title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Returning to the Throne World, the Guardian is contacted by Fynch, a Hive Ghost who regrets joining Savathûn's forces and has refused to revive his Hive Lightbearer. Fynch tells the Guardian to investigate Xivu Arath's temple in the Throne World, where they manage to find the shell of Sagira, Osiris' Ghost who sacrificed herself to save his life at the beginning of "". Upon recovering Sagira's shell, the Guardian's Deepsight power triggers a psychic imprint, which reveals an old memory of Savathûn talking about a mysterious being called the Witness. Believing that the Guardian's new power may uncover more secrets, Ikora asks them to return to the Pyramid on Europa. On Europa, the Guardian battles Cabal forces who have defected from Empress Caiatl's army to search for trinkets of Darkness, and eventually reaches the Darkness statue and communes with it, enhancing their Deepsight ability. Returning to Mars, Ikora informs the Guardian of a location in the Throne World with high concentration of psychic energy called the Altar of Reflection, and instructs them to take Sagira's shell there. There, using Deepsight, they use Sagira's shell to fully uncover Savathûn's memory, which reveals that the Witness is the entity who controls the Darkness, and that Savathûn had used her time in disguise as Osiris to learn something about the Light.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Afterwards, Fynch contacts the Guardian again, this time tipping them to a possible lead within Oryx's temple in the Throne World. The Guardian heads to Oryx's temple, where they battle against one of Oryx's foster sons, Alak-Hul, resurrected as a Lightbearer Hive. Upon defeating Alak-Hul, the Guardian recovers a piece of the Tablets of Ruin, which were used by Oryx to create the Taken. Returning to the Altar of Reflection, the Guardian uncovers a second memory from Savathûn, where she reveals that the Witness has the power to move worlds between different realities, and that she intends to move the Traveler to her Throne World and seal it away. After reporting to Ikora, the Guardian follows up on another lead from Fynch and travels to the temple of Sathona (Savathûn's previous form prior to her transformation into a Hive god). The Guardian finds Sathona's statue, holding onto a worm familiar. With no other objects of interest, the Guardian recovers the familiar, which triggers an illusion of an Ahamkara. The Guardian defeats the illusion of the wish-dragon, then escapes the temple with the worm familiar. However, the Altar of Reflection refuses to let the Guardian enter with the worm, forcing them to reconvene with Ikora.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: On Mars, Commander Zavala confronts Ikora on keeping the investigation secret from him. Ikora, unable to trust in her judgment, takes a temporary leave. Eris informs the Guardian of a new lead, which she later reveals to be from Mara Sov. The Guardian enters the apothecary wing of Savathûn's palace, where they are instructed to recover a crystal shard which was part of Mara's spell to imprison Savathûn in the Dreaming City during "Season of the Lost". The Guardian recovers the shard, which allows them to enter the Altar this time. They then uncover the memory, which reveals that Savathûn died in the outskirts of the Last City some time after escaping the Dreaming City following the exorcism ritual, only to be resurrected by the Traveler willingly. Savathûn then appears before the Guardian, thanking them for helping her remember her past life, before attempting to kill them. The Guardian escapes and returns to the Tower, where they attend a meeting with the Vanguard and brief Zavala on the revelation. Ikora resolves to stop Savathûn at all costs, in spite of the Traveler's action. She later deduces that the worm familiar object recovered from Sathona's statue may have been the actual familiar of her father, the Osmium King, calcified from age. She then takes the familiar to the Relic on Mars, which reveals a memory of young Sathona prior to the Traveler's arrival on her homeworld of Fundament. Billions of years ago, the Worm Gods were sealed in the core of Fundament while the Traveler prepared to grant the proto-Hive a Golden Age, as it would later do for the Fallen and humanity. The memory depicts the Witness, through the worm familiar, coming up with a plan to trick Sathona and her sisters, Aurash and Xi Ro, into freeing the Worm Gods by framing the Traveler for an imminent cataclysm, leading to birth of the Hive and the ascension of Sathona, Aurash, and Xi Ro into the Hive gods Savathûn, Oryx, and Xivu Arath.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Ikora informs the Guardian that Savathûn is already performing a ritual to pull the Traveler into her Throne World and seal it away, and instructs them to use Sathona's memory to disrupt her ritual. The Guardian arrives in the Throne World and battles the Lucent Hive and the Scorn, before finally facing Savathûn once more. Arriving at the ritual site, the Guardian kills Savathûn's Threadweavers, severing their web that connects to the Traveler, then unveils Sathona's memory, which confuses and enrages Savathûn. With the tables turned on the Witch Queen, the Guardian engages in one final showdown with Savathûn and successfully kills her. In her dying breath, Savathûn smugly warns the Guardian and Ghost that the Witness is coming. Savathûn's Ghost, Immaru, manages to escape as the Traveler is returned to Earth. Meanwhile, somewhere in space, the Witness prepares the Black Fleet for one final assault on the Solar System.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Following Savathûn's defeat, the Vanguard recovers her remains, while the Guardian continues to work with Fynch to disrupt the Lucent Hive's activities. Fynch reveals to Ikora and the Guardian that Savathûn keeps a wellspring of Light energy, which she uses to distribute Light to her Brood. Ikora deploys Guardians regularly to attack Hive forces protecting the Wellspring, as well as defend it from Scorn invaders. Mara Sov later arrives on Mars to meet with the Guardian. She presents them with Savathûn's dying worm, revealing that the Witch Queen herself was present on behalf of the Witness during the Collapse, and both she and her worm knew of the secret that prevented humanity's end during that event. Mara proposes reviving the worm and giving it a new host, seemingly volunteering for the task herself. Mara sends the Guardian to find the Dark City, a city with Pyramid-like architecture shrouded in Darkness within the Throne World, where the Guardian can find Hive Cryptoglyphs to revitalize the worm, and incubators to infuse it. The Guardian battles Scorn forces within the Dark City and eventually acquires a set of Cryptoglyphs and reaches an incubator, but only manages to partially revive the worm. The Guardian contacts Fynch, who points them toward more incubators hidden around the Throne World. After finding runes to repair the Cryptoglyphs, the Guardian finds the incubators and revives the worm, who speaks to them. The worm reveals that Mara plans to kill Eris, Crow, and the Guardian, to which she affirms, but only as a contingency should they fall to the Darkness's control. After fully revitalizing the worm, Savathûn's curse triggers, causing its energy to quickly deplete. The Guardian takes the worm to Savathûn's palace and uses Hive wells to heal it, as well as concentrated Hive Light to stabilize the worm, before Mara performs the ritual. After meeting up with Mara in Xivu Arath's temple, she infuses the worm into a grenade launcher and hands it to the Guardian, who then defends Mara from Scorn forces while she finishes the ritual. Afterwards, the worm reveals that during the Collapse, Savathûn deceived the Witness and sent it away to protect the Traveler, inadvertently preventing humanity's extinction in the process. Mara asks the Guardian to keep the Parasite grenade launcher, and the worm itself, a secret.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Sometime later, a fireteam of Guardians decide to investigate a sunken Pyramid ship in the outskirts of Savathûn's Throne World, where they are contacted by Mara, who warns them that unlike the Pyramids they encountered on the Moon and Europa, they are not being beckoned by it, but within resides the first Disciple; the Disciples are revealed to be extremely powerful entities who collectively follow and do the bidding of the Witness. With Savathûn defeated, the Disciple now wishes to take control of the Throne World from within the Pyramid by using the Scorn ("Vow of the Disciple" raid). Rhulk, Disciple of the Witness, contacts the Guardians as they approach the Pyramid and beckons them into it. Upon entering the Pyramid after escorting a Darkness barge through the swamp guarded by Scorn forces, the Guardians fight their way through, activating obelisks of Darkness and eventually defeating the Caretaker, an empowered Scorn Abomination that was a successful result of an experiment by Rhulk using worm larvae produced by a catatonic Worm God named Xita; it is revealed that Rhulk had used Xita to produce worm larvae for Savathûn's Hive and for his experiments on the Scorn. The Guardians also discover that the Pyramid hosted a twisted, museum-like collection of artifacts, murals and experiments curated by Rhulk himself, including a massive rib bone taken from the Leviathan of Fundament, as well as calcified and dissected worm larvae and Scorn. Soon after battling through legions of Scorn and Taken using artifacts of Light and Darkness, the Guardians eventually reach the heart of the Pyramid, atop a massive Darkness superweapon called the Upended, powered by the catatonic Xita, where they are greeted by Rhulk himself, revealed to be a mysterious yet bloodthirsty alien entity, who attacks them. After an arduous battle, the Guardians kill Rhulk once and for all, eliminating a major threat of the Witness.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Shortly after Rhulk's defeat, the Guardian returns to Fynch, who congratulates them on their efforts in defeating the Disciple of the Witness, but warns them that the Scorn may be seeking an opportunity to control the Pyramid. Fynch advises the Guardian to return to the Pyramid and defend it from Scorn forces seeking to plunder the secrets within. The Guardian then returns to the Enclave on Mars and finds a note left by Mara Sov on the Hidden's evidence board, confirming the situation. The Guardian returns to the Pyramid, where they discover that the Scorn are attempting to empower themselves using a combination of worm larvae and Pyramid technology. After wiping out the Scorn forces, the Guardian takes the opportunity to learn more about the origins of Rhulk, revealed to be the last surviving member of a warrior alien species from the planet Lubrae, and was taken in by the Witness as its first Disciple after he annihilated his entire planet of all life. It is also revealed that Rhulk played a major role in the creation of the Hive; upon meeting the Worm Gods in the core of Fundament and subjugating them to the Witness, Rhulk had created a strain of worm larvae from the imprisoned Xita that would be implanted into the proto-Hive, turning them into undead soldiers that would feed off of death and conquest. The Guardian is then deployed to the Pyramid regularly by Mara to protect it from the Scorn and keep it under Vanguard control.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Shortly after the Guardian's skirmish with the Cabal on Mars, the Guardian returns to the Tower where they witness a tense meeting between Zavala, Lord Saladin, Crow, and Empress Caiatl, in response to the death of her soldiers on Mars. Hoping to put the incident behind them, Zavala explains to Caiatl that the Lucent Brood have begun to invade the Solar System from Savathûn's Throne World and requests for her help, to which she agrees. The Guardian then meets with Caiatl and Saladin in the H.E.L.M., where they request the Guardian to engage in psychic warfare against the Lucent Hive by using the Synaptic Spear given to them by Ikora. Using the Spear, the Guardian infiltrates one of the Lucent Hive's strongholds in the European Dead Zone, leading them to a Lucent Hive lieutenant, Mor'ak, Lightstealer. After weakening the Hive lieutenant, Caiatl's Psions capture it and they send the Guardian into its mindscape to sever its connection to the Light. After successfully crippling the lieutenant, the Guardian then transports it back to the H.E.L.M., where Saladin contacts the Guardian again and reveals that the Lucent Hive are now going after Guardians to drain them of their Light for unknown purposes. He advises the Guardian to continue to capture more Lucent Hive lieutenants until they can better understand their motives.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: After capturing a second Hive lieutenant, Uul'nath, Lightcleanser, in the Cosmodrome, the Guardian witnesses Saladin and Crow argue in the H.E.L.M. over the ethics of their actions against the Hive. Crow, who is still recovering after Savathûn invaded his mind, suggests that the Hive lieutenants should be killed out of mercy rather than being probed for information; Saladin, despite disagreeing with the Vanguard and the Cabal's method, affirms that they should not show kindness toward the Hive. Later, Saladin speaks with the Guardian and expresses his concern over Crow's mentality. Over the course of the operation, Saladin also begins to understand and empathize with the Cabal, no longer showing aggression toward his former enemies.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Eventually, Saladin learns that the Lucent Hive intends to wrestle control of the Scarlet Keep on Earth's Moon from Xivu Arath's forces, in order to perform a ritual and manifest Savathûn's Throne World. The Guardian arrives on the Moon to stop the ritual, though the Vanguard is unable to contact Crow for recon assistance. Nevertheless, the Guardian succeeds in capturing the Lucent Hive lieutenant, Korosek, Thronebringer, in charge of the ritual. They later return to the H.E.L.M. with Saladin, and learn that Crow attempted to shut down the psychic analysis machinery housing the Hive lieutenants, inadvertently killing Caiatl's Psion emissary in the process. Caiatl later confronts the Vanguard and demands Crow's life in exchange for the Psion, but Saladin intervenes and offers his own. Caiatl accepts and declares Saladin part of her Cabal War Council, giving him the Bracus rank. Saladin later contacts the Guardian to notify them of his decision, and reveals that he left his axe behind as a message for Crow. Zavala also informs the Guardian that he has decommissioned the psychic analysis program, and has suggested Caiatl to continue gathering dead Lucent Hive lieutenants for incineration.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Amidst the ongoing operation, Caiatl requests the Guardian to investigate a Cabal Psion faction who is spreading Darkness-inspired propaganda. As she is unable to send her own soldiers, she relies on the Vanguard to deal with the rebel faction. The Guardian returns to Mars and clears out the Psion faction's stronghold and takes out its leader, Qabix, the Insurgent. Deciphering the propaganda broadcast, Caiatl learns that her father, Emperor Calus, has aligned himself with the Black Fleet and the Witness, and is funding the Psion faction to recruit Red Legion soldiers, promising them salvation. Over the weeks, the Guardian is asked to return to the rebel stronghold and continue disrupting the Psions' broadcasts, where they learn of their leader Yirix being responsible for the attempted assassination on Zavala's life during "Season of the Chosen" as revenge on the Guardians' part for thwarting the Psion Flayers' efforts with the Sundial on Mercury during and the Cabal's attempt to crash the Almighty in the Last City during "".


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Following the abrupt end of the Lucent Hive psychic analysis program and Lord Saladin's integration into Empress Caiatl's War Council, the Vanguard discovers that the Leviathan, the flagship of the exiled Cabal emperor Calus, has suddenly reappeared in the Solar System in orbit above Earth's Moon and is attempting to commune with the Lunar Pyramid. In response to Emperor Calus's return and the threat from his newfound allegiance to the Black Fleet and the Witness, the Vanguard sends the H.E.L.M., fully revealed to be a mobile command ship, to the Moon's orbit, and the Guardian is then tasked by Commander Zavala and Eris Morn to investigate the Leviathan. As the Guardian explores the now derelict Leviathan, they discover that the ship has been overrun by Darkness and infested with Egregore, Darkness fungal growths that were previously seen on the "Glykon" during "Season of the Chosen", as well as Nightmares generated from the Lunar Pyramid. One particular Nightmare, taking on the form of Zavala's deceased wife Safiyah, lures the Guardian to Calus's throne room, where they are ambushed by Darkness-powered Loyalist Cabal and Nightmares. Eris tries to teleport the Guardian out to safety but to no success, and the Guardian is forced to escape the Leviathan themself and reconvene with Zavala, Eris, Empress Caiatl, and Crow in the H.E.L.M.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: In the H.E.L.M., Eris explains to Caiatl about the Nightmares infesting the Leviathan and that she is able to provide protection through a Hive séance ritual involving the Crown of Sorrow, now under Eris's control, and an artifact of her creation called the Nightmare Harvester, but Caiatl refuses to get involved due to Eris's usage of Hive magic. Eris then performs the séance ritual with Zavala, Crow, and the Guardian to bind them to each other and to the Crown of Sorrow, which also manifests the Nightmares of Safiyah, Uldren Sov, and even Dominus Ghaul that begin to haunt Zavala, Crow, and Caiatl. The Guardian is then given the powered Nightmare Harvester to help contain the Nightmares haunting the Leviathan and bind them to the Crown of Sorrow. After the Guardian contains several Nightmares from the Leviathan's Castellum into the Nightmare Harvester, both the Guardian and Crow head to the Leviathan's Underbelly section to perform a severance ritual in order to weaken Calus's connection with the Pyramid; Crow, however, is continuously haunted by the Nightmare of Uldren, who derides Crow for his actions in his past life. Upon arriving in the Leviathan's Gauntlet, Crow performs the severance ritual and summons the Nightmare of Fikrul, the Fanatic. The Guardian manages to destroy the Nightmare of the Fanatic but the severance ritual fails due to Crow resisting the Nightmare of Uldren. Eventually, Crow and the Guardian return to the Underbelly to attempt the severance ritual again, and is finally successful, with the Nightmare of Uldren transforms into the Memory of Uldren, successfully weakening Emperor Calus's connection with the Pyramid. Back at the H.E.L.M., Crow explains to the Guardian that acknowledging and accepting responsibility for his actions as Uldren Sov made him a stronger and better person.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Following Crow's successful severance ritual, Zavala offers to aid in the next severance ritual, but he becomes haunted and distraught by the Nightmare of Safiyah who blames him for the death of their son Hakim. Though the Guardian defeats the Nightmare of Kethiks, Grief Unforgiven in the Underbelly, the ritual fails due to Zavala's continued grief. Back at the H.E.L.M., Eris tells the Guardian of Zavala's relationship with Safiyah, whom he had met back during the Dark Age while he was still being mentored by Saladin. Zavala had fallen in love with Safiyah, and left Saladin to live with and marry her. The two found an infant boy left alive from a Fallen attack, and raised him as their own, named Hakim. Zavala considered giving up his Light, but one day they were attacked by a Fallen raiding party. Hakim raced to join Zavala in battle but was killed. Zavala tried to apologize to Safiyah but she claimed there was nothing for Zavala to apologize for. They separated, Zavala returning to join Saladin, while Safiyah married again and had her own family. Over time, Zavala has tried to apologize to the descendants of Safiyah, but had not found any form of forgiveness, leaving him still grief-stricken to the present. Eventually, Zavala finds the strength to confront his trauma, and returns to the Underbelly to attempt the severance ritual again with the Guardian by his side. Zavala performs the severance ritual again and is ultimately successful, with the Nightmare of Safiyah transforming into the Memory of Safiyah. Zavala continues to beg for forgiveness over Hakim's death, but the Memory of Safiyah reassures him that it was never his fault to begin with. The Guardian returns to the H.E.L.M., where Zavala explains that the entire ordeal had made him further question his faith in the Traveler and is contemplating on leaving the Guardian life.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Shortly after Zavala's successful severance ritual, the Guardian and Eris find out that Caiatl is attempting to banish the Nightmare of Dominus Ghaul, who berates her for her ineptitude in leading the Cabal race as empress. The Guardian then receives a message from Caiatl in the H.E.L.M., telling them to not interfere. Nevertheless, the Guardian decides to return to the Underbelly to find Caiatl, where she attempts to perform the severance ritual to banish the Nightmare of Ghaul despite not being bound to the Crown of Sorrow, but ultimately fails despite the Guardian defeating the Nightmare of Ghaul himself. Eris then summons to the Guardian to the Moon, where she discovers that Nightmares have once again populated the Scarlet Keep due to Emperor Calus's influence and advises the Guardian to investigate. The Guardian heads to the Scarlet Keep where they destroy a Nightmare that is calling out to the Lunar Pyramid, where the Guardian heads to afterwards and finds dead Loyalist Cabal infected with Egregore that were ferrying Calus's mind to the Pyramid. The Guardian then reconvenes with Eris via the Crown of Sorrow in the H.E.L.M., where she explains that Calus intends take control of the Pyramid and claim its power to aid the Witness in bringing about a second Collapse. Eris later convinces Caiatl to perform the séance ritual in order to eventually sever Calus's final connection to the Pyramid. After performing the séance ritual to bind her to the Crown of Sorrow, Caiatl, with newfound confidence, asks the Guardian to join her in the Underbelly to attempt the severance ritual again, to which she is ultimately successful, with the Nightmare of Ghaul transforming into the Memory of Ghaul. Back at the H.E.L.M., Caiatl contacts the Guardian and thanks them, proving in her confidence that she is a capable leader and that the Cabal will have a brighter future under her reign as empress.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: During these events, clan liaison Suraya Hawthorne advises a fireteam of Guardians to personally meet up with Eris in the Leviathan's Tribute Hall, despite Eris herself breaking Vanguard protocol. The Guardians travel to the Tribute Hall and speak with Eris, where she gives them the opportunity to enter the fractured mindscape of Emperor Calus and steal his darkest secrets from him ("Duality" dungeon). The Guardians enter Calus's consciousness via a Hive portal created by Eris, where they fight their way through, splitting between a material realm and a Nightmare realm both representing the exiled Cabal emperor's torment. As the Guardians go deeper into Calus's mind, they defeat the Nightmare of Gahlran, the Sorrow Bearer, and then later unlock a vault in the mindscape which uncovers Calus's past involving his daughter Caiatl, who eventually betrayed him and sent him into exile aboard the Leviathan, which led him to commune with the Darkness and seek the Witness's favor. Eventually, the Guardians arrive at a shrine of Darkness holding a giant Bell of Conquests, where they are greeted by the Nightmare of Caiatl, Princess-Imperial, representing Calus's greatest shame. After defeating the Nightmare of Caiatl, Eris transports the Guardians back to the Tribute Hall, where she states that through his memories, Emperor Calus is seeking to transfigure himself as a Disciple of the Witness and to help the Witness's endgame of heralding the "final shape" of the universe.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: The Guardian is then contacted by Eris through the Crown of Sorrow at the H.E.L.M., who discovers that despite Caiatl's successful severance ritual, Emperor Calus had successfully began to integrate his consciousness into the Lunar Pyramid. With time running out before Calus fully assumes complete control of the Pyramid, the Guardian, Eris, Crow, Zavala and Caiatl return to the Leviathan to perform one more severance ritual, this time in the heart of the Pyramid where Calus's consciousness resides. The Guardian fights their way through the Leviathan once more into Calus's throne room, where they enter a portal leading to the heart of the Lunar Pyramid, where they meet up with Caiatl. Caiatl then confronts her father, whose consciousness appears before her and the Guardian and attacks them. With the help of the Memories of Uldren, Safiyah and Ghaul, the Guardian successfully defeats Calus, but he manages to escape and the Memories fade away as soon as Eris, Crow and Zavala arrive. The Guardian returns to the H.E.L.M., where Eris comments that despite Emperor Calus's defeat, he is not truly gone as he had fully become a Disciple of the Witness and the harbinger of the second Collapse.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: At the conclusion of the season, the Vanguard informs the Guardian that they have lost contact with the H.E.L.M., and sends the Guardian to investigate. The Guardian arrives in the H.E.L.M., now infested with Egregore, where they receive an ominous transmission from Emperor Calus. Calus warns the Guardian that the Witness is coming for the Traveler and cannot be stopped. The Guardian returns to Zavala in the Tower afterwards, who comments that the same message appeared throughout the Last City as well. He advises the Guardian to also prepare for the eventual arrival of the Witness.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Following Emperor Calus's defeat in the Lunar Pyramid, the Guardian is contacted by the Drifter, who asks the Guardian to go to Europa to assist him in bringing in a "shipment" to the Last City, which was hijacked by the Fallen of House Salvation. The Guardian lands in Riis-Reborn on Europa and fights through House Salvation forces and finds the shipment, which actually contains the Spider, whom the Drifter was attempting to smuggle into the Eliksni Quarter in the Last City. Spider instructs the Guardian to find his Ketch and wrestle it from House Salvation's control with the help of his crew. The Guardian eventually makes their way through Riis-Reborn, and locates Spider's Ketch. However, they discover that the Stasis prison containing Eramis, Kell of Darkness, had been shattered open; Drifter surmises that the Witness had set her free. The Guardian, Spider and the Drifter return to the Eliksni Quarter in the Last City, where they meet up with Mithrax, Kell of Light, and his daughter Eido, the Scribe of House Light. They confirm that the Witness had broken Eramis out of her Stasis prison and she is now rallying old Fallen pirate crews under her command to seek out treasures of Darkness for the Witness. Mithrax suggests to have the Vanguard intervene, but Drifter advises that both Zavala and Ikora are already preoccupied in preparing for the Witness's return. The Guardian, the Drifter, Mithrax, Eido and Spider ultimately decide to team up and take down Eramis and her Fallen pirate crews themselves. Spider allows the Guardian to pilot his Ketch while also allowing them to keep the Skeleton Key that they have obtained while on Europa to aid them in the battles to come.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: The Guardian heads to the H.E.L.M., now cleansed of the Egregore, where they find an Eliksni star chart and a captain's atlas. Mithrax contacts the Guardian and tasks them to use the star chart and atlas to command Spider's Ketch and their crew, and find out why Eramis is rallying the old pirate crews. The Guardian takes the Ketch and its crew to assault one of Eramis's Ketches and takes down the Privateer manning the ship. Eventually after locating buried treasure by using map fragments found in the assaulted Ketch, the Guardian discovers coordinates to a pirate hideout on the asteroid 64974 Savaria in the Themis Cluster. The Guardian heads to the hideout and defeats Val'aug, the Brute to recover a Darkness relic there, which they take to the H.E.L.M. for Eido to study. After the Guardian later retrieves another relic from the hideout of Iriks, the Sharpshooter, the Guardian returns to the Eliksni Quarter, where they overhear a conversation between Spider and Mithrax. Spider tries to goad Mithrax into using the relics, knowing Mithrax's past, but Mithrax angrily refuses and leaves. The Drifter then contacts the Guardian afterwards, who tells them that Eido had attempted to tap into the Darkness powers hidden in the relics, only for Mithrax to stop her from doing so; he decides to do some research on his own given that the relics themselves hold terrifying power. Mithrax eventually begs the Guardian to not let Eido get involved in the fight against Eramis. Furthermore, tensions rise between Mithrax and Eido as he catches her and Spider confiding in each other after the Guardian retrieves a third relic from the Blademasters Tagh'al and Thagh'urn. The Guardian later goes to retrieve a fourth relic from the hideout of Alaaks, the Beast Master, but finds out that a third party is also going after the relics, as evidenced by dead Fallen bodies scattered throughout Alaaks's hideout.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Mithrax eventually contacts the Guardian and warns them that Eido has attempted to contact Eramis to parley with her. As the Guardian retrieves a fifth relic from the hideout of Arask, the Bully, Eramis contacts the Guardian and Eido and agrees to meet with them and Mithrax. The Guardian, Mithrax, Eido, and Eramis meet on a neutral asteroid in the Themis Cluster; Eido explains to Eramis that a third party is also seeking the relics and may have a common enemy, but Eramis attempts to sway both Mithrax and Eido to her side, revealing that Mithrax knows the true power of the relics. With Eido wanting to hear the truth of her father's past and his connection with the relics, Eramis reveals that the relics are that of Nezarec, a former Disciple of the Witness who was entombed in the Lunar Pyramid. When the Eliksni first arrived in the Solar System, they discovered the Lunar Pyramid and found Nezarec's corpse within and took pieces of his flesh, using them as relics to empower themselves with Darkness; Mithrax eventually took possession of one of these relics. He eventually became empowered and possessed by the Darkness through the relic, turning him into a ruthless, bloodthirsty pirate, slaughtering his own crew and kin. Eido later contacts the Guardian in the Eliksni Quarter, who is shocked and saddened by the truth of her father revealed to her and vows to not be like him, but notes that they must continue retrieving the relics of Nezarec before Eramis does.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: The Drifter later contacts the Guardian at the H.E.L.M. and discusses the fallout of the revelation of Mithrax's dark past as a pirate and the relics of Nezarec, which he immediately recognized after the Guardian retrieved them from the pirate hideouts. The Guardian later storms the hideout of Vrisk, the Coward to obtain a sixth relic of Nezarec, but discovers that the mysterious third party, revealed to be Savathûn's Lucent Hive, had gotten to the hideout first. The Guardian kills Ei Arat, Trespasser, the Lightbearer Wizard leading the invasion, and the Lucent Hive within the hideout and manages to retrieve the sixth relic. The Guardian then returns to the Eliksni Quarter, where Eido and the Drifter discuss the reasoning behind the Lucent Hive also going after the relics of Nezarec. The Drifter then gives Eido some guidance and comfort after her father's revelation, letting her know that he is one of many who is ashamed of their past. Shortly after the Guardian retrieves a seventh relic of Nezarec from the hideout of Ithyks, the Scrapworker, Spider reveals to the Guardian that he was formerly named Rakis and was formerly part of the old pirate crews alongside Mithrax and his brother Siviks until he was betrayed by them and he took on the identity of the Spider afterwards.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Mithrax later contacts the Guardian and advises them that he had discovered a transmission from Eramis to Eido. Concerned for his daughter's safety and Eramis's influence on her, Mithrax asks the Guardian to go after Eido, who had gone off on her own to the last remaining pirate hideout to find the eighth and final relic of Nezarec. The Guardian arrives in the pirate hideout, finding it occupied by the Lucent Hive. After the Guardian defeats Hiak'ar, Hoardseeker, they break down the door where Eido is trapped behind, and they find her with the relic as well as Eramis fending off the remaining Lucent Hive. Mithrax arrives soon after he and Eramis engage in a pirate sword duel as Eido pleads for both of them to stop. Mithrax decides to spare Eramis and she escapes. The Guardian then returns to the Eliksni Quarter and speaks with the Drifter, who congratulates the Guardian on their efforts in securing the final relic of Nezarec, stopping whatever plan the Witness had with the relics and despite Mithrax sparing Eramis and letting her escape. Eido contacts the Guardian as they bring the final relic to the H.E.L.M., where she expresses concern that while both her and her father may be able to harness the relics' power, they may get inflicted with a Curse of Nezarec, rumored to drain the user's life force. Despite her father wanting to use the relics to atone for his dark past, Eido states that using the relics as they are would be dangerous, and she intends to continue researching into how the relics can be safely used.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: At the conclusion of the season, Mithrax begins requesting Guardians to make donations of treasures they have collected across the Solar System to help renovate the Eliksni Quarter. Upon acquiring sufficient donations, the Guardian then travels to the Eliksni Quarter where renovations have begun, from safety and security upgrades to new housing, a community garden and even a town square. Meanwhile, Mithrax concludes his research and manages to safely extract Nezarec's essence from the relics into a potion, which Saint-14 gives to an unconscious Osiris. Osiris finally awakens from his coma and reunites with Saint as he reveals from Savathûn's memories of a secret power hidden away in Neptune.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Ana Bray continues to work on restoring the Warmind Rasputin, which she had saved into an engram just prior to the Darkness's consumption of Mars, and now is trying to install in a specialized Exo frame with no success. Following the Eliksni Quarter renovations and Osiris awakening from his coma, Osiris still recalls Savathûn's memories of Neptune, and urges Ana to awaken Rasputin to help him interpret the memories. Reluctantly, Ana decides to turn to her megalomaniacal grandfather, Clovis Bray I, now a living AI in the Braytech Exoscience facility on Europa, and asks the Guardian to help with contacting him. The Guardian finds the Braytech facility overrun with cryptoliths, Hive and Wrathborn within, indicating that Xivu Arath, the Hive God of War, seeks Clovis as well. The Guardian fights and clears the enemies from the facility, allowing Ana to arrive and convince Clovis to help, transferring his AI from Europa to an Exo frame in the H.E.L.M.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Clovis explains that Rasputin has several subminds located across the Solar System which must be restored before they can complete Rasputin, as well as gain access to the Seraph orbital station and control of the Warsat network to help protect the system; he gives the Guardian the Seraph Cipher to aid them in the battles to come. Mara Sov then contacts the Guardian, explaining that she has been monitoring the God of War's movements from within the Ascendant Realm, and warns them that Xivu Arath has sent Hive and Wrathborn forces to try to claim these subminds as well for the Witness. The Guardian infiltrates old Warmind facilities on the Moon to defend and secure the submind Malahayati. The Guardian afterwards infiltrates the Warmind launch facility in Twilight Gap, where they restart the auxiliary reactor to access the orbital station.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Upon returning to the H.E.L.M., the Guardian witnesses an argument between Ana, her sister Elsie Bray (the Exo Stranger) and Clovis. Brushing Ana and Elsie's criticisms of him aside, Clovis advises the Guardian that Rasputin's mindlab in the Hellas Basin on Mars is situated in one of the temporal distortions, and that it contains the submind Charlemagne from a past time period. The Guardian then travels to the Braytech Futurescape campus on Mars, where they drive off Hive, Wrathborn and Taken forces and secure Charlemagne from its vault within the temporal distortion. They then return to the Warmind launch facility to download new launch codes for Clovis to decrypt in order for the Guardian to reach the orbital station.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: During these events, Osiris is tipped by a member of the Hidden that a Seraph research facility on Mars, which he had a vision of through Savathûn's memories, had activated for the first time since the Collapse and is under attack by Vex from the Black Garden. Fearing that the Vex are looking for something more than attempting to imprison and control Rasputin's submind data for the Witness, Ikora Rey advises a fireteam of Guardians under Osiris's guidance to travel to the research facility to stop the Vex incursion ("Spire of the Watcher" dungeon). The Guardians enter the facility and ascend its spire, destroying Akelous, the Siren's Current at its apex, preventing the submind data from falling into the Witness's control. However, Akelous's destruction causes the Vex to drive the spire's nuclear reactor core to a meltdown, and the Guardians descend to the spire's reactor core, where they destroy Persys, Primordial Ruin, and prevent the spire's destruction. Osiris congratulates the Guardians for their efforts upon Persys's destruction as they secure the facility.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: Since "Forsaken", Bungie had found a pattern of holding a large major expansion each year along with four seasonal segments within that year for "Destiny 2". "The Witch Queen" had been planned to start "Destiny 2" fifth year of content with a target release of November 2021. However, in February 2021, the company confirmed that a combination of delays from the COVID-19 pandemic and the business of the late-2021 release calendar, they had opted to move "The Witch Queen" to February 2022. The fourth year of content that began with the "Beyond Light" expansion (November 2020) was in turn extended by three months due to this delay. With the extended time, Bungie announced a special series of events within the game to launch in December 2021 that would celebrate the company's 30th anniversary, featuring weapons, armor, and other cosmetics inspired by their previous games, including "Marathon" and "Halo".


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: The setting for "The Witch Queen", Savathûn's Throne World, was designed to provide a setting for the players as Guardians to solve the mystery of how Savathûn came to gain control of the Light for her Lucent Brood. Inspired by the television show "True Detective", the Throne World is based on a swamp-like setting to provide a moody landscape, according to Blackburn, who also said that the campaign would be the action game equivalent of a mystery game. While Bungie does not plan to have a large alternative reality game as they had during "Season of Dawn" (Season 9), Blackburn said that Bungie does want players to work individually and together to solve the season's mystery.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: The basis for "Season of the Haunted" had originated when the development team was working on the Presage mission during "Season of the Chosen" from "Beyond Light". One idea for the ship, the "Glykon", was to have it occupied by Nightmares, leading the narrative team to see connections between what they were creating and the film "Event Horizon". While they could not fit in the Nightmare concept for the Presage mission at the time of "Season of the Chosen", but when Bungie planned to bring back the Leviathan for "Season of the Haunted", the narrative team were able to expand on these ideas further, adding in influences from the films "Flatliners" and "Jacob's Ladder". Missions like the "Sever" activity were then designed to be like horror films, with sections where the player cannot fight off an enemy and forced to run.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: "The Witch Queen" was originally announced alongside "Beyond Light" (2020), with "The Witch Queen" and the following expansion, "", announced for a late 2021 and 2022 release, respectively. When it was announced that "The Witch Queen" had been delayed to February 2022, "Lightfall" was also delayed to early 2023, and another expansion, "", was announced for early 2024. This will conclude the first major arc, the "Light and Darkness Saga", that Bungie has planned for "Destiny 2", and prepare them to introduce a new arc after "The Final Shape".


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: On February 2, 2022, Bungie announced that "The Witch Queen" had surpassed 1 million pre-orders, putting it "on track to becoming the most pre-ordered expansion in "Destiny 2" history".


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: "Destiny 2: The Witch Queen" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: "GameSpot" praised the campaign for incorporating elements from raids and dungeons, writing that, "Levels drip-feed you new mechanics and ideas all along the way so that it all comes together in the boss fight, and coupled with "Destiny 2"s already excellent combat foundation, it makes for an intensely fast-paced, hectic experience". "Game Informer" liked the new location, the Throne World, "On one side is the towering edifice of Savathûn’s sprawling palace grounds... That aesthetic gives way to a miasmic otherworldly swamp that feels dirty and overgrown. At both ends, there are secrets to uncover and impressive sights to see". "GamesRadar+" enjoyed the balancing of the campaign, "the "Witch Queen" campaign, particularly its Legendary mode, is a superb balance of challenge and power fantasy. Legendary feels just right. It's excellent in co-op... missions spit out twice the loot on Legendary, which makes the Power leveling process even easier".


title: Destiny 2: The Witch Queen

text: "PCGamesN" felt the new raid was the best in series history, "There are important roles for every player in each encounter, a good mix of different forms of challenge, and two excellent bosses which demand more from players than simply sitting in a Well of Radiance every damage phase". While liking the new activities, "GameSpot" criticized the new weapon crafting system as being overly convuluted, "The system generally feels a bit too grindy in its earliest iteration--a lot of unlocking weapons and their various upgrades still requires a huge reliance on random drops". "IGN" praised the Hive Guardians as adding a unique challenge to "Destiny 2", "Victory against these formidable foes requires smart gunplay, patience, and most importantly, that you remember to quickly run and crush the enemy Ghost before it can revive them. A challenging new enemy type that forces you to think about how you approach an encounter like this is exactly what "Destiny" has needed to spruce up combat".


title: Classical economics

text: Classical economics, classical political economy, or Smithian economics is a school of thought in political economy that flourished, primarily in Britain, in the late 18th and early-to-mid 19th century. Its main thinkers are held to be Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus, and John Stuart Mill. These economists produced a theory of market economies as largely self-regulating systems, governed by natural laws of production and exchange (famously captured by Adam Smith's metaphor of the invisible hand).


title: Classical economics

text: Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" in 1776 is usually considered to mark the beginning of classical economics. The fundamental message in Smith's book was that the wealth of any nation was determined not by the gold in the monarch's coffers, but by its national income. This income was in turn based on the labor of its inhabitants, organized efficiently by the division of labour and the use of accumulated capital, which became one of classical economics' central concepts.


title: Classical economics

text: In terms of economic policy, the classical economists were pragmatic liberals, advocating the freedom of the market, though they saw a role for the state in providing for the common good. Smith acknowledged that there were areas where the market is not the best way to serve the common interest, and he took it as a given that the greater proportion of the costs supporting the common good should be borne by those best able to afford them. He warned repeatedly of the dangers of monopoly, and stressed the importance of competition. In terms of international trade, the classical economists were advocates of free trade, which distinguishes them from their mercantilist predecessors, who advocated protectionism.


title: Classical economics

text: The designation of Smith, Ricardo and some earlier economists as "classical" is due to a canonization which stems from Karl Marx's critique of political economy, where he critiqued those that he at least perceived as worthy of dealing with, as opposed to their "vulgar" successors. There is some debate about what is covered by the term "classical economics", particularly when dealing with the period from 1830 to 1875, and how classical economics relates to neoclassical economics.


title: Classical economics

text: The classical economists produced their "magnificent dynamics" during a period in which capitalism was emerging from feudalism and in which the Industrial Revolution was leading to vast changes in society. These changes raised the question of how a society could be organized around a system in which every individual sought his or her own (monetary) gain. Classical political economy is popularly associated with the idea that free markets can regulate themselves.


title: Classical economics

text: Classical economists and their immediate predecessors reoriented economics away from an analysis of the ruler's personal interests to broader national interests. Adam Smith, following the physiocrat François Quesnay, identified the wealth of a nation with the yearly national income, instead of the king's treasury. Smith saw this income as produced by labour, land, and capital. With property rights to land and capital held by individuals, the national income is divided up between labourers, landlords, and capitalists in the form of wages, rent, and interest or profits. In his vision, productive labour was the true source of income, while capital was the main organizing force, boosting labour's productivity and inducing growth.


title: Classical economics

text: Ricardo and James Mill systematized Smith's theory. Their ideas became economic orthodoxy in the period ca. 1815–1848, after which an "anti-Ricardian reaction" took shape, especially on the European continent, that eventually became marginalist/neoclassical economics. The definitive split is typically placed somewhere in the 1870s, after which the torch of Ricardian economics was carried mainly by Marxian economics, while neoclassical economics became the new orthodoxy also in the English-speaking world.


title: Classical economics

text: Henry George is sometimes known as the last classical economist or as a bridge. The economist Mason Gaffney documented original sources that appear to confirm his thesis arguing that neoclassical economics arose as a concerted effort to suppress the ideas of classical economics and those of Henry George in particular.


title: Classical economics

text: Classical economics and many of its ideas remain fundamental in economics, though the theory itself has yielded, since the 1870s, to neoclassical economics. Other ideas have either disappeared from neoclassical discourse or been replaced by Keynesian economics in the Keynesian Revolution and neoclassical synthesis. Some classical ideas are represented in various schools of heterodox economics, notably Georgism and Marxian economics – Marx and Henry George being contemporaries of classical economists – and Austrian economics, which split from neoclassical economics in the late 19th century. In the mid-20th century, a renewed interest in classical economics gave rise to the neo-Ricardian school and its offshoots.


title: Classical economics

text: Adam Smith refuted Mercantilist thought with his most influential publication: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations". He argued against mercantilism, and instead favored free trade and free markets, while believing that this would favor the countries who participate in free trade. He elucidated that mercantilist policies would benefit domestic producers but not the country because it prevents consumers buying products at competitive prices, therefore directing cashflow ineffectively. Smith believed that deviating from free trade costs society in a similar manner as to how monopolies negatively affect competition in a market.


title: Classical economics

text: During the classical era and after Adam Smith, David Ricardo became a prominent economist with thoughts on international trade. Ricardo’s most famous economic  theory was the theory of comparative advantage as the foundation of the international division of labor. He argued that international trade, in any case, would increase the standard of living. His main idea on international trade was that while it does add to real output produced in a country, the main benefits are derived from the encouragement of specialization and the division of labor on an international scale, leading to a more effective use of resources in all countries involved. One of Ricardo’s greatest assumptions and observations was that the factors of production are immobile between countries while finished goods are perfectly mobile, this assumption was critical to depict the advantages of international trade and specialization. His theory on international trade was weakened by how the labor theory of value clashes with the theory of comparative advantage. Ultimately both theories collide with a question on how the price is relatively determined and Ricardo simply stated that it does not hold in international trade theory.


title: Classical economics

text: John Stuart Mill would later come and solve this dilemma and further build upon Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage. John Stuart Mill’s contribution to Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage came about when he introduced demand to the equation. Mill introduced demand and was the first to promote the idea that demand and supply are functions of price, and the market equilibrium is where price is adjusted to where there is equilibrium between supply and demand. Overall, prior to Adam Smith and the classical economic wave, the main view of international trade was viewed negatively and not in favor of the countries who would participate in international trade with the economic policies of mercantilism. However, once Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill arrived with the classical wave of economics, international trade came to be viewed favorably and ultimately beneficial for all parties involved.


title: Classical economics

text: Analyzing the growth in the wealth of nations and advocating policies to promote such growth was a major focus of most classical economists. However, John Stuart Mill believed that a future stationary state of a constant population size and a constant stock of capital was both inevitable, necessary and desirable for mankind to achieve. This is now known as a steady-state economy.


title: Classical economics

text: John Hicks & Samuel Hollander, Nicholas Kaldor, Luigi L. Pasinetti, and Paul A. Samuelson have presented formal models as part of their respective interpretations of classical political economy.


title: Classical economics

text: Classical economists developed a theory of value, or price, to investigate economic dynamics. In political economics, value usually refers to the value of exchange, which is separate from the price. William Petty introduced a fundamental distinction between market price and natural price to facilitate the portrayal of regularities in prices. Market prices are jostled by many transient influences that are difficult to theorize about at any abstract level. Natural prices, according to Petty, Smith, and Ricardo, for example, capture systematic and persistent forces operating at a point in time. Market prices always tend toward natural prices in a process that Smith described as somewhat similar to gravitational attraction.


title: Classical economics

text: The theory of what determined natural prices varied within the Classical school. Petty tried to develop a par between land and labour and had what might be called a land-and-labour theory of value. Smith confined the labour theory of value to a mythical pre-capitalist past. Others may interpret Smith to have believed in value as derived from labour. He stated that natural prices were the sum of natural rates of wages, profits (including interest on capital and wages of superintendence) and rent. Ricardo also had what might be described as a cost of production theory of value. He criticized Smith for describing rent as price-determining, instead of price-determined, and saw the labour theory of value as a good approximation.


title: Classical economics

text: Some historians of economic thought, in particular, Sraffian economists, see the classical theory of prices as determined from three givens:


title: Classical economics

text: From these givens, one can rigorously derive a theory of value. But neither Ricardo nor Marx, the most rigorous investigators of the theory of value during the Classical period, developed this theory fully. Those who reconstruct the theory of value in this manner see the determinants of natural prices as being explained by the Classical economists from within the theory of economics, albeit at a lower level of abstraction. For example, the theory of wages was closely connected to the theory of population. The Classical economists took the theory of the determinants of the level and growth of population as part of Political Economy. Since then, the theory of population has been seen as part of Demography. In contrast to the Classical theory, the following determinants of the neoclassical theory value are seen as exogenous to neoclassical economics:


title: Classical economics

text: Classical economics tended to stress the benefits of trade. Its theory of value was largely displaced by marginalist schools of thought which sees "use value" as deriving from the marginal utility that consumers finds in a good, and "exchange value" (i.e. natural price) as determined by the marginal opportunity- or disutility-cost of the inputs that make up the product. Ironically, considering the attachment of many classical economists to the free market, the largest school of economic thought that still adheres to classical form is the Marxian school.


title: Classical economics

text: Banking and the Currency School. This parallels recent debates between proponents of the theory of endogeneous money, such as Nicholas Kaldor, and monetarists, such as Milton Friedman. Monetarists and members of the currency school argued that banks can and should control the supply of money. According to their theories, inflation is caused by banks issuing an excessive supply of money. According to proponents of the theory of endogenous money, the supply of money automatically adjusts to the demand, and banks can only control the terms and conditions (e.g., the rate of interest) on which loans are made.


title: Classical economics

text: The theory of value is currently a contested subject. One issue is whether classical economics is a forerunner of neoclassical economics or a school of thought that had a distinct theory of value, distribution, and growth.


title: Classical economics

text: The period 1830–75 is a timeframe of significant debate. Karl Marx originally coined the term "classical economics" to refer to Ricardian economics – the economics of David Ricardo and James Mill and their "predecessors" – but usage was subsequently extended to include the "followers" of Ricardo.


title: Classical economics

text: see classical economics as extending from Petty's work in the 17th century to the break-up of the Ricardian system around 1830. The period between 1830 and the 1870s would then be dominated by "vulgar political economy", as Karl Marx characterized it. Sraffians argue that: the wages fund theory; Senior's abstinence theory of interest, which puts the return to capital on the same level as returns to land and labour; the explanation of equilibrium prices by well-behaved supply and demand functions; and Say's law, are not necessary or essential elements of the classical theory of value and distribution. Perhaps Schumpeter's view that John Stuart Mill put forth a half-way house between classical and neoclassical economics is consistent with this view.


title: Classical economics

text: Georgists and other modern classical economists and historians such as Michael Hudson argue that a major division between classical and neo-classical economics is the treatment or recognition of Economic rent. Most modern economists no longer recognize land/location as a factor of production, often claiming that rent is non-existent. Georgists and others argue that economic rent remains roughly a third of economic output.


title: Classical economics

text: Sraffians generally see Marx as having rediscovered and restated the logic of classical economics, albeit for his own purposes. Others, such as Schumpeter, think of Marx as a follower of Ricardo. Even Samuel Hollander has recently explained that there is a textual basis in the classical economists for Marx's reading, although he does argue that it is an extremely narrow set of texts.


title: Classical economics

text: Another position is that neoclassical economics is essentially continuous with classical economics. To scholars promoting this view, there is no hard and fast line between classical and neoclassical economics. There may be shifts of emphasis, such as between the long run and the short run and between supply and demand, but the neoclassical concepts are to be found confused or in embryo in classical economics. To these economists, there is only one theory of value and distribution. Alfred Marshall is a well-known promoter of this view. Samuel Hollander is probably its best current proponent.


title: Classical economics

text: Still another position sees two threads simultaneously being developed in classical economics. In this view, neoclassical economics is a development of certain exoteric (popular) views in Adam Smith. Ricardo was a sport, developing certain esoteric (known by only the select) views in Adam Smith. This view can be found in W. Stanley Jevons, who referred to Ricardo as something like "that able, but wrong-headed man" who put economics on the "wrong track". One can also find this view in Maurice Dobb's "Theories of Value and Distribution Since Adam Smith: Ideology and Economic Theory" (1973), as well as in Karl Marx's "Theories of Surplus Value".


title: Classical economics

text: The above does not exhaust the possibilities. John Maynard Keynes thought of classical economics as starting with Ricardo and being ended by the publication of his own "General Theory of Employment Interest and Money". The defining criterion of classical economics, on this view, is Say's law which is disputed by Keynesian economics. Keynes was aware, though, that his usage of the term 'classical' was non-standard.


title: Classical economics

text: One difficulty in these debates is that the participants are frequently arguing about whether there is a non-neoclassical theory that should be reconstructed and applied today to describe capitalist economies. Some, such as Terry Peach, see classical economics as of antiquarian interest.


title: Puru Raaj Kumar

text: Puru Raaj Kumar (born 30 March 1970) is an Indian actor who works in Bollywood films. He is the son of actor Raaj Kumar and is married to Croatian model Koraljika Grdak.


title: Puru Raaj Kumar

text: Kumar's first film Bal Bramhachari which was released in 1996. In this film, popular actress Karisma Kapoor was his co-star. After four years he acted in "Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai" in 2000 where he played a negative role. His film "Mission Kashmir" was also released in 2000. Three of his films were released in 2001. These films were "Khatron Ke Khiladi", Uljhan and "Arjun Devaa". In 2002, four of his films were released. These films were Bharat Bhagya Vidhata, Vadh, Inth Ka Jawab Patthar and "Dushmani". He then acted in "LOC Kargil" (2003).


title: Puru Raaj Kumar

text: After several flops and disasters at the box office, Kumar was not able to establish a strong place in Bollywood. He acted in "Jaago" in 2004. After more than two years, his film "Umrao Jaan" was released in 2006. He then acted in Dosh in 2007. He was also a part of "Veer" which was released in 2010. His latest film is "Action Jackson" (2014) where he played the role of Inspector Shirke.


title: Puru Raaj Kumar

text: On 17 December 1993, Kumar ran his car over eight people who were sleeping on a pavement in Bandra, Mumbai. Three people were killed through this accident. It is also said that he was drunk at that time and was arrested for this incident. Later, he was released. It is said that the matter was settled out of court and he had to pay fine for this incident.


title: Parchís

text: Parchís is a Spanish board game of the Cross and Circle family. It is an adaptation of the Indian game Pachisi.


title: Parchís

text: Parchís was a very popular game in Spain at one point as well as in Europe and north Morocco - specifically Tangiers and Tetouan, and it is still popular especially among adults and seniors. Since it uses dice, Parchís is not usually regarded as an abstract strategy game like checkers or chess. It does not depend entirely on luck either, since the four pawns under a player's command demand some sort of strategy.


title: Parchís

text: Parchís is license-free in Spain, so in stores it is just as easy to find as a deck of cards, and is usually cheaper. Although the original game allows up to four players (that is, the board counts four colors: yellow, blue, red and green), six-player versions are not hard to find (adding orange and purple, in that order), and eight-player boards can be found in big toy stores.


title: Parchís

text: Traditionally, each player has a "cubilete" (dice cup) to shake and toss the dice. This does not affect the course of the game itself, but most habitual players find it imperative.


title: Parchís

text: The game can now be played on mobile. Certain apps offer real time multiplayer gameplay where you can play with real opponents across the world.


title: Parchís

text: This game is played with one six-sided die and four pawns per player. Dice cups are optional, but most game sets include them. As in Parchis, the aim is simple: players compete on leading their four pawns out of their nest, around the whole board, into the color track and up to the center of the board, chasing and "eating" each other in the process.


title: Parchís

text: A roll of five forces the player to release one pawn from the nest (if there are any left), and a roll of six gives the player an extra turn. When the player has four pawns in the game (outside the nest), whenever he gets a six, he can move 7 squares. The rule gets cancelled if a pawn reaches the end and gets out of the board.


title: Parchís

text: If ever three 6s are rolled in a row, the last piece moved is killed and returned to the nest. If the last piece moved was in the final colored ramp, it is only moved to the bottom of it. And if the final move is in a secured square it remains there, and the turn is cancelled and passed to the next player.


title: Parchís

text: When a pawn "eats" an opponent's pawn (by landing on the same square, if it is not a safe square), it "kills" it, sending it back to the nest, and advances 20 squares. If a player doesn't notice a kill and moves another pawn, that pawn gets back to the nest. When a pawn reaches the end, one of the other pawns of the same color can advance ten squares.


title: Parchís

text: When one or two pawns of any other color are in the starting square and the player rolls a five, it eats the opposing pawn or pawns, in case it kills two opposing pawns, player can advance with 40 squares.


title: Parchís

text: Blockades can also be made with two pawns. In some variants, a blockade can be formed in any square, if both pawns belong to the same player—otherwise the last to arrive would kill the first. Pawns cannot jump over blockades, which causes "jams", making it easy for players to "eat" each other. A player must open a blockade if he tosses a six with the dice.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: In heraldry, an escutcheon () is a shield that forms the main or focal element in an achievement of arms. The word can be used in two related senses. In the first sense, an escutcheon is the shield upon which a coat of arms is displayed. In the second sense, an escutcheon can itself be a charge within a coat of arms.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Escutcheon shapes are derived from actual shields that were used by knights in combat, and thus are varied and developed by region and by era. Since shields have been regarded as military equipment appropriate for men only, British ladies customarily bear their arms upon a lozenge, or diamond-shape, while clergymen and ladies in continental Europe bear their arms upon a cartouche, or oval. Other shapes are also in use, such as the roundel commonly used for arms granted to Aboriginal Canadians by the Canadian Heraldic Authority, or the Nguni shield used in African heraldry (likewise, Christian organisations and Masonic bodies tend to use the same shape, also known as a vesica piscis).


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Although an escutcheon can be used as a charge on its own, the most common use of an escutcheon charge is to display another coat of arms as a form of marshalling. Such escutcheon charges are usually given the same shape as the main shield. When there is only one escutcheon charge, it is sometimes called an inescutcheon.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: The earliest depictions of proto-heraldic shields in the second half of the 12th century still have the shape of the Norman kite shield used throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. By about the 1230s, shields used by heavy cavalry had become shorter and more triangular, now called heater shields.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Transitional forms intermediate between kite and heater are seen in the late 12th to early 13th centuries. Transition to the heater was essentially complete by 1250. For example, the shield of William II Longespée (d. 1250) shown with his effigy at Salisbury Cathedral is triangular, while the shield shown on the effigy of his father William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury (d. 1226) is still of a more elongated form.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: The shield on the enamel monument to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou (d. 1151) is of almost full-body length.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: The heater was used in warfare during the apogee of the Age of Chivalry, at about the time of the Battle of Crecy (1346) and the founding of the Order of the Garter (1348). The shape is therefore used in armorials from this "classical age" of heraldry.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Beginning in the 15th century, and even more throughout the early modern period, a great variety of escutcheon shapes develops.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: In the Tudor era the heraldic escutcheon became more square, taking the shape of an inverted Tudor arch. Continental European designs frequently use the various forms used in jousting, which incorporate "mouths" used as lance rests into the shields; such escutcheons are known as "à bouche". The mouth is correctly shown on the dexter side only, as jousting pitches were designed for right-handed knights. Heraldic examples of English shields "à bouche" can be seen in the spandrels of the trussed timber roof of Lincoln's Inn Hall, London.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: The shape of the top, the sides and the base may be separately described, and these elements may be freely combined. The highly complex Baroque style shields of the 17th century come in many artistic variations.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: In English heraldry, the lozenge has been used by women since the 13th century for the display of their coats of arms instead of the escutcheon or shield, which are associated with warfare. In this case the lozenge is shown without crest or helm. For the practical purpose of categorisation the lozenge may be treated as a variety of heraldic escutcheon.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Traditionally, very limited categories of females have been able to display their own arms, for example a female monarch—who uses an escutcheon as a military commander, not a lozenge—and "suo jure" peeresses, who may display their own arms alone on a lozenge even if married.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: In general a female was represented by her paternal arms impaled by the arms of her husband on an escutcheon as a form of marshalling.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: In modern Canadian heraldry, and certain other modern heraldic jurisdictions, women may be granted their own arms and display these on an escutcheon.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: As a result of rulings of the English Kings of Arms dated 7 April 1995 and 6 November 1997, married women in England, Northern Ireland and Wales and in other countries recognising the jurisdiction of the College of Arms in London (such as New Zealand) also have the option of using their husband's arms alone, marked with a small lozenge as a difference to show that the arms are displayed for the wife and not the husband; or of using their own personal arms alone, marked with a small shield as a brisure for the same reason.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Divorced women may theoretically until remarriage use their ex-husband's arms differenced with a mascle.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Widowed women normally display a lozenge-shaped shield impaled, unless they are heraldic heiresses, in which case they display a lozenge-shaped shield with the unaltered escutcheon of pretence in the centre. Women in same-sex marriages may use a shield or banner to combine arms, but can use only a lozenge or banner when one of the spouses dies.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Pretoria High School for Girls in South Africa is one of the few all-girls schools that was granted permission to use the lozenge as part of its coat of arms.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: The points of the shield refer to specific positions thereon and are used in blazons to describe where a charge should be placed.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: An "inescutcheon" is a smaller escutcheon that is placed within or superimposed over the main shield of a coat of arms. This may be used in the following cases:


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Inescutcheons may appear in personal and civic armory as simple mobile charges, for example the arms of the House of Mortimer, the Clan Hay or the noble French family of Abbeville. These mobile charges are of a particular tincture but do not necessarily bear further charges and may appear anywhere on the main escutcheon, their placement being specified in the blazon, if in doubt.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Inescutcheons may also be charged with other mobile charges, such as in the arms of the Swedish Collegium of Arms (illustrated above) which bears the three crowns of Sweden, each upon its own escutcheon upon the field of the main shield. These inescutcheons serve as a basis for including other charges that do not serve as an augmentation or hereditary claim. In this case, the inescutcheons "azure" allow the three crowns of Sweden to be placed upon a field, thus not only remaining clearly visible but also conforming to the rule of tincture.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: Inescutcheons may also be used to bear another's arms in "pretence". In English heraldry the husband of a heraldic heiress, the sole daughter and heiress of an armigerous man (i.e. a lady without any brothers), rather than impaling his wife's paternal arms as is usual, must place her paternal arms in an "escutcheon of pretence" in the centre of his own shield as a "claim" ("pretence") to be the new head of his wife's family, now extinct in the male line. In the next generation the arms are quartered by the son.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: A monarch's personal or hereditary arms may be borne on an inescutcheon "en surtout" over the territorial arms of his/her domains, as in the arms of Spain, the coats of arms of the Danish Royal Family members, the greater coat of arms of Sweden, or the arms of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England (1653–1659). The early Georgian kings of England bore an inescutcheon of the royal arms of Hanover on the arms of the Stuart monarchs of Great Britain, whose territories they now ruled.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: The current diplomatic emblem of France incorporates the pelta escutcheon, a wide form of shield (or gorget) with a small animal head pointing inward at each end.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: This is Roman in origin; although not the shape of their classic shield, many brooches of this shape survive from antiquity.


title: Escutcheon (heraldry)

text: A form of pelta appears as a decoration above the head of every official on the Austerlitz table, commissioned by Napoleon for propaganda purposes.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Royal Air Force Lakenheath or RAF Lakenheath is a Royal Air Force station near the village of Lakenheath in Suffolk, England, UK, north-east of Mildenhall and west of Thetford. The base also sits close to Brandon.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Despite being an RAF station, Lakenheath currently only hosts United States Air Force (USAF) units and personnel. The host wing is the 48th Fighter Wing (48 FW), also known as the Liberty Wing, assigned to United States Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Africa (USAFE-AFAFRICA). The wing operates the F-15E Strike Eagle and the F-35A Lightning II.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: The first use of Lakenheath Warren as a Royal Flying Corps airfield was during the First World War, when the area was made into a bombing and ground-attack range for aircraft flying from RFC Feltwell and RFC Thetford.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: In 1940, the Air Ministry selected Lakenheath as an alternative for nearby RAF Mildenhall and used it as a decoy airfield. Surfaced runways were constructed in 1941, with the main runway being , and the two subsidiary runways at .


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Lakenheath was used by RAF flying units on detachment late in 1941. The station soon functioned as a Mildenhall satellite with Short Stirling bombers of No. 149 Squadron dispersed from the parent airfield as conditions allowed. The squadron exchanged its Vickers Wellingtons for Stirlings late in November 1941. After becoming fully operational with its new aircraft, the squadron moved into Lakenheath on 6 April 1942 and remained until mid 1944 when the squadron moved to RAF Methwold in Norfolk. One Stirling pilot, Flight Sergeant Rawdon Middleton, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for valour on the night of 28–29 November 1942, when despite serious face wounds and loss of blood from shell-fire during a raid on the Fiat works at Turin in Italy, he brought the damaged aircraft back towards southern England. With fuel nearly exhausted his crew were ordered to bail out.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 21 June 1943, No. 199 Squadron was established as a second Stirling squadron. It conducted mine laying operations at sea before moving to RAF North Creake in Norfolk on 1 May 1944. No. 149 Squadron ended its association with RAF Lakenheath the same month, taking its Stirlings to RAF Methwold. The reason for the departure of the two bomber squadrons was Lakenheath's selection for upgrading to a Very Heavy Bomber airfield.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union in Europe began as early as 1946. In November, President Harry S. Truman ordered Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-29 Superfortress bombers to Europe. Truman decided to realign United States Air Force Europe (USAFE) into a permanent combat-capable force. In July, B-29s of the SAC 2nd Bombardment Group were deployed to Lakenheath. The first USAFE host unit at Lakenheath was the 7504th Base Completion Squadron, being activated in 1949. The 3909th moved to RAF Greenham Common in Berkshire during 1954, and was replaced by the 3910th Air Base Group in 1955.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 30 April 1956, two Lockheed U-2s were airlifted to Lakenheath to form CIA Detachment A. The first flight of the U-2 was on 21 May. The Central Intelligence Agency unit did not remain long, moving to Wiesbaden Air Base, West Germany in June 1956.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 10 October 1956, a United States Navy Douglas R6D-1 Liftmaster disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean after departure from RAF Lakenheath for a flight to Lajes Field in the Azores. The aircraft was on a Military Air Transport Service flight carrying 50 members of the 307th Bombardment Wing, on their way home to the United States after a temporary duty assignment and a U.S. Navy crew of nine. All 59 personnel on board were lost.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Following French president Charles de Gaulle's insistence in 1959 that all non-French nuclear-capable forces should be withdrawn from his country, the USAF began a redeployment of its North American F-100-equipped units from France. The 48th Fighter Wing left its base at Chaumont-Semoutiers Air Base, France on 15 January 1960, its aircraft arriving at Lakenheath that afternoon.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: The period between 1972 and 1977 can be described as a five-year aircraft conversion. Beginning in late 1971, the 48th TFW started its conversion to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II. The conversion to the F-4D took several years, with initial operational capability being achieved on 1 July 1975. The F-4's service with the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing was short, as operation "Ready Switch" resulted in 48th Tactical Fighter Wing receiving General Dynamics F-111s Mountain Home AFB, Idaho in October 1976.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Lakenheath received its first McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagles in 1992. On 16 December 1992, the last F-111 departed the base. Along with its departure, the 493d FS was inactivated, but then reactivated as an F-15 Eagle squadron.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 2 March 2011, members of the 48th Security Forces Squadron were involved in a shooting at Frankfurt Airport in Germany. The members were on a bus bound for Ramstein Air Base in Germany when they were attacked by a lone gunman.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 22 March 2011, F-15E 91-0304 crash-landed and was destroyed in eastern Libya after reportedly suffering from a mechanical failure. Both crewmen ejected and were safely recovered. On 7 January 2014, a Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk from the base crashed following a bird strike while on a low-level training exercise with another helicopter (also a Pave Hawk), into the Cley Marshes near Cley next the Sea on the nearby North Norfolk coast. All four occupants died in the crash.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 8 October 2014, F-15D 86-0182 belonging to the 493d Fighter Squadron crashed during a training flight in a field outside Spalding, Lincolnshire. The pilot successfully ejected and was shortly recovered back to Lakenheath on board a Pave Hawk.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: A U.S. Marine Corps Boeing F/A-18 Hornet of VMFA-232 "Red Devils" from MCAS Miramar, California, crashed after taking off from RAF Lakenheath on 21 October 2015. The pilot, Major Taj "Cabbie" Sareen (34), did not survive.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: In addition to supporting three combat-ready squadrons of fighter aircraft, the Liberty Wing housed the 56th Rescue Squadron's HH-60G combat search and rescue helicopters. The 56th Rescue Squadron re-located to Aviano Air Base in 2018.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: On 15 June 2020, an F-15C belonging to the 493d Fighter Squadron crashed during a training flight in the North Sea, 74 nautical miles east of Scarborough at about . The body of pilot 1st Lt. Kenneth Allen was found deceased.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: In January 2015, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that from 2020, Lakenheath would become home to 54 of the US Air Force's Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II multi-role fighters. The aircraft would be split between two squadrons and there would be an increase of 1,200 military personnel and between 60 and 100 civilian workers at the station. The F-35 would operate alongside the two existing F-15E squadrons based at Lakenheath. By November 2018, the number of aircraft had been revised to 48.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: The 495th Fighter Squadron was reactivated on 1 October 2021 to be the first Lightning II squadron at Lakenheath, with the first aircraft arriving on 15 December 2021.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: To accommodate the new aircraft, a F-35 Campus is being constructed on the south side of the airfield. The main new operational buildings being developed as part of the F-35 project are as follows:


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Investment of $148.4 million (£116.7M) for the delivery of F-35A infrastructure at Lakenheath was authorised by the US administration in August 2018.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: In November 2018, the Defence Infrastructure Organisation awarded a £160M contract for infrastructure work to a joint venture between Kier Group and VolkerFitzpatrick.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: To make way for the F-35 Campus, demolition of the first of eighteen buildings began in March 2019. The work on Alpha-Bravo Apron was completed in August 2020, allowing F-15E Strike Eagle operations of the 492nd and 494th Fighter Squadrons to be consolidated on one ramp.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: RAF Lakenheath's gate guardian is North American F-100D Super Sabre, serial number "'54-2269'." The aircraft was originally delivered to the French Air Force. On return it was moved to the "Wings of Liberty Memorial Park" at RAF Lakenheath. Firstly it was painted as "'55-4048'", latterly as "'56-3319'".


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Since the base's founding, RAF Lakenheath has been targeted for numerous peace protests from groups such as Stop the war coalition and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Lakenheath was one of the proposed sites of the NATO Pershing II Missile System. The deployment of the Missile system sparked protests all over Western Europe, and RAF Lakenheath was one of the most prominent military sites. The radical historian E.P. Thompson wrote in a pamphlet that basing the system at RAF Lakenheath directly endangered the lives of those in the nearby city of Cambridge:""...Lakenheath is, by crow or cruise, just over twenty miles from Cambridge. It is possible that Cambridge but less probable that Oxford will fall outside the CEP. Within the CEP we must suppose some fifteen or twenty detonations at least on the scale of Hiroshima, without taking into account any possible detonations, release of radio-active materials, etc., if the strike should succeed in finding out the cruise missiles at which it was aimed."" A semi-permanent 'peace camp' was set up outside RAF Lakenheath. In 1985, the future Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams was arrested for singing psalms at a CND protest at Lakenheath.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: Over 1,000 people demonstrated outside RAF Lakenheath in protest at the 1986 United States bombing of Libya.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: The 2003 invasion of Iraq sparked a new wave of peace protests. In one incident, 9 protestors gained access to the base by cutting through its perimeter fence.The protestors rode bicycles along the main runway, before chaining themselves together.


title: RAF Lakenheath

text: In 2006, a group of 200 people protested against the alleged nuclear weapons stored at RAF Lakenheath. Addressing the crowd was Jeremy Corbyn, who cycled to RAF Lakenheath from the railway station in Ely. There were further protests on this issue in 2008.


title: Jermaine Fowler

text: Jermaine Fowler is an American actor, comedian, producer and writer. He is perhaps best known for his role as King Akeem Joffer's long-lost son Lavelle Junson in the 2021 romantic comedy film "Coming 2 America" and Franco Wicks on the CBS sitcom television series "Superior Donuts".


title: Jermaine Fowler

text: The second oldest of four children, Fowler and his twin brother were born in Washington, D.C. and raised in Hyattsville, Maryland, where he graduated from Northwestern High School. Fowler dropped out of college at age 20 and moved to New York City. By day he job-searched and by night he performed at open mics in Times Square.


title: Jermaine Fowler

text: In 2012, he began touring the country performing at comedy clubs and colleges. In 2013, he was cast in MTV2's "Guy Code" and writing, producing, and starring in his own pilots. In 2014, he starred in "Friends of the People" which lasted two seasons on TruTV. In 2015, Fowler produced and starred in his debut comedy special, "Give 'Em Hell, Kid", that he licensed to Showtime.


title: Jermaine Fowler

text: In 2017, Fowler became an executive producer and star of the CBS sitcom "Superior Donuts". The show's popularity led to it being renewed for a second season on March 23, 2017. The series was formally cancelled after two seasons. He also has a recurring role on HBO's "Crashing."


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: Jacob Daniel Auchincloss ( ; born January 29, 1988) is an American politician, businessman, and Marine veteran serving as the U.S. representative for Massachusetts's 4th congressional district since 2021. He is a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: Jacob Daniel Auchincloss was born in Newton, Massachusetts, to Laurie Glimcher and Hugh Auchincloss. Both of his parents are physician-scientists; his mother is president and CEO of Dana Farber Cancer Institute, and his father serves as deputy director to Anthony Fauci at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Auchincloss's grandfather Melvin J. Glimcher pioneered the development of artificial limbs and was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences and is the first cousin once-removed of stockbroker Hugh D. Auchincloss. His stepfather, Gregory Petsko, is a biochemist and biotech entrepreneur who has become a global expert on Alzheimer's disease. Auchincloss is matrilineally Jewish by descent and raised in his mother's faith.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: Auchincloss was raised in Newton with his two siblings and attended Newton North High School. He studied government and economics at Harvard College, graduating with honors, and earned an MBA in finance from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: After graduating from Harvard University, Auchincloss joined the United States Marine Corps, earning his commission through Officer Candidates School in Quantico, Virginia. He commanded infantry in Helmand Province in 2012 and a reconnaissance unit in Panama in 2014. In Helmand, he led combat patrols through villages contested by the Taliban. In Panama, his team of reconnaissance Marines partnered with Colombian special operations to train the Panamanian Public Forces in drug-interdiction tactics.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: Auchincloss completed both infantry training in Quantico and the Marine Corps's reconnaissance training in California, profiled in Nate Fick's "One Bullet Away". He graduated from the Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) school in Maine and was an honor graduate from the Basic Airborne Course in Georgia. He continued to serve in the Individual Ready Reserve after leaving active duty and was promoted to major on September 1, 2020.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: After returning home from the military, Auchincloss ran for Newton city council on a platform of full-day kindergarten and expanded pre-K offerings. He was elected in 2015, defeating the incumbent councilor. He was reelected to the Newton city council in 2017 and 2019. He chaired the transportation and public safety committee. In office, he supported progressive immigration and housing policies, sustainable transportation and co-docketed the successful Sanctuary city ordinance.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: In 2016, after students at Newton North High School displayed the Confederate flag, Auchincloss filed a resolution arguing against disciplining them, saying that the display was not a "substantial disruption" to the education of students of color.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: While serving on the Newton City Council and attending MIT, Auchincloss was the director of the MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition. He also worked at a cybersecurity startup as a product manager and at Liberty Mutual as a senior manager at its innovation arm, Solaria Labs.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: On October 2, 2019, Auchincloss announced his candidacy for the open Massachusetts's 4th congressional district to succeed Joe Kennedy III, who unsuccessfully ran for the Senate against incumbent Democrat Ed Markey.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: Auchincloss raised the most money during the primary election in both the fourth quarter of 2019 and the first quarter of 2020 and earned endorsements from the National Association of Government Employees, VoteVets, "The Boston Globe" and James E. Timilty. He earned the support of several Newton politicians, including the president and vice president of the city council and the chair and vice chair of the school committee. He earned additional endorsements throughout the district, including from state representative Paul Schmid of Fall River.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: During the campaign, questions arose about his party affiliation. Auchincloss was originally a Democrat but was a registered Republican from 2013 to 2014 while working for Charlie Baker's gubernatorial campaign. He continued to vote in Republican primaries as an independent until late 2015 before becoming a Democrat again.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: The Democratic primary occurred on September 1, 2020. In a race with eight other candidates, Auchincloss won with 22.4% of the vote. It took the Associated Press three days to call the race because nearly one million votes were cast through mail-in ballots due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: In the November general election, Auchincloss defeated Republican nominee Julie Hall. He assumed office on January 3, 2021.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: On January 6, 2021, after the 2021 attack on the United States Capitol, Auchincloss tweeted his agreement with lawmakers' calls to remove President Donald Trump from office, either through the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution or impeachment. Auchincloss voted to certify the results of the 2020 United States presidential election in the early morning of January 7, 2021. On January 21, he voted to approve the congressional waiver for General Lloyd Austin, President Joe Biden's nominee for Secretary of Defense.


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: On June 16, 2022, seven people affiliated with the Late Show with Stephen Colbert, including Robert Smigel, were arrested by U.S. Capitol Police and charged with unlawful entry into the complex. According to a letter from Jim Jordan and Rodney Davis, the Colbert crew was let back into the building with the help of Auchincloss and Adam Schiff, leading to the unlawful entry charges. In a statement released by an Auchincloss spokesperson, Matt Corridoni said of the incident, "We do not condone any inappropriate activity and cannot speak to anything that occurred after hours."


title: Jake Auchincloss

text: On July 28, 2017, Auchincloss married Michelle Gattineri. They had a son in April 2020 and daughter in August 2021. They live in Newtonville, Massachusetts.


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, (the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite). It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.


title: Aragonite

text: The crystal lattice of aragonite differs from that of calcite, resulting in a different crystal shape, an orthorhombic crystal system with acicular crystal. Repeated twinning results in pseudo-hexagonal forms. Aragonite may be columnar or fibrous, occasionally in branching helictitic forms called "flos-ferri" ("flowers of iron") from their association with the ores at the Carinthian iron mines.


title: Aragonite

text: The type location for aragonite is Molina de Aragón in the Province of Guadalajara in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, for which it was named in 1797. Aragonite is found in this locality as cyclic twins inside gypsum and marls of the Keuper facies of the Triassic. This type of aragonite deposit is very common in Spain, and there are also some in France.


title: Aragonite

text: In the US, aragonite in the form of stalactites and "cave flowers" (anthodite) is known from Carlsbad Caverns and other caves. For a few years in the early 1900s, aragonite was mined at Aragonite, Utah (now a ghost town).


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite is the high pressure polymorph of calcium carbonate. As such, it occurs in high pressure metamorphic rocks such as those formed at subduction zones.


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite forms naturally in almost all mollusk shells, and as the calcareous endoskeleton of warm- and cold-water corals (Scleractinia). Several serpulids have aragonitic tubes. Because the mineral deposition in mollusk shells is strongly biologically controlled, some crystal forms are distinctively different from those of inorganic aragonite. In some mollusks, the entire shell is aragonite; in others, aragonite forms only discrete parts of a bimineralic shell (aragonite plus calcite). The nacreous layer of the aragonite fossil shells of some extinct ammonites forms an iridescent material called ammolite.


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite also forms in the ocean inorganic precipitates called marine cements (in the sediment) or as free crystals (in the water column).


title: Aragonite

text: Inorganic precipitation of aragonite in caves can occur in the form of speleothems. Aragonite is common in serpentinites where magnesium-rich pore solutions apparently inhibit calcite growth and promote aragonite precipitation.


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite is metastable at the low pressures near the Earth's surface and is thus commonly replaced by calcite in fossils. Aragonite older than the Carboniferous is essentially unknown. It can also be synthesized by adding a calcium chloride solution to a sodium carbonate solution at temperatures above or in water-ethanol mixtures at ambient temperatures.


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite is not the thermodynamically stable phase of calcium carbonate at any pressure below about at any temperature. Aragonite nonetheless frequently forms in near-surface environments at ambient temperatures. The difference in stability between aragonite and calcite, as measured by the Gibbs free energy of formation, is small, and effects of grain size and impurities can be important. The formation of aragonite at temperatures and pressures where calcite should be the stable polymorph may be an example of Ostwald's step rule, where a less stable phase is the first to form. The presence of magnesium ions may inhibit calcite formation in favor of aragonite. Once formed, aragonite tends to alter to calcite on scales of 10 to 10 years.


title: Aragonite

text: The mineral vaterite, also known as μ-CaCO, is another phase of calcium carbonate that is metastable at ambient conditions typical of Earth's surface, and decomposes even more readily than aragonite.


title: Aragonite

text: In aquaria, aragonite is considered essential for the replication of reef conditions. Aragonite provides the materials necessary for much sea life and also keeps the pH of the water close to its natural level, to prevent the dissolution of biogenic calcium carbonate.


title: Aragonite

text: Aragonite has been successfully tested for the removal of pollutants like zinc, cobalt and lead from contaminated wastewaters.


title: Aragonite

text: Claims that magnetic water treatment can reduce scaling, by converting calcite to aragonite, have been met with skepticism, but continue to be investigated.


title: William

text: William is a male given name of Germanic origin. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, and remained so throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. It is sometimes abbreviated "Wm." Shortened familiar versions in English include Will, Wills, Willy, Willie, Bill, and Billy. A common Irish form is Liam. Scottish diminutives include Wull, Willie or Wullie (as in Oor Wullie or the play "Douglas"). Female forms are Willa, Willemina, Wilma and Wilhelmina.