Doug Moe's franchise–record 432 wins. Similar to his stint in Seattle, Karl's teams constantly overachieved, which in the end is used against him with his playoff record.


title: George Karl

text: On February 12, 2015, after several weeks of talks and speculation, Karl agreed to a deal to become the head coach of the Sacramento Kings, after signing a four-year, $15 million contract. He was officially introduced by the Kings on February 17. In his first season as coach the Kings went 11–19 in 30 games.


title: George Karl

text: On April 14, 2016, Karl was fired by the Kings after a disappointing 2015–16 season in which the Kings went 33–49. Karl was also only one game shy from coaching his 2,000th game in the NBA.


title: George Karl

text: Karl's son, Coby, played as a starting point guard for Boise State, and has since played in the NBA and other leagues. Coby Karl is a thyroid cancer survivor. Karl also has two daughters, Kelci and Kaci.


title: George Karl

text: Karl is an avid supporter of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital and serves as an ambassador for their Hoops for St. Jude basketball initiative.


title: Bofors

text: AB Bofors ( , , ) is a former Swedish arms manufacturer which today is part of the British arms concern BAE Systems. The name has been associated with the iron industry and artillery manufacturing for more than 350 years.


title: Bofors

text: Located in Karlskoga, Sweden, the company originates from the hammer mill "Boofors", which was founded as a royal state-owned company in 1646. The modern corporate structure was created in 1873 with the foundation of Aktiebolaget (AB) Bofors-Gullspång.


title: Bofors

text: The Bofors Works was acquired by Johan Eberhard Geijer in 1762. It was then acquired by the latter's brother, Emanuel af Geijerstam.


title: Bofors

text: A leading Swedish steel producer by the early 1870s, when steel began to be used for gun manufacture in Sweden, Bofors initially sold cast and forged steel produced by the Siemens-Martin process to Finspång gun works, but soon started to expand into weapons manufacture. The company's first cannon workshop was opened in 1884. Bofors' most famous owner was Alfred Nobel, who owned the company from 1894 until his death in December 1896. Nobel played a key role in reshaping the former iron and steel producer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry participant. The powder manufacturer AB Bofors Nobelkrut, later an explosives and general organic-chemical producer, was created in 1898 as a wholly owned subsidiary. By 1911, AB Bofors-Gullspång had outcompeted, bought and closed down its Finspång Swedish competitor in cannon manufacture. The company's name was shortened to AB Bofors in 1919.


title: Bofors

text: Over the years, the works has been associated with members of various prominent Swedish families, e.g. the Robsahm, Geijer, Lagerhjelm, Mitander, Oxehufvud families.


title: Bofors

text: In 1999, Saab AB purchased the Celsius Group, then the parent company of Bofors. In September 2000, United Defense Industries (UDI) of the United States acquired Bofors Weapons Systems (the heavy weapons division), while Saab retained the missile interests.


title: Bofors

text: The British company BAE Systems acquired UDI and its Bofors subsidiary in 2005, and "BAE Systems Bofors" is now a business unit of the Swedish subdivision BAE Systems AB, while the Swedish unit Saab Bofors Dynamics is part of Saab AB.


title: Bofors

text: The name Bofors is strongly associated with the Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun used by both sides during World War II. This automatic cannon is often simply called the "Bofors gun" and saw service on both land and sea. It became so widely known that anti-aircraft guns in general were often referred to as Bofors guns. Another well-known gun made by the company was the Bofors 37 mm Anti-Tank Gun L/45, a standard anti-tank weapon used by a variety of armies from the mid 1930s throughout World War II. It was built under licence in a variety of nations such as Finland, The Netherlands and Poland and used in a variety of tanks and armored vehicles, such as the Vickers 6-ton, M39 Pantserwagen and 7TP, among others.


title: Bofors

text: In 1986, the Government of India and Bofors signed a US$285 million contract for the supply of 410 155 mm field howitzers. In 1987, Swedish Radio alleged that Bofors paid illegal commissions of to top Indian politicians, members of senior Congress party and key defence officials to seal the deal. The scandal contributed to the defeat of Rajiv Gandhi's government in the elections three years later.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: Wong Jack-man (born 1941 – December 26, 2018) was a Chinese martial artist and teacher. He was best known for his controversial duel with Bruce Lee in 1964.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: Accounts of Wong's fight with Lee are controversial, as it was unrecorded and held privately at Chinatown, Oakland in 1964, when both men were in their early 20s.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: According to Linda Lee Cadwell, Bruce Lee's wife, Lee's teaching of Chinese martial arts to white people made him unpopular with Chinese martial artists in San Francisco. Wong contested the notion that Lee was fighting for the right to teach whites as most of his students were Chinese. Wong stated that he requested a public fight with Lee after Lee had issued an open challenge during a demonstration at a Chinatown theater in which he claimed to be able to defeat any martial artist in San Francisco. Wong stated it was after a mutual acquaintance delivered a note from Lee inviting him to fight that he showed up at Lee's school to challenge him.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: According to author Norman Borine, Wong wanted to know the rules of the match and the restrictions on techniques such as hitting the face, groin kicks, and eye jabs, and that the two fought no holds barred after he received no reply from Lee.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: The details of the fight vary depending on the account. Individuals known to have witnessed the match included Cadwell, James Lee (an associate of Bruce Lee, no relation) and William Chen, a teacher of T'ai chi ch'uan. According to Linda, the fight lasted three minutes with a decisive victory for Bruce.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: This is in contrast to Wong and William Chen's account of the fight as they state the fight lasted an unusually long 20–25 minutes. Wong was unsatisfied with Lee's account of the match and published his own version in the "Chinese Pacific Weekly", a Chinese language newspaper in San Francisco. The article, which was featured on the front page, included a detailed description of the fight by Wong, concluding with an invitation for a public rematch if Lee found his account inaccurate or disingenuous. Lee made no public response to the article, closed his school and moved from the area shortly thereafter.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: In "Bruce Lee: A Life" by Matthew Polly, who shares a few insights from his extensive research and interview process, he says that according to David Chin, who arranged the match on Wong's behalf, Lee overwhelmed Wong with his opening series of attacks as Wong was approaching for the customary salute, causing Wong to turn his back and run. Lee chased him around the room until Wong tripped and fell. Lee jumped on top of Wong and rained down punches, forcing Chin to intervene and rescue Wong.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: Wong later expressed regret over fighting Lee, attributing it to arrogance, both on the part of Lee and himself.


title: Wong Jack-man

text: Wong instructed classes in California at the Fort Mason Center in San Francisco and at the First Unitarian Church in Oakland for the better part of five decades before retiring in 2005. Wong Jack-man's top two students continue his legacy of teaching. In San Francisco, Rick Wing who took over his teacher's school after his retirement in December 2005 teaches classes at a private location. In San Rafael and San Anselmo in Marin County, California, Scott Jensen runs the 10,000 Victories School that teaches Wong Jack-man's arts. In Oakland, California, The EBM Kung Fu Academy teaches Wong's lineage.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Grace Under Fire is an American sitcom that aired on ABC from September 29, 1993, to February 17, 1998. The show starred Brett Butler as a single mother learning how to cope with raising her three children alone after finally divorcing her abusive husband. The series was created by Chuck Lorre and produced by Carsey-Werner Productions.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: "Grace Under Fire", produced by Carsey-Werner, was part of a wave of shows in the late 1980s and 1990s that were built around a comedian (and in some cases, closely based on his or her comedy routine). Many of Carsey-Werner's shows were based on nontraditional, non-nuclear families.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: "Grace Under Fire" followed a similar formula, set in the small fictitious town of Victory, Missouri; Butler starred as Grace Kelly, a divorced single mother and recovering alcoholic. The show begins after the main character divorces her abusive alcoholic husband of eight years in an attempt to start life anew and prevent her children from making the same mistakes she did. The show revolved around Grace; her children, mischievous Quentin (Noah Segan, pilot; Jon Paul Steuer, seasons 1–3; Sam Horrigan, seasons 4–5), happy-go-lucky Libby (Kaitlin Cullum), and infant Patrick (Dylan and Cole Sprouse); her happily married best friends and neighbors, Nadine and Wade Swoboda (Julie White and Casey Sander); and the town's bachelor pharmacist, Russell Norton (Dave Thomas).


title: Grace Under Fire

text: In the first three seasons Grace's chosen line of work, post-divorce was operating pipelines at the local oil refinery, where she had a second family of fellow crew workers. Among them were Dougie Boudreau (Walter Olkewicz), Vic (Dave Florek), and Carl (Louis Mandylor). Their boss was Bill Davis (Charles Hallahan). Both Bill and Carl were dropped after the first season; while Carl had not had a permanent on-screen replacement, the crew's new boss was John Shirley (Paul Dooley) starting in the second season.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Russell's friendship with Grace, and their on-and-off dating rituals, became a running theme in the series. Throughout their friendship, they often dated other people; for a time in 1994, Grace dated Ryan Sparks (William Fichtner), a quirky chemist who worked in the oil refinery's labs. In season three, Grace entered into a relationship with suave plant executive Rick Bradshaw (Alan Autry). As with Ryan, the affair between Grace and Rick occurred despite their radically different places in the company ladder. They broke up at the end of season three, although Rick returned in season four to see if their romance could be rekindled.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: In season four, Grace began taking college classes at night, paid for by her workplace. When the plant decided to stop funding her education about halfway through the season, Grace decided to quit the oil refinery and return to school full-time, as she only needed a few months of concentrated classes to graduate. The remainder of season four featured Grace as a full-time student, and towards the end of the season, she did, in fact, graduate. In the season finale, Grace took an entry-level position with an ad agency.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: At the beginning of the fifth season Grace decided that the commute and long working hours at the ad agency were forcing her to spend almost all of her time away from her family. She quit the agency job, and began working in the administrative/business end of a construction company owned by D.C. (Don "D.C." Curry). Also in that season, Russell found some romantic interest in Dottie (Lauren Tom), a gossiping hairstylist who was also friends with Grace. Nadine after having given birth to her and Wade's long-awaited child, abruptly decided to leave Wade and move to Colorado. It was explained that her character and her child had left, while Wade stayed behind. Actress Julie White had left the show between seasons four and five, and did not reprise her role in a guest capacity.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Throughout the entire five-year run, Grace's ex-husband Jimmy Kelly (Geoff Pierson) showed up, sometimes causing problems and at others miraculously clean and sober, trying to win Grace back. A reconciliation never quite happened, but the two did settle on a good friendship for the sake of the kids. Jimmy originally served as an off-screen character in season one, with Blake Clark occasionally portraying him in voice only. In the midst of Jimmy's attempts to become a better person, his father Emmett (guest star Matt Clark) was revealed to be gay, after Grace and Rick inadvertently visit a gay bar and run into him there during a road trip; following Emmett's sudden death midway through the third season, his sexuality and the same-sex affair he kept secret was revealed to the rest of his family during his funeral. At this time, Jimmy's mother Jean (Peggy Rea), Grace's disapproving and moralizing former mother-in-law, offered to move in and help Grace raise the kids. Rea had previously guest-starred as Jean periodically.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Russell reconciled with his estranged dad, Floyd (Tom Poston). By season three Floyd ended up moving in with Russell and working with him in the pharmacy. Grace had a regular source of support from her sister Faith (Valri Bromfield) in the first two seasons. Another development came when Grace was contacted by her first child, Matthew (guest star Tom Everett Scott), whom she gave up for adoption before meeting Jimmy. Matthew had questions about his ancestry and ended up meeting his biological father (guest star Barry Bostwick).


title: Grace Under Fire

text: By the fifth season, Dot had replaced Nadine as Grace's friend and confidant, but abruptly stopped appearing on the show in early 1998 (though she was still mentioned). Instead, Grace's old friend Bev Henderson (Julia Duffy) came back to town and ended up moving in with the Kellys. Grace and Bev's personal reunion was the last major storyline of the series. Although she was joining the cast full-time, Duffy only appeared in two episodes of "Grace Under Fire" before the series was cancelled in mid-February 1998.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: "Grace Under Fire" was the highest-rated new sitcom and freshman American television series of the 1993–94 season. One month before the series premiered, Showtime had broadcast the Carsey Werner-produced "Brett Butler Special", a half-hour comedy performance by Butler.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: The episode "Vega$" is part of a crossover with "Coach", "The Drew Carey Show" and "Ellen" set in Las Vegas. It features Drew Carey as Drew Carey, Joely Fisher as Paige Clark, Jeremy Piven as Spence Kovak and Jerry Van Dyke as Luther Van Dam.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: As the third season concluded in the spring of 1996, Jon Paul Steuer left the series. Sources have speculated that Steuer's mother pulled him out of the show after an incident with Butler, who allegedly flashed her breasts at the 12-year-old actor. At the start of Season 4, Sam Horrigan became the third actor to play Quentin Kelly, and with him in the role, the character's age advanced to 15.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: In the fourth and fifth seasons of the show, Butler was fighting a painkiller addiction, for which she eventually sought medical help. Cast member Julie White left the show after Season 4, also citing Butler's behavior as the reason. The show, which had been a Top 20 series for its first three seasons, began to take a significant drop in the ratings during season four, from 13th place to 45th.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Butler's first round of treatment and rehab delayed the start of the fifth season until November. After "Grace Under Fire" resumed production on season five, a newly clean Butler struggled to stay that way; morale on the set was little better than in the previous season because of the star's erratic behavior. Around the holidays, Butler relapsed again, and although the producers were as committed as ever to continuing the show, ABC was becoming concerned about Butler's overall health, and was less patient with her increasing frequency of missed tapings.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: The show's ratings continued to fall dramatically, which may have well been attributed to Butler's reputation in the press, the longer-than-usual hiatus the series took between seasons four and five, and the fact that the character of Grace Kelly no longer went through the kinds of struggles that had made the show successful earlier on. The addition of Julia Duffy several episodes into the fifth season was a last-ditch attempt to improve the ratings, but with Butler in her current state, the network was not inspired to continue on. Rather abruptly, with the February 17, 1998, telecast, ABC canceled the series. The three-month-long final season averaged #68 in the 1997–98 Nielsen ratings.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: The series aired in syndication on the Oxygen Network in the United States. In the United Kingdom, the series was picked up by BBC2 where it aired from 1994 to 1999. The show was added to Hulu on March 1, 2014. Upon the network's April 15, 2015, launch, the series began airing on U.S. digital broadcast network Laff, which has carried "Grace" largely ever since. As of November 26, 2020, the entire series can be seen in Canada on Amazon Prime Video.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: "Grace Under Fire" was nominated for three Golden Globe Awards: Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series Comedy/Musical in 1995 and 1997 and Best TV Series Comedy/Musical in 1995.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Jean Stapleton was nominated for the 1995 Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy series Emmy Award for playing Aunt Vivian in the episode "The Road to Paris Texas." Diane Ladd was nominated for the same award the previous year for playing Louise Burdett in the episode entitled "Things Left Undone" written by Brett Butler and Wayne Lemon.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: On May 4, 2015, it was announced that Visual Entertainment (VEI) had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1. "Grace Under Fire: The Complete Collection" was released on DVD on October 6, 2015.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: The show was remade in Russia as "Lyuba, Children and the Factory" in 2005. A Polish adaptation, "Hela w opałach" ("Hela Under Fire"; "Hela" is short form from "Helen"), aired on TVN in September 2006.


title: Grace Under Fire

text: Also there is another Russian adaptation as "Ольга" ("Olga"). The show premiered on TNT on September 5, 2016.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Thunderbirds Are Go is a computer-animated science fiction television programme produced by ITV Studios and Pukeko Pictures. It is a reboot of the series "Thunderbirds" created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson which follows the exploits of International Rescue (IR), a rescue organisation run by the Tracy family out of their secret island base in the Pacific Ocean. They use technologically-advanced craft for land, sea, air and space rescues in their operations, the most important of which are a set of vehicles called the "Thunderbirds", piloted by the five Tracy brothers.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: The programme premiered on 4 April 2015 and concluded on 22 February 2020, running for 78 episodes across three series. It was well-received by critics and fans of the original series, and has spawned several branches of merchandising since its broadcast.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: A revival of the 1960s science fiction Supermarionation television series "Thunderbirds" was approved by co-creator Gerry Anderson when Richard Taylor, the founder of Weta Workshop, visited him at Pinewood Studios while he was working on "New Captain Scarlet". On 4 February 2013, ITV Global Entertainment and Pukeko Pictures officially announced the revival under the title "Thunderbirds Are Go!" Production began in June 2013 at Weta Workshop, while the principal voice cast was announced on 30 September 2014.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Each series consists of 26 episodes with transmission split into multiple parts. Series 1 was broadcast between 4 April–20 June 2015 and 31 October 2015–23 January 2016. A second series was green-lit on 18 December 2014 and aired between 22 October 2016 – 7 January 2017 and 30 September–16 December 2017. A third and final series was confirmed on 5 May 2016 and was broadcast between 31 March–26 May 2018, 18 May–13 July 2019 and 4 January–22 February 2020.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Set in the year 2060, "Thunderbirds Are Go" follows the exploits of the Tracy brothers - Scott, Virgil, Alan, Gordon, and John - who form the backbone of International Rescue (IR): a life-saving organisation that operates from a hidden base in the Southern Pacific Ocean, and who save people from disasters and dangerous situations using technologically advanced crafts for land, sea, air and space rescue, the most prominent of these being five vehicles called "Thunderbirds", each one operated by one of the brothers. In addition to the brothers, IR also includes additional members who offer assistance and support: Chief of Security Tanusha "Kayo" Kyrano, who conducts covert and security operations through the use of a specialised Thunderbird with stealth capabilities; engineer Brains, who provides technological and mechanical support both at the base and in the field; Grandma Tracy, the brothers' maternal support who tends to their home needs; and London operatives Lady Penelope Creighton-Ward, an English aristocrat, and Aloysius "Nosey" Parker, a chauffeur and former thief, who conduct investigative and espionage work when required.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Although most rescues involve contending with disaster caused by unforeseen incidents or the actions of criminals, a number are orchestrated by IR's main adversary known only as "The Hood" - a British criminal mastermind who despises the organisation and seeks to often steal their technology while conducting crimes to make him wealthy. Prior to the premiere episode of the programme, the Hood is known to IR and is responsible for the loss of the brothers' father, Jeff Tracy, the founder of IR and a close friend of Colonel Casey, the head of the Global Defence Force (GDF). In the second series, the programme introduced a second villain called "The Mechanic," who causes havoc and eventually helps to break out the Hood, after he is arrested by the GDF at the end of the first series, only to later turn on him in order to break free from his control, whereupon he later surrenders, on condition that Brains helps him secure his freedom. In the third series, a pair of villains called the "Chaos Crew" - formed of siblings Havoc and Fuse - join with the Hood to cause world-wide chaos, and become a considerable problem for both the GDF and IR.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Much of the episodes focus on rescue operations, many of which include elements from the original series - an example includes a remake of the original series premiere episode with a modern take on its plot. Although all episodes mainly include unique characters who have only one appearance, several created for "Thunderbirds Are Go" make reoccurring appearances, often with them being put into new situations they need rescuing from, though overarching storylines for each series focused mainly on the prominent villains for that series and the actions they undertake. Throughout the programme, the loss of Jeff to his sons plays a key element in a number of stories, both in relics found by the brothers, the various lessons they recall him teaching them, and the people who knew him best. The third and final series eventually included a final story arc focused on Jeff, in which IR discover him to be alive, rather than dead as presumed, but trapped in deep space. Amid a few standard rescues, the next few episodes focused on the Tracy family developing the means to reach and rescue him, culminating in the brothers eventually bringing him home in the 'Zero-XL', a spacecraft literally assembled around the five main Thunderbirds.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: By 2000, Jem Roberts held an interview with Gerry Anderson about an potential upcoming revival of the Thunderbirds series. Anderson anticipated that computer graphics would better capture realism. Around this time, a video game adaptation for Game Boy Color was in development.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: All scale model miniature effects and CGI for the series was produced at Weta Workshop in New Zealand. The series was executive produced by Estelle Hughes, Giles Ridge, Richard Taylor and Andrew Smith, while David Scott and Theo Baynton act as series director and episode director, respectively. The head writer is Rob Hoegee, while Anthony Cox serves as a film editor and Ben Milsom a production designer.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: The production of each episode started with a physical set creation. The sets were created using methods similar to those used in the original series, including the use of household objects as components. A film crew would devise camera setups for scenes to match with the movement and positions of CGI-created characters and crafts that were to be imposed later upon the footage. This also included special effects used on set, such as smoke and air. All CGI sequences were storyboarded before being superimposed onto the live-action footage of the miniatures. Each set was then individually scanned as a 3D print to provide reference for the CGI elements so they could be accurately registered in the environments. Details were then introduced, including textures, craft setup, atmospheric particles and flying debris. The UK-based company Milk VFX was responsible for the final composition.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: The music score was composed by brothers Ben and Nick Foster. The revived series's opening theme and certain cues remained faithful to Barry Gray's score for the original series, albeit with a contemporary orchestral style.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Fans and critics reacted very positively to the new series. ITV started to air episodes at 8 am (other than the pilot, which aired at 5 pm). Series 2, however, has been airing the show at 4pm on ITV and repeat it the following day at 8:30am on CITV. From the episode Volcano on 30 September 2017, it aired on CITV's Scrambled on Saturday at 8:30am, with it being repeated on ITV the same day at 3:30pm, although this varied throughout the run, with the repeat often airing as early as 12pm. The afternoon repeat was dropped for Series 3.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: On 16 June 2014, ITV Studios Global Entertainment sold the rights in a deal with Australia's free-to-air Nine Network (9Go!), who broadcast both the first series, and the second series. The third series was bought by ABC, who premiered it on ABC Me from 2 June 2018.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: On 28 April 2015, Tohokushinsha Film Corporation acquired the television and licensing rights for "Thunderbirds Are Go". The Japan broadcast for the first series was premiered on NHK (NHK General TV) on 2016-08-05 (as "サンダーバード ARE GO"), and all three series were premiered on Super! drama TV later. French broadcasts were premiered in September 2015 on Canal J (as "Thunderbirds"), followed by Gulli later this year (as "Thunderbirds"), with Nelvana as French licensing agent.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: On 10 February 2016, ITV Studios Global Entertainment announced 13 episodes of "Thunderbirds Are Go" (series 1, split up) would premiere in the United States on Amazon Video on 22 April 2016. The premiere of the second series at Prime Video was also announced. Currently, Series 3 has yet to debut on the service as of 2021.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Canadian broadcasts premiered on CHRGD and Family Channel in April 2016. Taiwan broadcast was premiered in PTS Taiwan on 14 September 2016 (as "新雷鳥神機隊"). In Brazil, the show has broadcast on Gloob since 4 July 2016.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: The Nordic broadcasts were premiered in SVT (SVT Barnkanalen) in Sweden (as "Thunderbirds") since 2015, NRK Super in Norway (as "Thunderbirds") since 2015, DR (Ramasjang and Ultra) in Denmark (as "Thunderbirds Are Go") since 2015, MTV Juniori in Finland (as "Thunderbirds") since 2016, with Alicom appointed as the Nordic licensing agent.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: The series was also premiered in TVNZ (TVNZ 2) in New Zealand, Noga in Israel (with LDI as the agent), MBC (MBC3) in pan-Arab (as "ثندربيردز انطلق"), Amazon Prime in Poland, NPO Zapp in Netherlands, teleTOON+, HBO GO, and Amazon Prime in Poland, Télé-Québec in Canada (as "Thunderbirds : Les sentinelles de l'air"), ABC in Australia, Ketnet in Flemish Belgium (with License Connection appointed as the agent for Benelux) (as "Thunderbirds"), Minika TV in Turkey, Gloob in Brazil. The Noga premiere began in summer 2015 on Kids Channel. The TVNZ premiere began on 12 April 2015 on TV2.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: Since 2016, ITV Studios Global Entertainment (ITVS GE) is launching consumer products programs for "Thunderbirds Are Go" at France, Benelux and the Nordics.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: As part of the second series launch in the UK, a fleet of five ThunderCabs taxis with Thunderbirds vehicle themes (including Thunderbirds 1-4, FAB 1) could be booked between 22 and 23 October 2016 between 9am and 5pm via the now-defunct Karhoo app, with rides costing a flat rate of £1 for any journey within central London. All proceeds were donated to The Children's Trust, the UK's leading charity for children with brain injury.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: On 13 May 2015, ITV Studios Global Entertainment announced its appointment of Vivid as its master toy partner in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. As of Licensing Expo 2014, Vivid Imaginations had master toy licensee with worldwide rights, excluding US and Asia. There are many toys available in the range, including villains, heroes and the mighty Thunderbirds themselves.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: On 24 April 2015, ITV Studios Global Entertainment announced that Global Licensing (NZ) Ltd had been appointed as licensing agent for "Thunderbirds Are Go" in New Zealand. As part of the new deal, Global worked with Vivid Imaginations, the master toy partner for "Thunderbirds Are Go", to appoint Planet Fun as the local distributor in New Zealand, which was expected to see toys roll out across the territory from S/S 2015.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: The "Thunderbirds Are Go" master toy line from Vivid Imaginations and distributed by HeadStart was launched in Australia in June 2015. Additional toy rights went to Vivid France and Vivid Holland in respective regions, with Takara Tomy as Japan distributor. The toy launches in France, Benelux and the Nordics began in September 2016, with TOPTOY as pan-Nordic distributor from late summer 2016.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: An official "Thunderbirds" app was launched in October 2015 to accompany the second half of season 1.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: An official app was also released on 20 May 2015 as an add-on to the features on the website. This free app is available on both Google Play and Apple's App Store. Behind the Story developed the app.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: As of 2015, ITV Studios Global Entertainment and Miniclip planned the release of a "Thunderbirds Are Go" mobile game(as "Thunderbirds Are Go: Team Rush").


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: An official magazine was published by D. C. Thomson & Co. on 15 October 2015. It features comics, facts, puzzles and more. Each issue includes a free gift. The first six issues had small plastic replicas of Thunderbirds 1–5 and Thunderbird S. After that the gifts were generic front-of-magazine gifts with "Thunderbirds Are Go" branding, such as notebooks and 'invisible ink' pens.


title: Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series)

text: License Connection became a representative for the brand in the Benelux territories and signed Meis & Maas as master publishing partner to launch a range of books and magazine formats in 2017.


title: Artyom Sergeyev

text: Artyom Fyodorovich Sergeyev (; 5 March 1921 – 15 January 2008) was the adopted son of Joseph Stalin. He became a major general in the Soviet military.


title: Artyom Sergeyev

text: Sergeyev's biological father, Fyodor Sergeyev, a close friend of Stalin, died in the Aerowagon train crash in 1921. Lenin initiated the following adoption by Stalin.


title: Artyom Sergeyev

text: His military service began in 1938 at the age of 17 and he was active in fighting against German troops in World War II. He was appointed lieutenant colonel at the age of 23 and continued serving in the military after the war.


title: Artyom Sergeyev

text: He wrote two books about war and Stalin. His first wife was Amaya Ruiz Ibárruri, the daughter of Spanish Communist politician Dolores Ibárruri.


title: Billy Warlock

text: Billy Warlock (born William Alan Leming; March 26, 1961) is an American actor known for playing Eddie Kramer, a lifeguard on the first two seasons of "Baywatch" and in the reunion movie in 2003, as well as for numerous daytime roles, most notably Frankie Brady on "Days of Our Lives" and A.J. Quartermaine on "General Hospital".


title: Billy Warlock

text: Warlock was born William Alan Leming in Gardena, California, the son of Dick Warlock ( Richard Anthony Leming), a successful Hollywood stunt man who did stunts for Kurt Russell and was the stunt driver in the Disney picture, "The Love Bug". His siblings include Lance Warlock and a sister, Rhonda.


title: Billy Warlock

text: After graduation from Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, California in 1979, his father landed him a stunt job as Robin Williams's stunt double in a "Mork & Mindy" episode, one that was produced by Garry Marshall. Several months later, Billy auditioned for Marshall and won his first major television role as Leopold "Flip" Phillips, Roger's brother (and the Cunninghams' younger nephew), in the ninth season of "Happy Days".


title: Billy Warlock

text: As a young adult, Warlock had a small role in "Halloween II" (1981), and "Lovely But Deadly" (1981), directed by David Sheldon. He later appeared in "Hotshot" (1987), directed by Rick King, and played the lead role in the horror film "Society" (1989), directed by Brian Yuzna.


title: Billy Warlock

text: The same year, Warlock appeared as an original cast member of "Baywatch", where he played lifeguard Eddie Kramer for the first three seasons. In the early 1990s, he also was on the short-lived TV Series "The Hat Squad", with Nestor Serrano and Don Michael Paul from 1992 to 1993, and portrayed Lyle Menendez in the 1994 television movie "Honor Thy Father and Mother: The True Story of the Menendez Murders".


title: Billy Warlock

text: He also starred on soap operas such as "Days of Our Lives" and "General Hospital". In the latter, he portrayed A. J. Quartermaine from June 13, 1997, to December 11, 2003, and for several visits in 2005 from February 4 to February 11, when his character was presumed dead. He reprised the role from March 15 until April 26 when his character was actually murdered in his hospital room by Dr. Asher Thomas (Larry Poindexter) after he kidnapped his biological son, Michael Corinthos (Dylan Cash).


title: Billy Warlock

text: On "Days of Our Lives", Warlock portrayed Frankie Brady from 1986 to 1988, from 1990 to 1991, and again beginning in June 2005. In 1988, he won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series for his performance on the series. He was let go from the soap and his final airdate was November 2006. In spring 2007, he joined the cast of "The Young and the Restless" in the role of Ben Hollander, Jack Abbott's campaign manager. Warlock appeared on the show from May 2007 to January 2008.


title: Billy Warlock

text: In 2003, Warlock reprised his role of Eddie Kramer in the "" television film. The following year, he appeared in an off-Broadway revival production of "The Normal Heart" at the Public Theater in New York City. Charles Isherwood of "Variety" praised his performance as "sincere and nicely understated." During the summer of 2010, Warlock appeared on "As the World Turns" as Anthony Blackthorn.


title: Billy Warlock

text: Warlock was married to soap actress Marcy Walker but they later divorced. He married former "Days of our Lives" and "As the World Turns" co-star Julie Pinson on August 26, 2006, in Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Malta Air

text: Malta Air is a low-cost airline that operates from Malta. It is a joint venture between Ryanair and the Government of Malta.


title: Malta Air

text: The new airline initially operated six former Ryanair aircraft. Ryanair planned to assign 62 routes it operates to and from Malta to this new airline and there were plans to grow the network beyond that. However, these plans were revised in May 2020, when redundancy for one third of the full complement of 179 pilots and cabin crew was announced in response to the COVID-19 crisis.


title: Malta Air

text: On 9 June 2019, Ryanair announced together with the Government of Malta that they were to set up a subsidiary airline called Malta Air, which was to consist of an initial fleet of 10 aircraft and the assumption the 61 flights then operated by Ryanair from the island. The fleet was to be registered in Malta while a new repair and maintenance hangar will also be set up. Ryanair will transfer all its existing Maltese operations to the new airline with its fleet expected to increase from 6 to 10 Boeing 737-800 aircraft and in Malta Air colours by mid-2020.


title: Malta Air

text: News aggregator Corporate Dispatch reported the first sighting of a Ryanair aircraft displaying an "operated by Malta Air" sticker just outside its front passenger door on 20 June 2019 at Stansted Airport. By the end of September 2019, further reports of Malta Air branding on Ryanair flights were being reported, including safety cards on the back of all passenger seats, as well as flight attendant and cockpit announcements, even though no further official notice of this was circulated to the general public.


title: Malta Air

text: When faced with the Covid-19 crisis in May 2020, Malta Air announced substantial redundancies for its pilots and cabin crew, after first proposing a 10% salary cut. Around 20 pilots and 40 cabin crew from the full complement of 179 pilots and cabin crew had their employment terminated from 30 June 2020.


title: Malta Air

text: In July 2021, Malta Air received its first Boeing 737 MAX 200. The aircraft, registered as 9H-VUE, was the first to be painted in the Malta Air livery. It was also the first aircraft to be delivered directly to Malta Air from the manufacturer, as its previous Boeing 737-800 aircraft had been transferred from its parent, Ryanair.


title: Malta Air

text: The company has planned to operate 66 routes from its Malta International Airport base starting in 2020. In addition to all the former Ryanair routes to and from Malta, Malta Air has added these destinations: Paphos in Cyprus; Brindisi, Trapani, and Trieste in Italy; Niš in Serbia; and Santiago de Compostela in Spain. Malta Air will also operate a service between Dublin and Vienna from 1 April 2020. Malta Air now operates the majority of Ryanair routes from/to Milan Bergamo Airport.


title: Flyweight

text: Flyweight is a class in boxing which includes fighters weighing above 49 kg (108 lb) and up to 51 kg (112 lb).


title: Flyweight

text: The flyweight division was the last of boxing's eight traditional weight classes to be established. Before 1909, anyone below featherweight was considered a bantamweight, regardless of how small the boxer. In 1911, the organization that eventually became the British Boxing Board of Control held a match that crowned Sid Smith as the first flyweight champion of the world. Jimmy Wilde, who reigned from 1916 to 1923, was the first fighter recognized both in Britain and the United States as a flyweight champion.


title: Flyweight

text: Other notable flyweights include Victor Perez, Pancho Villa, Walter McGowan, Pascual Pérez, Pone Kingpetch, Fighting Harada, Masao Ohba, Chartchai Chionoi, Efren Torres, Erbito Salavarria, Miguel Canto, Dave McAuley, Charlie Magri, Gabriel Bernal, Santos Laciar, Sot Chitalada, Yong-Kang Kim, Yuri Arbachakov, Danny Romero, Mark "Too Sharp" Johnson, Manny Pacquiao, Jorge Arce, Vic Darchinyan, Nonito Donaire, Pongsaklek Wonjongkam, Amnat Ruenroeng, Román González, McWilliams Arroyo, Donnie Nietes, Nicola Adams.


title: Flyweight

text: Below is a list of longest reigning flyweight champions in boxing measured by the individual's longest reign. Career total time as champion (for multiple time champions) does not apply.


title: Flyweight

text: In kickboxing, a flyweight fighter generally weighs 53 kg (116 lb) or under. The International Kickboxing Federation (IKF) Flyweight division (professional and amateur) is 112.1 lb. – 117 lb. or 50.95 kg – 53.18 kg.


title: Flyweight

text: The flyweight division in mixed martial arts – as defined by the Nevada State Athletic Commission combat sports doctrine and by the Association of Boxing Commissions – groups together all competitors 125 lb (57 kg) and below. It sits between Strawweight (106 lb-115 lb) and Bantamweight (126 lb-135lb).


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Katlyn Chookagian (born December 28, 1988) is an American professional mixed martial artist. She has formerly competed in the Bantamweight division and currently competes in the Flyweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). As of October 24, 2022, she is #3 in the UFC women's flyweight rankings and as of December 13, 2022, she is #14 in UFC women's pound-for-pound rankings.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian was born in Quakertown, Pennsylvania, where she graduated from Quakertown Senior High School.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Her first job was serving pizza at Q-Mart, and she also worked as a bartender in Hoboken, New Jersey.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian started training karate when she was four years old, started fighting as an amateur in mixed martial arts (MMA) in 2012, and became a professional in 2014. Her teammates and training partners include Gordon Ryan, Claudia Gadelha, Sijara Eubanks, and the team captain Frankie Edgar. Chookagian holds a bachelor's degree in business management and marketing from Fairleigh Dickinson University. She is of Armenian descent.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: After going 7–0 as an amateur, Chookagian made her professional mixed martial arts debut against Rebecca Heintzman on June 28, 2014, at CFFC 37. She won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian made her second professional fight at on September 13, 2014. Katlyn Chookagian secured a knockout triumph against 44-year-old Brigitte Narcise at 38 seconds of the final round in the flyweight category.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian had her two subsequent bouts canceled. Against Allanna Jones in the Ring of Combat 49, and against Nohime Dennison at CFFC 45. Finally, on May 9, 2015, she fought twice in the same day, beating Linn Wennergren by unanimous decision, and Melinda Fábián by submission in the first round.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: She returned to the event where she made her debut, the CFFC, and held three more fights there. The results continued great: two belts, two victories by unanimous decision and one by knockout, due to a knee.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian debuted in the UFC on July 13, 2016, at against Lauren Murphy. She won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Mara Romero Borella on January 27, 2018, at . She won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Alexis Davis on July 28, 2018, at UFC on Fox 30. She won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Joanne Calderwood on June 8, 2019, at UFC 238. She won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Jennifer Maia on November 2, 2019, at UFC 244. At the weigh-ins, Maia weighted at 127.2 pounds, 1.2 pounds over the flyweight non-title fight limit of 126. The bout proceed at catchweight and Maia was fined 25% of her purse and went to Chookagian. She won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Valentina Shevchenko for the UFC Flyweight Champion on February 8, 2020, at UFC 247. She lost the bout via technical knockout in round three.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Antonina Shevchenko May 30, 2020 at . After dominating Shevchenko on the ground throughout the bout, Chookagian won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Jéssica Andrade on October 18, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 180. She lost the fight via technical knockout in round one.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Cynthia Calvillo on November 21, 2020, at UFC 255. She won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Viviane Araújo on May 15, 2021, at UFC 262. She won the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian faced Jennifer Maia on January 15, 2022, at UFC on ESPN 32. She won the fight via unanimous decision. Despite winning three fights in a row, it was reported on January 16 that the bout with Jennifer Maia was the last fight on her contract. In a post-fight interview, Chookagian claimed that the UFC declined to negotiate a new contract with her prior to the Jennifer Maia bout, making her a free agent.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: As the first bout of her new contract, Chookagian faced Amanda Ribas on May 14, 2022 at UFC on ESPN 36. She won the back-and-forth fight by split decision. The win also earned Chookagian her first "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Katlyn Chookagian

text: Chookagian was scheduled to face Manon Fiorot on September 3, 2022, at UFC Fight Night 209. However, Chookagian withdrew due to unknown reasons in mid June and was replaced by former UFC Women's Strawweight Champion Jéssica Andrade. In turn, Andrade withdrew in mid-July due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Fiorot's original opponent: Chookagian. After Fiorot injured her knee, the bout was eventually shifted to take place at UFC 280 on October 22, 2022. At the weigh-ins, Chookagian weighed in at 127.5 pounds, 1.5 pounds over the flyweight non-title fight limit. Chookagian was fined 20% of her purse, which will go to her opponent Fiorot. She lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland involved the confiscation of Irish-owned land by the English Crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from Great Britain. The Crown saw the plantations as a means of controlling, anglicising and 'civilising' Gaelic Ireland. The main plantations took place from the 1550s to the 1620s, the biggest of which was the plantation of Ulster. The plantations led to the founding of many towns, massive demographic, cultural and economic changes, changes in land ownership and the landscape, and also to centuries of ethnic and sectarian conflict. They took place before and during the earliest English colonisation of the Americas, and a group known as the West Country Men were involved in both Irish and American colonization.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: There had been small-scale immigration from Britain since the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion. By the 15th century, direct English control had shrunk to an area called the Pale. In the 1540s the English Tudor conquest of Ireland began. The first plantations were in the 1550s, during the reign of Queen Mary I, in Laois ('Queen's County') and Offaly ('King's County'). These plantations were based around existing frontier forts, but they were largely unsuccessful due to fierce resistance from native Irish clans.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The next plantations were during the reign of Elizabeth I. In 1568 there was an attempt to establish a corporate colony in Kerrycurrihy barony, but it was destroyed by the Irish. In the 1570s a privately-funded plantation of east Ulster was attempted, but it also sparked conflict with the local Irish lord and ended in failure. The Munster plantation of the 1580s followed the Desmond Rebellions. Businessmen were encouraged to invest in the scheme and English colonists were settled on land confiscated from the defeated rebel lords. However, the settlements were scattered and attracted far fewer settlers than was hoped for. When the Nine Years' War broke out in the 1590s, most of these settlements were abandoned, although English settlers began to return following the war.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The plantation of Ulster began in the 1610s, during the reign of James I. Following their defeat in the Nine Years' War, many rebel Ulster lords fled Ireland and their lands were confiscated. This was the biggest and most successful of the plantations and comprised most of the province of Ulster. While the province was mainly Irish-speaking and Catholic, the new settlers were required to be English-speaking Protestants, with most coming from northern England and the Scottish Lowlands. This created a distinct Ulster Protestant community.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The Ulster plantation was one cause of the 1641 Irish Rebellion, during which thousands of settlers were killed, expelled or fled. After the Irish Catholics were defeated in the Cromwellian conquest of 1652, most remaining Catholic-owned land was confiscated and thousands of English soldiers settled in Ireland. Scottish settlement in Ulster resumed and intensified during the Scottish famine of the 1690s. By the 1720s, British Protestants were the majority in Ulster.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with British and Protestant identities. The ruling classes of these communities replaced the older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: There had been small-scale immigration from Britain in the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion, creating a small Anglo-Norman, English, Welsh and Flemish community in Ireland, under the Crown of England. By the 15th century, English control had shrunk to an area called The English Pale. By the Tudor period, however, Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory initially lost to the Anglo-Normans: "even in the Pale, all the common folk ... for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit and of Irish language". At a higher social level, there was intermarriage between the Gaelic Irish aristocracy and Anglo-Norman lords. To varying degrees inside and especially outside of the Pale, the 'Old English' had integrated into Irish society. Edmund Spenser wrote of the "old English": "they are more sharpely to be chastised and reformed … for they are more stubborne, and disobedient to the law and government, than the Irish". English discourse on Ireland largely viewed the Gaelic Irish outside the Pale as savages, and compared them with the Native Americans.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The first Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest. The Dublin Castle administration intended to pacify and anglicise Irish territories controlled by the Crown and incorporate the Gaelic Irish aristocracy into the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland by using a policy of surrender and regrant. The administration intended to develop Ireland as a peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated and English plantations were established. To this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the "exemplary plantation", in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that the Irish could emulate and be taxed.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive/commercial in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions. The first such scheme was the Plantation of King's County (now Offaly) and Queen's County (now Laois) in 1556, naming them after the new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary I respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown (now Daingean) and Maryborough (now Portlaoise). An Act was passed "whereby the King and Queen's Majesties, and the Heires and Successors of the Queen, be entitled to the Counties of Leix, Slewmarge, Irry, Glinmaliry, and Offaily, and for making the same Countries Shire Grounds." This plantation initiated the colonial settlement pattern for extending English control in hostile regions. The Leix-Offaly plantation also demonstrated to the Crown high cost of colonialism, leading them to encourage private financial participation in colonial ventures.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The O'Moore and O'Connor clans, which occupied the area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, the Earl of Sussex, ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement. However, the plantation was not a great success. The O'Moores and O'Connors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought a local insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578, the English finally subdued the displaced O'Moore clan by massacring most of their "fine" (or ruling families) at Mullaghmast in Laois, having invited them there for peace talks. Rory Oge O'More, the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year. The ongoing violence meant that the authorities had difficulty in attracting people to settle in their new plantation. Settlement ended up clustered around a series of military fortifications.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In 1568–1569, Warham St Leger and Richard Grenville tried to establish a small English corporate colony in the barony of Kerrycurrihy, by Cork Harbour, on land leased from the Earl of Desmond. They then proposed establishing larger corporate colonies in Munster by confiscating Gaelic land. However, in June 1569 the fledgling colony was destroyed by the Irish under James FitzMaurice when the first Desmond Rebellion began.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In the 1570s, there was an attempt to colonize parts of east Ulster, which had formerly been part of the English Earldom of Ulster. It was known as the "Enterprise of Ulster". During the conflict between the English and Shane O'Neill, there were proposals to colonize parts of east Ulster, but Crown support was not forthcoming. Following Shane O'Neill's death, an act of attainder was passed on him for rebellion against the Crown. As O'Neill had claimed lordship over most of Ulster, the act declared most of the province to be forfeit to the Crown.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In 1571, Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Thomas Smith a large portion of Clannaboy and the Ards to colonize. Smith envisaged a colony led by the younger sons of English gentlemen, in which the native Irish would be employed as labourers. The scheme was partly privately funded and partly state-sponsored by way of military support. In 1572 Smith's son landed in the Ards with 100 men. They were opposed by the Lord of Clannaboy, Brian McPhelim O'Neill, who complained the grant was illegal. As the English often commandeered Irish church buildings for garrisons, McPhelim burned all church buildings in the Ards to prevent this. The colonists hastily built a fort near Comber, but the plantation fell apart after Smith's son was killed by Irishmen in 1573.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The plantation scheme was taken over by Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, who set out to colonize much of County Antrim. He provided most of the funding, with the state providing some of the military support. He landed at Carrickfergus in 1573 with 1,100 men, but their numbers dwindled following an outbreak of plague in the town. The colonists were opposed by McPhelim, Turlough Luineach O'Neill of Tyrone, and Sorley Boy MacDonnell of the Glens, who asserted they were opposing Essex rather than the Crown. In September 1574, Essex led a military expedition deep into Tyrone, burning crops. That November, Essex's men massacred 200 of McPhelim's company during a parley at Belfast Castle, and Essex then had McPhelim executed for treason. The MacDonnells called in reinforcements from their kinsmen in the Scottish Highlands. In July 1575, Essex sent Francis Drake and John Norris to attack the MacDonnells. This ended with the massacre of 600 MacDonnell men, women and children on Rathlin Island. By this time, Elizabeth had called an end to the scheme. It was a failure which had cost Essex and the Crown dearly.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The Munster Plantation of the 1580s was the first mass plantation in Ireland. It was instituted as punishment for the Desmond Rebellions, when the Geraldine Earl of Desmond had rebelled against English interference in Munster. The Desmond dynasty was annihilated in the aftermath of the Second Desmond Rebellion (1579–83) and their estates were confiscated by the Crown. The English authorities took the opportunity to settle the province with colonists from England and Wales, who, it was hoped, would be a bulwark against further rebellions. In 1584, the Surveyor General of Ireland, Sir Valentine Browne and a commission surveyed Munster, to allocate confiscated lands to English Undertakers (wealthy colonists who "undertook" to import tenants from England to work their new lands). The English Undertakers were obligated to develop new towns and provide for the defence of planted districts from attack.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: However, the colonial plans were complicated by surveys showing less land available than previously imagined, as well as lawsuits influenced by the earl of Ormond. It was agreed that ninety-one families would be settled on 12,000 acres and further smaller grants of 8,000, 6,000 and 4,000 acres families were to be planted. In 1611 it has been estimated that 94,000 acres originally assigned to undertakers had been reclaimed. Out of the eighty-six, original volunteers only fifteen ultimately took out patents, although these were supplemented by another twenty individuals not associated with the initial scheme. On the outbreak of the Nine Years' War, one contemporary estimate was that the plantation had attracted about 5,000 English settlers, but it is more commonly surmised that the total English population in the colony stood at c. 4000 at the first overthrow in 1598. This was well short of the 11,375 people that the original plans had envisaged.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: There was an enterprising capitalist element to the Munster plantations. Privateers and the enterprising public could buy land in Munster at pennies an acre as undertakers, sometimes backed by private investors. Sir Walter Raleigh owned large estates in Munster and harvested the forests around his estate to make tobacco pipes and wine barrels, although his company proved unprofitable. However, other investors made a fortune off the plantations. Businessman Robert Payne advocated for settlers to come to the Munster colonies. He bought land holdings in Munster for his venture, recruiting 25 business partners and partnering with industrialist Francis Willoughby. Willoughby was a sleeping partner in a project aimed at establishing an ironworks in the Munster colonies. Daniel Gookin, a Munster colonist, sold his lands in Carrigaline and his company in Munster to the ultimate capitalist-colonialist of the period, the newly created Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. He then partnered with another Munster colonist, Captain William Newce, to invest in the newly—formed Virginia Company and helped establish the colony at Jamestown in North America.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: As well as the former Geraldine estates (spread through the modern counties of Limerick, Cork, Kerry and Tipperary), the survey took in the lands belonging to other families and clans that had supported the rebellions in Kerry and southwest Cork. However, the settlement here was rather piecemeal because the ruling clan – the MacCarthy Mór line – argued that the rebel landowners were their subordinates and that the lords actually owned the land. In this area, lands once granted to some English Undertakers was taken away again when native lords, such as the MacCarthys, appealed the dispossession of their dependants.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: Other sectors of the plantation were equally chaotic. John Popham imported 70 tenants from Somerset, only to find that the land had already been settled by another undertaker, and he was obliged to send them home. Nevertheless, were planted with English colonists. The Crown hoped that the settlement would attract in the region of 15,000 colonists, but a report from 1589 showed that the English Undertakers had imported only about 700 English tenants between them. Historians have noted that each tenant was the head of a household and that he therefore likely represented at least 4–5 other people. This would put the English population in Munster at nearer to three or four thousand persons, but it was still substantially below the projected figure.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The Munster Plantation was supposed to develop compact defensible settlements, but the English settlers were spread in pockets across the province, wherever land had been confiscated. Initially, the English Undertakers were given detachments of English soldiers to protect them, but these were abolished in the 1590s. As a result, when the Nine Years War – an Irish rebellion against English rule – reached Munster in 1598, most of the settlers were chased off their lands without a fight. They took refuge in the province's walled towns or fled back to England. However, when the rebellion was put down in 1601–03, the Plantation was re-constituted by the Governor of Munster, George Carew. The English settler population in the 1620s was four times greater than in the earlier Munster plantation and powerful enough to control a considerable area after the Irish Rebellion of 1641.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: Prior to its conquest in the Nine Years War of the 1590s, Ulster was the most Irish-Gaelic part of Ireland and the only province that was completely outside English control. The war, of 1594–1603, ended with the surrender of the O'Neill and O'Donnell lords to the English crown, but it was also a hugely costly and humiliating episode for the English government in Ireland. In the short term the war failed, and generous surrender terms given to the rebels re-granted them much of their former land, but under English law.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: But when Hugh O'Neill and the other rebel earls left Ireland in the so-called 1607 Flight of the Earls to seek help from the Spanish Crown for a new rebellion, the Lord Deputy Arthur Chichester seized the opportunity to colonise the province and declared the lands of O'Neill, O'Donnell and their followers forfeit. Initially, Chichester planned a fairly modest plantation, including large grants to Irish-born lords who had sided with the English during the war. However, in 1608 Cahir O'Doherty's rebellion in Donegal interrupted implementation of this plan. O'Doherty was a former ally of the English who felt he had not been fairly rewarded for his role in the war. The rebellion was swiftly put down and O'Doherty killed, but these events gave Chichester a justification for expropriating all of the original landowners in the province.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In 1603 James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, uniting these two crowns and also gaining possession of the Kingdom of Ireland, at that time an English Crown possession. The Plantation of Ulster was promoted to him as a joint "British", i.e. English and Scottish, venture to pacify and civilise Ulster. It was agreed that at least half of the settlers would be Scots. Six counties made up his official plantation of Ulster:


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The plan was determined by two factors: first, the Crown wanted to protect the settlement from being destroyed by rebels like the Munster plantation. So rather than settling the planters in isolated pockets of land confiscated from convicted rebels, they confiscated all of the land and redistributed it, creating concentrations of British settlers around new towns and garrisons. The new landowners were explicitly banned from taking on Irish tenants, and had to import their tenant farmers from England and Scotland. The remaining Irish landowners were granted one quarter of the land in Ulster. The common Irish residents were to be relocated to live near garrisons and Protestant churches, the more ready for Protestant control. The Planters were barred from selling their lands to any Irishman.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The second major influence on the plantation of Ulster was the political negotiation among the interest groups on the British side. The principal landowners were to be English Undertakers, wealthy men from England and Scotland who undertook to import tenants from their own estates. The planters were granted around each, on condition that they settle there a minimum of 48 adult males (including at least 20 families), who had to be English-speaking Protestants. However, veterans of the war in Ireland (known as Servitors) led by Arthur Chichester, successfully lobbied for land grants of their own. Since these former officers did not have enough private capital to fund the colonisation, their involvement was subsidised by the City of London (the financial sector in London). The city was granted their own town, and lands. The final major recipient of lands was the Protestant Church of Ireland, which was granted all churches and lands previously owned by the Roman Catholic church. The Crown intended that clerics from England and the Pale convert the population to Protestantism.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The Plantation of Ulster was a mixed success for the English. By the 1630s, there were 20,000 adult male English and Scottish settlers in Ulster, which meant that the total settler population could have been as high as 80,000 to 150,000. They formed local majorities of the population in the Finn and Foyle valleys (around modern Derry and east Donegal), north Armagh and east Tyrone. Planters had achieved substantial settlement on unofficially planted lands in north Down, led by James Hamilton and Hugh Montgomery, and in south Antrim under Sir Randall MacDonnell. The settler population increased rapidly, as just under half of the migrants were women – a very high ratio compared, for instance, to contemporary Spanish settlement in Latin America or English settlement in Virginia. New England attracted more families, but still was predominately male in its early years.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: But the Irish population was neither removed nor Anglicised. In practise, the settlers did not stay on poorer lands, but clustered around towns and the best land. This meant that many English and Scottish landowners had to take Irish tenants, contrary to the terms of the Plantation of Ulster. In 1609, Chichester deported 1300 former Irish soldiers from Ulster to serve in the Swedish Army,


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The attempted conversion of the Irish to Protestantism also had few successes; at first the clerics sent to Ireland were all English speakers, whereas the native population were usually monoglot speakers of Irish Gaelic. Later, the Catholic Church made a determined effort to retain its followers among the native population.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In addition to the Ulster plantation, several other small plantations occurred under the reign of the Stuart Kings—James I and his son Charles I—in the early 17th century. The first of these took place in north county Wexford in 1610, where lands were confiscated from the MacMurrough-Kavanagh clan.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: Since most land-owning families in Ireland had taken their estates by force in the previous four hundred years, very few of them, with the exception of the New English planters, had proper legal titles for them. As a result, in order to obtain such titles, they were required to forfeit a quarter of their lands. This policy was used against the Kavanaghs in Wexford and subsequently elsewhere, to break up Catholic Irish estates (especially the Gaelic ones) around the country. Following the precedent set in Wexford, small plantations were established in Laois and Offaly, Longford, Leitrim and north Tipperary.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In Laois and Offally, the Tudor plantation had consisted of a chain of military garrisons. In the new, more peaceful climate of the 17th century, it attracted large numbers of landowners, tenants and labourers. Prominent planters in Leinster in this period include Charles Coote, Adam Loftus, and William Parsons.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In Munster, during the peaceful early years of the 17th century, thousands more English and Welsh settlers arrived in the province. There were many small plantations in Munster in this period, as Irish lords were required to forfeit up to one third of their estates to get their deeds to the remainder recognised by the English authorities. The settlers became concentrated in towns along the south coast – especially Youghal, Bandon, Kinsale and Cork city. Notable English Undertakers of the Munster Plantation include Walter Raleigh, Edmund Spenser, and Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. The latter especially made huge fortunes out of amassing Irish lands and developing them for industry and agriculture.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: The Irish Catholic upper classes were unable to stop the continued plantations in Ireland because they had been barred from public office on religious grounds. By 1615 they comprised a minority in the Irish Parliament, as a result of the creation of "pocket boroughs" (where Protestants were in the majority) in planted areas. In 1625, they gained a temporary halt to land confiscations by agreeing to pay for England's war with France and Spain.


title: Plantations of Ireland

text: In addition to the plantations, thousands of independent settlers arrived in Ireland in the early 17th century, from the Netherlands and France as well as Britain. Many of them became chief tenants of Irish land-owners; others set up in the towns (especially Dublin) – notably as bankers and financiers. By 1641, there were calculated to be up to 125,000 Protestant settlers in Ireland, though they were still outnumbered by native Catholics by around 15 to 1.