title: OpenCL

text: The fact that OpenCL allows workloads to be shared by CPU and GPU, executing the same programs, means that programmers can exploit both by dividing work among the devices. This leads to the problem of deciding how to partition the work, because the relative speeds of operations differ among the devices. Machine learning has been suggested to solve this problem: Grewe and O'Boyle describe a system of support-vector machines trained on compile-time features of program that can decide the device partitioning problem statically, without actually running the programs to measure their performance.


title: OpenCL

text: In a comparison of actual graphic cards of AMD RDNA 2 and Nvidia RTX Series there is an undecided result by OpenCL-Tests. Possible performance increases from the use of Nvidia CUDA or OptiX were not tested.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: Lorraine Gottfried (born August 16, 1937), better known by her stage name Lorraine Gary, is a retired American actress, best known for her role as Ellen Brody in the "Jaws" film series. She also appeared in "1941" and "Car Wash".


title: Lorraine Gary

text: Gary was born as Lorraine Gottfried in Forest Hills, Queens, to Belle and George Gottfried, an entertainment business manager.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: At an early age, she moved with her family to Los Angeles, California, where she was raised. At age 16, she won a best actress award in a competition at the prestigious Pasadena Playhouse. She was offered a scholarship to enroll at the Pasadena Playhouse, but declined and attended Columbia University as a political science major instead.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: A life member of the Actors Studio, Gary began her acting career in the late 1960s doing guest appearances on several popular TV shows. These include "Night Gallery", "Dragnet 1968", in an episode entitled ""The Big Shipment"", "McCloud", "The Marcus-Nelson Murders" (the pilot for "Kojak"), and "The F.B.I.". She began her first major acting role when she was a guest star on seven episodes of the TV series "Ironside", among them "Tom Dayton Is Loose Among Us", in which she played the substitute librarian Miss Kirk, who pushes the unstable Tom Dayton too hard, and "In Search of an Artist", as a woman with a drinking problem who may have been involved in a murder.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: In addition to her work as an actress, Gary owned New Hope Productions, a company that produced television programs.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: Gary is a member of the Human Rights Watch Women's Rights Advisory Committee, for whom she produced and directed a series of fourteen educational videotapes, and an Advisory Board Member of "Ms. Magazine" and Girls Learn International.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: Gary married entertainment industry executive Sidney Sheinberg on August 19, 1956, at the age of 19, with whom she has two sons named Jonathan J. and William David.


title: Lorraine Gary

text: She retired from acting after her appearance in the film "1941" (1979), only briefly returning to reprise the role of Ellen Brody in "" (1987). Her sons, Bill Sheinberg and Jonathan Sheinberg, are both film producers.


title: Eugene Chaplin

text: Eugene Anthony Chaplin (born August 23, 1953) is a Swiss recording engineer and documentary filmmaker. He is the fifth child of Oona O'Neill and Charlie Chaplin, the grandson of playwright Eugene O'Neill, and the father of film actress Kiera Chaplin.


title: Eugene Chaplin

text: He was part of the cast in the Benny Hill The Worlds Funniest Clown (1991), he is the president of the International Comedy Film Festival of Vevey, Switzerland and he directed the documentary film "Charlie Chaplin: A Family Tribute produced by Alexandre Alé de Basseville"". Eugene" has also created the musical "Smile", which is a narration of Charlie Chaplin's life through his music.


title: Brian Hargrove

text: David Brian Hargrove (born April 2) is an American television writer and producer. He was a co-creator of the television series "Titus" (2000–2002), along with Christopher Titus and Jack Kenny.


title: Brian Hargrove

text: Born David Brian Hargrove in Tarboro, North Carolina, he earned his BFA degree from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He then studied acting at New York City's Juilliard School as a member of the drama division's "Group 10" (1977–1981).


title: Brian Hargrove

text: Hargrove is the creator and producer of many television shows, including "Titus", "Wanda at Large", and "Nora". He also has written for several television series, including "Dave's World", "Caroline in the City", "Holding the Baby", and "Maggie".


title: Brian Hargrove

text: Hargrove wrote the book and lyrics for the new musical, "It Shoulda Been You", which opened on Broadway in March 2015 (previews). It is directed by David Hyde Pierce.


title: Brian Hargrove

text: Hargrove married long-time partner, actor and comedian David Hyde Pierce, on October 24, 2008. They have been together since the early 1980s.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), also known as the North American manatee, is a large, aquatic mammal native to warm coastal areas of the Caribbean, from the eastern US to northern Brazil. Living alone or in herds, it feeds on underwater plants and uses its whiskers to navigate. It is divided into two endangered subspecies, the Florida manatee ("T. m. latirostris") in the US and the Antillean manatee ("T. m. manatus") in the Caribbean, both of which face pressure from habitat loss, pollution, and other human activity. The West Indian manatee is the largest of the sirenians (order Sirenia), a group of large aquatic mammals that includes the dugong, other manatees, and the extinct Steller's sea cow.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatees are herbivores, have developed vocal communication abilities, and are covered in highly sensitive whiskers (called vibrissae) that are used for feeding and navigation. In breeding season, several males form mating herds around an individual female; on average, one calf is born to a female manatee every two to three years.


title: West Indian manatee

text: In the 1970s, the West Indian manatee was listed as endangered in the United States under the Endangered Species Act, when there were only several hundred left. The decades since have witnessed significant efforts to protect this species from natural and human threats, particularly collisions with watercraft. In 2017, the US changed the classification to threatened, citing a substantial increase in the total population"."


title: West Indian manatee

text: The average West Indian manatee is about long and weighs , with females generally larger than males. The largest individual on record weighed and measured long. Manatees are estimated to live 50 years or more in the wild, and one captive Florida manatee, Snooty, lived for 69 years (1948–2017).


title: West Indian manatee

text: Since manatees are mammals, they breathe air, have warm blood, and produce milk. Like the other sirenians, the West Indian manatee has adapted fully to aquatic life, having no hind limbs. Instead of hind limbs, the manatee has a spatula-like paddle for propulsion in the water. Manatees have evolved streamlined bodies which lack external ear flaps, thus decreasing resistance in the aquatic environment. Pelage cover is sparsely distributed across the body, which may play a role in reducing the build-up of algae on their thick skin. Manatee skin is gray but can vary in coloration due to algae and other biota, like barnacles, that opportunistically live on manatees. Scar tissue on manatees is white and persists for decades, allowing for easy identification. The Florida manatee has three to four nails on each flipper.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The West Indian manatee has a prehensile snout, like their relative the elephant, for grabbing vegetation and bringing it into their mouths. Manatees have six to eight molariform teeth in each jaw quadrant. These molariform teeth are generated at the back of the mouth and slowly migrate towards the front of the mouth, at a rate of 1–2 mm per month, where they then fall out. This tooth ‘conveyor belt’ provides unlimited tooth production which is beneficial for the manatee which feeds on vegetation four to eight hours per day and consumes 5-10% of its body weight per day. Manatees have 3–5 cm hairs that cover their whole body and provide somatosensory information. Manatee bones are dense and solid which allows them to act as ballast and promote negative buoyancy. This helps counteract the positive buoyancy which comes from their high fat content. These two buoyancy counterparts, along with air in the lungs, helps manatees achieve neutral buoyancy in the water. This makes breathing, foraging, and swimming easier for the manatee. Manatees are unique, compared to other mammals, in that they have a longitudinally oriented diaphragm that is split in half to form two hemidiaphragms. Each hemidiaphragm is capable of independent muscular contractions.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The West Indian manatee inhabits mostly shallow coastal areas, including rivers and estuaries. Manatees can withstand large changes in salinity and are found in both freshwater and saltwater. Manatees' extremely low metabolic rate and lack of a thick layer of insulating body fat limits them to locations with warm waters, including tropical regions.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The Florida subspecies is primarily found along the Florida coast, but has been spotted as far north as Dennis, Massachusetts, as well as along the Gulf Coast of Texas. Concerning their forays inland, a manatee was once spotted in the Wolf River (near where it enters the Mississippi) in Memphis, Tennessee, in 2006: a distance of over 700 river miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The Antillean subspecies has a sparse distribution throughout the Caribbean, ranging as far north as Mexico and as far south as Brazil.


title: West Indian manatee

text: An analysis of mitochondrial DNA patterns indicates there are actually three primary geographic groups of the West Indian manatee: (i) Florida and the Greater Antilles; (ii) Mexico, Central America and northern South America; and (iii) northeastern South America.""


title: West Indian manatee

text: The seasonal distribution of the West Indian manatee varies with water temperatures. Temperatures below approximately 20 °C (68 °F) increase the risk of cold-induced stress or mortality for manatees. Consequently, Florida manatees seek out warm-water refuges during the winter, concentrated primarily along the Florida peninsula. Many of these refuges are artificial, created by the runoff from nearby power plants. In contrast, the Antillean manatee is less susceptible to cold-induced stress due to the warmer waters across its range.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Florida manatees inhabit the most northern limit of sirenian habitats. There are four recognized subpopulations of the Florida manatee, termed the Northwest, Southwest, Atlantic Coast and St. John's River populations. Large concentrations of Florida manatees are located in the Crystal River and Blue Springs regions in central and north Florida. The Antillean manatee is sparsely distributed throughout the Caribbean and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, from Mexico, east to the Greater Antilles, and south to Brazil. Populations can also be found in The Bahamas, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Curaçao, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. It is possibly extirpated from the Turks and Caicos Islands, and definitively so from all the Lesser Antilles except Trinidad and Curaçao. Its presence in Haiti is uncertain.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Because manatees evolved in habitats without natural predators, they lack predator avoidance behavior. The large size and low metabolic rates of manatees lends to their capacity for long and deep dives, as well as their relative lack of speed. Manatees are frequently solitary creatures, but they do aggregate at warm-water habitats during the winter and during the formation of breeding herds. In spite of their docile demeanor, due to their large size the West Indian manatee has nearly no natural predators in its native environment. American alligators and American crocodiles have been suspected to on occasion take a manatee. A dying manatee was discovered in Puerto Rico, wounded by a large shark bite thought to be inflicted by either a tiger shark or bull shark. It is projected that large sharks may threaten manatees occasionally but rarely enter the manatee's brackish habitats, whereas marine mammals in more direct coastal oceanic waters are well known to be highly vulnerable to sharks and orcas.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatees have been shown to form large mating herds when males come across estrous females, indicating that males may be able to sense estrogen or other chemical indicators. Manatees can communicate information to each other through their vocalization patterns. Sex and age-related differences are apparent in the vocalization structure of common squeaks and screeches in adult males, adult females, and juveniles. This may be an indication of vocal individuality among manatees. An increase in manatee vocalization after a vocal playback stimulus shows that they may be able to recognize another manatee's individual voice. This behavior in manatees is found mostly between mother and calf interactions. However, vocalization can still be commonly found in a variety of social interactions within groups of manatees, which is similar to other aquatic mammals. When communicating in noisy environments, manatees that are in groups experience the same Lombard effect as humans do; where they will involuntary increase their vocal effort when communicating in loud environments. Based on acoustic and anatomical evidence, mammalian vocal folds are assumed to be the mechanism for sound production in manatees. Manatees also eat other manatees' feces; it is assumed that they do this to gather information about reproductive status or dominance, indicating the important role chemoreception plays in the social and reproductive behavior of manatees.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatees are obligate herbivores that feed on over 60 species of aquatic plants in both fresh and salt water. Seagrass is a staple of the manatee diet, particularly in coastal areas. In addition, when the tide is high enough, they will also feed on grasses and leaves. Manatees typically graze for five or more hours per day, consuming anywhere from 4% to 10% of their body weight in wet vegetation per day, though the exact amount depends on their body size and activity level. Because manatees feed on abrasive plants, their molars are often worn down and are replaced many times throughout their lives, thus earning the nickname "marching molars." The molar teeth are similar in shape, but of varying sizes. Manatees do not have incisors; these have been replaced by horny gingival plates.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatees are nonruminants with an enlarged hindgut. Unlike other hindgut fermenters, such as the horse, manatees efficiently extract nutrients, particularly cellulose, from the aquatic plants in their diet. Manatees have a large gastrointestinal tract with contents measuring about 23% of its total body mass. In addition, the passage rate of food is very long (about seven days). This slow process increases the digestibility of their diet. It is suggested that chronic fermentation may also provide additional heat and is correlated with their low metabolic rate.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatees have sensitive tactile hairs that cover their bodies and faces called whiskers or "vibrissae". Each individual hair is a vibrissal apparatus called a follicle-sinus complex. Vibrissae are blood filled sinuses bound by a dense connective tissue capsule with sensitive nerve endings that provides haptic feedback to the manatee.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Usually vibrissae are found on the facial regions of terrestrial and non-sirenian aquatic animals and are called whiskers. Manatees, however, have vibrissae all over their bodies. The vibrissae located in their facial region are roughly 30 times denser than the vibrissae on the rest of their body. Their mouth consists of very mobile prehensile lips which are used for grasping food and objects. The vibrissae on these lips are turned outward during grasping and are used in locating vegetation. Their oral disks also contain vibrissae which have been classified as bristle-like hairs that are used in nongrasping investigation of objects and food.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatee vibrissae are so sensitive that they are able to perform active touch discrimination of textures. Manatees also use their vibrissae to navigate the turbid waterways of their environment. Research has indicated that they are able to use these vibrissae to detect hydrodynamic stimuli in the same way that fish use their lateral line system.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Male manatees reach sexual maturity at 3–4 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at 3–5 years of age. Manatees appear capable of breeding throughout their entire adult life, although most females first breed successfully at ages 7–9. Breeding occurs in ephemeral mating herds, where several males aggregate around an estrous female and compete for access to her. Larger males, presumably older, have been observed to dominate mating herds and are likely responsible for most successful copulation events.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The gestation period in manatees lasts for 12–14 months, after which they give birth to one calf at a time, or rarely twins. When a calf is born, it usually weighs and is long. Manatees do not form permanent pair bonds and the male contributes no parental care to the calf, which remains with the mother for up to two years prior to weaning. A single female can reproduce once every 2–3 years. Wild manatees have been documented producing offspring into their late 30s, and a female captive manatee has given birth in her 40s.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The West Indian manatee has been included on the U.S. Endangered Species List since the 1970s. In October 2007, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessed the West Indian manatee as vulnerable, and both the Florida and Antillean subspecies as endangered. The full species and both subspecies qualified for their respective classifications due to a combination of a low number of mature individuals, and a significant projected decline in total population numbers over the next two generations (about 20 years per generation in manatees). Similarly, NatureServe considers both the Florida subspecies and the species as a whole as "Imperiled".


title: West Indian manatee

text: The Florida and Antillean subspecies face different threats, though some overlap. The largest causes of Florida manatee deaths can be attributed to collisions with watercraft, the loss of warm-water habitat, high perinatal mortality, entanglements and ingestion of debris, pollution, habitat loss, and harmful algae blooms (HABs), such as red tide. Antillean manatees face severe habitat fragmentation, as well as continued pressure from illegal hunting. In some countries, like Belize, collisions with watercraft are on the rise as tourism grows.


title: West Indian manatee

text: The 2017 decision to reclassify the West Indian manatee from endangered to threatened under the Endangered Species Act cited increases in the populations of both subspecies. The decision was not without controversy, however: "a"ccording to Save the Manatee Club, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service failed to adequately consider data from 2010 to 2016, during which time manatees suffered from unprecedented mortality events linked to habitat pollution, dependence on artificial warm water sources, and record deaths from watercraft strikes. The official notice of the reclassification made clear that, even with the downlisting, all federal protections for the West Indian manatee under the Endangered Species Act would remain in place. The West Indian manatee is also protected by the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978 and the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972.


title: West Indian manatee

text: A 1997 population viability analysis of the Florida manatee projected a 44% chance of extinction within the next 1,000 years without improvements in habitat conditions and new protective regulations. Since then, prospects for the subspecies have improved. In 2016, the U.S. Geological Survey collaborated with the Florida Fish and Wildlife Service to re-evaluate the status of the Florida manatee under the Core Biological Model, which is used to estimate population viability. This assessment analyzed total population on the east and west coasts of Florida and estimated that the likelihood of either population falling under 500 adults within 100 years was about 0.42%. The projected improvement of population numbers and stability is contingent on continued intervention and monitoring efforts.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Over 20% of manatee mortalities per year are a result of watercraft collisions. Between 1985 and 2017 53% of adult manatee mortalities were the result of boat strikes. 96% of adult Florida manatee carcasses have scars from a boat collision with some individuals showing signs of 10 or more boat strikes. Manatees can hear boats, but they oftentimes do not have enough time to get out of the way of a fast approaching boat. A boat going at a slower speed gives the manatee more time to react and move out of the way. Manatees respond to approaching vessels by orienting towards deeper waters and increasing their speed, but they are nevertheless frequently struck as they don't have the ability to swim very fast and in shallow habitat they oftentimes don't have anywhere to go to get out of the way. Over half of all watercraft deaths are caused by the impact trauma from the hull of a fast-speeding boat, whereas the remaining percentage is caused by the boat propeller. Aerial surveys of Florida manatee and boat distribution have been conducted to map the areas in which collisions are most likely to occur, accounting for environmental and seasonal factors. Watercraft can frequently avoid hitting manatees simply by reducing speed, allowing time for the manatee to escape out of range. Despite improvements in modeling and changes to local regulations, manatee mortalities from watercraft collisions continue to rise with an all-time high of 137 recorded deaths in 2019.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Projected long-term loss of warm-water habitats presents a significant risk to manatees, who are unable to tolerate temperatures lower than for prolonged periods of time. Florida manatees frequently congregate around natural warm-water springs, as well as the warm discharge given off by power plants throughout the winter months. However, as older plants are replaced with more energy-efficient structures, manatees could become at risk of cold-induced death due to reduced availability of warm-water refuges. Manatees exhibit high site fidelity and can recall previous refuge sites to which they frequently return in successive winters. Some conservationists fear that manatees may become overly reliant on warm-water locations generated by power plants that may shut down soon. Natural warm-water springs face problems from over-pumping of groundwater for human consumption, reduced spring flow, and nutrient pollution. In addition, some springs that were historically accessible to manatees are blocked off by dams or other structures. In areas where manatees lack access to power plants or natural warm springs, they instead seek out natural deep water zones that passively remain above tolerable temperatures.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Harmful algae blooms are an additional threat to manatees. Red tide is a common name for algal blooms, deriving its distinctive color from pigmentation molecules in the algae. The blooms produce brevetoxins which are potentially fatal to marine life. Most manatee deaths from red tide occur when manatees inhale the toxins, or ingest the toxins when consuming seagrass, their primary food source. During a 1996 epizootic more than 150 manatees died from red tide exposure. Although manatees can survive exposure to red tide if rescued and rehabilitated in time, researchers fear that there might be long-term effects from sublethal red tide exposure, which can affect the manatee's immune system through reduced lymphocyte proliferation response. In addition to red tide, blue/green and brown algae blooms triggered by excessive nutrient pollution from fertilizer, runoff, and leaking septic tanks can cloud the water. This results in seagrasses dying off since seagrasses and aquatic plants need light to photosynthesize. Manatees in turn may not be able to find sufficient food sources, which can lead to starvation. Manatees have experienced several Unusual Mortality Events (UMEs) over the years, which are usually related to either cold-stress syndrome, or brevetoxicosis from red tide. A current UME is ongoing along the Atlantic coast of Florida and is most likely related to a shortage in food sources.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Manatees can easily get entangled in monofilament fishing line, crab traps, and other debris, which can lead to the loss of flippers and severe body wraps. In addition, they may also ingest a variety of debris, such as plastics, cloth, fishing gear, and other items. Manatees can also get crushed by flood control structures and locks and may get entrapped behind weirs or other structures, especially after heavy rainfall. Some manatees have gotten trapped in culverts and pipes and needed intervention.


title: West Indian manatee

text: There is relatively little data on the Antillean manatee compared to its Florida counterpart. Phylogenetic studies on the Antillean manatee have revealed low genetic diversity among its populations, likely due to limitations on dispersal. Captive breeding, as well as the rehabilitation of manatee calves discovered without their mothers nearby, can supplement local conservation strategies, but populations are nevertheless at risk of inbreeding depression and local extinction.


title: West Indian manatee

text: Whereas the population trends of the Florida manatee are relatively well monitored, population data for the Antillean manatee is sparse due to its patchy distribution, as well as the relative turbidity and low levels of light in its habitat which can mitigate the effectiveness of aerial or sonar-based surveys, often resulting in inaccurate or erroneous measurements. A 2016 study on the Antillean manatee population of Brazil found a potential range for current population size between 485 and 2,221 individuals. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated in 2017 that as many as 6,782 individuals might exist in the Antillean subspecies, but these results rely in large part on personal anecdotes and may overestimate the true population number. A 2012 study of the Antillean population documented significant human-related causes of mortality, and projected that if the share of human-caused manatee deaths per year rose to 5% or more, the population would face a severe decline and eventual extinction.


title: Beck (Swedish TV series)

text: Beck is a Swedish crime drama movie series, based on characters featured in the Martin Beck novels of Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö, starring Peter Haber as the titular character. The first three series and two specials were released direct-to-video, with a small number of episodes also concurrently released theatrically. To date, forty-six episodes have been filmed, with all episodes from the fourth series onwards broadcast on C More.


title: Beck (Swedish TV series)

text: The first series was written entirely by Rolf Börjlind, while several episodes in series two and three, and the two specials, were co-written by Rolf and Cilla Börjlind. From the books, the character of Kollberg is entirely omitted from the TV series. Mikael Persbrandt announced in 2015 that he would be leaving the series to focus on other projects, although he did return to film "Gunvald", the first episode of series six. In 2015, the series was acquired by the BBC as part of their international crime drama slate. The first episode to be broadcast was "Buried Alive", on BBC Four.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: San Andrés () is a coral island in the Caribbean Sea. Politically part of Colombia, and historically tied to the United Kingdom, San Andrés and the nearby islands of Providencia and Santa Catalina form the department of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. San Andrés, in the southern group of islands, is the largest of Colombia. The official languages of the department are Spanish, English, and San Andrés–Providencia Creole.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: While San Andrés is located south of Providence, the Colombian archipelago is approximately north of the Colombian mainland. This archipelago encompasses a total area of , including the outer cays, reefs, atolls and sand banks, with the area of the islands being . In 2000, it was declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, named "Seaflower Biosphere Reserve", which not only includes the islands but also about 10% of the Caribbean Sea, amounting to a vast marine area of . The purpose of this declaration is to ensure that the ecosystem, which is rich in biodiversity, is well preserved and conserved.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The department's capital is located on the northern end of the island. Named San Andrés but nicknamed El Centro, it is the department's main urban center. Along the road that circles the island there are many picturesque beaches, coral reefs, cays, blowholes, and coves. Also of note are La Loma, the town of San Andrés, the Baptist Church, Seaquarium, the large pond of La Laguna, and a freshwater lake amidst mangrove forest. There are coconut palm plantations, lush pastures, and tall native trees reaching . Surrounded by the warm Caribbean Sea, all of these features have made the island an "exotic holiday destination".


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The history of both San Andrés and Providence includes stories of pirates, their invasions and occupation of the islands. The first appearance of San Andrés on Spanish maps was in 1527. The Dutch are reported to have come to these islands at the end of the 16th century and English settlers arrived there in 1628. It is also mentioned that Columbus came across these islands during his fourth voyage of exploration.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The English Puritans were the first to arrive to the islands; they hailed from Barbados and also from England. Between 1627 and 1629, they came to settle in the salubrious climate and take advantage of the fertile land of the islands. The Puritans evicted the Dutch settlers in 1631. Some settlers also came from Wales. All colonists first came to San Andrés and later moved to the Providence Island colony on what is now Providencia Island as its mountain terrain provided fresh water resources and safety from invaders. Slaves were brought from 1633 onwards from Jamaica. They were initially brought to work in lumbering, as well as to grow cotton and tobacco.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In 1635, the Spaniards, realizing the economic importance of the island, attacked the archipelago. However the Spaniards were driven out soon after they occupied the islands. Privateers also operated from the island, including Welsh privateer Sir Henry Morgan, who used it in 1670 as one of the centers of his operations. The privateers attacked Spanish ships carrying gold and other precious material that sailed in the Caribbean waters but the convoy system of the Spanish treasure fleet made it more difficult. They also attacked Panama and Santa Maria. The bounty looted by the privateers is still believed to be hidden in some underwater cave in the area.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: After the failed Spanish invasion of the islands, they were controlled by England until 1787, when they agreed to return control of the island to Spain. In the year 1792, by royal warrant on 20 May, the Spanish informed the Captain General of Guatemala, Don Bernardo Troncoso, to recognize the archipelago as under Spanish control. The Catholic religion was spread on the island and a church was built and run by its own priest. San Andrés gave exemption from import and export taxes.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: On November 25, 1802, the inhabitants of the archipelago requested that they depend on the Viceroyalty of New Granada with the Mosquito Coast, and not on the Captaincy of Guatemala. The document was signed by Mr. Roberto Clark, procurator, Isaac Brooks, Solomon Taylor, Jorge Olis, and Juan Taylor. As early as 1803, reports suggest that it was for political and economic reasons that San Andrés became a dependent Viceroyalty of New Granada.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In 1810, factions in New Granada declared independence from Spain. Councils were established in San Andrés and Providence in this year. The government of Tomás O'Neill granted land titles to English and Spanish-speaking families of the two islands assuring people the ownership of the land. In July 1818, Luis Aury, and the independent forces of Simón Bolívar occupied the islands, and it became part of Gran Colombia on June 23, 1822.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In 1821, the issuing of the Constitution of Cúcuta determined that every child born in Colombia, was born as a free citizen. This at a minimum meant the eventual abolition of slavery in San Andrés.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: On March 5, 1825, a League and Confederation Treaty with the United Provinces of Central America was signed and on June 15, 1826, the Treaty of Union, League and Confederation, between the Republics of Colombia, Central America, Peru and Mexico was signed in Panama in that "Contracting Parties shall ensure the integrity of its territories, then, under special conventions and to hold each other, have been demarcated and set their respective limits, the protection will then be placed under the protection of the confederation."


title: San Andrés (island)

text: After independence was recognized by the coastal territories of the Caribbean Sea, the British proclaimed an independent territory in disregard of treaties and agreements of the time but the island remained free from British autonomy. In 1848, Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera declared San Andrés as a Free port. In 1851, slavery was abolished by the constitution of Colombia, which led to a successful literacy movement led by pastor Philip Beekman Livingston.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In September 1900, France issued a ruling in which it recognized all of the islands of the archipelago as belonging to Colombia. In 1902, two commissioners of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt came to San Andrés by boat and requested that the islands become part of Panama, but American proposals were rejected outright as unpatriotic, proving local loyalty to the Republic of Colombia. In 1903, the Colombian Department of Panama became an independent nation. The islanders again refused to join the United States or Panama when they were visited by a U.S. warship in the same year. On 26 October 1912, the Municipality of San Andres and Providencia was established by Law 52, giving administrative independence. In August 1920, a boundary treaty was signed between Colombia and Panama in Bogota. On 24 March 1928, the Esguerra-Bárcenas Treaty was signed, in which Nicaragua recognized Colombia's sovereignty over the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providence and Saint Catherine.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In November 1943, Colombia joined World War II, because a German submarine sank one of their boats that had to transport British troops to San Andrés. In 1953, at the request of several representatives of the island community, President Gustavo Rojas Pinilla reaffirmed the San Andrés Island and the free port. In 1972, the archipelago was declared as a Special Municipality. In the Colombian Constitution of 1991, the Department Archipelago of San Andrés, Providence and Saint Catherine was established as one of the Departments of Colombia. In 2000, the archipelago of San Andrés, Providence and Saint Catherine became a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve as per of the five biosphere reserves listed with the UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere programme.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In 2001, Nicaragua National Assembly declared the Bárcenas-Esguerra Treaty null because it claimed that it was signed under pressure of US army occupation (1928–1933). Nicaragua signed a boundary treaty with Colombia, in which it disputed the boundaries alleged by Colombia at 82 degrees longitude. In 2007, the International Court of Justice announced that the 1928 Bárcenas-Esguerra Treaty of 1928 wasn't a boundary treaty between Colombia and Nicaragua. Nicaragua filed a formal complaint to the International Court of Justice in The Hague, claiming territory east of longitude 82, as their continental marine platform included sovereignty over the archipelago of San Andrés. On 13 December 2007, the ICJ recognized the full sovereignty of Colombia over the islands of San Andrés, Providence and Saint Catherine, but left open the question about the demarcation of the maritime boundary and the sovereignty over the cays of Serranilla, Quitasueño, Serrana, Roncador and Bajo Nuevos with Nicaragua. The ICJ also ruled it "upheld preliminary objections of Colombia to its jurisdiction only insofar as they concerned sovereignty over the islands of San Andrés, Providence and Saint Catherine".


title: San Andrés (island)

text: San Andrés is the largest of the island group in the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providence and Saint Catherine. San Andrés is located in the Caribbean Sea, about northwest of the coast of Colombia. The island is in length and in width. It has an area of within the total area of the group of islands of ( is also mentioned in this reference for San Andrés), making it the largest island in the archipelago. Providencia, the next largest in area, is located to the northeast. San Andrés has a fairly flat topography with the highest point in the island reported at an elevation of above sea level.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: San Andrés is crossed from south to north by a small mountain range whose highest peak is Cerro La Loma, also known as El Cliff. San Andrés' soils indicate that their formation is due to the eruption of a volcano which threw rocks older than the seafloor to the surface, creating the islands. Despite this, there is fertile soil and the soil is mostly red clay. It is easy to find small deposits of quartz on the island, especially in the neighborhood of La Loma Cove. Aside from the main settlements, the island is almost entirely covered in grass, trees and other vegetation, as well as sand along the coastline rather than rocks. The central area is marked by a chain of hills (Flowers, Orange, Shingle and Lion's Hill). The island has only small, ephemeral streams draining the land area, but no major rivers.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: On the southwest coast of the island are some features, namely (from north to south) Bobby Rock, Boobie Rock, Fisher Rock and Tyler Rock. A feature named Rock Point is located on the southeastern coast. Suky Bay lies in the central western part of the island near Cove Sea Side. The northern part of the island has a beach, while the western part of the island has no beaches.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The island is surrounded on its northwest side by a small coral reef ("arrecifex") and several keys that are home to varied fauna and flora, and are visited by many tourists every year. The small cay in the San Andrés Bay is said to be the most visited place in the archipelago. Johnny Cay is a small coral islet that is located to the north of San Andrés Town. It is a scenic place with white-sand beaches surrounded by coconut plantations. The sea here is not suitable for swimming as the current of flow could be risky. A natural park was also created here in 2001. Haynes Cay is the place where cruise ships are docked. There are a number of large coral farms here with variety of species. The place is also popular for water sports activities like snorkeling and diving. Diving here with a mask and sandals (protection against sea urchins) colourful fish species can be seen. El Acuario (The Aquarium) Cay is off to the east coast of San Andrés, adjoins the Haynes Cay. It is a popular center for snorkeling since the sea here has shallow and calm waters.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The island experiences a tropical monsoon climate that borders on a tropical wet and dry climate. Average temperatures range from to in two periods dominated by dry and rainy spells. The rainy season is from May to January, when humidity is also high here. The trade winds from the north begin to blow in late October and during November and December until mid-January, the wind usually blows from the east, when there are storms in the northeastern Caribbean.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The island's last reported population is 75,000; it was 72,912 in 2007, 55,000 in 1993, and 20,000 in 1973. The continuous growth and influx of people from the mainland of Colombia means that they now form about two thirds of the island's population. The native islanders are the descendants of the African and European settlers that first inhabited the islands.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The economy of the island, which was largely dependent on fishery resources and meager agricultural production, underwent a change with the opening of air services from Colombia, followed by a 1954 declaration of the island as a duty-free zone. This brought about a large influx of tourists to the island apart from immigrants from the mainland. The majority of foreigners to immigrate to the island were Lebanese and who continue to dominate the local economy till today. This also resulted in the local government imposing restrictions in the 1990s to control the influx of people from the mainland, with the intent to preserve local culture. However, there are no industries on the island.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The three years from 2003 to 2006 saw a greater than 10 percent increase in the number of tourists to San Andrés. Tourists increased from 341,293 in 2003 to 377,619 in 2006, of whom 292,741 were foreign nationals and 84,878 were from elsewhere in Colombia.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: In July 2011, the archipelago received 23,000 tourists more than the previous year, in the same period. Furthermore, it has invested in hotel infrastructure 27,000 million.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The island has rich floral diversity in its vast mangrove swamps, the largest mangrove forest on the island being the Old Mangrove Point Regional Park. There are 12 mangrove forests in red, black and white colors, rich with many species of flora and fauna revitalizing the ecosystem. There are also coconut palm trees, breadfruit trees, tall growth of local trees, green and lush pastoral lands and farm lands.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The bird species named San Andres vireo ("Vireo caribaeus"), which can also be found at Providence and St. Catherine Islands, favors mangrove and scrub bush habitat. It is a small, innocuous, but delicate bird, green in color, in the family Vireonidae of order Passeriformes. It is about in length, weighs about 16–20 g, found in clutch size of 2, and feeds on insects and fruits. IUCN has listed this bird species under the critically endangered list. Its habitat has been threatened due to large-scale expansion of the island lands for development of the capital city in the last few decades. It is reported that habitat of these birds is now confined to about area in the southern part of the island. Its distinguishing noise feature (song feature) is a single note repeated 2–20 times. In order to protect this local species, it has been suggested that the mangrove swamps of the island be declared as a protected area. Another bird found in abundance on the island is the white-winged dove ("Zenaida asiatica").


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The aqua faunal species found here are oysters and crabs. The coral species found in the island's shores are: staghorn coral ("Acropora cervicornis"), Elkhorn coral ("Acropora palmata"), pillar coral, brain coral, Erythropodium caribaeorum, star coral ("Astreopora"), soft corals ("Alcyonacea"), finger coral ("Porites porites") and sea pens.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The only wild mammal that has been recorded from San Andrés is the Jamaican fruit bat ("Artibeus jamaicensis").


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The population is grouped around a few residential areas. San Andrés, known locally as El Centro, is the largest town, as well as the most developed commercial and tourist hub of the island. It is located at the northern end and is the capital of the department. The departmental administration, commerce, banks, several hotels and the airport are located in this area.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: A smaller village, La Loma, is inhabited by the native islander population and is at the centre of the island. Its traditional fame is due to the Baptist Church that was established in 1847. This church was rebuilt with pine wood imported from Alabama. The Baptist church was built along the central road to La Loma, which functioned as a beacon for shipping. Located at the top of the hill, La Loma provides lovely views of the "seven coloured sea" (Caribbean Sea).


title: San Andrés (island)

text: On the eastern coast of the island is Saint Louis, which is a small tourist town. It is notable both as a tourist establishment and for its impressive stretch of white-sand beach. Traditional wooden houses are also located on the shores of the beach, spread over a stretch. Here also, in view of generally calm sea water (only occasionally rough), snorkeling is a popular sporting activity. It used to be port for export of coconuts.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: Spanish is the main language. However, until the 1970s, the English language, architecture and religion were very much part of the island's culture with the Creole-speaking locals. This culture was called the Raizal culture of the Afro-Caribbean ethnic group. It is now more a blend of Latin American and English-Caribbean culture that is witnessed in the island. Other minority groups living in the island are the Chinese and the Middle Eastern people.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: San Andrés is also famous for its local version of music that includes calypso, soca, reggae and church music. Concerts are held yearly in May at the Old Coliseum during the "Green Festival". Other celebrations and events held in the island are the independence day celebrations on 20 July and the "Coconut Reign" ("Reinado del Coco") festival held in November.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The islanders are majority Protestant, with Baptists being the most common. Other religious groups, including Seventh-day Adventists, Roman Catholics, Muslims, and Jews are also present on the island.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: The San Andrés Island, which attracts a large number of visitors, has many places of interest. Some of the important ones are: La Loma with its Baptist Church, a small blowhole at Hoyo Soplador, the snorkeling site at La Piscinita, white beaches of Saint Louis, the coral islet of Johnny Cay, the Pond, Haynes Cay, Morgan's Cave, West View and Acuaro of the coast known for its diving center. The small cay in the San Andrés Bay is said to be the most visited place in the Archipelago. El Cove ("the cove") provides the deepest anchorage facilities on the island. Diving is a popular water sport in the island. The depth of water which varies in the range has a visibility of are favorable conditions for diving. The underwater formations seen during the diving are of three types namely, walls of seaweed and minor coral reefs, large groups of different types of coral, and underwater plateaus with much marine life. Diving lessons are provided by several sports agencies.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: La Piscinita, located in the western part of the island has a calm sea which permits snorkeling activity. The site has abundant fish resources. Hoyo Soplador is situated at the southern end of the island. A geyser emerging from the sea shoots up to a height of , emerging from a hole in the coral rock. This phenomenon is noticed only at certain times of the year when tide and wind direction favor such an action. It is also the center of an International Surf Competition held once a year. The Pond, also called La Laguna ("Big Pond"), situated on top of the hill, is long and wide. Its fresh water source is from rainfall and the lake is deep. It has rich biodiversity of white heron, pigeon, palm trees and fruit trees. A little alligator species is also seen here. Morgan's Cave, named after the Welsh privateer Henry Morgan, was the location where he allegedly hid his treasures. The cave is approached through an underwater passage. There is also a museum here. A seawater aquarium here has good display of Caribbean marine life. West View, as the name suggests, has depth of water and is a favorite place for snorkeling, swimming and diving.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: Held on Saturdays, horse racing is a weekly event, even if only two horses race. Cockfighting, more popular on the island than football is in England, is considered to be a traditional sporting event rather than animal cruelty.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: Also, there are three small capacity stadiums in the town centre, each one for a different sport: softball, football and baseball. These sports are also practiced widely by the islanders in many areas of the island, especially in the southern part. Football teams participate in the Copa Claro.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: With the establishment of an airport in the northern part of the island, transport services from the mainland of Colombia ushered economic development in the island, particularly in the San Andrés town. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla International Airport has flight services offered by American Airlines, Avianca, LATAM Colombia, Viva Air Colombia, Wingo, and SATENA to Barranquilla, Bogotá, Cartagena, Cali, Medellín, Miami, and Providencia. There are also charter flights offered by Air Transat from Montréal during winter months.


title: San Andrés (island)

text: However, the sea route to visit the island is by cruise ships only (3–4 days journey). There are no passenger services to the island, though some cargo ships do carry a few passengers. The island also has a good network of paved lateral roads connecting the main circular road, which is of length. A tourist train (improvised tractor with coaches) also operates within the island. Boat services are also available within the island to visit various small towns and other locations of tourist interest along the coast line.


title: Ploidy

text: Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair, which chromosomes naturally exist as. Somatic cells, tissues, and individual organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present (the "ploidy level"): monoploid (1 set), diploid (2 sets), triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), etc. The generic term polyploid is often used to describe cells with three or more chromosome sets.


title: Ploidy

text: Virtually all sexually reproducing organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid. Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the social insects), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian liver). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of speciation. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal. There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization.


title: Ploidy

text: Humans are diploid organisms, normally carrying two complete sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: two copies of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of the 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans normally have. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23 homologous pairs, providing a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the chromosome number or chromosome complement. The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the monoploid number ("x"). The haploid number ("n") refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a gamete (a sperm or egg cell produced by meiosis in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes) during fertilization, the resulting zygote again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes. Euploidy and aneuploidy describe having a number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having any other number, respectively. For example, a person with Turner syndrome may be missing one sex chromosome (X or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,XX) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45.


title: Ploidy

text: The term "ploidy" is a back-formation from "haploidy" and "diploidy". "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, “-fold”) and -ειδής (-"eidḗs"), from εἶδος ("eîdos", "form, likeness"). The principal meaning of the Greek word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single", from ἁ- (ha-, “one, same”). διπλόος ("diplóos") means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped").


title: Ploidy

text: Polish botanist Eduard Strasburger coined the terms "haploid" and "diploid" in 1905. Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on August Weismann's conception of the id (or germ plasm), hence haplo-"id" and diplo-"id". The two terms were brought into the English language from German through William Henry Lang's 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.


title: Ploidy

text: The term haploid is used with two distinct but related definitions. In the most generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a gamete. Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a single zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes) may be considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing two copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animal kingdom and is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. But this definition also allows for haploid gametes with "more than one" set of chromosomes. As given above, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for example, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes. These gametes might still be called haploid even though they are numerically diploid.


title: Ploidy

text: An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having a single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one set of chromosomes. In this case, the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is said to be haploid only if it has a single set of chromosomes, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) have one set of chromosomes per cell. By this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to the gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term monoploid is often used as a less ambiguous way to describe a single set of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably.


title: Ploidy

text: Gametes (sperm and ova) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a zygote with "n" pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2"n" chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be homologous. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During meiosis, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another.


title: Ploidy

text: All plants and many fungi and algae switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called alternation of generations. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their life cycle, as are some primitive plants like mosses. More recently evolved plants, like the gymnosperms and angiosperms, spend the majority of their life cycle in the diploid stage. Most animals are diploid, but male bees, wasps, and ants are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system haplodiploid.


title: Ploidy

text: In some cases there is evidence that the "n" chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the monoploid number, also known as basic or cardinal number, or fundamental number. As an example, the chromosomes of common wheat are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general "n" is a multiple of "x". The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2"n" = 6"x" = 42, so that the haploid number "n" is 21 and the monoploid number "x" is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes ("n" = 3"x").


title: Ploidy

text: In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the haploid number. Thus in humans, "x" = "n" = 23.


title: Ploidy

text: Diploid cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat ("Tympanoctomys barrerae") and golden viscacha rat ("Pipanacoctomys aureus") have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004). However, some genetic studies have rejected any polyploidism in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents. All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, "2n") and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes ("n"). Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include human foamy virus, human T-lymphotropic virus, and HIV.


title: Ploidy

text: Polyploidy is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc. Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets), though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid"). Polytene chromosomes of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid. Ploidy of systems such as the salivary gland, elaiosome, endosperm, and trophoblast can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm "Bombyx mori".


title: Ploidy

text: The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species. In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling. The so-called "Brassica" triangle is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.


title: Ploidy

text: Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many somatic cells are polyploid due to a process called endoreduplication, where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the fern genus "Ophioglossum", the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand.


title: Ploidy

text: Polyploidy is a characteristic of the bacterium "Deinococcus radiodurans" and of the archaeon "Halobacterium salinarum". These two species are highly resistant to ionizing radiation and desiccation, conditions that induce DNA double-strand breaks. This resistance appears to be due to efficient homologous recombinational repair.


title: Ploidy

text: Depending on growth conditions, prokaryotes such as bacteria may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.


title: Ploidy

text: Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid, coexist within the same organism. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology.


title: Ploidy

text: Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by haploidisation of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.


title: Ploidy

text: Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.


title: Ploidy

text: The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.


title: Ploidy

text: Euploidy (Greek "eu", "true" or "even") is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the sex-determining chromosomes. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with one extra set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid karyotypes would consequentially be a multiple of the haploid number, which in humans is 23.


title: Ploidy

text: Aneuploidy is the state where one or more individual chromosomes of a normal set are absent or present in more than their usual number of copies (excluding the absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number. In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (as in Down syndrome, where affected individuals have three copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in Turner syndrome, where affected individuals have only one sex chromosome). Aneuploid karyotypes are given names with the suffix "-somy" (rather than "-ploidy", used for euploid karyotypes), such as trisomy and monosomy.


title: Ploidy

text: Homoploid means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of homologous chromosomes. For example, homoploid hybridization is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with polyploid speciation.


title: Ploidy

text: Zygoidy is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid. In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.)


title: Ploidy

text: In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a single nucleus rather than in the cell as a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, but in cases in which there is more than one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a syncytium, though usually the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal dikaryon with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.


title: Ploidy

text: It is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increase in the germline, which can result in polyploid offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals and is known as a primary driver of speciation. As a result, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the monoploid number ("x"), and is distinct from the haploid number ("n") in the organism as it now reproduces.


title: Ploidy

text: Common wheat ("Triticum aestivum") is an organism in which "x" and "n" differ. Each plant has a total of six sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid, 2"n" = 6"x" = 42 (where the monoploid number "x" = 7 and the haploid number "n" = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor, einkorn wheat.


title: Ploidy

text: Tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes, 2"n" = 4"x") is common in many plant species, and also occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and insects. For example, species of "Xenopus" (African toads) form a ploidy series, featuring diploid ("X. tropicalis", 2n=20), tetraploid ("X. laevis", 4n=36), octaploid ("X. wittei", 8n=72), and dodecaploid ("X. ruwenzoriensis", 12n=108) species.


title: Ploidy

text: Over evolutionary time scales in which chromosomal polymorphisms accumulate, these changes become less apparent by karyotype – for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the 2R hypothesis has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.


title: Ploidy

text: Ploidy can also vary between individuals of the same species or at different stages of the life cycle. In some insects it differs by caste. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in many of the social insects, including ants, bees, and termites, males develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even as adults.


title: Ploidy

text: In the Australian bulldog ant, "Myrmecia pilosula", a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes. In "Entamoeba", the ploidy level varies from 4"n" to 40"n" in a single population. Alternation of generations occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle.


title: Ploidy

text: In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation. For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei.


title: Ploidy

text: There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by different ploidy levels. A study comparing the karyotypes of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive. Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability. Some studies suggest that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species.


title: Ploidy

text: When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in aneuploid gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is commonly exploited in agriculture to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in three sets of chromosomes, the condition is called triploid syndrome.


title: Ploidy

text: In unicellular organisms the ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis suggests that nutrient limitation should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher surface-to-volume ratio of haploids, which eases nutrient uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-demand ratio. Mable 2001 finds "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis however, as haploid growth is faster than diploid under high nutrient conditions. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by Gerstein et al 2017. This result is also more complex: On the one hand, under phosphorus and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal nutrient levels or under limitation of only nitrogen, higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH and more generally, the idea that haploidy is selected by harsher conditions is cast into doubt by these results.


title: Ploidy

text: Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently as 2015 was the ancient whole genome duplication in Baker's yeast proven to be allopolyploid, by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. It still remains to be explained why there are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of neopolyploidy and mesopolyploidy in fungal history.


title: Ploidy

text: The common potato ("Solanum tuberosum") is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are distinct in this example.


title: Ploidy

text: However, commercial potato crops (as well as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated vegetatively (by asexual reproduction through mitosis), in which case new individuals are produced from a single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may still be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route.


title: Ploidy

text: Some eukaryotic genome-scale or genome size databases and other sources which may list the ploidy levels of many organisms:


title: Copycat (film)

text: Copycat is a 1995 American psychological thriller film directed by Jon Amiel and starring Sigourney Weaver, Holly Hunter, and Dermot Mulroney. The score was composed by Christopher Young.


title: Copycat (film)

text: After giving a guest lecture on criminal psychology at a local university, Dr. Helen Hudson, a respected field expert on serial killers, is cornered in the lecture hall's restroom by one of her previous subjects, Daryll Lee Cullum, who has escaped from prison. He kills a police officer and brutally attacks Helen. Another cop subdues Cullum and he is returned to prison. After the attack, Hudson becomes severely agoraphobic, sealing herself inside an expensive hi-tech apartment, conducting her entire life from behind a computer screen, and assisted by her friend, Andy.


title: Copycat (film)

text: When a wave of murders spreads fear and panic across San Francisco, homicide detective M.J. Monahan and her partner, Reuben Goetz, solicit Helen's expertise. Initially reluctant, Helen soon finds herself drawn into the warped perpetrator's game of wits. As the murders continue, Helen realizes that the elusive assailant draws inspiration from notorious serial killers, including Albert DeSalvo, The Hillside Strangler, David Berkowitz, Jeffrey Dahmer, John Wayne Gacy, and Ted Bundy. When the murderer begins contacting and even stalking Helen, she and M.J. realize that he is after them; they then enlist aid from Cullum, who says he knows about the killer.


title: Copycat (film)

text: Helen soon realizes that the copycat killer has been following the list of serial killers in the same order that she presented them in her university lecture the night she was attacked. The two work to figure out where and when he will strike next. Reuben is held hostage and killed in an unrelated shooting incident at the police station, leaving M.J. – now questioning herself after her targeting the shooter’s brachial nerve area failed and he was still able to stand up and fatally shoot Reuben– to continue searching for the serial killer alone.


title: Copycat (film)

text: After Andy is killed in a manner reminiscent of Jeffrey Dahmer, M.J. deduces that the killer is a man named Peter Foley, who has been corresponding with Cullum. After a failed attempt to capture him at his house, M.J. reaches Helen's residence. M.J. discovers Peter has kidnapped Helen and left a video asking M.J. to guess where he has taken Helen. M.J. returns to where Cullum previously attempted to kill her – the lecture hall restroom. Upon arriving, M.J. finds Helen bound, hanged, and gagged in the same manner Cullum previously did. Foley ambushes M.J., rendering her unconscious. As Foley prepares to kill M.J., Helen desperately attempts to save her by sabotaging Foley's carefully replicated crime scene the only way she can: by attempting to hang herself. Foley panics and cuts Helen down, which allows her to escape to the building's roof. Her agoraphobia overtakes her, and Helen finds herself cornered. Accepting her fate, she turns to face Foley. However, just as he is about to kill her, M.J. shoots him in the Brachial nerve, giving him one last chance to surrender. When he pulls his gun back on her, however, she shoots until killing him with a headshot.


title: Copycat (film)

text: Some time later, Cullum writes to another serial killer, instructing him on how to kill Helen, and revealing that he had been aiding Foley all along. Cullum wishes, "happy hunting, partner" to his new proxy in the mission to kill Helen.


title: Copycat (film)

text: The film received positive reviews from critics. It holds an approval rating of 75% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The consensus summarizes: ""Copycat"s outstanding cast helps this often unpleasant thriller transcend the less palatable elements of its standard-issue story." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Copycat (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" awarded it three and a half stars out of four, and a "thumbs up" on "Siskel & Ebert", citing Holly Hunter's character as "one of the most intriguing and three-dimensional characters of the year".


title: Copycat (film)

text: A 2019 "New Yorker" article noted that A. J. Finn's bestselling debut novel "The Woman in the Window" (2018) has the same setup, without attribution, as "Copycat". When notified of this, director Jon Amiel said, "Wow. [It's probably] not actionable, but certainly worth noting, and one would have hoped that the author might have noted it himself."


title: Kellen Moore

text: Kellen Christopher Moore (born July 5, 1988) is an American football coach and former quarterback who is the offensive coordinator for the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL). He previously played six seasons in the NFL for the Cowboys and Detroit Lions. Moore played college football at Boise State, where he set the FBS record for quarterback wins. Signed by Detroit as an undrafted free agent in 2012, he was a member of the Lions and Cowboys for three seasons each. He rejoined Dallas as a coach following his retirement and became the team's offensive coordinator in 2019.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Kellen Christopher Moore was born on July 5, 1988, in Prosser, Washington. His father, Tom, was the head coach at Prosser High School from 1986 to 2008, winning 21 league titles and four state championships. Every day during football season, he and younger brother, Kirby, who also played at Boise State as a wide receiver, went from the elementary school to their dad's football practice. As his father remembered in a 2011 interview, "He'd always have a little notepad with him. He was always drawing plays." In his final two years of high school, his father let him call his own plays.


title: Kellen Moore

text: According to his mother, Moore "grew fast, and then he didn't grow again" – he was as a high school sophomore, nearly his adult height. His lack of height proved no obstacle to success at Prosser High. Moore was named the Gatorade Player of the Year for the state of Washington. He lettered in football and basketball three times each and was named Velocity/Prep Star All-American and First-team All-state, and Division 2A MVP by the "Seattle Times". He earned league player of the year honors as well as First-team All-league recognition as a sophomore, junior and senior. He was also Third-team All-state selection as a junior.


title: Kellen Moore

text: He set Washington state career records for completions (787) and touchdown passes (173). He also set state single-season records for completions (317 as a junior), yards (4,600 as a junior) and touchdown passes (67 as a senior).


title: Kellen Moore

text: He finished his career completing 787 of 1,195 passes (.659) for 11,367 yards and 173 touchdowns with 34 interceptions. He led Prosser to a 12–1 record in 2006 as a senior and a spot in the state semifinals, in a loss to the Centralia Tigers that included two interceptions. As a junior, he completed 317-of-479 passes (66.2 percent) for 4,600 yards and 66 touchdowns with 15 interceptions. The year before, as a sophomore, he completed 179-of-308 passes (58.1-percent) for 2,442 yards and 39 touchdowns with 11 interceptions.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Moore's teammates at Boise State included his younger brother Kirby and childhood friend Cory Yriarte, a center for the Broncos. Kirby currently holds the national high school record for career touchdown receptions, with 95.


title: Kellen Moore

text: As a redshirt freshman in 2008, Moore led the Broncos to an undefeated regular season and the WAC championship while throwing 25 touchdowns and 9 interceptions in 12 games. In the final game of 2008, Boise State lost to Texas Christian University (TCU) in the 2008 Poinsettia Bowl, the first of two consecutive bowl meetings for the non-Automatic Qualifying rivals. He was named WAC Freshman of the Year and Second-team All-conference after a spectacular first season, guiding Boise State to 12–1 record and was named Boise State's Most Valuable Offensive Player by vote of teammates. He was named to Phil Steele Publications' Second-team All-WAC and also voted to the Football Writers Association of America's freshman All-America team.


title: Kellen Moore

text: He ranked 12th in nation in passing efficiency and 24th in total offense, averaging 265.85 yards per game and was first in WAC in passing efficiency (157.1) and second in total offense (265.8) and average passing yards per game (268.2). He completed 281 of 405 passes for 3,486 yards with 25 touchdowns and 10 interceptions.


title: Kellen Moore

text: In January 2009, Moore was ranked as the 37th best returning player in college football by College Football News.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Moore threw for a school record 39 touchdowns with only 3 interceptions to lead the Broncos to a 14–0 record, another WAC title, and an at large bid to the Fiesta Bowl vs. undefeated #4 ranked TCU. The 2009 Fiesta Bowl was highly controversial due to the decision to pit the two non-Automatic Qualifying schools against each other instead of having them face Automatic Qualifying teams. The BCS was criticized for the perception that the risk of both, or either, team defeating a "power conference" team was too great, and that the BCS had TCU and BSU face each other so that the damage of their participation would be minimized. He finished the 2009 regular season with the highest passer efficiency rating in Division I-A with a rating of 167.3. In his first two years as a starting quarterback, Moore did not lose a regular season game.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Moore started against widely favored TCU and played the entire game. He had no interceptions, fumbles, or muffed snaps. He led the team on a 4th quarter 78-yard touchdown scoring drive to take the lead for good and win the game 17–10.


title: Kellen Moore

text: He was named First-team All-American by CBSSportsline.com, a subsidiary of CBS Sports. He was named one of ten finalists for the Manning Award. He was also First-team All-WAC and the WAC Offensive Player of the Year in 2009 and finished 7th in Heisman voting for 2009.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Moore led the Broncos to a 33–30 victory over Virginia Tech on September 6, 2010. The game was highly anticipated and received a 6.8 TV rating, nearly twice that of the next most watched game. Moore contributed 3 passing touchdowns in the game with a final game-winning strike to Austin Pettis with 1:14 remaining in the game. As a result of the victory, Boise State received 8 first place votes in the week 2 AP Poll, and it moved up to third in the Coaches' Poll. Moore was also mentioned by major sports media as a top candidate for the 2010 Heisman Trophy. After finishing the season with 3,506 yards, 33 TDs and only 5 INTs, Moore was named a finalist for the Heisman Trophy and was invited to the ceremony in New York City to become the first ever Boise State player to be a Heisman finalist. Moore finished fourth in Heisman voting. Moore was also a finalist for the Davey O'Brien Award, the Maxwell Award, and the Manning Award (all won by Cam Newton). Moore was named the Touchdown Club of Columbus Quarterback of the Year. Boise State was invited to the 2010 Maaco Bowl Las Vegas, where they defeated Utah 26–3.


title: Kellen Moore

text: On March 28, 2011, the Sporting News named Moore as the #1 player in their annual list of the top 25 players in the nation. He was ranked ahead of Stanford quarterback Andrew Luck and Oregon running back LaMichael James who both finished ahead of Moore in the 2010 Heisman voting. He only needed 8 wins during the 2011 season to pass Colt McCoy for most wins by a quarterback in NCAA history. He threw his 100th touchdown pass against Georgia during week one. Following an opening season win against Georgia in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game, Moore was featured on the cover of "Sports Illustrated", distributed only in the west.


title: Kellen Moore

text: With the Broncos defeat of Air Force on October 22, he tied former Texas quarterback Colt McCoy for the career wins record with 45 wins. On November 5, the Broncos defeated UNLV and Moore broke the record to become the FBS leader in career wins for a starting quarterback at 46. A perfect season, however, was spoiled again by a 36–35 loss to TCU.


title: Kellen Moore

text: He was one of three finalists for the Maxwell Award along with Andrew Luck and Trent Richardson (won by Luck). For the second year in a row, he was named the Touchdown Club of Columbus Quarterback of the Year and it was announced that beginning in 2012 the award will be known as the Kellen Moore Award. He ended 2011 ranked first in the FBS in completion percentage. With the Broncos' 56–24 win over Arizona State in the 2011 Maaco Bowl Las Vegas, Moore became the first quarterback in FBS history to win 50 games in his career.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Despite his success in college, many analysts doubted Moore's professional potential, especially his relatively small stature at slightly shorter than , as well as doubts about arm strength and mobility. He was projected as a late draft pick or priority free agent.


title: Kellen Moore

text: He was not selected in the 2012 NFL Draft, but was signed immediately post-draft by the Detroit Lions. Upon being signed by Detroit, Moore stated, "I don't think there will probably be a more motivated quarterback." While some within the media voiced an opinion that Moore should unseat the newly signed Dan Orlovsky as the Lions primary backup during the 2014 season, Lions head coach Jim Caldwell decided Orlovsky would remain the incumbent. On February 21, 2014, it was announced the Lions would not place a restricted free agent tender offer on Moore, allowing him to explore other NFL options. Despite not tendering an offer, Lions General Manager Martin Mayhew expressed an interest in bringing Moore back for the 2015 season. On March 6, 2015, the Lions signed Moore to a two-year contract worth $1.825 million. On September 5, 2015, following the team's preseason, Moore failed to make the initial 53-player roster and was released during the team's final cuts of training camp.


title: Kellen Moore

text: On September 6, 2015, Moore was signed by the Dallas Cowboys to the team's practice squad, reuniting with former Lions offensive coordinator Scott Linehan. After Tony Romo first fractured his left collarbone, he was promoted to the active roster to serve as Brandon Weeden's backup on September 23. He was the team's backup for two games, until the Cowboys acquired quarterback Matt Cassel. On November 10, he was waived and re-signed two days later to the practice squad.


title: Kellen Moore

text: After Romo suffered a second fracture of the collarbone on a Thanksgiving loss against the Carolina Panthers, Moore was promoted to the active roster on December 2, to serve as Cassel's backup. During Romo's absence, the Cowboys tried relying on backup quarterbacks Weeden (0–3) and Cassel (1–6), but weren't successful.


title: Kellen Moore

text: On December 19, Moore played in his first career regular season game against the New York Jets, replacing an ineffective Cassel. Moore's second career NFL pass was intercepted by Marcus Gilchrist. On the next drive, Moore threw his first career touchdown, connecting with Dez Bryant. He was intercepted two more times in the second half, including once in the end zone, when the Cowboys had a chance to go ahead 17–9 in the third quarter.


title: Kellen Moore

text: The loss against the Jets officially eliminated the Cowboys from playoff contention, so the organization decided to use the last two games to audition Moore. His first career start came the following week against the Buffalo Bills, completing 13 of 31 passes and throwing a third quarter interception to AJ Tarpley as the Cowboys lost 16–6.


title: Kellen Moore

text: In his first home start, playing against the Washington Redskins, he threw for 435 yards, 3 touchdowns, and 2 interceptions in a 34–23 loss. He became the fifth quarterback in team history to throw for 400 or more yards in a single game and also passed for the sixth-most yards in team history for a single game.


title: Kellen Moore

text: In 2016, he suffered a fractured fibula on his right leg during a training camp practice on August 2 and was placed on injured reserve on August 30.


title: Kellen Moore

text: On March 20, 2017, Moore re-signed with the Cowboys. He was released by the Cowboys on September 2, 2017, but was re-signed on September 5, 2017. He was released on October 26, 2017 and re-signed to the practice squad. In 2018, Moore retired from the NFL.


title: Kellen Moore

text: Following his retirement, Moore was the last left-handed quarterback to play in the NFL until Tua Tagovailoa in 2020.


title: Kellen Moore

text: In 2018, after retiring from the NFL, he became the Cowboys' quarterbacks coach after the Cowboys long time coach Wade Wilson retired. On January 31, 2019, the Cowboys announced that Moore would be promoted to offensive coordinator. Following Jason Garrett's release as Cowboys' head coach after 10 seasons, FOX NFL insider Jay Glazer reported new coach Mike McCarthy had expressed interest to keep Moore on the coaching staff, which McCarthy did.


title: Bernd Bergmair

text: Bernd Bergmair (also spelled Bernard Bergemar, born 1968 in Linz) is an Austrian businessman. He is one of the majority owners of privately held MindGeek, the Luxembourg-based conglomerate behind popular porn sites such as Pornhub. Although he is not mentioned in the company's corporate filings, a report by the "Financial Times" revealed that Bergemar is MindGeek's largest beneficiary thanks to a "complex network of subsidiaries" in which he owns a large percentage of the shares.


title: Bernd Bergmair

text: He grew up as the son of farmers in Ansfelden, attended grammar school in Linz and transferred to HLBLA St. Florian. He then studied at the University of Linz, graduating in 1992 with a thesis on a topic related to corporate acquisition: Evaluation of corporations and financing strategies in connection with M & A, LBO and MBO. He worked for Goldman Sachs in New York, before working in Frankfurt am Main, Hong Kong and London. In 2006 he became the owner of the porn website RedTube and in 2013 he sold the site to Manwin, now known as Mindgeek.


title: Bernd Bergmair

text: In December 2020, the "Financial Times" published a report on MindGeek's ownership, revealing that Bergmair or "Bernard Bergemar" as he had used in court documents was the company's majority owner. The "Financial Times" report prompted a parliamentary inquiry into Pornhub's practices in Canada, in which MindGeek directors and minority owners David Tassillo and Feras Antoon named a "Bernard Bergemar" as the principal owner. He owned more than half of the shares, but was a passive investor and not involved in the day-to-day business. British research platform Tortoise Media and Austrian magazine "Dossier" cooperated on an investigation.


title: Bernd Bergmair

text: Company records showed Bergemar lived in China, but was found to be actually living in a mansion in London after the investigation by Tortoise Media. Soon after, his Brazilian wife Priscila Bergmair told "The Sunday Times" that she wanted her husband to cut ties with the company.


title: Power electronics

text: The first high-power electronic devices were made using mercury-arc valves. In modern systems, the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching devices such as diodes, thyristors, and power transistors such as the power MOSFET and IGBT. In contrast to electronic systems concerned with the transmission and processing of signals and data, substantial amounts of electrical energy are processed in power electronics. An AC/DC converter (rectifier) is the most typical power electronics device found in many consumer electronic devices, e.g. television sets, personal computers, battery chargers, etc. The power range is typically from tens of watts to several hundred watts. In industry, a common application is the variable speed drive (VSD) that is used to control an induction motor. The power range of VSDs starts from a few hundred watts and ends at tens of megawatts.


title: Power electronics

text: Power electronics started with the development of the mercury arc rectifier. Invented by Peter Cooper Hewitt in 1902, it was used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). From the 1920s on, research continued on applying thyratrons and grid-controlled mercury arc valves to power transmission. Uno Lamm developed a mercury valve with grading electrodes making them suitable for high voltage direct current power transmission. In 1933 selenium rectifiers were invented.


title: Power electronics

text: Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was not possible to actually construct a working device at that time. In 1947, the bipolar point-contact transistor was invented by Walter H. Brattain and John Bardeen under the direction of William Shockley at Bell Labs. In 1948 Shockley's invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) improved the stability and performance of transistors, and reduced costs. By the 1950s, higher power semiconductor diodes became available and started replacing vacuum tubes. In 1956 the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was introduced by General Electric, greatly increasing the range of power electronics applications. By the 1960s, the improved switching speed of bipolar junction transistors had allowed for high frequency DC/DC converters.


title: Power electronics

text: R. D. Middlebrook made important contributions to power electronics. In 1970, he founded the Power Electronics Group at Caltech. He developed the state-space averaging method of analysis and other tools crucial to modern power electronics design.


title: Power electronics

text: A breakthrough in power electronics came with the invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. Generations of MOSFET transistors enabled power designers to achieve performance and density levels not possible with bipolar transistors. Due to improvements in MOSFET technology (initially used to produce integrated circuits), the power MOSFET became available in the 1970s.