title: Radioactive contamination

text: For this reason, it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials. Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internal exposure should be considered.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Successfully used on Harold McCluskey, chelation therapy and other treatments exist for internal radionuclide contamination.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Cleaning up contamination results in radioactive waste unless the radioactive material can be returned to commercial use by reprocessing. In some cases of large areas of contamination, the contamination may be mitigated by burying and covering the contaminated substances with concrete, soil, or rock to prevent further spread of the contamination to the environment. If a person's body is contaminated by ingestion or by injury and standard cleaning cannot reduce the contamination further, then the person may be permanently contaminated.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Contamination control products have been used by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the commercial nuclear industry for decades to minimize contamination on radioactive equipment and surfaces and fix contamination in place. "Contamination control products" is a broad term that includes fixatives, strippable coatings, and decontamination gels. A "fixative" product functions as a permanent coating to stabilize residual loose/transferable radioactive contamination by fixing it in place; this aids in preventing the spread of contamination and reduces the possibility of the contamination becoming airborne, reducing workforce exposure and facilitating future deactivation and decommissioning (D&D) activities. "Strippable coating" products are loosely adhered to paint-like films and are used for their decontamination abilities. They are applied to surfaces with loose/transferable radioactive contamination and then, once dried, are peeled off, which removes the loose/transferable contamination along with the product. The residual radioactive contamination on the surface is significantly reduced once the strippable coating is removed. Modern strippable coatings show high decontamination efficiency and can rival traditional mechanical and chemical decontamination methods. "Decontamination gels" work in much the same way as other strippable coatings. The results obtained through the use of contamination control products are variable and depend on the type of substrate, the selected contamination control product, the contaminants, and the environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, etc.).


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Some of the largest areas committed to be decontaminated are in the Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. The national government is under pressure to clean up radioactivity due to the Fukushima nuclear accident of March 2011 from as much land as possible so that some of the 110,000 displaced people can return. Stripping out the key radioisotope threatening health (caesium-137) from low-level waste could also dramatically decrease the volume of waste requiring special disposal. A goal is to find techniques that might be able to strip out 80 to 95% of the caesium from contaminated soil and other materials, efficiently and without destroying the organic content in the soil. One being investigated is termed hydrothermal blasting. The caesium is broken away from soil particles and then precipitated with ferric ferricyanide (Prussian blue). It would be the only component of the waste requiring special burial sites. The aim is to get annual exposure from the contaminated environment down to one millisievert (mSv) above background. The most contaminated area where radiation doses are greater than 50 mSv/year must remain off-limits, but some areas that are currently less than 5 mSv/year may be decontaminated allowing 22,000 residents to return.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: To help protect people living in geographical areas which have been radioactively contaminated, the International Commission on Radiological Protection has published a guide: "Publication 111 – Application of the Commission's Recommendations to the Protection of People Living in Long-term Contaminated Areas after a Nuclear Accident or a Radiation Emergency".


title: Radioactive contamination

text: The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the nature of the radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination. Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still be detected by radiation instrumentation. If a survey or map is made of a contaminated area, random sampling locations may be labeled with their activity in becquerels or curies on contact. Low levels may be reported in counts per minute using a scintillation counter.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with a short half-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the material to naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly disposed of because even a very low level of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Facilities and physical locations that are deemed to be contaminated may be cordoned off by a health physicist and labeled "Contaminated area." Persons coming near such an area would typically require anti-contamination clothing ("anti-Cs").


title: Radioactive contamination

text: High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: When radioactive contamination is being measured or mapped "in situ", any location that appears to be a point source of radiation is likely to be heavily contaminated. A highly contaminated location is colloquially referred to as a "hot spot." On a map of a contaminated place, hot spots may be labeled with their "on contact" dose rate in mSv/h. In a contaminated facility, hot spots may be marked with a sign, shielded with bags of lead shot, or cordoned off with warning tape containing the radioactive trefoil symbol.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: The hazard from contamination is the emission of ionizing radiation. The principal radiations which will be encountered are alpha, beta and gamma, but these have quite different characteristics. They have widely differing penetrating powers and radiation effects, and the accompanying diagram shows the penetration of these radiations in simple terms. For an understanding of the different ionising effects of these radiations and the weighting factors applied, see the article on absorbed dose.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8 and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Radioactive contamination by definition emits ionizing radiation, which can irradiate the human body from an external or internal origin.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: This is due to radiation from contamination located outside the human body. The source can be in the vicinity of the body or can be on the skin surface. The level of health risk is dependent on duration and the type and strength of irradiation. Penetrating radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, neutrons or beta particles pose the greatest risk from an external source. Low penetrating radiation such as alpha particles have a low external risk due to the shielding effect of the top layers of skin. See the article on sievert for more information on how this is calculated.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Radioactive contamination can be ingested into the human body if it is airborne or is taken in as contamination of food or drink, and will irradiate the body internally. The art and science of assessing internally generated radiation dose is Internal dosimetry.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: The biological effects of ingested radionuclides depend greatly on the activity, the biodistribution, and the removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its chemical form, the particle size, and route of entry. Effects may also depend on the chemical toxicity of the deposited material, independent of its radioactivity. Some radionuclides may be generally distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case with tritiated water.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Some organs concentrate certain elements and hence radionuclide variants of those elements. This action may lead to much lower removal rates. For instance, the thyroid gland takes up a large percentage of any iodine that enters the body. Large quantities of inhaled or ingested radioactive iodine may impair or destroy the thyroid, while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine-131 is a common fission product; it was a major component of the radioactivity released from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to nine fatal cases of pediatric thyroid cancer and hypothyroidism. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of the thyroid precisely because of the thyroid's selective uptake of iodine.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: The radiation risk proposed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) predicts that an effective dose of one sievert (100 rem) carries a 5.5% chance of developing cancer. Such a risk is the sum of both internal and external radiation doses.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: The ICRP states "Radionuclides incorporated in the human body irradiate the tissues over time periods determined by their physical half-life and their biological retention within the body. Thus they may give rise to doses to body tissues for many months or years after the intake. The need to regulate exposures to radionuclides and the accumulation of radiation dose over extended periods of time has led to the definition of committed dose quantities".


title: Radioactive contamination

text: The ICRP further states "For internal exposure, committed effective doses are generally determined from an assessment of the intakes of radionuclides from bioassay measurements or other quantities (e.g., activity retained in the body or in daily excreta). The radiation dose is determined from the intake using recommended dose coefficients".


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Committed equivalent dose, H ("t") is the time integral of the equivalent dose rate in a particular tissue or organ that will be received by an individual following intake of radioactive material into the body by a Reference Person, where "t" is the integration time in years.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: This refers specifically to the dose in a specific tissue or organ, in a similar way to external equivalent dose.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Committed effective dose, E("t") is the sum of the products of the committed organ or tissue equivalent doses and the appropriate tissue weighting factors "W", where "t" is the integration time in years following the intake. The commitment period is taken to be 50 years for adults, and to age 70 years for children. This refers specifically to the dose to the whole body, in a similar way to external effective dose.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: A 2015 report in "Lancet" explained that serious impacts of nuclear accidents were often not directly attributable to radiation exposure, but rather social and psychological effects. The consequences of low-level radiation are often more psychological than radiological. Because damage from very low-level radiation cannot be detected, people exposed to it are left in anguished uncertainty about what will happen to them. Many believe they have been fundamentally contaminated for life and may refuse to have children for fear of birth defects. They may be shunned by others in their community who fear a sort of mysterious contagion.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Forced evacuation from a radiological or nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, even suicide. Such was the outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Ukraine. A comprehensive 2005 study concluded that "the mental health impact of Chernobyl is the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date". Frank N. von Hippel, a U.S. scientist, commented on 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, saying that "fear of ionizing radiation could have long-term psychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas". Evacuation and long-term displacement of affected populations create problems for many people, especially the elderly and hospital patients.


title: Radioactive contamination

text: Such great psychological danger does not accompany other materials that put people at risk of cancer and other deadly illness. Visceral fear is not widely aroused by, for example, the daily emissions from coal burning, although, as a National Academy of Sciences study found, this causes 10,000 premature deaths a year in the US population of 317,413,000. Medical errors leading to death in U.S. hospitals are estimated to be between 44,000 and 98,000. It is "only nuclear radiation that bears a huge psychological burden – for it carries a unique historical legacy".


title: Machine Identification Code

text: A Machine Identification Code (MIC), also known as printer steganography, yellow dots, tracking dots or secret dots, is a digital watermark which certain color laser printers and copiers leave on every printed page, allowing identification of the device which was used to print a document and giving clues to the originator. Developed by Xerox and Canon in the mid-1980s, its existence became public only in 2004. In 2018, scientists developed privacy software to anonymize prints in order to support whistleblowers publishing their work.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: In the mid-1980s Xerox pioneered an encoding mechanism for a unique number represented by tiny dots spread over the entire print area. Xerox developed the machine identification code "to assuage fears that their color copiers could be used to counterfeit bills" and received U.S. Patent No 5515451 describing the use of the yellow dots to identify the source of a copied or printed document.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: The public first became aware of MIC in October 2004, when it was used by Dutch authorities to track counterfeiters who had used a Canon color laser printer. In November 2004, "PC World" reported the machine identification code had been used for decades in some printers, allowing law enforcement to identify and track counterfeiters. The Central Bank Counterfeit Deterrence Group (CBCDG) has denied that it developed the feature.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: In 2005, the civil rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) encouraged the public to send in sample printouts and subsequently decoded the pattern. The pattern has been demonstrated on a wide range of printers from different manufacturers and models. The EFF stated in 2015 that the documents that they previously received through the FOIA suggested that all major manufacturers of color laser printers entered a secret agreement with governments to ensure that the output of those printers is forensically traceable.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: The pattern consists of a dot-matrix spread of yellow dots, which can barely be seen with the naked eye. The dots have a diameter of a tenth of a millimeter (0.004") and a spacing of about one millimeter (0.039"). Their arrangement encodes the serial number of the device, date and time of the printing, and is repeated several times across the printing area in case of errors. For example, if the code consists of 8 × 16 dots in a square or hexagonal pattern, it spreads over a surface of about and appears on a sheet of size A4 paper about 150 times. Thus, it can be analyzed even if only fragments or excerpts are available. Some printers arrange yellow dots in seemingly random point clouds.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: According to the Chaos Computer Club in 2005, color printers leave the code in a matrix of 32 × 16 dots and thus can store 64 bytes of data (64×8).


title: Machine Identification Code

text: , Xerox was one of the few manufacturers to draw attention to the marked pages, stating in a product description, "The digital color printing system is equipped with an anti-counterfeit identification and banknote recognition system according to the requirements of numerous governments. Each copy shall be marked with a label which, if necessary, allows identification of the printing system with which it was created. This code is not visible under normal conditions."


title: Machine Identification Code

text: In 2018, scientists at the TU Dresden analyzed the patterns of 106 printer models from 18 manufacturers and found four different encoding schemes.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: The Machine Identification Code can be made visible by printing or copying a page and subsequently scanning a small section with a high-resolution scanner. The yellow color channel can then be enhanced with an image processing program, to make any dots of the MIC clearly visible. Under good lighting conditions, a magnifying glass may be enough to see the pattern. Under UV-light the yellow dots are clearly recognizable.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: Using this steganographic process, high-quality copies of an original (e.g. a bank note) under blue light can be made identifiable. Using this process, even shredded prints can be identified: the 2011 "Shredder Challenge" initiated by the DARPA was solved by a team called "All Your Shreds Are Belong To U.S." consisting of Otavio Good and two colleagues.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: Both journalists and security experts have suggested that "The Intercept" handling of the leaks by whistleblower Reality Winner, which included publishing secret NSA documents unredacted and including the printer tracking dots, was used to identify Winner as the leaker, leading to her arrest and conviction.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: Copies or printouts of documents with confidential personal information, for example health care information, account statements, tax declaration or balance sheets, can be traced to the owner of the printer and the inception date of the documents can be revealed. This traceability is unknown to many users and inaccessible, as manufacturers do not publicize the code that produces these patterns. It is unclear which data may be unintentionally passed on with a copy or printout. In particular, there are no mentions of the technique in the support materials of most affected printers. In 2005 the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) sought a decoding method and made available a Python script for analysis.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: In 2018, scientists from TU Dresden developed and published a tool to extract and analyze the steganographic codes of a given color printer and subsequently to anonymize prints from that printer. The anonymization works by printing additional yellow dots on top of the Machine Identification Code. The scientists made the software available to support whistleblowers in their efforts to publicize grievances.


title: Machine Identification Code

text: Other methods of identification are not as easily recognizable as yellow dots. For example, a modulation of laser intensity and a variation of shades of grey in texts are already feasible. , it was unknown whether manufacturers were also using these techniques.


title: Oder

text: The Oder ( , ; Czech, Lower Sorbian and ; ) is a river in Central Europe. It is Poland's second-longest river in total length and third-longest within its borders after the Vistula and Warta. The Oder rises in the Czech Republic and flows through western Poland, later forming of the border between Poland and Germany as part of the Oder–Neisse line. The river ultimately flows into the Szczecin Lagoon north of Szczecin and then into three branches (the Dziwna, Świna and Peene) that empty into the Bay of Pomerania of the Baltic Sea.


title: Oder

text: The Oder is known by several names in different languages, but the modern ones are very similar: English and ; Czech, Polish, and , ; (); Medieval Latin: "Od(d)era"; Renaissance Latin: "Viadrus" (invented in 1534).


title: Oder

text: Ptolemy knew the modern Oder as the Συήβος ("Suebos"; Latin "Suevus"), a name apparently derived from the Suebi, a Germanic people. While he also refers to an outlet in the area as the Οὐιαδούα "Ouiadoua" (or Οὐιλδούα "Ouildoua"; Latin "Viadua" or "Vildua"), this was apparently the modern Wieprza, as it was said to be a third of the distance between the "Suebos" and Vistula. The name "Suebos" may be preserved in the modern name of the Świna river (German "Swine"), an outlet from the Szczecin Lagoon to the Baltic.


title: Oder

text: The Oder is long: in the Czech Republic, in Poland (including on the border between Germany and Poland) and is the third longest river located within Poland (after the Vistula and Warta), however, second longest river overall taking into account its total length, including parts in neighbouring countries.


title: Oder

text: The Oder drains a basin of , of which are in Poland (89%), in the Czech Republic (6%), and in Germany (5%). Channels connect it to the Havel, Spree, Vistula system and Kłodnica. It flows through Silesian, Opole, Lower Silesian, Lubusz, and West Pomeranian voivodeships of Poland and the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany.


title: Oder

text: The main branch empties into the Szczecin Lagoon near Police, Poland. The Szczecin Lagoon is bordered on the north by the islands of Usedom (west) and Wolin (east). Between these two islands, there is only a narrow channel (Świna) going to the Bay of Pomerania, which forms a part of the Baltic Sea.


title: Oder

text: The Oder is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as the town of Koźle, where the river connects to the Gliwice Canal. The upstream part of the river is canalized and permits larger barges (up to CEMT Class IV) to navigate between the industrial sites around the Wrocław area.


title: Oder

text: Further downstream the river is free-flowing, passing the towns of Eisenhüttenstadt (where the Oder–Spree Canal connects the river to the Spree in Berlin) and Frankfurt upon the Oder. Downstream of Frankfurt the river Warta forms a navigable connection with Poznań and Bydgoszcz for smaller vessels. At Hohensaaten the Oder–Havel Canal connects with the Berlin waterways again.


title: Oder

text: Near its mouth the Oder reaches the city of Szczecin, a major maritime port. The river finally reaches the Baltic Sea through the Szczecin Lagoon and the river mouth at Świnoujście.


title: Oder

text: Under Germania Magna, the river was known to the Romans as the "Viadrus" or "Viadua" in Classical Latin, as it was a branch of the Amber Road from the Baltic Sea to the Roman Empire. In Germanic languages, including English, it was and still is called the "Oder", written in medieval Latin documents as "Odera" or "Oddera". Most notably, it was mentioned in the Dagome iudex, which described territory of the Duchy of Poland under Duke Mieszko I in A.D. 990, as a part of Poland's western frontier, however, in most sections the border ran west of the river.


title: Oder

text: Before Slavs settled along its banks, the Oder was an important trade route, and towns in Germania were documented along with many tribes living between the rivers Albis (Elbe), Oder, and Vistula. Centuries later, after Germanic tribes, the Bavarian Geographer (ca. 845) specified the following West Slavic peoples: Sleenzane, Dadosesani, Opolanie, Lupiglaa, and Golensizi in Silesia and Wolinians with Pyrzycans in Western Pomerania. A document of the Bishopric of Prague (1086) mentions Zlasane, Trebovyane, Poborane, and Dedositze in Silesia.


title: Oder

text: In the 10th century, almost the entire course of the Oder River found itself within the borders of the newly formed Polish state, with the exception of the area around the source of the river, which was under Bohemian rule. Several important cities of medieval Poland developed along the Oder, including Opole which became the capital of Upper Silesia, Wrocław which became the capital of Lower Silesia and one of the main cities of the entire Kingdom of Poland (Latin: "sedes regni principales"), and Lubusz (now Lebus) which became the capital of the Lubusz Land, nicknamed "the key to the Kingdom of Poland" in medieval chronicles. Wrocław and Lubusz became seats of some of the oldest Catholic bishoprics of Poland, founded in 1000 (Wrocław) and 1125 (Lubusz). Located near the mouth of the river, Szczecin became one of the main cities and ports of the Pomerania region and the entire southern coast of the Baltic Sea.


title: Oder

text: From the 13th century on, the Oder valley was central to German Ostsiedlung, making the towns on its banks German-speaking over the following centuries. Over time, control over parts of the river was taken from Poland by other countries, including the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Kingdom of Bohemia, and later also by Hungary, Sweden, Prussia and Germany.


title: Oder

text: The Finow Canal, first built in 1605, connects the Oder and Havel. After completion of the more straight Oder–Havel Canal in 1914, its economic relevance decreased.


title: Oder

text: The earliest important undertaking to modify the river to improve navigation was initiated by Frederick the Great, who recommended diverting the river into a new and straight channel in the swampy tract known as Oderbruch near Küstrin (Kostrzyn nad Odrą). The work was carried out in the years 1746–53, a large tract of marshland being brought under cultivation, a considerable detour cut off and the mainstream successfully confined to a canal.


title: Oder

text: By the Treaty of Versailles, navigation on the Oder became subject to International Commission of the Oder. Following the articles 363 and 364 of the Treaty Czechoslovakia was entitled to lease in Stettin (now Szczecin) its own section in the harbor, then called "Tschechoslowakische Zone im Hafen Stettin". The contract of lease between Czechoslovakia and Germany, and supervised by the United Kingdom, was signed on 16 February 1929, and would end in 2028, however, after 1945 Czechoslovakia did not regain this legal position, de facto abolished in 1938–39.


title: Oder

text: At the 1943 Tehran Conference the Allies decided that the new eastern border of Germany would run along the Oder. After World War II, the former German areas east of the Oder and the Lusatian Neisse passed to Poland by decision of the victorious Allies at the Potsdam Conference (at the insistence of the Soviets). As a result, the so-called Oder–Neisse line formed the border between the Soviet occupation zone (from 1949 East Germany) and Poland. The final border between Germany and Poland was to be determined at a future peace conference. A part of the German population east of these two rivers was evacuated by the Nazis during the war or fled from the approaching Red Army. After the war, the remaining 8 million Germans were expelled from these territories by the Polish and Soviet administrations. East Germany confirmed the border with Poland under Soviet pressure in the Treaty of Zgorzelec in 1950. West Germany, after a period of refusal, confirmed the inviolability of the border in 1970 in the Treaty of Warsaw. In 1990 newly reunified Germany and the Republic of Poland signed a treaty recognizing the Oder–Neisse line as their border.


title: Oder

text: On 11 August 2022, it was discovered that the Oder river had been contaminated and at least 135 tonnes of dead fish washed up on its shores. Water samples taken on 28 July indicated possible mesitylene contamination, although the toxin was not present in samples taken after 1 August.


title: Yenish people

text: The Yenish (German: "Jenische"; French: "Yéniche") are an itinerant group in Western Europe who live mostly in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium, and parts of France, roughly centred on the Rhineland. A number of theories for the group's origins have been proposed, including that the Yenish descended from members of the marginalized and vagrant poor classes of society of the early modern period, before emerging as a distinct group by the early 19th century. Most of the Yenish became sedentary in the course of the mid-19th to 20th centuries.


title: Yenish people

text: The Yenish people as a distinct group, as opposed to the generic class of vagrants of the early modern period, emerged towards the end of the 18th century. The adjective "jenisch" is first recorded in the early 18th century in the sense of "cant, argot". A self-designation "Jauner" is recorded in 1793. "Jenisch" remains strictly an adjective that refers to the language, not the people, until the first half of the 19th century. Jean Paul (1801) glosses "jänische Sprache" ("Yenish language") with "so nennt man in Schwaben die aus fast allen sprachen zusammengeschleppte spitzbubensprache" ("this is the term used in Swabia for the thieves' argot which has been conflated from all sorts of languages"). An anonymous author in 1810 argues that "Jauner" is a deprecating term, equivalent to "cardsharp", and that the proper designation for the people should be "jenische Gasche".


title: Yenish people

text: Many Yenish people in Germany became sedentary in the second half of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Prussia in 1842 introduced a law forcing municipalities to provide social welfare to permanent residents without citizenship. As a consequence, there were attempts to prevent Yenish people from taking permanent residence. Recently established settlements of Yenish, Sinti, and Roma, dubbed "gypsy colonies" ("Zigeunerkolonien"), were discouraged and attempts were made to incite the settlers to move away, in the form of various forms of harassment, and in some cases physical attacks. By the late 19th century, many recently sedentary Yenish were nevertheless integrated into local populations, gradually moving away from their tradition of endogamy thus being absorbed into the general German population. Those Yenish who did not become sedentary by the late 19th century took to living in trailers.


title: Yenish people

text: The persecution of Romani people under Nazi Germany beginning in 1933 was directed not exclusively against the Romani people but also targeted "vagrants who travel around after the manner of the gypsies" ("nach Zigeunerart umherziehende Landfahrer"), which included the Yenish and people without permanent residence in general. Travellers were scheduled for internment in Buchenwald, Dachau, Sachsenhausen and Neuengamme. Yenish families began to be registered in a "Landfahrersippenarchiv" ("archive of travelling families"), but this effort was incomplete by the end of World War II. It appears that only very limited numbers of Yenish (compared with the number of Romani victims) were actually deported: five Yenish individuals are on record as having been deported from Cologne, and a total of 279 "woonwagenbewoners" ('caravan dwellers') are known to have been deported from the Netherlands in 1944. Lewy (2001) has discovered one case of the deportation of a Yenish woman in 1939. Another documented Yenish victim of the Nazi policies is Ernst Lossa (1929–1944), who was interned and euthanized for mental illness. The Yenish people are mentioned as a persecuted group in the text of the 2012 Memorial to the Sinti and Roma Victims of National Socialism in Berlin.


title: Yenish people

text: In 2001, Swiss National Councillor Remo Galli as speaker of the foundation "Zukunft für Schweizer Fahrende" reported an estimate of 35,000 "travellers" ("Fahrende", a term combining Sinti, Roma and Yenish), both sedentary and non-sedentary, in Switzerland, among them an estimated 20,000 Yenish people.


title: Yenish people

text: From the 1920s until the 1970s, the Swiss government had a semi-official policy of institutionalizing Yenish parents and having their children adopted by members of the sedentary Swiss population. The name of this program was "Kinder der Landstrasse" ("Children of the Road"). What was ostensibly intended as a charitable effort to remove children from what was perceived as precarious conditions in a criminal milieu of homelessness and vagrancy was later criticized as a violation of the fundamental rights of the Yenishe to family life, with children separated from parents by force without due criminal procedure, and resulting in many of the children suffering an ordeal of successive foster homes and orphanages. In all, 590 children were taken from their parents and institutionalized in orphanages, mental institutions, and even prisons. Child removals peaked in the 1930s to 1940s, in the years leading up to and during World War II. After public criticism in 1972, the program was discontinued in 1973.


title: Yenish people

text: An organisation for the political representation of travellers (Yenish as well as Sinti and Roma) was founded in 1975, named "Radgenossenschaft der Landstrasse" ("Wheel Cooperative of the Road"). The Swiss federal authorities have officially recognized the "Swiss Yenish and Sinti" as a "national minority". With the ratification of the European language charter in 1997, Switzerland has given the status of a "territorial non-tied language" to the Yenish language.


title: Marfa lights

text: The Marfa lights, also known as the Marfa ghost lights, have been observed near U.S. Route 67 on Mitchell Flat east of Marfa, Texas, in the United States. They have gained some fame as onlookers have attributed them to paranormal phenomena such as ghosts, UFOs, or will-o'-the-wisp. Scientific research suggests that most, if not all, are atmospheric reflections of automobile headlights and campfires.


title: Marfa lights

text: According to Judith Brueske, "The 'Marfa Lights' of west Texas have been called many names over the years, such as ghost lights, weird lights, strange lights, car lights, mystery lights, or Chinati lights. The favorite place from which to view the lights is a widened shoulder on Highway 90 about nine miles east of Marfa. The lights are most often reported as distant spots of brightness, distinguishable from ranch lights and automobile headlights on Highway 67 (between Marfa and Presidio, to the south) primarily by their aberrant movements."


title: Marfa lights

text: Robert and Judy Wagers define "Classic Marfa Lights" as being seen south-southwest of the Marfa Lights Viewing Center (MLVC). They define the left margin of the viewing area as being aligned along the Big Bend Telephone Company tower as viewed from the MLVC, and the right margin as Chinati Peak as viewed from the MLVC.


title: Marfa lights

text: Referring to the Marfa Lights View Park east of Marfa, James Bunnell states, "you might just see mysterious orbs of light suddenly appear above desert foliage. These balls of light may remain stationary as they pulse on and off with intensity varying from dim to almost blinding brilliance. Then again, these ghostly lights may dart across the desert...or perform splits and mergers. Light colors are usually yellow-orange but other hues, including green, blue and red are also seen. Marfa Mystery Lights (MLs) usually fly above desert vegetation but below background mesas."


title: Marfa lights

text: The first historical record of the Marfa lights was in 1883 when a young cowhand, Robert Reed Ellison, saw a flickering light while he was driving cattle through Paisano Pass and wondered if it was the campfire of Apache Indians. Other settlers told him they often saw the lights, but that when they investigated they found no ashes or other evidence of a campsite. Joe and Anne Humphreys next reported seeing the lights in 1885. Both stories appear in Cecilia Thompson's book "History of Marfa and Presidio County, Texas 1535–1946", which was published in 1985.


title: Marfa lights

text: The first published account of the lights appeared in the July 1957 issue of "Coronet" magazine. In 1976 Elton Miles's "Tales of the Big Bend" included stories dating to the 19th century and a photograph of the Marfa lights by a local rancher.


title: Marfa lights

text: Bunnell lists 34 Marfa lights sightings from 1945 through 2008. Monitoring stations were put in place starting in 2003. He has identified "an average of 9.5 MLs on 5.25 nights per year", but believes that the monitoring stations may only be finding half of the Marfa lights in Mitchell Flat.


title: Marfa lights

text: Skeptic Brian Dunning notes that the designated "View Park" for the lights, a roadside park on the south side of U.S. Route 90 about 9 miles (14 km) east of Marfa, is at the site of Marfa Army Airfield, where tens of thousands of personnel were stationed between 1942 and 1947, training American and Allied pilots. This massive field was then used for years as a regional airport, with daily airline service. Since Marfa AAF and its satellite fields are each constantly patrolled by sentries, they consider it unlikely that any unusual phenomena would remain unobserved and unmentioned. According to Dunning, the likeliest explanation is that the lights are a sort of mirage caused by sharp temperature gradients between cold and warm layers of air. Marfa is at an elevation of 4,688 ft (1,429 m) above sea level, and temperature differentials of 40–50 °F (22–28 °C) between high and low temperatures are quite common.


title: Marfa lights

text: In May 2004 a group from the Society of Physics Students at the University of Texas at Dallas spent four days investigating and recording lights observed southwest of the view park using traffic volume-monitoring equipment, video cameras, binoculars, and chase cars. Their report made the following conclusions:


title: Marfa lights

text: They came to the conclusion that all the lights observed over a four-night period southwest of the view park could be reliably attributed to automobile headlights traveling along U.S. 67 between Marfa and Presidio, Texas.


title: Marfa lights

text: For 20 nights in May 2008, scientists from Texas State University used spectroscopy equipment to observe lights from the Marfa lights viewing station. They recorded a number of lights that "could have been mistaken for lights of unknown origin", but in each case the movements of the lights and the data from their equipment could be easily explained as automobile headlights or small fires.


title: Marfa lights

text: The lights have been featured and mentioned in various media, including the television show "Unsolved Mysteries" and an episode of "King of the Hill" ("Of Mice and Little Green Men") and in an episode of the Disney Channel Original Series "So Weird". A book by David Morrell, 2009's "The Shimmer", was inspired by the lights. The Rolling Stones mention the "lights of Marfa" in the song "No Spare Parts" from the 2011 re-release of their 1978 album "Some Girls". Country music artist Paul Cauthen wrote "Marfa Lights," a love song inspired by the lights, for his 2016 album "My Gospel."


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: Danganronpa: The Animation is an anime television series produced by Lerche, based on Spike Chunsoft's 2010 visual novel "". The thirteen episode adaptation aired on MBS' Animeism programming block between July and September 2013. The series is licensed by Crunchyroll (formerly known as Funimation) in the English-speaking regions of North America, Australia and United Kingdom and Muse Communication in Southeast Asia and South Asia. The series was succeeded by an anime-original sequel to the game series, "", which aired in 2016.


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: "Danganronpa: The Animation" follows the events of the video game "". The series follows 16 high school students locked inside "Hope's Peak Academy," their high school. The students are threatened by an anthropomorphic bear, Monokuma, who gives them only one way to leave the Academy: to murder another student, and not be found guilty in the subsequent trial.


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: The Animation follows protagonist and fifteen other students. Each character has an "ultimate" skill, or profession; such as the "Ultimate Gambler", or "Ultimate Swimmer". When dubbed from Japan they are usually called "Super High School Level."


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: In December 2012, Kadokawa Shoten's "Newtype" magazine announced that there would be an anime television series adaptation of the game, titled "Danganronpa: The Animation", produced by Lerche, directed by Seiji Kishi, and written by Makoto Uezu. The final Blu-ray/DVD volume, released on 26 February 2014, contains an extended final episode. The series aired in Japan on MBS' Animeism programming block between 4 July 2013 and 26 September 2013. The series is licensed in North America by Funimation, who simulcast it as it aired and released the series on BD/DVD on 10 November 2015. Funimation's English dub contains almost a completely different cast from that of the games, with only Bryce Papenbrook reprising his role as Makoto Naegi. Manga Entertainment released the series in the United Kingdom on 9 November 2015.


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: The opening theme is "Never Say Never" by TKDz2b with rapping provided by Jas Mace and Marchitect (aka The 49ers) and Tribeca, whilst the ending theme is by Suzumu feat. Soraru. The opening theme for episode one is "Danganronpa" by Masafumi Takada whilst the opening theme for episode four is by Sachiko Kobayashi feat. Monokuma (Nobuyo Ōyama). The ending theme for episode 13 is by Megumi Ogata.


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: The soundtrack was released on August 28, 2013 by Geneon Universal (now NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan), one of the anime's production companies.


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: In 2014, The 19th Animation Kobe committee chose Kishi to receive their Individual Award for the stretch of his career including Danganronpa: The Animation, Arpeggio of Blue Steel, and Hamatora.


title: Danganronpa: The Animation

text: A second anime series, titled "", aired between July and September 2016. The series concludes the "Hope's Peak Academy" storyline and is split into two parts; "Future Side" which takes place after "Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair", and "Despair Side", which takes place prior to the events of "Trigger Happy Havoc". Seiji Kishi once again directed the series at Lerche, while Norimitsu Kaihō wrote the screenplay.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker (born December 31, 1979) is an American man convicted under the Texas Law of Parties of murdering two family members as a 24-year-old. Whitaker was convicted for the December 10, 2003, murders of his mother and 19-year-old brother; he was sentenced to death in March 2007. He spent years on death row at the Polunsky Unit near Livingston, Texas, before the commutation of his sentence. On February 22, 2018, about 40 minutes before his scheduled 6:00  execution, Whitaker had his death sentence commuted to life imprisonment without parole by Governor Greg Abbott, the first such commutation by Abbott and the first in the state since 2007. As of September 2021, Whitaker resided in the McConnell Unit in Beeville, Texas.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker was born on December31, 1979, to father Kent, the comptroller of a construction company, and mother Patricia (Trish), an elementary school teacher.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker attended Clements High School where in 1997 as a 17-year-old he received a criminal conviction for a series of seven burglaries that he had "meticulous[ly]" planned, leading other young friends in the spree. In that same time frame, Whitaker's parents had bought him several luxury vehicles. Whitaker began attending Baylor University in 2001, transferring from there to Sam Houston State University (SHSU), where he was thought by his parents to be in attendance in late 2003, and from which he was expected to graduate. He had lied to his parents about his continued status in college; varying reports had him dropping out of SHSU months before, or being present there as a freshman on academic probation. His parents funded his academic pursuits. In addition, they purchased a lakeside townhouse in Willis, Texas, for his use, and a $4,000 Rolex watch was given to him as a college graduation present hours before the murders.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: On December 10, 2003, Thomas Bartlett "Bart" Whitaker falsely told his family that he had just taken his final university exams and would soon be graduating from SHSU. They drove to the nearby Pappadeaux restaurant in Stafford for a celebratory dinner. Whitaker had enlisted an individual named Chris Brashear to carry out the shootings, and a Steven Champagne to be the getaway driver for Brashear. Brashear, dressed in black (including a ski mask), entered the Whitaker family home, took Kevin's gun and ammunition from a locked box in his room, staged a burglary, and then waited near the front door for the Whitaker family to return home. Upon returning home, but before entering the house, Bart said that he needed to collect his cell phone from his parked Yukon, knowing that Brashear was armed and waiting inside to kill his family. Bart's brother Kevin entered the family home first and reportedly smiled when he saw the masked Brashear. Brashear shot Kevin once through his chest, and Kevin fell to the floor. Patricia was then also shot in the chest, also falling to the floor. Kent rushed in and was shot in the shoulder with the bullet shattering his humerus. Bart then ran inside and staged a struggle with Brashear, getting shot in his left arm to divert suspicion.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Brashear then exited through the Whitakers' back door and jumped over the fence into the rear neighbor's yard. Bart's brother Kevin died within minutes of being shot; his mother Patricia died shortly after the start of her airlift by Life Flight to Memorial Hermann Hospital. Bart told first responders that he thought the gunman was black, in order to divert suspicion away from Brashear. Bart's father Kent survived the shooting in which his wife and son were killed.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker left for Mexico in June 2004, using $3000 to persuade an acquaintance to assist him; he assumed the name "Rudy Rios", found work in a furniture shop in Cerralvo, Mexico, developed a relationship with a woman, and concocted a story of service in Afghanistan to explain his gunshot wound. He lived there under the false name for over a year. On September 15, 2005, a capital murder warrant was issued against Whitaker. The acquaintance who had assisted Whitaker to flee became aware of reward money that had been offered for his arrest, and communicated Whitaker's whereabouts to the police.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Cooperating with US authorities, Mexican authorities arrested Whitaker without incident under immigration charges. In September 2005, Whitaker was handed over to U.S. authorities at the border town of Laredo, Texas, where he was arrested for capital murder.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker was refused a plea bargain by the District Attorney in return for his admission of guilt, and was instead tried for capital murder. The trial began in March 2007, led by prosecutor Fred Felcman.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: It was conducted before a judge and a Fort Bend County jury. Evidence was presented that Whitaker had recruited two individuals, Steve Champagne and Chris Brashear, ages 24 and 25 at the time of the 2007 trial, respectively, Champagne to be the getaway car driver and Brashear to carry out the shootings in Whitaker's plan to murder his immediate family. Early evidence was presented that Whitaker had previously recruited others in abortive plots to murder his family, plots involving a co-conspirator named Adam Hipp, who had attended Clements High School with Whitaker. At the trial, Hipp stated that he had contacted the Sugar Land Police Department with information about previous plots after he heard about the Whitaker family murders 2003; he was given immunity from prosecution in exchange for testifying for the prosecution against Whitaker.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: The early testimony from Hipp described a first Whitaker plan to set a lake house owned by his grandmother on fire "to kill his parents, brother and other relatives", a plan that never went beyond discussions, but one that included a ruse as an element — the defendant's "com[ing] out of the blaze with burns so that it would appear he had narrowly escaped". Hipp, who admitted on cross-examination that his participation in Whitaker's schemes had been "motivated by money" — police testified that Whitaker stood to inherit the family estate, valued at $1 million — further testified that in December 2000, prior to the murders of which he stood accused, Whitaker had made another preempted plan, this time to "ambush his parents and brother as they entered their home after a dinner outing", a plan noted by the "Houston Chronicle" to be "virtually identical to the one [Champagne would soon testify] was actually carried out three years later." The trial judge's handling of the prosecution's use of a phone recording between Hipp and Whitaker would become an element of the defense's later appeal of the verdict.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: In other early testimony, Steve Champagne described Whitaker recruiting him to be the getaway driver for Whitaker's eventual 2003 plan to murder his immediate family, and his testimony included the detail that Whitaker's gunshot wound was a ploy to make it look like he was a victim, too. Prosecutors presented evidence that although it wasn't Whitaker who shot his family members, he was responsible for the murders because he played the leading part in the conspiracy to commit the murders


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: The prosecution's theory of motive focused on financial gain, with evidence variously described as pointing to Whitaker standing to inherit "about $1.5 million" after the death of his parents and brother, or that he had wanted to capitalize on a million-dollar life insurance payout. At trial, it was noted that Whitaker had access to an $80,000 trust fund from his grandparents, although he testified that he did not know he could access it. Whitaker denied prosecution claims regarding the insurance profit motive, arguing that the only life insurance policy the family had was for $50,000 on his father's life.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Kent Whitaker had already forgiven his son and his co-conspirators for their parts in the murders (reported on as early as 2007), and had tried at the time of his son's trial, years earlier, to persuade the jury not to deliver a death sentence.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: On Friday, March 2, 2007, the State of Texas rested the case for the prosecution in the capital murder trial for Thomas Bartlett Whitaker's role in the deaths of his brother and mother. Randy McDonald, attorney for the defense, rested their case on the same day, without calling witnesses, and the judge scheduled closing arguments for the morning of March 5. After closing arguments, the case went to the jury. After deliberation the Fort Bend County jury convicted Whitaker of capital murder, under the Texas law of parties. The trial had lasted six days in total; the "jury deliberat[ed] for 2 hours, and sentenced Whitaker to death".


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Chris Brashear received a life sentence with the possibility of parole after 30 years for his role in the murders, in a plea bargain worked out with prosecutors; Steven Champagne received 15 years after serving as the main witness for the prosecution.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker appealed his death sentence, suggesting nine points of error. In 2009, the state appeals court found in favor of the appellant on none of these points of law.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: After losing a separate appeal in the federal courts early in 2017, Whitaker's legal team appealed his claims to the U.S. Supreme Court. The appeal was certiorari denied. On November 1, 2017, his death warrant was signed, scheduling his execution for February 22, 2018.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker's defense team lodged an appeal focused on the purity of drugs used in Texas executions in 2017–2018. The State of Texas executes by overdosing the condemned with pentobarbital from a compounding pharmacy, and Whitaker's defense lawyers had claimed the state's first two executions of 2018 were botched because of old lethal injection drugs. Whitaker withdrew his appeal pertaining to the purity of the drug used, pending at the Supreme Court of the United States, just before a decision by the Texas Governor to grant clemency and commute his sentence.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Alongside the legal submission from the Whitaker legal team — an 18-page document from Whitaker lawyers Keith S. Hampton and James Rytting (the latter at Hilder & Associates), Whitaker's father, Kent, also appealed, cooperating with the legal team's submission and writing a letter in the public forum of the "Houston Chronicle" on January 18, 2018, asking that the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles "spare my son". Whitaker's father, Kent, also appealed, cooperating with the legal team's submission and writing a letter in the public forum of the "Houston Chronicle" on January 18, 2018, asking that the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles "spare my son". Board Chairman, David G. Gutiérrez, also met with Kent Whitaker for a half hour.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: On February 20, 2018, in a rare decision, the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles recommended that the death sentence be commuted to life imprisonment, The seven-member Board unanimously recommended clemency to Republican Governor Greg Abbott, the first time it had done so unanimously since 2009.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Abbott accepted their recommendation and commuted Whitaker's death sentence, noting that Whitaker had "voluntarily and forever waived any and all claims to parole in exchange for a commutation of his sentence from death to life without the possibility of parole." This was the first commutation of such a sentence from Abbott, and the first from a Texas Governor since 2007. Abbott cited the fact that Whitaker did not fire the gun and that his father, Kent, "insists that he would be victimized again if the state put to death his last remaining immediate family member", as the reasons for the commutation.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker responded to the commutation of his sentence by saying, "I am thankful for this decision, not for me but for my dad." Whitaker had previously stated his strong opposition to the idea of life without the possibility for parole, and wrote in his blog from prison:


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker had earlier stated, when his execution was still expected, that he felt that his father would be further victimized by the execution.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Thomas Whitaker and other inmates initiated an unsuccessful class action against the State of Texas, addressing the conditions on its death row, where inmates are kept in solitary confinement for 23 hours a day.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Kent Whitaker, his father and a surviving victim of the crime, wrote the book, "Murder by Family: The incredible true story of a son's treachery and a father's forgiveness", which — as described by Barry Leibowitz for CBS News — is about his "heart-wrenching journey ... to forgive the nameless stranger" responsible for his wounding, and the "brutal murder of his wife and son", a journey that included his realizing that the murder "had been orchestrated by [his] oldest son Bart".


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker provides an account from his perspective as father, "behind-the-scenes", focusing on the time frame from the crime through his son's sentencing, addressing motive, and including portions of his correspondence with his son.


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker earned an undergraduate degree from Adams State University, and a Master's degree in Humanities from California State University, Dominguez Hills. These are reported to have been earned while he was on death row. For the latter, he appears to have presented a thesis in partial fulfillment of the degree, entitled "Who Fears Hell Runs Toward It", in summer 2018. The masters thesis has been subject of some controversy, as someone appears to have offered it as a book for sale (see also below).


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: Whitaker has contributed to Solitary Watch, where he wrote about the effects of solitary confinement on himself and other death row inmates. He also contributed to "".


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: "Manufacturing Anomie" and the essay "A Nothing Would Do as Well". He was named a 2018-2019 PEN America Writing for Justice Fellow, a program that aims to support creation of "written works of lasting merit that illuminate critical issues related to mass incarceration and catalyze public debate". Scholarly attention has been directed toward this PEN program, noting that while PEN was an esteemed human rights organization known for the defense of free speech rights, in particular of persecuted writers, the Prison Writing Program presented a distinct agenda, namely in a "[belief] in the restorative and rehabilitative power of writing." to "help convicted criminals become writers", an aim which raises questions about the nature and residence of the power inmates are given, and about its impact on prisoners and on society. Ira Wells, in particular, points to Whitaker's participation in the program to exemplify the questions, declaring Whitaker's prison writing powerful in its ability to "shock readers into a sensory appreciation of the radical strangeness of [his] life lived".


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: In 2007, Whitaker founded an inmate blog, originally created with the assistance of his father, now maintained by volunteers, entitled Minutes Before Six; it has published his work and trial records, and articles, poetry, and art from inmates held in prisons in the United States. The name of the blog references "the hour at which executions take place in Texas".


title: Thomas Bartlett Whitaker

text: As of 2019, the Texas Department of Criminal Justice was investigating a report that Whitaker's masters thesis was being offered for sale, online.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of fusion of a substance, also known as (latent) heat of fusion, is the change in its enthalpy resulting from providing energy, typically heat, to a specific quantity of the substance to change its state from a solid to a liquid, at constant pressure.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: It is the amount of energy required to convert one mole of solid into liquid For example, when melting 1 kg of ice (at 0 °C under a ), 333.55 kJ of energy is absorbed with no temperature change. The heat of solidification (when a substance changes from liquid to solid) is equal and opposite.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: This energy includes the contribution required to make room for any associated change in volume by displacing its environment against ambient pressure. The temperature at which the phase transition occurs is the melting point or the freezing point, according to context. By convention, the pressure is assumed to be unless otherwise specified.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: The 'enthalpy' of fusion is a latent heat, because, while melting, the heat energy needed to change the substance from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure is latent heat of fusion, as the temperature remains constant during the process. The latent heat of fusion is the enthalpy change of any amount of substance when it melts. When the heat of fusion is referenced to a unit of mass, it is usually called the specific heat of fusion, while the molar heat of fusion refers to the enthalpy change per amount of substance in moles.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: The liquid phase has a higher internal energy than the solid phase. This means energy must be supplied to a solid in order to melt it and energy is released from a liquid when it freezes, because the molecules in the liquid experience weaker intermolecular forces and so have a higher potential energy (a kind of bond-dissociation energy for intermolecular forces).


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: When liquid water is cooled, its temperature falls steadily until it drops just below the line of freezing point at 0 °C. The temperature then remains constant at the freezing point while the water crystallizes. Once the water is completely frozen, its temperature continues to fall.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: The enthalpy of fusion is almost always a positive quantity; helium is the only known exception. Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below . This means that, at appropriate constant pressures, these substances freeze with the addition of heat. In the case of He, this pressure range is between 24.992 and .


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: These values are mostly from the CRC "Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 62nd edition. The conversion between cal/g and J/g in the above table uses the thermochemical calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules rather than the International Steam Table calorie (cal) = 4.1868 joules.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: The heat of fusion can also be used to predict solubility for solids in liquids. Provided an ideal solution is obtained the mole fraction formula_1 of solute at saturation is a function of the heat of fusion, the melting point of the solid formula_2 and the temperature formula_3 of the solution:


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: Here, formula_5 is the gas constant. For example, the solubility of paracetamol in water at 298 K is predicted to be:


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: Since the molar mass of water and paracetamol are and and the density of the solution is , an estimate of the solubility in grams per liter is:


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: which is a deviation from the real solubility (240 g/L) of 11%. This error can be reduced when an additional heat capacity parameter is taken into account.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

text: the heat of fusion being the difference in chemical potential between the pure liquid and the pure solid, it follows that


title: RIA Novosti

text: RIA Novosti (), sometimes referred to as RIAN () or RIA () is a Russian state-owned domestic news agency. On 9 December 2013 by a decree of Vladimir Putin it was liquidated and its assets and workforce were transferred to the newly created Rossiya Segodnya agency. On 8 April 2014 RIA Novosti was registered as part of the new agency.


title: RIA Novosti

text: RIA Novosti was scheduled to be closed down in 2014; starting in March 2014, staff were informed that they had the option of transferring their contracts to Rossiya Segodnya or sign a redundancy contract. On 10 November 2014, Rossiya Segodnya launched the Sputnik multimedia platform as the international replacement of RIA Novosti and Voice of Russia. Within Russia itself, however, Rossiya Segodnya continues to operate its Russian language news service under the name RIA Novosti with its ria.ru website.


title: RIA Novosti

text: The agency published news and analyses of social-political, economic, scientific and financial subjects on the Internet and via e-mail in the main European languages, as well as in Persian, Japanese and Arabic. It had a correspondent network in the Russian Federation, CIS and over 40 non-CIS countries. Its clients include the presidential administration, Russian government, Federation Council, State Duma, leading ministries and government departments, administrations of Russian regions, representatives of Russian and foreign business communities, diplomatic missions, and public organizations.


title: RIA Novosti

text: The last editor-in-chief of RIA Novosti was Svetlana Mironyuk, the first woman appointed to the role in the agency's history. According to the organisation's Charter, enterprise's property was federally owned (because federal unitary enterprise) and was indivisible. According to the agency, it was partially government-subsidized (2.7–2.9 billion roubles in 2013), but maintained full editorial independence.


title: RIA Novosti

text: RIA Novosti's history dates back to 24 June 1941, when by a resolution of the USSR Council of People's Commissars and the Communist Party Central Committee, ""On the Establishment and Tasks of the Soviet Information Bureau"", the Soviet Information Bureau (Sovinformburo) was set up under the USSR Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee. Its main task was to oversee work to cover international, military events and the events of the country's domestic life in periodicals and on the radio (from 14 October 1941, to 3 March 1942, was based in Kuibyshev – modern-day Samara).


title: RIA Novosti

text: The bureau's main task was to compile reports on the situation on the frontline of the war, work on the home front, and the partisan movement for the radio, newspapers and magazines. Sovinformburo directed the activity of the All-Slavonic Committee, Anti-Nazi Committee of Soviet Women, Anti-Nazi Committee of the Soviet Youth, Anti-Nazi Committee of Soviet Scientists, and the Jewish Anti-Nazi Committee. In 1944, a special bureau on propaganda for foreign countries was set up as part of Sovinformburo.


title: RIA Novosti

text: Through 1,171 newspapers, 523 magazines and 18 radio stations in 23 countries, Soviet embassies abroad, friendship societies, trade unions, women's, youth and scientific organizations, Sovinformburo informed readers and listeners about the struggle of the Soviet people against Nazism and in the post-war years about the main areas of Soviet domestic and foreign policies.


title: RIA Novosti

text: Sovinformburo heads included A.S. Shcherbakov (1941–45), S. A. Lozovsky (1945–48) and Y.S. Khavinson, D.A. Polikarpov.


title: RIA Novosti

text: In 1961, the Novosti Press Agency (APN) succeeded Sovinformburo. It became the leading information and press body of Soviet public organizations. The constituent conference was held on 21 February 1961. The conference of representatives of Soviet public organizations adopted a decision to create a press agency of public organizations named Novosti. The agency's guiding body was the Council of the Agency's Founders.


title: RIA Novosti

text: The APN founders were the USSR Journalists Union, USSR Writers Union, Union of Soviet Societies of Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, and the Znaniye Society. On 3 April 1961, the Agency charter was adopted. Under its charter, APN's aim was "to contribute to mutual understanding, trust and friendship among peoples in every possible way by broadly publishing accurate information about the USSR abroad and familiarizing the Soviet public with people’s lives of foreign countries." APN's motto was "Information for Peace, for the Friendship of Nations". APN had bureaus in over 120 countries. The Agency published 60 illustrated newspapers and magazines in 45 languages with a one-time circulation of 4.3 million copies. With the Union of Soviet Friendship Societies, APN published the newspaper, "Moscow News", which in September 1990 became an independent publication. APN Publishing House put out over 200 books and booklets with a total annual circulation of 20 million copies and book series such as ABC Political Science. In 1989, a TV center opened in APN. Later, it was transformed into the TV-Novosti TV company, which, since 2005, operates RT media network.


title: RIA Novosti

text: The APN heads included Boris Burkov (1961–70), Ivan Udaltsov (1970–75), Lev Tolkunov (1975–83), Pavel Naumov (1983–86), Valentin Falin (1986–88), Albert Vlasov (1988–90).


title: RIA Novosti

text: By a decree of USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev, "On the Establishment of the Information Agency Novosti," the Information Agency Novosti (IAN) succeeded APN on 27 July 1990. "To provide information support for the USSR's state domestic and foreign policies and proceeding from the interests of the democratization of the mass media," the Novosti Press Agency was renamed the Information Agency Novosti (IAN). IAN's tasks remained the same – "preparing and publishing printed, TV and radio materials in the USSR and abroad; studying public opinion on Soviet foreign and domestic policies in the USSR and abroad." A computer databank was created in the Agency. Initially, it contained over 250,000 documents. In 1991, the Infonews hotline started operating in the Agency. IAN had bureaus in 120 countries. It published 13 illustrated magazines and newspapers. The chairman of the IAN Board was Albert Ivanovich Vlasov.


title: RIA Novosti

text: The Russian Information Agency Novosti was created in September 1991 on the basis of IAN and the Russian Information Agency. By a Presidential decree of the Russian president dated 22 August 1991, RIA Novosti was placed within the competence of the Press and Information Ministry. RIA Novosti had about 80 bureaus and news offices abroad, over 1,500 subscribers in CIS countries and about a hundred in non-CIS countries. A Presidential decree of the Russian president of 15 September 1993 ""On the Russian Information Agency Novosti"", transformed RIA Novosti to a state news-analytical agency. RIA Novosti's radio channel – RIA-Radio worked in 1996. In August 1997, the TV channel Kultura was set up on the basis of the RIA TV channel under the sponsorship of the VGTRK TV and radio broadcasting company. By a decree of the Russian president, "On Improving the Work of the State Electronic Media," the VGTRK information holding was created in May 1998, which RIA Novosti joined.


title: RIA Novosti

text: In May 1998, the agency was renamed the Russian Information Agency Vesti. As a mass media body, it retained the name of RIA Novosti on 1 April 2004, after making changes in the founding documents. In 2005, RIA Novosti launched RT (originally Russia Today) a global multilingual television news network, which is a government-funded but autonomous, non-profit organization. RIA Novosti asserts that it "merely participated in establishing the channel" which retained "complete legal, editorial and operational independence."


title: RIA Novosti

text: On 9 December 2013 Russian President Vladimir Putin signed the liquidation of RIA Novosti "On some measures to improve the effectiveness of the state mass media" and merging it with the international radio service Voice of Russia to create Rossiya Segodnya. Dmitry Kiselyov, a former anchorman of the Channel One Russia is appointed as the president of the new information agency. According to her interview, the editor-in-chief of the TV network RT, Margarita Simonyan was completely unaware about the reorganization of the information agency and got the information from listening to competitor radio station Kommersant-FM. The reorganization created concerns that RIA Novosti would become a propaganda outlet.


title: RIA Novosti

text: On 26 February 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, RIA Novosti by mistake published an article titled "The arrival/attack of Russia and the new world" (""), which was prepared ahead of the time anticipating the Russian victory. In particular, it announced that Russia had won the Russo-Ukrainian War and that "Ukraine has returned to Russia". In the article, author Petr Akopov condemned "Anglo-Saxons who rule the West" for allegedly attempting to "steal Russian lands", described the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union as a "terrible catastrophe", and asserted that Russian President Vladimir Putin's launch of the invasion resolved the "Ukrainian question" to establish a "new world order" with "Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, acting in geopolitical terms as a single whole" against the remainder of Europe. The article was promptly removed by RIA Novosti, but not before it was republished by the state-owned news agency Sputnik and translated by the Pakistani newspaper "The Frontier Post" into English under the title "The new world order".


title: RIA Novosti

text: On 3 April 2022, RIA published "What Russia should do with Ukraine", an article condemned for genocidal intent.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The Amazon rainforest is the largest rainforest in the world, covering an area of 3,000,000 km (2,316,612.95 square miles). It represents over half of the planet's rainforests and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations. The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60%, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The cattle sector of the Brazilian Amazon, incentivized by the international beef and leather trades, has been responsible for about 80% of all deforestation in the region, or about 14% of the world's total annual deforestation, making it the world's largest single driver of deforestation. The vast majority of agricultural activity resulting in deforestation was subsidized by government tax revenue. By 1995, 70% of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970 had been converted to cattle ranching. Much of the remaining deforestation within the Amazon has resulted from farmers clearing land (sometimes using the slash-and-burn method) for small-scale subsistence agriculture or mechanized cropland producing soy, palm, and other crops.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: More than one-third of the Amazon Forest belongs to more than 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories. Until 2015, only 8% of Amazonian deforestation occurred in forests inhabited by indigenous peoples, while 88% of occurred in the less than 50% of the Amazon area that is neither indigenous territory nor protected area. Historically, the livelihoods of indigenous Amazonian peoples have depended on the forest for food, shelter, water, fibre, fuel and medicines. The forest is also interconnected with their identity and cosmology. For this reason, the deforestation rates are lower in indigenous territories despite strong pressures.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: According to 2018 satellite data compiled by a deforestation monitoring program called Prodes, deforestation has hit its highest rate in a decade. About 7,900 km (3,050 sq miles) of the rainforest was destroyed between August 2017 and July 2018. Most of the deforestation occurred in the states of Mato Grosso and Pará. BBC News reported the environment minister, Edson Duarte, as saying illegal logging was to blame, but critics suggest expanding agriculture is also encroaching on the rainforest. It is suggested that at some point the forest will reach a tipping point, where it will no longer be able to produce enough rainfall to sustain itself. According to a November 2021 report by Brazil's INPE, based on satellite data, deforestation has increased by 22% over 2020 and is at its highest level since 2006.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In the pre-Columbian era, parts of the rainforest were widely populated regions with open agriculture. After European colonization occurred in the 16th century due to the hunt for gold and later the rubber boom, the Amazon rainforest was depopulated due to European diseases and slavery, so the forest grew larger.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Prior to the 1970s, access to the forest's largely roadless interior was difficult, and aside from partial clearing along rivers, the forest remained intact. Deforestation accelerated greatly following the opening of highways deep into the forest, such as the Trans-Amazonian highway in 1972.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In parts of the Amazon, poor soil made plantation-based agriculture unprofitable. The key turning point in deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon was when colonists began to establish farms within the forest during the 1960s. Their farming system was based on crop cultivation and the slash-and-burn method. However, the colonists were unable to successfully manage their fields and the crops due to the loss of soil fertility and weed invasion due to this method.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In indigenous areas of the Peruvian Amazon such as the Urarina's Chambira River Basin, the soils are productive for only relatively short periods of time, therefore causing indigenous horticulturalists like the Urarina to move to new areas and clear more and more land. Amazonian colonization was ruled by cattle raising because ranching required little labour, generated decent profits, and land under state ownership to private companies, without term limits on property rights. While the law was promoted as a "reforestation" measure, critics claimed the privatization measure would in fact encourage further deforestation of the Amazon, while surrendering the nation's rights over natural resources to foreign investors and leaving uncertain the fate of Peru's indigenous people, who do not typically hold formal title to the forestlands on which they subsist. Law 840 met widespread resistance and was eventually repealed by Peru's legislature for being unconstitutional.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In 2015, illegal deforestation in the Amazon was on the rise again for the first time in decades; this was largely a result of consumer demand for products like palm oil. As consumer pressure increases, Brazilian farmers clear their land to make more space for crops like palm oil, and soy. Also, studies done by Greenpeace showed that 300 billion tons of carbon, 40 times the annual greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, are stored in trees. In addition to the carbon release associated with deforestation, NASA has estimated that if deforestation levels proceed, the remaining world's forests will disappear in about 100 years. The Brazilian government adopted a program called RED (United Nations Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Program) in order to help prevent deforestation. The RED program has helped more than 44 countries across Africa with the development of education programs and has donated more than $117 million to the program.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: As of January 2019, the president of Brazil – Jair Bolsonaro – has made an executive order that allows the agriculture ministry to oversee some of the land in the Amazon. Cattle ranchers and mining companies favour the president's decision. Brazilian economic policy is influencing the government to condone development on tribal territory in order to accumulate exports and increase economic growth. That has been criticized because taking away tribal land will endanger the indigenous people who live there now. The deforestation of the Amazon leads acceleration of climate change, increasing the relative contribution of Brazil to climate change.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest can be attributed to many different factors at local, national, and international levels. The rainforest is seen as a resource for cattle pasture, valuable hardwoods, housing space, farming space (especially for soybeans), road works (such as highways and smaller roads), medicines and human gain. Trees are usually cut down illegally.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: A 2004 World Bank paper and a 2009 Greenpeace report found that the cattle sector in the Brazilian Amazon, supported by the international beef and leather trades, was responsible for about 80% of all deforestation in the region, or about 14% of the world's total annual deforestation, making it the largest single driver of deforestation in the world. According to a 2006 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 70% of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, is used for livestock pasture.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The 2019 European Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement, which forms one of the world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners. The fear is that the deal could lead to more deforestation of the Amazon rainforest as it expands market access to Brazilian beef.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Jair Bolsonaro´s government, weakened some environmental laws with a cut in funding and personnel at key government agencies and a firing of the heads of the agency's state bodies. Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. According to Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE), deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose more than 50% in the first three months of 2020 compared to the same three-month period in 2019.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Deforestation in the Amazon has resulted from farmers clearing land for mechanized cropland. Scientists using NASA satellite data found in 2006 that clearing for mechanized cropland had become a significant force in Brazilian Amazon deforestation. This change in land use alters the region's climate. Researchers found that in 2004, a peak year of deforestation, more than 20 percent of the Mato Grosso state's forests were converted to cropland.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In 2005, soybean prices fell by more than 25 percent and some areas of Mato Grosso showed a decrease in large deforestation events, suggesting that the rise and fall of prices for other crops, beef and timber may also have a significant impact on future land use in the region.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: A major driver of forest loss in the Amazon has been the cultivation of soy, mainly for export and production of biodiesel and animal feed; as soybean prices have risen, soy farmers have pushed northwards into forested areas of the Amazon. However, a private sector agreement referred to as the Soy Moratorium has helped drastically reduce the deforestation linked to soy production in the region. In 2006, a number of major commodity trading companies, such as Cargill agreed to not purchase soybeans produced in the Brazilian Amazon in recently deforested areas. Before the moratorium, 30 percent of soy field expansion had occurred through deforestation, contributing to record deforestation rates. After eight years of the moratorium, a 2015 study found that although soy production area had expanded another 1.3 million hectares, only about 1 percent of the new soy expansion had come at the expense of forest. In response to the moratorium, farmers were choosing to plant on already cleared land.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The needs of soy farmers have been used to validate some controversial transportation projects that have been developed in the Amazon. The first two highways, the Belém-Brasília (1958) and the Cuiabá-Porto Velho (1968), were the only federal highways in the Legal Amazon to be paved and passable year-round before the late 1990s. These two highways are said to be "at the heart of the 'arc of deforestation'", which at present is the focal point area of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. The Belém-Brasília highway attracted nearly two million settlers in its first twenty years. The success of the Belém-Brasília highway in opening up the forest was re-enacted as paved roads continued to be developed, unleashing the irrepressible spread of settlement. The completion of the roads was followed by a wave of resettlement; these settlers had a significant effect on the forest as well.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: A 2013 paper found that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches the area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. Thus, for Brazil as a whole, there is no economic gain to be made by logging and selling trees and using the logged land for pastoral purposes.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: A September 2016 Amazon Watch report concludes that imports of crude oil by the US are driving rainforest destruction in the Amazon and releasing significant greenhouse gases.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In August 2019, the Amazon experienced a forest fire that lasted for months. The forest fire became another major reason for deforestation in the summer of 2019. The Amazon shrunk by 519 square miles (1,345 square kilometers) that summer.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Some deforestation in the Amazon has resulted from farmers clearing land for small-scale subsistence agriculture


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest continued to accelerate in the early 2000s, reaching an annual rate of 27,423 km of forest loss in the year 2004. The annual rate of forest loss generally slowed between 2004 and 2012, though rates of deforestation jumped again in 2008, 2013 and 2015.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Today the loss of remaining forest cover appears to be accelerating again. Between August 2017 and July 2018, were deforested in Brazil – a 13.7% rise over the previous year and the largest area cleared since 2008. Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest rose more than 88% in June 2019 compared with the same month in 2018, and more than doubled in January 2020 compared with the same month in 2019.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In August 2019, 30,901 individual forest fires were reported, three times the number a year earlier. The number dropped by a third in September, and by October 7 the number was down to about 10,000. Deforestation is said to be worse than burning. Brazil's satellite agency, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), estimated that at least 7,747 km of Brazilian Amazon rainforest were cleared during early and mid-2019. INPE subsequently reported that deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon reached a 12-year high between August 2019 and July 2020.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In Brazil, the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE, or National Institute of Space Research) produces deforestation figures annually. Their deforestation estimates are derived from 100 to 220 images taken during the dry season in the Amazon by the Landsat satellite and may only consider the loss of the Amazon rainforest – not the loss of natural fields or savannah within the Amazon biome.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Deforestation and loss of biodiversity have led to high risks of irreversible changes to the Amazon's tropical forests. It has been suggested by modelling studies that the deforestation may be approaching a "tipping point", after which large-scale "savannization" or desertification of the Amazon will take place, with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate, due to a self-perpetuating collapse of the region's biodiversity and ecosystems. Not averting the tipping point, could have severe economic, natural capital and ecosystem services impacts. A study published in N"ature climate change" in 2022 provided direct empirical evidence that more than three-quarters of the Amazon rainforest has been losing resilience since the early 2000s, risking dieback with implications for biodiversity, carbon storage and climate change.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In order to retain high biodiversity, research supports a threshold of 40% forest cover in the Amazon.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Deforestation like other ecosystem destruction (such as peatbog degradation) can both reduce the carbon sink value of land while increasing emissions through wildfires, land-use change, and reduced ecosystem health, causing stress in normal carbon absorbing ecosystem process. Historically the Amazon Basin has been one of the largest sinks of , absorbing 1/4 of terrestrial land captured carbon.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: However, a 2021 scientific review article found that current evidence shows the Amazon basin is currently emitting more greenhouse gases than it absorbs overall. Climate change impacts and human activities in the area – mainly wildfires, current land-use and deforestation – are causing a release of forcing agents that were found to likely result in a net warming effect overall as of 2021.<ref name="10.3389/ffgc.2021.618401"> Available under CC BY 4.0.</ref> Warming temperatures and changing weather also cause physiological responses in the forest preventing further absorption of .


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The deforestation of the Amazon rainforest has had a significant negative impact on Brazil's freshwater supply, harming, among others, the agricultural industry that has contributed to the clearing of the forests. In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in more than a century. This has been the result of two factors:


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: 1. The rainforest provides much of the rainfall in Brazil, even in areas far from it. Deforestation increased the impacts of the droughts of 2005, 2010, and 2015–2016.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: 2. The rainforest, by inducing rainfall and helping with water storage, provides freshwater to the rivers that give water to Brazil and other countries.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In 2019, a group of scientists published research suggesting that in a "business as usual" scenario, the deforestation of the Amazon rainforest will raise the temperature in Brazil by 1.45 degrees. They wrote: "Increased temperatures in already hot locations may increase human mortality rates and electricity demands, reduce agricultural yields and water resources, and contribute to biodiversity collapse, particularly in tropical regions. Furthermore, local warming may cause shifts in species distributions, including for species involved in infectious disease transmissions." The authors of the paper say that deforestation is already causing a rise in the temperature.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: More than one-third of the Amazon forest belongs to over 4,466 formally acknowledged Indigenous Territories. Until 2015, only eight percent of Amazonian deforestation occurred in forests inhabited by indigenous peoples, while 88% occurred in the less than 50% of the Amazon area that is neither indigenous territory nor protected area. Historically, the livelihoods of indigenous Amazonian peoples have depended on the forest for food, shelter, water, fibre, fuel and medicines. The forest is also interconnected with their identity and cosmology. For this reason, the deforestation rates are lower in Indigenous Territories, despite pressures encouraging deforestation being stronger.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The native tribes of the Amazon have often been abused during the Amazon's deforestation. Loggers have encroached onto native lands and killed them in resulting conflicts. Many uncontacted peoples have come out of the jungles to mingle with mainstream society after threats from outsiders. Uncontacted peoples making first contact with outsiders are susceptible to diseases to which they have little immunity. With mass epidemic deaths, entire tribes can easily be decimated within a few years.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: For many years, there has been a battle to conquer the territories that indigenous people live on in the Amazon, primarily from the Brazilian government. The demand for this land has originated partly from a desire to improve Brazil's economic status. Many people, including ranchers and land swindlers from the southeast, have wanted to claim the land for their own financial gain. At the beginning of 2019, the new president of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro, made an executive order for the agriculture ministry to regulate the land that tribal members inhabit in the Amazon.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In the past, mining locations were allowed to be constructed in the territory of an isolated tribal group called Yanomami. Because of the conditions that these indigenous people were subjected to, many of them developed health problems, including tuberculosis. If their land is used for new development, many of the tribal groups will be forced out of their homes, and many may die. On top of the mistreatment of these people, the forest itself will be taken advantage of, and many of the indigenous peoples' resources for daily life will be stripped from them.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Using the 2005 deforestation rates, it was estimated that the Amazon rainforest would be reduced by 40% in two decades. The rate of deforestation has slowed since the early 2000s, but the forest has continued to shrink every year, and analysis of satellite data shows a sharp rise in deforestation since 2018.<ref name="INPE/Prods satellite data"> INPE figures August to July.</ref>


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Norwegian prime minister Jens Stoltenberg announced on September 16, 2008, that Norway's government would donate US$1 billion to the newly established Amazon fund. The money from this fund would go to projects aimed at slowing down the deforestation of the Amazon rainforest.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In September 2015, Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff told the United Nations that Brazil had effectively reduced the rate of deforestation in the Amazon by 82 percent. She also announced that over the next 15 years, Brazil aimed to eliminate illegal deforestation, restore and reforest , and recover of degraded pastures.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In August 2017, Brazilian president Michel Temer abolished an Amazonian nature reserve the size of Denmark in Brazil's northern states of Pará and Amapá.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: In May 2019, eight former environment ministers in Brazil warned, "We're facing the risk of runaway deforestation in the Amazon", as rainforest destruction increased in the first year of Jair Bolsonaro's presidency. In September 2019, Carlos Nobre, expert on the Amazon and climate change, warned that at the current rates of deforestation, it was only 20 to 30 years off from reaching a tipping point that could turn big parts of the Amazon forest into a dry savanna, especially in the southern and northern Amazon.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: Bolsonaro has rejected attempts by European politicians to challenge him over the rainforest deforestation, referring to this as Brazil's domestic affairs. Bolsonaro has stated that Brazil should open more areas to mining, including in the Amazon, and that he has spoken with US president Donald Trump about a future joint development program for the Brazilian Amazon region.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: The Brazilian Economy Minister, Paulo Guedes, has stated that he believes that other countries should pay Brazil for the oxygen that is produced in Brazil and used elsewhere.


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: At the end of August 2019 after an international outcry and warning from experts that fires can increase even more, the Brazilian government of Jair Bolsonaro began to take measures to stop the fires. The measures include:


title: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest

text: On 2 November 2021, more than 100 countries with around 85% of the world's forests agreed in the COP26 climate summit's first major agreement to end deforestation by 2030, improving on a similar 2014 agreement by now including Brazil. Signatories of the 2014 agreement, the New York Declaration on Forests, pledged to half deforestation by 2020 and end it by 2030, however in the 2014-2020 period deforestation increased.


title: Saganaki

text: In Greek cuisine, saganaki (Greek σαγανάκι) is any one of a variety of dishes prepared in a small frying pan, the best-known being an appetizer of fried cheese. It is commonly flambéed in North America.


title: Saganaki

text: The dishes are named for the frying pan in which they are prepared, called a "saganaki", which is a diminutive of "sagani", a frying pan with two handles, which comes from the Turkish word "sahan" 'copper dish', itself borrowed from Arabic صحن (ṣaḥn).