title: Molise

text: The cuisine of Molise is similar to the cuisine of Abruzzo, though there are some differences in the dishes and ingredients. The flavors of Molise are dominated by the many aromatic herbs that grow there. Some of the characteristic foods include spicy salami, a variety of locally produced cheeses, dishes using lamb or goat, pasta dishes with hearty sauces, and vegetables that grow in the region.


title: Molise

text: In addition to bruschetta, a typical antipasto will consist of any of several meat dishes, such as the sausages capocollo, the fennel-seasoned salsiccie al finocchio, soppressata, ventricina, frascateglie or sanguinaccio. In addition to these sausages, a variety of ham is available, such as smoked prosciutto. Frequently, the sausages are enjoyed with polenta.


title: Molise

text: Fish dishes include red mullet soup, and spaghetti with cuttlefish. Trout from the Biferno river is notable for its flavor, and is cooked with a simple but tasty sauce of aromatic herbs. Zuppa di pesce, a fish stew, is a specialty of Termoli.


title: Molise

text: The cheeses produced in Molise are not very different from those produced in Abruzzo. The more common ones are Burrino and Manteca, soft, buttery cow's-milk cheeses; Pecorino, sheep's-milk cheese, served young and soft or aged and hard, called also "Maciuocco" in Molise; Scamorza, bland cow's-milk cheese, often served grilled; and Caciocavallo, sheep's-milk cheese.


title: Molise

text: Sweets and desserts have an ancient tradition here and are linked to the history of the territory and to religious and family festivities. Most common are:


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The 2017 ICC Champions Trophy was the eighth ICC Champions Trophy, a cricket tournament for the eight top-ranked One Day International (ODI) teams in the world. It was held in England and Wales from 1 to 18 June 2017. Pakistan won the competition for the first time with a 180-run victory over India in the final at The Oval. The margin of victory was the largest by any team in the final of an ICC ODI tournament in terms of runs.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The top eight teams in the ICC ODI Championship rankings as on 30 September 2015 qualified for the tournament, and were divided into two groups of four. Bangladesh returned to the ICC Champions Trophy for the first time since 2006, while the West Indies failed to qualify for the first time.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: Security around the tournament was increased following the Ariana Grande concert attack in Manchester, just before the start of the competition. The International Cricket Council (ICC) announced that they would review security concerns.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The ICC Champions Trophy was due to end in 2013, with the 2013 competition the final one, to be replaced by the ICC World Test Championship in 2017. However, in January 2014 it was instead confirmed by the ICC that a Champions Trophy tournament would take place in 2017. In 2016, the ICC confirmed that the Champions Trophy would be scrapped after this tournament, keeping in line with the ICC's goal of having one tournament for each of the three formats of international cricket. In November 2021, the ICC confirmed that the tournament would return in 2025, hosted in Pakistan.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: As hosts, England qualified for the competition automatically; they were joined by the seven other highest-ranked teams in the ICC ODI Championship as at 30 September 2015.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: On 1 June 2016, it was announced that the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy would be held across three venues: The Oval, Edgbaston and Sophia Gardens. The ICC confirmed the umpires for all matches and venues on 18 May 2017.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The eight participating teams were required to announce a 15-member squad for the tournament on or before 25 April 2017. Teams could make changes to their originally named squads up to 25 May 2017, after which date changes would only be accepted on medical grounds, subject to approval.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: India did not announce their squad by 25 April deadline due to what it described as "operational" reasons, although this was widely seen as a protest by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) in an ongoing disagreement with the ICC over finance and governance. The BCCI were scheduled to announce the squad for India after the ICC board meeting on 27 April 2017. However, on 4 May 2017, after no team had been named, the committee of administrators told the BCCI to select their squad immediately. The BCCI undertook a special general meeting on 7 May 2017 to determine what course of action they would take. The outcome of that meeting was that India would take part in the tournament, and the squad was named on 8 May 2017.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: On 10 May 2017, the ICC confirmed all the squads for the tournament. Pakistan's Shoaib Malik played in his sixth consecutive Champions Trophy.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: Before the tournament started, England and South Africa played a bilateral three-match ODI series leaving the other six teams to play warm-ups against two other teams not in their group. These warm-up matches had rules that were slightly different from normal ODI matches, and were thus not recognised as ODIs. A team could use up to 15 players in a match, but only 11 could bat (or field at any one time) in each innings.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: England became the first team to qualify for the semi-finals by virtue of two wins in its first two Group A games, and with other teams of the group either losing a game or ending games without a result. Bangladesh qualified for the semi-finals following their win against New Zealand, and Australia failing to beat England in the final match of Group A. From Group B, India and Pakistan qualified for the semi-finals following victories in their final group matches against South Africa and Sri Lanka respectively.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The ICC confirmed the umpires for the semi-final matches on 13 June 2017 and for the final on 16 June 2017. Pakistan beat England by 8 wickets to qualify for the final for the first time while India beat Bangladesh by 9 wickets to make their second consecutive appearance and fourth overall in a final.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The team of the tournament was named by the ICC the day after the final. The team included seven members of the 22 players who featured in the final, as well as three Englishmen, a Bangladeshi and a New Zealander.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: In a media release before the commencement of the tournament, the ICC stated that live broadcast would be made available in "more than 200 territories, across five continents". The release added that the tournament's broadcast would reach China, South Korea, Thailand and Indonesia for the first time.


title: 2017 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The prize money for the competition was increased by $500,000 from 2013 to a total of $4.5 million. The winning team received $2.2 million, with $1.1 million going to the runner-up. The other two semi-finalists earned $450,000 each. Teams finishing third and fourth in each group each received $90,000 and $60,000 respectively.


title: Balinese cat

text: The Balinese is a long-haired breed of domestic cat with Siamese-style point coloration and sapphire-blue eyes. The Balinese is also known as the purebred long-haired Siamese, since it originated as a natural mutation of that breed and hence is essentially the same cat but with a medium-length silky coat and a distinctively plumed tail.


title: Balinese cat

text: As is the case with their short-haired counterparts, a genetic distinction is made between traditional or "old-style" and modern body types. In the American standard, color variants derived from the Colorpoint Shorthair are further considered a separate breed, known as the Javanese. There is no particular connection between these cats and the Indonesian islands of Bali and Java, from which they derive their names.


title: Balinese cat

text: The "Balinese" is not actually from Bali or any part of Indonesia. Its history begins with the first Siamese cats that were imported from Thailand to the U.S. and U.K. in the mid-1800s, some of whom carried the recessive long-haired gene. The Balinese breed subsequently originated from deliberate breeding efforts based around this naturally expressed genetic trait.


title: Balinese cat

text: Initially, occasional long-haired kittens in Siamese litters were considered a fault in the bloodline and sold exclusively as pets. There are records of these cats as early as the 1900s; "Long-haired Siamese" were first registered as show cats with the American Cat Fanciers' Federation in 1928. In the mid-1950s, breeders in the US began serious efforts to develop the long-haired variant as a separate breed. Considering Long-haired Siamese too cumbersome a name, initial breeder Helen Smith dubbed the new breed "Balinese" as a reference to the grace of Balinese dancers.


title: Balinese cat

text: A breeder named Sylvia Holland (who was also an illustrator for Walt Disney Studios) worked to further establish the breed standard in the 1960s and 1970s. She recognized only cats showing the classic Siamese points in seal, chocolate, blue and lilac as true Balinese, refusing to accept others on the grounds that they had likely originated from crosses with other breeds. The American Cat Fanciers' Association had meanwhile officially classified Siamese with the newer red and cream as well as lynx (tabby) and tortoiseshell (or "tortie") patterned points as a separate breed, the Colorpoint Shorthair, and the long-haired cats derived from these colors and patterns were subsequently likewise classified separately as "Javanese", in keeping with the Indonesian island theme.


title: Balinese cat

text: Like their Siamese ancestors, the Balinese gradually split into two separate varieties based on physical type. The traditional Siamese (also called old-style or "apple-head", now being separately developed as the Thai), was the type in vogue when the Balinese was established, and hence used in its development; these old-style Balinese still closely resemble those from the early breeding programs.


title: Balinese cat

text: As the parent short-haired Siamese gained in popularity, however, a trend developed in favor of a more extremely elongated, slender type with a distinctively wedge-shaped head. The modern (or "contemporary") Balinese was subsequently derived directly from this newer Siamese ideal. By the mid-1980s, the old-style Balinese, like their Siamese counterparts, had disappeared from most cat shows, with the exception of a few breeders who maintained the original Balinese type. The two varieties of Balinese thus have very few if any recent ancestors in common.


title: Balinese cat

text: There was discussion in the Cat Fanciers' Association about merging the two breeds into one breed with two color divisions as early as 2006. The Javanese is a hybrid between Colorpoint Shorthair and Balinese. In 2008, breeders in the Balinese Breed Council and Javanese Breed Council voted to combine the Balinese and Javanese as one breed and declared Javanese as a color division of the Balinese. The Cat Fanciers' Association was the only organization to believe that Javanese was a separate breed. This does not affect the colors or description of Balinese, since they are two separate divisions but they are just placed under the Balinese. Javanese will still has the same colors as before, along with Balinese having the same colors mentioned below.


title: Balinese cat

text: This movement has brought The Cat Fanciers' Association more in line with the other worldwide registries. The Cat Fanciers' Association made this change since the two councils in their organization (Balinese and Javanese) were overlapping around an average of 50 to 75% with the same members who breed and exhibited the two types. Combining the two breeds will hopefully increase Balinese registration in the Cat Fanciers' Association, by encouraging new breeders and exhibitors of Balinese to come forth and present their cat. They also wished to show more Javanese of the appropriate coat length in the shows. This will also help decrease the number of cats needed to maintain a healthy breeding program.


title: Balinese cat

text: The two types of Balinese are still analogous to their Siamese counterparts. While both are relatively slender, graceful fine-boned cats with long legs and tail, neat oval paws, almond-shaped eyes and large pointed ears, the traditional type is overall the more substantial, with a broader head and sturdier body. The modern type features a noticeably more wedge-shaped head with long tapering muzzle and longer, broader ears, atop a more slender and elongated body.


title: Balinese cat

text: The coat is basically medium-length (although there can be considerable variance by individual) and should be soft and silky, without the fluffy undercoat typical of most long-haired breeds. The offspring of two Balinese will have a longer coat than that of a Balinese and a Siamese. In all cases, the tail should have a definite plume, or fringe, of longer hair. Eye color ranges from pale blue through sapphire/violet; intensity of color can change slightly with age and diet. The paw pad color can be used to identify the color point in kittens. Pink pads are found in chocolate and lilac points; while dark pads are found in blue and seal points.


title: Balinese cat

text: Like all cats with the point pattern, Balinese kittens are born pure cream or white and gradually develop visible points in colder parts of their body – the face, ears, paws and tail. Their color is identifiable by the time they are four weeks old. Some cats tend to darken with age, and generally, adult Balinese cats living in warm climates have lighter coats than those in cool climates.


title: Balinese cat

text: The Cat Fanciers' Federation and most other associations worldwide accept the Balinese breed in seal, blue, chocolate, lilac, red and cream point, besides tortoiseshell and lynx points in all of these colors. The Cat Fanciers' Association standard continues to accept the Balinese in only the classic seal, blue, chocolate and lilac points, with all other possible colors and patterns classed separately as Javanese.


title: Balinese cat

text: Balinese share the traits of the short-haired Siamese, and hence are notably social and playful cats with an intense interest in the activity around them and a tendency to vocalize often and persistently, albeit at a lower volume. They are reputed to have the highest intelligence of all the long-haired breeds. They are also reputed to be notably acrobatic, and to enjoy intimate contact with their owners.


title: Balinese cat

text: Anecdotally, many people claim that Balinese cats cause fewer problems with allergies than most cat breeds. While strict scientific evidence for this is lacking, it has been determined that, in comparison to most cats, the Balinese produces very low amounts of the Fel d1 and Fel d4 protein allergens. As with the Siberian cat breed, some Balinese breeders and clubs are working together to produce more rigorously tested evidence of the Balinese's hypoallergenic quality.


title: Balinese cat

text: The pointed pattern is a form of partial albinism, resulting from a mutation in tyrosinase, an enzyme involved in melanin production. The mutated enzyme is heat-sensitive; it fails to work at normal body temperatures, but becomes active in cooler areas of the skin. This results in dark coloration in the coolest parts of the cat's body, including the extremities and the face, which is cooled by the passage of air through the sinuses. Though crossbreeding with other breeds took place in order to produce the less traditional Javanese colors, they are considered purebred cats if they are registered and have at least 3-4 or more generations of Siamese or Balinese lineage.


title: Balinese cat

text: They are considered a healthy breed with only few health problems. They are a pedigree breed, which means they are developed from such a small gene pool of Siamese with the long hair mutation. The smaller the gene pool, the more chances they are to inherited many unknown health disorders. A possible confirmed disease for Balinese is Progressive Retinal Atrophy (PRA), which is a degeneration of the retina in the eye; which may lead to weak or impaired vision.


title: Balinese cat

text: There has been some cases of Balinese having dilated cardiomyopathy, which is a disease that enlarges the heart muscles that decreases heart function. There are also some claims that they are at a low risk for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).


title: Balinese cat

text: Another potential health problem is liver amyloidosis, or systemic amyloidosis which eventually leads to failure of some organ, most commonly the liver. Liver amyloidosis typically occurs in any members of the Siamese and the Balinese is a mutation off the Siamese, so it may have any inherited disorders directly to Siamese.


title: Balinese cat

text: They sometimes developed a rare inheritance that makes their blue almond shaped eyes look cross eyed. It is called Strabismus, which is common in Siamese cat breeds.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: In Japanese mythology, the Seven Lucky Gods or Seven Gods of Fortune (, shichifukujin in Japanese) are believed to grant good luck and are often represented in netsuke and in artworks. One of the seven (Jurōjin) is said to be based on a historical figure.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: They all began as remote and impersonal gods, but gradually became much closer canonical figures for certain professions and Japanese arts. During the course of their history, the mutual influence between gods has created confusion about which of them was the patron of certain professions. The worship of this group of gods is also due to the importance of the number seven in Japan, supposedly a signifier of good luck.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: It is known that these deities mostly have their origins as ancient gods of fortune from religions popular in Japan: from Mahayana Buddhism (Benzaiten, Bishamonten, Daikokuten) which came to Japan from China but originated in India, and from Chinese Taoism (Fukurokuju, Hotei, Jurojin); except for one (Ebisu) who has a native Japanese ancestry.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: These gods have been recognized as such for over a thousand years. In the beginning, these gods were worshiped by merchants as the first two (Ebisu and Daikokuten) were gods of business and trade.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Subsequently, the other classes of Japanese society looked for other gods that could correspond with their professions: Benzaiten as the patron of the arts, Fukurokuju as the patron of the sciences, and so on.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: In ancient times, these gods were worshipped separately, but this rarely happens today – only when it is required for the god to act on behalf of the applicant.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: The Seven Gods of Fortune started being mentioned as a collective in the year 1420 in Fushimi, in order to imitate the processions of the "daimyōs", the feudal lords of pre-modern Japan.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: It is said that the Buddhist priest Tenkai selected these gods after speaking with the "shōgun" he served, Iemitsu Tokugawa, at the order of seeking whoever possessed the perfect virtues: longevity, fortune, popularity, sincerity, kindness, dignity, and magnanimity.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Shortly after a famous artist of the time, Kano Yasunobu, was ordained to portray these gods for the first time ever.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: From the period of the gods Izanami and Izanagi, Ebisu (恵比寿) is the only one whose origins are purely Japanese. He is the god of prosperity and wealth in business, and of plenitude and abundance in crops, cereals and food in general. He is the patron of fishermen and therefore is represented with fishermen's costumes such as a typical hat, a fishing rod in his right hand and a fish that can be either a carp, a hake, a codfish or a sea bass, or any large fish, in general, that symbolize abundance in meals (such as a feast or banquet). It is now common to see his figure in restaurants where fish is served in great quantities or in household kitchens.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Daikokuten (大黒天) is the god of commerce and prosperity, and he is sometimes considered the patron of cooks, farmers and bankers, and a protector of crops. He is also considered a demon hunter − legend says that the god Daikokuten hung a sacred talisman on the branch of a tree in his garden and, by using this as a trap, he was able to catch a demon. This god is characterized by his smile, by his short legs and by the hat on his head. He is usually depicted with a bag full of valuable objects. Daikokuten's popular imagery originated as a syncretic conflation of the Buddhist death deity Mahākāla with the Shinto deity Ōkuninushi. The Japanese name "Daikoku" is a direct translation of the Sanskrit name "Mahākāla" which means "Great Blackness". Per the Butsuzōzui compendium of 1690 (reprinted and expanded in 1796), Daikoku can also manifest as a female known as "Daikokunyo" (大黒女, lit. "She of Great Blackness") or "Daikokutennyo" (大黒天女, lit. "She of Great Blackness of the Heavens").


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Bishamonten's (毘沙門天) origins can be traced back to Hinduism, but he has been adopted into Japanese culture. He comes from the Hindu god Kubera and is also known by the name "Vaisravana".


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: He is the god of fortune in war and battles, also associated with authority and dignity. He is the protector of those who follow the rules and behave appropriately. As the patron of fighters, he is represented dressed in armour and a helmet, carrying a pagoda in his left hand. He also acts as the protector of holy sites and important places and holds a spear in his right hand to fight against the evil spirits. He is usually depicted in illustrations with a hoop of fire.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Benzaiten's (弁才天 or 弁財天) origin is found in Hinduism, as she comes from the Hindu goddess Saraswati. She is the only female Fukujin in the modern grouping, and may be named in various ways: Benzaiten (弁才天), Benten (弁天), Bentensama (弁天様), or Benzaitennyo (弁才天女). When she was adapted from Buddhism, she was given the attributes of financial fortune, talent, beauty and music among others. Often, her figure appears with a "Torii". She is represented as a smart, beautiful woman with all the aforementioned attributes. She carries a "biwa", a Japanese traditional lute-like instrument and is normally accompanied by a white snake. She is the patron of artists, writers, dancers, and geisha, among others.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Considered the incarnation of the southern pole star (南極星 "nankyokusei"), Juroujin (寿老人) is the god of the elderly and of longevity in Japanese Buddhist mythology. It is said that the legendary Juroujin is based on a real person who lived in ancient times. He was approximately 1.82 meters tall with a very long head. Besides his distinctive skull, he is represented with a long white beard, riding a deer, and is often also accompanied by a 1500-year-old crane and a tortoise, as symbols of his affinity with long lives. In addition, he is usually represented under a peach tree, as the fruit of this tree is considered, by Chinese Taoism, as able to prolong life. In his hand he holds a cane and a book or a scroll. The wisdom of the world remains written in its pages. Jurojin enjoys rice and wine and is a very cheerful figure.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Hotei (布袋) is the god of fortune, guardian of children, patron of diviners and barmen, and also the god of popularity. He is depicted as a fat, smiling, bald man with a curly moustache. He always appears half-naked, as his clothes are not wide enough to cover his enormous belly. He blessed the Chinese, and they nicknamed him "Cho-Tei-Shi" or "Ho-Tei-Shi", which means ‘bag of old clothes’.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Hotei was a Zen priest, but his appearance and some of his actions were against their moral code: his appearance made him look like quite a mischievous person and he had no fixed place to sleep.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: He carries a bag on his shoulders which is loaded with fortunes for those who believe in his virtues. Hotei's traits and virtue are contentment, magnanimous and happiness.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: The Japanese began to believe in Hotei during the Edo era. The reason why the Japanese have such great respect for this god comes from a legend that says that, before the Zen Buddhism arrived to Japan, an alternative Buddhist thought was extended by a priest of dubious aesthetic, who actually was a manifestation of Miroku. Miroku was the patron of those who could not be saved by the beliefs of Buddha, and Hotei was later perceived and accepted by the Japanese as a second Miroku.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: The god Fukurokuju (福禄寿) also has his origins in China. It is believed that he used to be a hermit during the Chinese Song dynasty, distinguished for being a reincarnation of the Taoist god Hsuan-wu. He is the god of wisdom, luck, longevity, wealth and happiness. This god receives certain credits, such as being one of the Chinese philosophers who could live without eating (breatharian). Moreover, he is the only god who was said to have the ability to resurrect the dead. Fukurokuju is characterized by the size of his head, being almost as large as the size of his whole body, and is represented wearing traditional Chinese costumes. He normally carries a cane in one hand and in the other a scroll with writings about the world. He is usually accompanied by a turtle, a crow or a deer, animals that are frequently used in Japan to symbolize a long life. It is also said that he likes to play chess, and hence is the patron of chess players. The characteristics of Fukurokuju and Jurōjin overlap as they both trace back to the Chinese Taoist deity Nánjílǎorén (南极老人), which is why Fukurokuju's position is sometimes granted instead to the goddess Kichijōten, as in the Butsuzōzui compendium of 1783.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: Kichijōten (吉祥天), a Fukujin goddess is also known as Kisshōten or Kisshoutennyo (吉祥天女), and is adapted via Buddhism from the Hindu goddess Lakshmi. Kisshōten has the traits of beauty, happiness, and fertility. In the 1783 edition of the Butsuzōzui compendium, Kichijōten replaces Fukurokuju as one of the seven Fukujin. Kichijōten's iconography is distinguished from the other Fukujin goddesses by the Nyoihōju gem (如意宝珠) in her hand. When Kichijōten replaces Fukurokuju, and Daikoku is regarded in feminine form, all three of the Hindu Tridevi goddesses are then represented among the seven Fukujin.


title: Seven Lucky Gods

text: During the first three days of the New Year the Seven Lucky Gods are said to pilot through the heavens to human ports on the "Takarabune" or Treasure Ship. A picture of the ship forms an essential part of traditional Japanese New Year celebrations.


title: Routing

text: Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a network or between or across multiple networks. Broadly, routing is performed in many types of networks, including circuit-switched networks, such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN), and computer networks, such as the Internet.


title: Routing

text: In packet switching networks, routing is the higher-level decision making that directs network packets from their source toward their destination through intermediate network nodes by specific packet forwarding mechanisms. Packet forwarding is the transit of network packets from one network interface to another. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers also forward packets and perform routing, although they have no specially optimized hardware for the task.


title: Routing

text: The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables. Routing tables maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Routing tables may be specified by an administrator, learned by observing network traffic or built with the assistance of routing protocols.


title: Routing

text: Routing, in a narrower sense of the term, often refers to IP routing and is contrasted with bridging. IP routing assumes that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is still widely used within local area networks.


title: Routing

text: Unicast is the dominant form of message delivery on the Internet. This article focuses on unicast routing algorithms.


title: Routing

text: With static routing, small networks may use manually configured routing tables. Larger networks have complex topologies that can change rapidly, making the manual construction of routing tables unfeasible. Nevertheless, most of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) uses pre-computed routing tables, with fallback routes if the most direct route becomes blocked (see routing in the PSTN).


title: Routing

text: Dynamic routing attempts to solve this problem by constructing routing tables automatically, based on information carried by routing protocols, allowing the network to act nearly autonomously in avoiding network failures and blockages. Dynamic routing dominates the Internet. Examples of dynamic-routing protocols and algorithms include Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).


title: Routing

text: Distance vector algorithms use the Bellman–Ford algorithm. This approach assigns a "cost" number to each of the links between each node in the network. Nodes send information from point A to point B via the path that results in the lowest "total cost" (i.e. the sum of the costs of the links between the nodes used).


title: Routing

text: When a node first starts, it only knows of its immediate neighbors and the direct cost involved in reaching them. (This information — the list of destinations, the total cost to each, and the "next hop" to send data to get there — makes up the routing table, or "distance table".) Each node, on a regular basis, sends to each neighbor node its own current assessment of the total cost to get to all the destinations it knows of. The neighboring nodes examine this information and compare it to what they already know; anything that represents an improvement on what they already have, they insert in their own table. Over time, all the nodes in the network discover the best next hop and total cost for all destinations.


title: Routing

text: When a network node goes down, any nodes that used it as their next hop discard the entry and convey the updated routing information to all adjacent nodes, which in turn repeat the process. Eventually, all the nodes in the network receive the updates and discover new paths to all the destinations that don't involve the down node.


title: Routing

text: When applying link-state algorithms, a graphical map of the network is the fundamental data used for each node. To produce its map, each node floods the entire network with information about the other nodes it can connect to. Each node then independently assembles this information into a map. Using this map, each router independently determines the least-cost path from itself to every other node using a standard shortest paths algorithm such as Dijkstra's algorithm. The result is a tree graph rooted at the current node, such that the path through the tree from the root to any other node is the least-cost path to that node. This tree then serves to construct the routing table, which specifies the best next hop to get from the current node to any other node.


title: Routing

text: A link-state routing algorithm optimized for mobile ad hoc networks is the optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR). OLSR is proactive; it uses Hello and Topology Control (TC) messages to discover and disseminate link-state information through the mobile ad hoc network. Using Hello messages, each node discovers 2-hop neighbor information and elects a set of "multipoint relays" (MPRs). MPRs distinguish OLSR from other link-state routing protocols.


title: Routing

text: Distance vector and link-state routing are both intra-domain routing protocols. They are used inside an autonomous system, but not between autonomous systems. Both of these routing protocols become intractable in large networks and cannot be used in inter-domain routing. Distance vector routing is subject to instability if there are more than a few hops in the domain. Link state routing needs significant resources to calculate routing tables. It also creates heavy traffic due to flooding.


title: Routing

text: Path-vector routing is used for inter-domain routing. It is similar to distance vector routing. Path-vector routing assumes that one node (there can be many) in each autonomous system acts on behalf of the entire autonomous system. This node is called the "speaker node." The speaker node creates a routing table and advertises it to neighboring speaker nodes in neighboring autonomous systems. The idea is the same as distance vector routing except that only speaker nodes in each autonomous system can communicate with each other. The speaker node advertises the path, not the metric, of the nodes in its autonomous system or other autonomous systems.


title: Routing

text: The path-vector routing algorithm is similar to the distance vector algorithm in the sense that each border router advertises the destinations it can reach to its neighboring router. However, instead of advertising networks in terms of a destination and the distance to that destination, networks are advertised as destination addresses and path descriptions to reach those destinations. The path, expressed in terms of the domains (or confederations) traversed so far, is carried in a special path attribute that records the sequence of routing domains through which the reachability information has passed. A route is defined as a pairing between a destination and the attributes of the path to that destination, thus the name, path-vector routing; The routers receive a vector that contains paths to a set of destinations.


title: Routing

text: Path selection involves applying a routing metric to multiple routes to select (or predict) the best route. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing and specifically equal-cost multi-path routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.


title: Routing

text: In computer networking, the metric is computed by a routing algorithm, and can cover information such as bandwidth, network delay, hop count, path cost, load, maximum transmission unit, reliability, and communication cost. The routing table stores only the best possible routes, while link-state or topological databases may store all other information as well.


title: Routing

text: In case of overlapping or equal routes, algorithms consider the following elements in priority order to decide which routes to install into the routing table:


title: Routing

text: Because a routing metric is specific to a given routing protocol, multi-protocol routers must use some external heuristic to select between routes learned from different routing protocols. Cisco routers, for example, attribute a value known as the administrative distance to each route, where smaller administrative distances indicate routes learned from a protocol assumed to be more reliable.


title: Routing

text: A local administrator can set up host-specific routes that provide more control over network usage, permits testing, and better overall security. This is useful for debugging network connections or routing tables.


title: Routing

text: In some small systems, a single central device decides ahead of time the complete path of every packet. In some other small systems, whichever edge device injects a packet into the network decides ahead of time the complete path of that particular packet. In either case, the route-planning device needs to know a lot of information about what devices are connected to the network and how they are connected to each other. Once it has this information, it can use an algorithm such as A* search algorithm to find the best path.


title: Routing

text: In high-speed systems, there are so many packets transmitted every second that it is infeasible for a single device to calculate the complete path for each and every packet. Early high-speed systems dealt with this with circuit switching by setting up a path once for the first packet between some source and some destination; later packets between that same source and that same destination continue to follow the same path without recalculating until the circuit teardown. Later high-speed systems inject packets into the network without any one device ever calculating a complete path for packets.


title: Routing

text: In large systems, there are so many connections between devices, and those connections change so frequently, that it is infeasible for any one device to even know how all the devices are connected to each other, much less calculate a complete path through them. Such systems generally use next-hop routing.


title: Routing

text: Most systems use a deterministic dynamic routing algorithm. When a device chooses a path to a particular final destination, that device always chooses the same path to that destination until it receives information that makes it think some other path is better.


title: Routing

text: A few routing algorithms do not use a deterministic algorithm to find the best link for a packet to get from its original source to its final destination. Instead, to avoid congestion hot spots in packet systems, a few algorithms use a randomized algorithm—Valiant's paradigm—that routes a path to a randomly picked intermediate destination, and from there to its true final destination. In many early telephone switches, a randomizer was often used to select the start of a path through a multistage switching fabric.


title: Routing

text: Depending on the application for which path selection is performed, different metrics can be used. For example, for web requests one can use minimum latency paths to minimize web page load time, or for bulk data transfers one can choose the least utilized path to balance load across the network and increase throughput. A popular path selection objective is to reduce the average completion times of traffic flows and the total network bandwidth consumption. Recently, a path selection metric was proposed that computes the total number of bytes scheduled on the edges per path as selection metric. An empirical analysis of several path selection metrics, including this new proposal, has been made available.


title: Routing

text: In some networks, routing is complicated by the fact that no single entity is responsible for selecting paths; instead, multiple entities are involved in selecting paths or even parts of a single path. Complications or inefficiency can result if these entities choose paths to optimize their own objectives, which may conflict with the objectives of other participants.


title: Routing

text: A classic example involves traffic in a road system, in which each driver picks a path that minimizes their travel time. With such routing, the equilibrium routes can be longer than optimal for all drivers. In particular, Braess's paradox shows that adding a new road can "lengthen" travel times for all drivers.


title: Routing

text: In a single-agent model used, for example, for routing automated guided vehicles (AGVs) on a terminal, reservations are made for each vehicle to prevent simultaneous use of the same part of an infrastructure. This approach is also referred to as context-aware routing.


title: Routing

text: The Internet is partitioned into autonomous systems (ASs) such as internet service providers (ISPs), each of which controls routes involving its network. Routing occurs at multiple levels. First, AS-level paths are selected via the BGP protocol that produces a sequence of ASs through which packets flow. Each AS may have multiple paths, offered by neighboring ASs, from which to choose. These routing decisions often correlate with business relationships with these neighboring ASs, which may be unrelated to path quality or latency. Second, once an AS-level path has been selected, there are often multiple corresponding router-level paths to choose from. This is due, in part, because two ISPs may be connected through multiple connections. In choosing the single router-level path, it is common practice for each ISP to employ hot-potato routing: sending traffic along the path that minimizes the distance through the ISP's own network—even if that path lengthens the total distance to the destination.


title: Routing

text: For example, consider two ISPs, "A" and "B". Each has a presence in New York, connected by a fast link with latency —and each has a presence in London connected by a 5 ms link. Suppose both ISPs have trans-Atlantic links that connect their two networks, but "A"'s link has latency 100 ms and "B"'s has latency 120 ms. When routing a message from a source in "A"'s London network to a destination in "B"'s New York network, "A" may choose to immediately send the message to "B" in London. This saves "A" the work of sending it along an expensive trans-Atlantic link, but causes the message to experience latency 125 ms when the other route would have been 20 ms faster.


title: Routing

text: A 2003 measurement study of Internet routes found that, between pairs of neighboring ISPs, more than 30% of paths have inflated latency due to hot-potato routing, with 5% of paths being delayed by at least 12 ms. Inflation due to AS-level path selection, while substantial, was attributed primarily to BGP's lack of a mechanism to directly optimize for latency, rather than to selfish routing policies. It was also suggested that, were an appropriate mechanism in place, ISPs would be willing to cooperate to reduce latency rather than use hot-potato routing. Such a mechanism was later published by the same authors, first for the case of two ISPs and then for the global case.


title: Routing

text: As the Internet and IP networks have become mission critical business tools, there has been increased interest in techniques and methods to monitor the routing posture of networks. Incorrect routing or routing issues cause undesirable performance degradation, flapping or downtime. Monitoring routing in a network is achieved using route analytics tools and techniques.


title: Routing

text: In networks where a logically centralized control is available over the forwarding state, for example, using software-defined networking, routing techniques can be used that aim to optimize global and network-wide performance metrics. This has been used by large internet companies that operate many data centers in different geographical locations attached using private optical links, examples of which include Microsoft's Global WAN, Facebook's Express Backbone, and Google's B4.


title: Routing

text: Global performance metrics to optimize include maximizing network utilization, minimizing traffic flow completion times, maximizing the traffic delivered prior to specific deadlines and reducing the completion times of flows. Work on the later over private WAN discusses modeling routing as a graph optimization problem by pushing all the queuing to the end-points. The authors also propose a heuristic to solve the problem efficiently while sacrificing negligible performance.


title: Paul Davis (singer)

text: Paul Lavon Davis (April 21, 1948 – April 22, 2008) was an American singer and songwriter, best known for his radio hits and solo career which started worldwide in 1970. His career encompassed soul, country, and pop. His most successful songs are 1977's "I Go Crazy", a No. 7 pop hit which once held the record for the longest chart run on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and 1982's "'65 Love Affair", which at No. 6 is his highest-charting single. Another pop hit, "Cool Night", was released in 1981. In the mid-1980s, he also had two No. 1 country hits as a guest vocalist on songs by Marie Osmond and Tanya Tucker.


title: Paul Davis (singer)

text: Davis was born in Meridian, Mississippi, United States. He was a member of a local group called the Six Soul Survivors around 1966 and later in another group called the Endless Chain. In 1968, he was a writer for Malaco Records, based in Jackson, Mississippi. Ilene Berns, widow of Bert Berns, signed Davis to Bang Records in 1969, and in 1970, released a cover version of The Jarmels' hit "A Little Bit of Soap", reaching No. 52 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. His first album, "A Little Bit of Paul Davis", was released in 1970. In 1974, he recorded his third album, "Ride 'Em Cowboy", and the title track, his first top 40 single, peaked at No. 23 on January 18, 1975. (The same song became a Top 40 Country hit for Juice Newton in 1984.) Davis also reached No. 35 in September 1976 with "Superstar", a tribute song not related to any of the 1971 hits by that name.


title: Paul Davis (singer)

text: Davis had his first American Top 10 single with the ballad "I Go Crazy," which after 30 weeks on the Hot 100 peaked at No. 7 on March 18, 1978. "I Go Crazy" spent 40 weeks on the "Billboard" Hot 100, which at the time set the record for most weeks on the chart. The follow-up, "Sweet Life", also did well, peaking at No. 17. On May 17, 1980, his gospel-tinged "Do Right" peaked at No. 23, and Casey Kasem noted the religious aspects of this song, along with other songs before it, on that day's edition of American Top 40. Davis was active on Bang Records when the label folded in the early 1980s.


title: Paul Davis (singer)

text: After one more album on the Bang label, Davis signed with Arista Records in 1981 and scored two more hits, "Cool Night" (which in February 1982 reached No. 11 on the Hot 100 and No. 2 on the Adult Contemporary chart) and "'65 Love Affair" (a Top 10 hit on both charts). "Cool Night" has been listed as an example of yacht rock. His Arista debut album spawned a third hit with a remake of "Love or Let Me Be Lonely". The single contained a third verse of music which was not included on the album version, and despite its Top 40 and AC success, had never been reissued on any CD release until Wounded Bird reissued the "Best of Paul Davis" compilation in 2011. Davis retired from making records for a time, except for two duets that went to No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Singles chart. The first was in 1986 with Marie Osmond singing "You're Still New to Me"; while the second, in 1988, was a collaboration with Tanya Tucker and Paul Overstreet singing "I Won't Take Less Than Your Love". Davis also wrote "Meet Me in Montana", which his friend Dan Seals and Osmond took to No. 1 on the "Billboard" country chart in 1985, and "Bop", a solo No. 1 country hit for Seals in early 1986.


title: Paul Davis (singer)

text: Davis was an avid golfer, and was also an avid billiards enthusiast. His father was a preacher. Paul Davis survived a shooting in Nashville, Tennessee, on July 29, 1986. He was leaving a hotel on Music Row with a female companion when an unidentified man walked up, demanded his wallet, and shot him in the abdomen.


title: Paul Davis (singer)

text: He was married to Pamela Gayle Jay Davis, who enjoyed a brief career with Bang Records/Web IV Music in Atlanta, where Davis was writing and recording his songs. When their only son Jonathan was born with special needs, Pamela retired from the music world to care for him. She died on March 20, 2017. Paul Davis died of a heart attack at the Rush Foundation Hospital in Meridian, Mississippi, on April 22, 2008, a day after his 60th birthday.


title: La Strada

text: La strada () is a 1954 Italian drama film directed by Federico Fellini and co-written by Fellini, Tullio Pinelli and Ennio Flaiano. The film tells the story of Gelsomina, a simple-minded young woman (Giulietta Masina) bought from her mother by Zampanò (Anthony Quinn), a brutish strongman who takes her with him on the road.


title: La Strada

text: Fellini described "La Strada" as "a complete catalogue of my entire mythological world, a dangerous representation of my identity that was undertaken with no precedent whatsoever." As a result, the film demanded more time and effort than any of his other works, before or later. The development process was long and tortuous; there were problems during production, including insecure financial backing, problematic casting, and numerous delays. Finally, just before the production completed shooting, Fellini suffered a nervous breakdown that required medical treatment so he could complete principal photography. Initial critical reaction was harsh, and the film's screening at the Venice Film Festival was the occasion of a bitter controversy that escalated into a public brawl between Fellini's supporters and detractors.


title: La Strada

text: Subsequently, however, "La Strada" has become "one of the most influential films ever made," according to the American Film Institute. It won the inaugural Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1957. It was placed fourth in the 1992 British Film Institute directors' list of cinema's top 10 films.


title: La Strada

text: Gelsomina, an apparently somewhat simple-minded, dreamy young woman, learns that her sister Rosa has died after going on the road with the strongman Zampanò. Now the man has returned a year later to ask her mother if Gelsomina will take Rosa's place. The impoverished mother, with other mouths to feed, accepts 10,000 lire, and her daughter tearfully departs the same day.


title: La Strada

text: Zampanò makes his living as an itinerant street performer, entertaining crowds by breaking an iron chain bound tightly across his chest, then passing the hat for tips. In short order, Gelsomina's naïve and antic nature emerges, with Zampanò's brutish methods presenting a callous foil. He teaches her to play the snare drum and trumpet, dance a bit, and clown for the audience. Despite her willingness to please, he intimidates her, forces himself upon her, and treats her cruelly at times; but she develops a tenderness for him that is betrayed when he goes off with another woman one evening, leaving Gelsomina abandoned in the street. Yet here, as throughout the film, even in her wretchedness, she manages to find beauty and wonder, aided by some local children.


title: La Strada

text: Finally, she rebels and leaves, making her way into town. There she watches the act of another street entertainer, Il Matto ("The Fool"), a talented high wire artist and clown. When Zampanò finds her there, he forcibly takes her back. They join a ragtag travelling circus where Il Matto already works. Il Matto teases the strongman at every opportunity, though he cannot explain what motivates him to do so. After Il Matto drenches Zampanò with a pail of water, Zampanò chases after his tormentor with his knife drawn. As a result, he is briefly jailed, and both men are fired from the travelling circus.


title: La Strada

text: Before Zampanò's release from prison, Il Matto proposes that there are alternatives to Gelsomina's servitude, and imparts his philosophy that everything and everyone has a purpose – even a pebble, even she. A nun suggests that Gelsomina's purpose in life is comparable to her own. But when Gelsomina offers Zampanò marriage, he brushes her off.


title: La Strada

text: On an empty stretch of road, Zampanò comes upon Il Matto fixing a flat tire. As Gelsomina watches in horror, the two men begin to fight; it ends after the strongman punches the clown on the head several times, causing the fool to hit his head on the corner of his car's roof. As Zampanò walks back to his motorcycle with a warning for the man to watch his mouth in the future, Il Matto complains that his watch is broken, then stumbles into a field, collapses, and dies. Zampanò hides the body and pushes the car off the road, where it bursts into flames.


title: La Strada

text: The killing breaks Gelsomina's spirit and she becomes apathetic, constantly repeating, "The Fool is hurt." Zampanò makes a few small attempts to console her, but in vain. Fearful he will no longer be able to earn a living with Gelsomina, Zampanò abandons her while she sleeps, leaving some clothes, money, and his trumpet.


title: La Strada

text: Some years later, he overhears a woman singing the very tune Gelsomina often played. He learns that the woman's father had found Gelsomina on the beach and kindly taken her in. However, she had wasted away and died. Zampanò gets drunk, gets in a fight with the locals, and wanders to the beach, where he breaks down in tears.


title: La Strada

text: Fellini's creative process for "La Strada" began with vague feelings, "a kind of tone," he said, "that lurked, which made me melancholy and gave me a diffused sense of guilt, like a shadow hanging over me. This feeling suggested two people who stay together, although it will be fatal, and they don't know why." These feelings evolved into certain images: snow silently falling on the ocean, various compositions of clouds, and a singing nightingale. At that point, Fellini sketched these images, a habitual tendency that he claimed he had learned early in his career when he had worked in provincial music halls and had to draw the characters and sets. Finally, he reported that the idea first "became real" to him when he drew a circle on a piece of paper to depict Gelsomina's head, and he decided to base the character on the actual character of Giulietta Masina, his wife of five years at the time: "I utilized the real Giulietta, but as I saw her. I was influenced by her childhood photographs, so elements of Gelsomina reflect a ten-year-old Giulietta."


title: La Strada

text: The idea for the character Zampanò came from Fellini's youth in the coastal town of Rimini. A pig castrator lived there who was known as a womanizer: according to Fellini, "This man took all the girls in town to bed with him; once he left a poor idiot girl pregnant and everyone said the baby was the devil's child." In 1992, Fellini told Canadian director Damian Pettigrew that he had conceived the film at the same time as co-scenarist Tullio Pinelli in a kind of "orgiastic synchronicity":


title: La Strada

text: Fellini wrote the script with collaborators Ennio Flaiano and Tullio Pinelli and brought it first to Luigi Rovere, Fellini's producer for "The White Sheik" (1952). When Rovere read the script for "La Strada", he began to weep, raising Fellini's hopes, only to have them dashed when the producer announced that the screenplay was like great literature, but that "as a film this wouldn't make a lira. It's not cinema." By the time it was fully complete, Fellini's shooting script was nearly 600 pages long, with every shot and camera angle detailed and filled with notes reflecting intensive research. Producer Lorenzo Pegoraro was impressed enough to give Fellini a cash advance, but would not agree to Fellini's demand that Giulietta Masina play Gelsomina.


title: La Strada

text: Fellini secured financing through the producers Dino De Laurentiis and Carlo Ponti, who wanted to cast Silvana Mangano (De Laurentiis' wife) as Gelsomina and Burt Lancaster as Zampanò, but Fellini refused these choices. Giulietta Masina had been the inspiration for the entire project, so Fellini was determined never to accept an alternative to her. For Zampanò, Fellini had hoped to cast a nonprofessional and, to that end, he tested a number of circus strongmen, to no avail. He also had trouble finding the right person for the role of Il Matto. His first choice was the actor Moraldo Rossi, who was a member of Fellini's social circle and had the right type of personality and athletic physique, but Rossi wanted to be the assistant director, not a performer. Alberto Sordi, the star of Fellini's earlier films "The White Sheik" and "I Vitelloni", was eager to take the role, and was bitterly disappointed when Fellini rejected him after a tryout in costume.


title: La Strada

text: Ultimately, Fellini drew his three leading players from people associated with the 1954 film "Donne Proibite (Angels of Darkness)", directed by Giuseppe Amato, in which Masina played the very different role of a madam. Anthony Quinn was also acting in the film, while Richard Basehart was often on the set visiting his wife, actress Valentina Cortese. When Masina introduced Quinn to her husband, the actor was disconcerted by Fellini's insistence that the director had found his Zampanò, later remembering: "I thought he was a little bit crazy, and I told him I wasn't interested in the picture, but he kept hounding me for days." Not long afterwards, Quinn spent the evening with Roberto Rossellini and Ingrid Bergman, and after dinner they watched Fellini's 1953 Italian comedy-drama "I Vitelloni". According to Quinn: "I was thunderstruck by it. I told them the film was a masterpiece, and that the same director was the man who had been chasing me for weeks."


title: La Strada

text: Fellini was particularly taken with Basehart, who reminded the director of Charlie Chaplin. Upon being introduced to Basehart by Cortese, Fellini invited the actor to lunch, at which he was offered the role of Il Matto. When asked why by the surprised Basehart, who had never before played the part of a clown, Fellini responded: "Because, if you did what you did in "Fourteen Hours" you can do anything." A great success in Italy, the 1951 Hollywood drama starred Basehart as a would-be suicide on a hotel balcony. Basehart, too, had been greatly impressed by "I Vitelloni", and agreed to take the role for much less than his usual salary, in part because he was very attracted by Fellini's personality, saying: "It was his zest for living, and his humor."


title: La Strada

text: The film was shot in Bagnoregio, Viterbo, Lazio, and Ovindoli, L'Aquila, Abruzzo. On Sundays, Fellini and Basehart drove around the countryside, scouting locations and looking for places to eat, sometimes trying as many as six restaurants and venturing as far away as Rimini before Fellini found the desired ambiance and menu.


title: La Strada

text: Production started in October 1953, but had to be halted within weeks when Masina dislocated her ankle during the convent scene with Quinn. With shooting suspended, De Laurentiis saw an opportunity to replace Masina, whom he had never wanted for the part and who had not yet been signed to a contract. This changed as soon as executives at Paramount viewed the rushes of the scene and lauded Masina's performance, resulting in De Laurentiis announcing that he had her on an exclusive and ordering her to sign a hastily prepared contract, at approximately a third of Quinn's salary.


title: La Strada

text: The delay caused the entire production schedule to be revised, and cinematographer Carlo Carlini, who had a prior commitment, had to be replaced by Otello Martelli, a long-time favorite of Fellini's. When filming resumed in February 1954, it was winter. The temperature had dropped to -5 °C, often resulting in no heat or hot water, necessitating more delays and forcing the cast and crew to sleep fully dressed and wear hats to keep warm.


title: La Strada

text: The new schedule caused a conflict for Anthony Quinn, who was signed to play the title role in "Attila", a 1954 epic, also produced by De Laurentiis and directed by Pietro Francisci. At first, Quinn considered withdrawing from "La Strada", but Fellini convinced him to work on both films simultaneously—shooting "La Strada" in the morning and "Attila" in the afternoon and evening. The plan often required the actor to get up at 3:30 am to capture the "bleak early light" that Fellini insisted on, and then leave at 10:30 to drive to Rome in his Zampanò outfit so he could be on the set in time to transform into Attila the Hun for afternoon shooting. Quinn recalled: "This schedule accounted for the haggard look I had in both films, a look that was perfect for Zampanò but scarcely OK for Attila the Hun."


title: La Strada

text: Despite an extremely tight budget, production supervisor Luigi Giacosi was able to rent a small circus run by a man named Savitri, a strongman and fire-eater who coached Quinn on circus jargon and the technical aspects of chain-breaking. Giacosi also secured the services of the Zamperla Circus, which supplied a number of stuntmen who could play themselves, including Basehart's double, a high-wire artist who refused to perform when firemen arrived with a safety net.


title: La Strada

text: Funding shortages required Giacosi to improvise in response to Fellini's demands. When filming continued into spring, Giacosi was able to re-create the wintry scenes by piling thirty bags of plaster onto all the bedsheets he could find to simulate a snowscape. When a crowd scene was required, Giacosi convinced the local priest to move up 8 April celebration of the town's patron saint by a few days, thus securing the presence of some 4,000 unpaid extras. To guarantee that the crowd did not dissipate as the hours passed, Fellini instructed assistant director Rossi to shout, "Get the rooms ready for Totò and Sophia Loren," two of the most popular Italian entertainers of the period, so nobody left.


title: La Strada

text: Fellini was a notorious perfectionist, and this could be trying for his cast. At an American Film Institute student seminar, Quinn spoke of Fellini's intransigence over selecting a box in which Zampanò carries his cigarette butts, scrutinizing over 500 boxes before finding just the right one: "As for me, any of the boxes would have been satisfactory to carry the butts in, but not Federico". Quinn also recalled being particularly proud of a certain scene in which his performance had earned applause from onlookers on the set, only to receive a phone call from Fellini late that night informing him that they would have to re-do the entire sequence because Quinn had been too good: "You see, you're supposed to be a bad, a terrible actor, but the people watching applauded you. They should have laughed at you. So in the morning we do it again." As for Masina, Fellini insisted that she re-create the thin-lipped smile he had seen in her childhood photographs. He cut her hair by putting a bowl on her head and shearing off anything that wasn't covered up, afterwards plastering what remained with soap to give it a "spiky, untidy look," then "flicked talc into her face to give it the pallor of a kabuki performer." He made her wear a World War I surplus cloak that was so frayed its collar cut into her neck. She complained: "You're so nice and sweet to the others in the cast. Why are you so hard on me?"


title: La Strada

text: Under Fellini's agreement with his producers, budget overruns had to come out of his own pocket, cutting into any profit potential. Fellini recounted that when it became clear there was insufficient funding to finish the picture, Ponti and De Laurentiis took him to lunch to assure him that they would not hold him to it: "Let's pretend [the funding agreements] were a joke. Buy us a coffee and we'll forget about them." According to Quinn, however, Fellini was able to obtain this indulgence only by agreeing to film some pickup shots for "Attila" that Francisci, the director of record, had neglected to complete.


title: La Strada

text: While shooting the final scenes on the wharf of Fiumicino, Fellini suffered a severe bout of clinical depression, a condition that he and his associates tried to keep secret. He was able to complete the filming only upon receiving treatment by a prominent Freudian psychoanalyst.


title: La Strada

text: As was the common practice for Italian films at the time, shooting was done without sound; dialogue was added later along with music and sound effects. As a consequence, cast members generally spoke in their native language during filming: Quinn and Basehart in English, Masina and the others in Italian. Liliana Betti, Fellini's long-time assistant, has described the director's typical procedure regarding dialogue during filming, a technique he called the "number system" or "numerological diction": "Instead of lines, the actor has to count off numbers in their normal order. For instance, a line of fifteen words equals an enumeration of up to thirty. The actor merely counts till thirty: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7. etc." Biographer John Baxter has commented on the usefulness of such a system: "It helps pinpoint an instant in the speech where he [Fellini] wants a different reaction. 'Go back to 27,' he'll tell an actor, 'but this time, smile.'" Since he didn't need to worry about noise while shooting a scene, Fellini kept up a running commentary during filming, a practice that scandalized more traditional filmmakers, like Elia Kazan: "He talked through each take, in fact yelled at the actors. 'No, there, stop, turn, look at her, "look" at her. See how sad she is, see her tears? Oh, the poor wretch! You want to comfort her? Don't turn away; go to her. Ah, she doesn't want you, does she? What? Go to her anyway!' ... That's how he's able ... to use performers from many countries. He does part of the acting for the actors."


title: La Strada

text: Since Quinn and Basehart did not speak Italian, both were dubbed in the original release. Unhappy with the actor who initially dubbed Zampanò, Fellini remembered being impressed by the work done by Arnoldo Foà in dubbing the Toshiro Mifune character in the Italian version of Akira Kurosawa's "Rashomon", and was able to secure Foà's services at the very last moment. Composer Michel Chion has observed that Fellini particularly exploited the tendency of Italian films of the post-war period to allow considerable freedom in the synching of voices to lip movements, especially in contrast to Hollywood's perceived "obsessive fixation" with the matching of voices to mouths: "In Fellinian extremes, when all those post-synched voices float around bodies, we reach a point where voices--even if we continue to attribute them to the bodies they're assigned--begin to acquire a sort of autonomy, in a baroque and decentered fashion." In the Italian version of "La Strada", there are even instances when a character is heard to speak while the actor's mouth is shut tight.


title: La Strada

text: Fellini scholar Thomas Van Order has pointed out that Fellini is equally free in the treatment of ambient sound in his films, preferring to cultivate what Chion called, "a subjective sense of point of audition," in which what is heard on screen mirrors a particular character's perceptions, as opposed to the visible reality of the scene. As an example, ducks and chickens appear on the screen throughout Gelsomina's conversation with the nun, but, reflecting the girl's growing sense of enlightenment concerning her place in the world, the quacking and clucking of barnyard fowl dissolves into the chirping of songbirds.


title: La Strada

text: The visual track of the 1956 English-language version of "La Strada" was identical to the original Italian version, but the audio track was completely re-edited under the supervision of Carol and Peter Riethof at Titra Sound Studios in New York, without any involvement by Fellini. Thomas Van Order has identified dozens of changes made in the English version, classifying the alterations into four categories: "1. lower volume of music relative to dialogue in the English version; 2. new musical selections and different editing of music in many scenes; 3. different ambient sound in some scenes, as well as changes in the editing of ambient sound; 4. elimination of some dialogue." In the English version, Quinn and Basehart dubbed their own roles, but Masina was dubbed by another actress, a decision that has been criticised by Van Order and others, since, by trying to match the childlike movements of the character, the sound editors provided a voice that is "childishly high, squeaky and insecure". It cost $25,000 to dub "La Strada" into English, but after the film started to receive its many accolades, it was re-released in the United States on the art-house circuit in its Italian version, using subtitles.


title: La Strada

text: The entire score for "La Strada" was written by Nino Rota after principal photography was completed. The main theme is a wistful tune that appears first as a melody played by the Fool on a kit violin and later by Gelsomina on her trumpet. Its last cue in the penultimate scene is sung by the woman who tells Zampanò the fate of Gelsomina after he abandoned her. This is one of three primary themes that are introduced during the titles at the beginning of "La Strada" and that recur regularly throughout the film. To these are added a fourth recurring theme that appears in the very first sequence, after Gelsomina meets Zampanò, and is often interrupted or silenced in his presence, occurring less and less frequently and at increasingly lower volumes as the film progresses. Claudia Gorbman has commented on the use of these themes, which she deems true leitmotifs, each of which is not simply an illustrative or redundant identifying tag, but "a true signifier that accumulates and communicates meaning not explicit in the images or dialogue".


title: La Strada

text: In practice, Fellini shot his films while playing taped music because, as he explained in a 1972 interview, "it puts you in a strange dimension in which your fantasy stimulates you". For "La Strada", Fellini used a variation by Arcangelo Corelli that he planned to use on the sound track. Rota, unhappy with that plan, wrote an original motif (with echoes of the "Larghetto" from Dvořák's "Opus 22 Serenade for Strings in E major") with rhythmic lines matched to Corelli's piece that synchronize with Gelsomina's movements with the trumpet and Il Matto's with the violin.


title: La Strada

text: The film premiered at the 15th Venice International Film Festival on 6 September 1954 and won the Silver Lion. It was released in Italy on 22 September 1954, and in the United States on 16 July 1956. In 1994, a new print was financed by filmmaker Martin Scorsese, who has acknowledged that since childhood he has related to the character of Zampanò, bringing elements of the self-destructive brute into his films "Taxi Driver" and "Raging Bull".


title: La Strada

text: Tullio Cicciarelli of "Il Lavoro nuovo" saw the film as "an unfinished poem," left unfinished deliberately by the filmmaker for fear that "its essence be lost in the callousness of critical definition, or in the ambiguity of classification," while Ermanno Continin of "Il Secolo XIX" praised Fellini as "a master story-teller":


title: La Strada

text: Others saw it differently. When the 1954 Venice Film Festival jury awarded "La Strada" the Silver Lion while ignoring Luchino Visconti's "Senso", a physical brawl broke out when Visconti's assistant Franco Zeffirelli began to blow a whistle during Fellini's acceptance speech, only to be attacked by Moraldo Rossi. The disturbance left Fellini pale and shaken and Masina in tears. Marxist critics such as Guido Aristarco rejected the film on ideological grounds, particularly objecting to what they considered Christian notions of conversion and redemption: "We don't say, nor have we ever said, that "La Strada" is a badly directed and acted film. We have declared, and do declare, that it is "wrong"; its perspective is wrong."


title: La Strada

text: The Venice premiere began "in an inexplicably chilly atmosphere," according to Tino Ranieri, and "the audience, who rather disliked it as the screening began, seemed to change opinion slightly toward the end, yet the movie didn't receive—in any sense of the word—the response that it deserved."


title: La Strada

text: Reviewing for "Corriere della Sera", Arturo Lanocita argued that the film "gives the impression of being a rough copy that merely hints at the main points of the story ... Fellini seems to have preferred shadow where marked contrast would have been more effective." Nino Ghelli of "Bianco e Nero" regretted that after "an excellent beginning, the style of the film remains harmonious for some time until the moment when the two main characters are separated, at which point the tone becomes increasingly artificial and literary, the pace increasingly fragmentary and incoherent."


title: La Strada

text: Fellini biographer Tullio Kezich observed that Italian critics "make every effort to find faults with [Fellini's] movie after the opening in Venice. Some say that it starts out okay but then the story completely unravels. Others recognize the pathos in the end, but don't like the first half."


title: La Strada

text: Its French release the next year found a warmer reception. Dominique Aubier of "Cahiers du cinéma" thought "La Strada" belonged to "the mythological class, a class intended to captivate the critics more perhaps than the general public." Aubier concluded:


title: La Strada

text: The film ranked 7th on Cahiers du Cinéma's Top 10 Films of the Year List in 1955. In his March 1955 review for "Arts" magazine, Jean Aurel cited Giulietta Masina's performance as "directly inspired by the best in Chaplin, but with a freshness and sense of timing that seem to have been invented for this film alone." He found the film "bitter, yet full of hope. A lot like life." Louis Chauvet of "Le Figaro" noted that "the atmosphere of the drama" was combined "with a visual strength that has rarely been equalled." For influential film critic and theorist André Bazin, Fellini's approach was


title: La Strada

text: Critical reaction in the UK and the US was equally mixed, with disparaging reviews appearing in "Films in Review" ("the quagmire of cheap melodrama"), "Sight & Sound" ("a director striving to be a poet when he is not") and "The Times" of London ("realism crowing on a dung-hill."), while more favorable assessments were provided by "Newsweek" ("novel and arguable") and "Saturday Review" ("With "La Strada" Fellini takes his place as the true successor to Rossellini and De Sica."). In his 1956 "New York Times" review, A.H. Weiler was especially complimentary of Quinn: "Anthony Quinn is excellent as the growling, monosyllabic and apparently ruthless strong man, whose tastes are primitive and immediate. But his characterization is sensitively developed so that his innate loneliness shows through the chinks of his rough exterior."


title: La Strada

text: In a 1957 interview, Fellini reported that Masina had received over a thousand letters from abandoned women whose husbands had returned to them after seeing the film and that she had also heard from many people with disabilities who had gained a new sense of self-worth after viewing the film: "Such letters come from all over the world".


title: La Strada

text: In later years, Fellini explained that from "a sentimental point of view," he was "most attached" to "La Strada": "Above all, because I feel that it is my most representative film, the one that is the most autobiographical; for both personal and sentimental reasons, because it is the film that I had the greatest trouble in realizing and that gave me the most difficulty when it came time to find a producer." Of all the imaginary beings he had brought to the screen, Fellini felt closest to the three principals of "La Strada", "especially Zampanò." Anthony Quinn found working for Fellini invaluable: "He drove me mercilessly, making me do scene after scene over and over again until he got what he wanted. I learned more about film acting in three months with Fellini than I'd learned in all the movies I'd made before then." Long afterwards, in 1990, Quinn sent a note to the director and his co-star: "The two of you are the highest point in my life -- Antonio."


title: La Strada

text: Critic Roger Ebert, in his book "The Great Movies", described the current critical consensus as holding that "La Strada" was the high point of Fellini's career and that, after this film, "his work ran wild through the jungles of Freudian, Christian, sexual and autobiographical excess". Ebert's own opinion was to see "La Strada" as "part of a process of discovery that led to the masterpieces "La Dolce Vita" (1960), "8½" (1963) and "Amarcord" (1974)".


title: La Strada

text: The years since its initial release have solidified the high estimation of "La Strada". It holds a 97% rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from 75 reviewers who, on average, scored it 8.9 on a scale of 10. Its numerous appearances on lists of best films include the 1992 Directors' poll of the British Film Institute (4th best), the "New York Times" "Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made", and the "Greatest Films" list of "They Shoot Pictures, Don't They" (# 67) – a website that statistically calculates the most well-received movies. In January 2002, the film (along with "Nights of Cabiria") was voted at No. 85 on the list of the "Top 100 Essential Films of All Time" by the National Society of Film Critics. In 2009, the film was ranked at number 10 on Japanese film magazine kinema Junpo's "Top 10 Non-Japanese Films of All Time" list. In the British Film Institute's 2012 "Sight & Sound" polls of the greatest films ever made, "La Strada" was ranked 26th among directors. The film was included in BBC's 2018 list of The 100 greatest foreign language films voted by 209


title: La Strada

text: In 1995, the Catholic Church's Pontifical Commission for Social Communications issued a list of 45 films representing a "...cross section of outstanding films, chosen by a committee of twelve international movie scholars." This has come to be known as the "Vatican film list", and includes "La Strada" as one of 15 films in the sub-category labeled "Art". Pope Francis, has said it is "the movie that perhaps I loved the most," because of his personal identification with its implicit reference to his namesake, Francis of Assisi.


title: La Strada

text: During Fellini's early film career, he was closely associated with the movement known as neorealism, a set of films produced by the Italian film industry during the post-World War II period, particularly 1945–1952, and characterized by close attention to social context, a sense of historical immediacy, political commitment to progressive social change, and an anti-Fascist ideology. Although there were glimpses of certain lapses in neorealistic orthodoxy in some of his first films as a director, "La Strada" has been widely viewed as a definitive break with the ideological demands of neorealist theorists to follow a particular political slant or embody a specific "realist" style. This resulted in certain critics vilifying Fellini for, as they saw it, reverting to prewar attitudes of individualism, mysticism and preoccupation with "pure style". Fellini vigorously responded to this criticism: "Certain people still think neorealism is fit to show only certain kinds of reality, and they insist that this is social reality. It is a program, to show only certain aspects of life". Film critic Millicent Marcus wrote that ""La Strada" remains a film indifferent to the social and historical concerns of orthodox neorealism". Soon, other Italian filmmakers, including Michelangelo Antonioni and even Fellini's mentor and early collaborator Roberto Rossellini were to follow Fellini's lead and, in the words of critic Peter Bondanella, "pass beyond a dogmatic approach to social reality, dealing poetically with other equally compelling personal or emotional problems". As film scholar Mark Shiel has pointed out, when it won the first Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1957, "La Strada" became the first film to win international success as an example of a new brand of neorealism, "bittersweet and self-conscious".


title: La Strada

text: International film directors who have named "La Strada" as one of their favorite films include Stanley Kwan, Anton Corbijn, Gillies MacKinnon, Andreas Dresen, Jiří Menzel, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mike Newell, Rajko Grlić, Laila Pakalniņa, Ann Hui, Akira Kurosawa, Kazuhiro Soda, Julian Jarrold, Krzysztof Zanussi, and Andrey Konchalovsky. David Cronenberg credits "La Strada" for opening his eyes to the possibilities of cinema when, as a child, he saw adults leave a showing of the film openly weeping.


title: La Strada

text: The film has found its way into popular music, too. Bob Dylan and Kris Kristofferson have mentioned the film as an inspiration for their songs "Mr. Tambourine Man" and "Me and Bobby McGee", respectively, and a Serbian rock band took the film's name as their own.


title: La Strada

text: Rota's main theme was adapted into a 1954 single for Perry Como under the title "Love Theme from "La Strada" (Traveling Down a Lonely Road)", with Italian lyrics by Michele Galdieri and English lyrics by Don Raye. Twelve years later, the composer expanded the film music to create a ballet, also called "La Strada".


title: La Strada

text: The New York stage has seen two productions derived from the film. A musical based on the film opened on Broadway on 14 December 1969, but closed after one performance. Nancy Cartwright, the voice of Bart Simpson, was so impressed by Giulietta Masina's work in "La Strada" that she tried to obtain theatrical rights to the film for a stage production in New York. After an unsuccessful attempt to meet with Fellini in Rome, she created a one-woman play, "In Search of Fellini".


title: La Strada

text: In 1991, writer Massimo Marconi and cartoonist Giorgio Cavazzano adapted "La Strada" into a comic book titled, "Topolino presenta La strada : un omaggio a Federico Fellini" ("Mickey Mouse presents La Strada: A Tribute to Federico Fellini"), featuring three Disney characters: Mickey Mouse as The Fool, Minnie as Gelsomina, and Pete as Zampanò. The storyline opens with Fellini dreaming he's on a plane with his wife to Los Angeles to receive an Academy Award and meet Walt Disney.


title: La Strada

text: The name Zampanò was used as a major character in Mark Z. Danielewski's novel, "House of Leaves" (2000), as an old man who wrote film critique while the protagonist's mother is named Pelofina, after Gelsomina.


title: La Strada

text: "La Strada" won more than fifty international awards, including an Oscar in 1957 for Best Foreign Language Film, the first recipient in that category.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The James–Younger Gang was a notable 19th-century gang of American outlaws that revolved around Jesse James and his brother Frank James. The gang was based in the state of Missouri, the home of most of the members.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: Membership fluctuated from robbery to robbery, as the outlaws' raids were usually separated by many months. As well as the notorious James brothers, at various times it included the Younger brothers (Cole, Jim, John, and Bob), John Jarrett (married to the Youngers' sister Josie), Arthur McCoy, George Shepherd, Oliver Shepherd, William McDaniel, Tom McDaniel, Clell Miller, Charlie Pitts (born Samuel A. Wells), and Bill Chadwell (alias Bill Stiles).


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The James–Younger Gang had its origins in a group of Confederate bushwhackers that participated in the bitter partisan fighting that wracked Missouri during the American Civil War. After the war, the men continued to plunder and murder, though the motive shifted to personal profit rather than in the name of the Confederacy. The loose association of outlaws did not truly become the "James–Younger Gang" until 1868 at the earliest, when the authorities first named Cole Younger, John Jarrett, Arthur McCoy, George Shepherd and Oliver Shepherd as suspects in the robbery of the Nimrod Long bank in Russellville, Kentucky.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The James–Younger Gang dissolved in 1876, following the capture of the Younger brothers in Minnesota during the unsuccessful attempt to rob the Northfield First National Bank. Three years later, Jesse James organized a new gang, including Clell Miller's brother Ed and the Ford brothers (Robert and Charles), and renewed his criminal career. This career came to an end in 1882 when Robert Ford shot James from behind, killing him.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: For nearly a decade following the Civil War, the James–Younger Gang was among the most feared, most publicized, and most wanted confederations of outlaws on the American frontier. Though their crimes were reckless and brutal, many members of the gang commanded a notoriety in the public eye that earned the gang significant popular support and sympathy. The gang's activities spanned much of the central part of the country; they are suspected of having robbed banks, trains, and stagecoaches in at least eleven states: Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Alabama, and West Virginia.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: From the beginning of the American Civil War, the state of Missouri had chosen not to secede from the Union but not to fight for it or against it either: its position, as determined by an 1861 constitutional convention, was officially neutral. Missouri, however, had been the scene of much of the agitation leading up to the outbreak of the war, and was home to dedicated partisans from both sides. In the mid-1850s, local Unionists and Secessionists had begun to battle each other throughout the state, and by the end of 1861, guerrilla warfare erupted between Confederate partisans known as "bushwhackers" and the more organized Union forces. The Missouri State Guard and the newly elected Governor of Missouri, Claiborne Fox Jackson, who maintained implicit Southern sympathies, were forced into exile as Union troops under Nathaniel Lyon and John C. Frémont took control of the state. Still, pro-Confederate guerrillas resisted; by early 1862, the Unionist provisional government mobilized a state militia to fight the increasingly organized and deadly partisans. This conflict (fought largely, though not exclusively, between Missourians themselves) raged until after the fall of Richmond and the surrender of General Robert E. Lee, costing thousands of lives and devastating broad swathes of the Missouri countryside.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The conflict rapidly escalated into a succession of atrocities committed by both sides. Union troops often executed or tortured suspects without trial and burned the homes of suspected guerrillas and those suspected of aiding or harboring them. Where credentials were suspect, the accused guerrilla was often executed, as in the case of Lt. Col. Frisby McCullough after the Battle of Kirksville. Bushwhackers, meanwhile, frequently went house to house, executing Unionist farmers.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The James and Younger brothers belonged to families from an area known as "Little Dixie" in western Missouri with strong ties to the South. Zerelda Samuel, the mother of Frank and Jesse James, was an outspoken partisan of the South, though the Youngers' father, Henry Washington Younger, was believed to be a Unionist. Cole Younger's initial decision to fight as a bushwhacker is usually attributed to the death of his father at the hands of Union forces in July 1862. He and Frank James fought under one of the most famous Confederate bushwhackers, William Clarke Quantrill, though Cole eventually joined the regular Confederate Army. Jesse James began his guerrilla career in 1864, at the age of sixteen, fighting alongside Frank under the leadership of Archie Clement and "Bloody Bill" Anderson.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: At the war's end, Frank James surrendered in Kentucky; Jesse James attempted to surrender to Union militia but was shot through the lung outside of Lexington, Missouri. He was nursed back to health by his cousin, Zerelda "Zee" Mimms, whom he eventually married. When Cole Younger returned from a mission to California, he learned that Quantrill and Anderson had both been killed. The James brothers, however, continued to associate with their old guerrilla comrades, who remained together under the leadership of Archie Clement. It was likely Clement who, amid the tumult of Reconstruction in Missouri, turned the guerrillas into outlaws.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: On February 12, 1866, a group of gunmen carried out one of the first daylight, peacetime, armed bank robberies in U.S. history when they held up the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri. The outlaws stole some $60,000 in cash and bonds and killed a bystander named George Wymore on the street outside the bank. State authorities suspected Archie Clement of leading the raid, and promptly issued a reward for his capture. In later years, the list of suspects grew to include Jesse and Frank James, Cole Younger, John Jarrett, Oliver Shepherd, Bud and Donny Pence, Frank Greg, Bill and James Wilkerson, Joab Perry, Ben Cooper, Red Mankus, and Allen Parmer (who later married Susan James, Frank and Jesse's sister).


title: James–Younger Gang

text: Four months later, on June 13, 1866, two members of Quantrill's Raiders were freed from prison in Independence, Missouri; the jailer, Henry Bugler, was killed. The James brothers are believed to have been involved. The gang began a string of robberies, many of which were linked to Clement's group of bushwhackers. The hold-up most clearly linked to the group was of Alexander Mitchell and Company in Lexington, Missouri, on October 30, 1866, which netted $2,011.50. Clement was also linked to violence and intimidation against officials of the Republican government that now held power in the state. On election day, Clement led his men into Lexington, where they drove Republican voters away from the polls, thereby securing a Republican defeat. A detachment of state militiamen was dispatched to the town. They convinced the bushwhackers to disperse, then attempted to capture Clement, who still had a price on his head. Clement refused to surrender and was shot down in a wild gunfight on the streets of Lexington.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: Despite the death of Clement, his old followers remained together, and robbed a bank across the Missouri River from Lexington in Richmond, Missouri, on May 22, 1867, in which the town mayor John B. Shaw and two lawmen [Barry and George Griffin] were killed. This was followed on March 20, 1868, by a raid on the Nimrod Long bank in Russellville, Kentucky. In the aftermath of the two raids, however, the more senior bushwhackers were killed, captured or simply left the group. This set the stage for the emergence of the James and Younger brothers, and the transformation of the old crew into the James–Younger Gang. John Jarrett and Arthur McCoy were mentioned in numerous newspaper accounts, so they were likely active in gang activities up to 1875.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: On December 7, 1869, Frank and Jesse James are believed to have robbed the Daviess County Savings Association in Gallatin, Missouri. Jesse is suspected of having shot down the cashier, John W. Sheets, in the mistaken belief that he was Samuel P. Cox, the Union militia officer who had ambushed and killed "Bloody Bill" Anderson during the Civil War. The James brothers were unknown up to this point; this may have been their first robbery. Their names were later added to previous robberies as an afterthought.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: John Younger was almost arrested in Dallas County, Texas in January 1871. He killed two lawmen [Nichols and Mcmahan] during the attempt and escaped. On June 3, 1871, the gang robbed a bank in Corydon, Iowa; the James and Younger brothers were suspects. The bank contacted the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in Chicago, the first involvement of the famous agency in the pursuit of the James–Younger Gang. Agency founder Allan Pinkerton dispatched his son, Robert Pinkerton, who joined a county sheriff in tracking the gang to a farm in Civil Bend, Missouri. A short gunfight ended indecisively as the gang escaped. On June 24, Jesse James wrote a letter to the "Kansas City Times", claiming Republicans were persecuting him for his Confederate loyalties by accusing him and Frank of carrying out the robberies. "But I don't care what the degraded Radical party thinks about me," he wrote, "I would just as soon they would think I was a robber as not."


title: James–Younger Gang

text: On April 29, 1872, the gang robbed a bank in Columbia, Kentucky. One of the outlaws shot the cashier, R. A. C. Martin, who had refused to open the safe. On September 23, 1872, three men (identified by former bushwhacker Jim Chiles as Jesse James and Cole and John Younger) robbed a ticket booth of the Second Annual Kansas City Industrial Exposition, amid thousands of people. They took some $900, and accidentally shot a little girl in the ensuing struggle with the ticket-seller. Apart from Chiles' testimony, there is no other evidence this crime was committed by the James or Younger brothers, and Jesse later wrote a letter denying his or the Youngers' involvement. Cole was furious over this, because neither he nor brother John had been linked to the crime before the letter. The crime was praised by "Kansas City Times" editor John Newman Edwards in a famous editorial entitled, "The Chivalry of Crime." Edwards soon published an anonymous letter from one of the outlaws (believed to be Jesse) that referred to the approaching presidential election: "Just let a party of men commit a bold robbery, and the cry is hang them. But [President Ulysses S.] Grant and his party can steal millions and it is all right," the outlaw wrote. "They rob the poor and rich, and we rob the rich and give to the poor."


title: James–Younger Gang

text: On May 27, 1873, the James–Younger Gang robbed the Ste. Genevieve Savings Association in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. As they rode off they fired in the air and shouted, "Hurrah for Hildebrand!" Samuel S. Hildebrand was a famous Confederate bushwhacker from the area who had recently been shot dead in Illinois. Arthur McCoy had lived in this area and knew it quite well; he was likely involved and may have been the planner and leader.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: On July 21, 1873, the gang carried out what was arguably the first train robbery west of the Mississippi River, derailing a locomotive of the Rock Island Railroad near Adair, Iowa. Engineer John Rafferty died in the crash. The outlaws took $2,337 from the express safe in the baggage car, having narrowly missed a transcontinental express shipment of a large amount of cash.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: On November 24, John Newman Edwards published a lengthy glorification of the James brothers, Cole and John Younger, and Arthur McCoy, in a twenty-page special supplement to his newspaper the "St. Louis Dispatch" (Edwards had moved from the "Kansas City Times" to the "Dispatch" in 1873). Most of the supplement, entitled "A Terrible Quintet," was devoted to Jesse James, the gang's public face, and the article stressed their Confederate loyalties.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: In January 1874, the outlaws were suspected of holding up a stagecoach in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. Later another suspected stage robbery took place between Malvern and Hot Springs, Arkansas. There, the gang returned a pocket watch to a Confederate veteran, saying that Northern men had driven them to outlawry and that they intended to make them pay for it. On January 31, the gang robbed a southbound train on the Iron Mountain Railway at Gads Hill, Missouri. For the first of two times in all their train robberies, the outlaws robbed the passengers. In both train robberies, their usual target, the safe in the baggage car belonging to an express company, held an unusually small amount of money. On this occasion, the outlaws reportedly examined the hands of the passengers to ensure that they did not rob any working men. Many newspapers reported this was actually done by the "Arthur McCoy" gang. To correct errors, the gang telegraphed a report of the Gads Hill robbery to the "St. Louis Dispatch" newspaper for publication.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The Adams Express Company, which owned the safe robbed at Gads Hill, hired the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. On March 11, 1874, John W. Whicher, the agent who was sent to investigate the James brothers, was found shot to death alongside a rural road in Jackson County, Missouri. Two other agents, John Boyle and Louis J. Lull, accompanied by Deputy Sheriff Edwin B. Daniels to track the Youngers, posed as cattle buyers. On March 17, 1874, the trio was stopped and attacked by John and Jim Younger on a rural stretch of road near Monegaw Springs, Missouri. Daniels was killed instantly, Lull and John Younger shot and killed each other, while Boyle and Jim Younger escaped. Lull lived long enough to testify before a coroner's inquest before succumbing to his wounds a few days later.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The Pinkerton deaths added to the growing embarrassment suffered by Missouri's first post-war Democratic governor, Silas Woodson. He issued a $2,000 reward offer for the Iron Mountain robbers (the reward usually offered for criminals was $300). He also persuaded the state legislature to provide $10,000 for a secret fund to track down the famous outlaws. The first agent, J. W. Ragsdale, was hired on April 9, 1874. On August 30, three of the gang held up a stagecoach across the Missouri River from Lexington, Missouri, in view of hundreds of onlookers on the bluffs of the town. A passenger identified two of the robbers as Frank and Jesse James. The acting governor, Charles P. Johnson, dispatched an agent selected from the St. Louis police department to investigate.


title: James–Younger Gang

text: The gang next robbed a train on the Kansas Pacific Railroad near Muncie, Kansas, on December 8, 1874. It was one of the outlaws' most successful robberies, gaining them $30,000. William "Bud" McDaniel was captured by a Kansas City police officer after the robbery, and later was shot during an escape attempt.