title: Tawny owl

text: The plumage colour is genetically controlled, and studies in Finland and Italy indicate that grey-morph tawny owls have more reproductive success, better immune resistance, and fewer parasites than brown birds. Although this might suggest that eventually the brown morph could disappear, the owls show no colour preference when choosing a mate, so the selection pressure in favour of the grey morph is reduced. There are also environmental factors involved. The Italian study showed that brown-morph birds were found in denser woodland, and in Finland, Gloger's rule would suggest that paler birds would in any case predominate in the colder climate.


title: Tawny owl

text: The species was first described by Linnaeus in his "Systema naturae" in 1758 under its current scientific name. The binomial derives from Greek "strix" "owl" and Italian "allocco", "tawny owl" (from Latin "ulucus" "screech-owl").


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl is a member of the wood-owl genus "Strix", part of the typical owl family Strigidae, which contains all species of owl other than the barn owls. Within its genus, the tawny owl's closest relatives are Hume's owl, "Strix butleri", (formerly considered to be conspecific), the Himalayan owl, "Strix nivicolum", (sometimes considered conspecific), its larger northern neighbour, the Ural owl, "S. uralensis", and the North American barred owl, "S. varia". The Early–Middle Pleistocene "Strix intermedia" is sometimes considered a paleosubspecies of the tawny owl, which would make it that species' immediate ancestor.


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl subspecies are often poorly differentiated, and may be at a flexible stage of subspecies formation with features related to the ambient temperature, the colour tone of the local habitat, and the size of available prey. Consequently, various authors have historically described between 10 and 15 subspecies. The seven currently recognised subspecies are listed below.


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl is non-migratory and has a distribution stretching discontinuously across temperate Europe from Great Britain and the Iberian Peninsula eastwards to western Siberia. It is absent from Ireland (probably because of competition from the long-eared owl), and only a rare vagrant to the Balearic and Canary Islands. In the Himalayas and East Asia it is replaced by the Himalayan owl ("Strix nivicolum") and in northwest Africa it is replaced by the closely related Maghreb owl ("Strix mauritanica").


title: Tawny owl

text: This species is found in deciduous and mixed forests, and sometimes mature conifer plantations, preferring locations with access to water. Cemeteries, gardens and parks have allowed it to spread into urban areas, including central London. Although tawny owls occur in urban environments, especially those with natural forests and wooded habitat patches, they are less likely to occur at sites with high noise levels at night. The tawny owl is mainly a lowland bird in the colder parts of its range, but breeds to in Scotland, in the Alps, in Turkey, and up to in Myanmar.


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl has a geographical range of at least 10 million km (3.8 million mi) and a large population including an estimated 970,000–2,000,000 individuals in Europe alone. Population trends have not been quantified, but there is evidence of an overall increase. This owl is not believed to meet the IUCN Red List criterion of declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations and is therefore evaluated as being of least concern. In the UK it is on the RSPB Amber List of Concern. This species has expanded its range in Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway and Ukraine, and populations are stable or increasing in most European countries. Declines have occurred in Finland, Estonia, Italy and Albania. Tawny owls are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.


title: Tawny owl

text: Tawny owls pair off from the age of one year, and stay together in a usually monogamous relationship for life. An established pair's territory is defended year-round and maintained with little, if any, boundary change from year to year. The pair sit in cover on a branch close to a tree trunk during the day, and usually roost separately from July to October. Roosting owls may be discovered and "mobbed" by small birds during the day, but they normally ignore the disturbance. Tawny owls are very territorial, and will indicate the location of their chosen territory by their vocalisations, which occur at their greatest frequency during the night, though some owls will continue to call during the day. The owl's home range is determined in early autumn, and the territory is defended throughout the winter and into spring when the breeding season begins.


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl typically nests in a hole in a tree, but will also use old European magpie nests, squirrel drey or holes in buildings, and readily takes to nest boxes. It nests from February onwards in the south of its range, but rarely before mid-March in Scandinavia. The glossy white eggs are in size and weigh of which 7% is shell. The typical clutch of two or three eggs is incubated for 30 days to hatching, and the altricial, downy chicks fledge in a further 35–39 days. Incubation is usually undertaken by the female alone, although the male has rarely been observed to assist. The young usually leave the nest up to ten days before fledging, and hide on nearby branches.


title: Tawny owl

text: This species is fearless in defence of its nest and young, and, like other "Strix" owls, strikes for the intruder's head with its sharp talons. Because its flight is silent, it may not be detected until it is too late to avoid the danger. Dogs, cats and humans may be assaulted, sometimes without provocation. Perhaps the best-known victim of the tawny owl's fierce attack was the renowned bird photographer Eric Hosking, who lost his left eye when struck by a bird he was attempting to photograph near its nest in 1937. He later called his autobiography "An Eye for a Bird".


title: Tawny owl

text: The parents care for young birds for two or three months after they fledge, but from August to November the juveniles disperse to find a territory of their own to occupy. If they fail to find a vacant territory, they usually starve. The juvenile survival rate is unknown, but the annual survival rate for adults is 76.8%. The typical lifespan is five years, but an age of over 18 years has been recorded for a wild tawny owl, and of over 27 years for a captive bird.


title: Tawny owl

text: Predators of the tawny owl include large birds such as Ural owls, eagle owls, northern goshawks, golden eagles, and common buzzards. Pine martens may raid nests, especially where artificial nest boxes make the owls easy to find, and several instances have been recorded of Eurasian jackdaws building nests on top of a brooding female tawny owl leading to the death of the adult and chicks. A Danish study showed that predation by mammals, especially red foxes, was an important cause of mortality in newly fledged young, with 36% dying between fledging and independence. The mortality risk increased with fledging date from 14% in April to more than 58% in June, and increasing predation of late broods may be an important selective agent for early breeding in this species.


title: Tawny owl

text: This species is increasingly affected by avian malaria, the incidence of which has tripled in the last 70 years, in parallel with increasing global temperatures. An increase of one degree Celsius produces a two- to three-fold increase in the rate of malaria. In 2010, the incidence in British tawny owls was 60%, compared to 2–3% in 1996.


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl hunts almost entirely at night, watching from a perch before dropping or gliding silently down to its victim, but very occasionally it will hunt in daylight when it has young to feed. This species takes a wide range of prey, mainly woodland rodents, but also other mammals up to the size of a young rabbit, and birds, earthworms and beetles. In urban areas, birds make up a larger proportion of the diet, and species as unlikely as mallard and kittiwake have been killed and eaten.


title: Tawny owl

text: Prey is typically swallowed whole, with indigestible parts regurgitated as pellets. These are medium-sized and grey, consisting mainly of rodent fur and often with bones protruding, and are found in groups under trees used for roosting or nesting.


title: Tawny owl

text: Less powerful woodland owls such as the little owl and the long-eared owl cannot usually co-exist with the stronger tawny owls, which may take them as food items, and are found in different habitats; in Ireland the absence of the tawny owl allowed the long-eared owl to become the dominant owl. Similarly, where the tawny owl has moved into built-up areas, it tends to displace barn owls from their traditional nesting sites in buildings.


title: Tawny owl

text: The tawny owl, like its relatives, has often been seen as an omen of bad luck; William Shakespeare used it as such in "Julius Caesar" (Act 1 Scene 3): "And yesterday the bird of night did sit/ Even at noon-day upon the market-place/ Hooting and shrieking." John Ruskin is quoted as saying "Whatever wise people may say of them, I at least have found the owl's cry always prophetic of mischief to me".


title: M. N. Roy

text: Manabendra Nath Roy (born Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, better known as M. N. Roy; 21 March 1887 – 25 January 1954) was an Indian revolutionary, radical activist and political theorist, as well as a noted philosopher in the 20th century. Roy was the founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the Communist Party of India (Tashkent group).


title: M. N. Roy

text: He was also a delegate to congresses of the Communist International and Russia's aide to China. In the aftermath of World War II Roy moved away from orthodox Marxism to espouse the philosophy of radical humanism, attempting to chart a third course between liberalism and communism.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Narendra Nath "Naren" Bhattacharya, later known as M. N. Roy, was born on 21 March 1887 at Arbelia, located in the North 24 Parganas of West Bengal, near Calcutta (Kolkata).


title: M. N. Roy

text: The Bhattacharyas were Sakta Brahmins – a family of hereditary priests. Naren's paternal grandfather was the head priest of the goddess "Kheputeswari" in the village of "Kheput", located in the Midnapore district of West Bengal. Naren's father also served for a time in priestly capacity there. With 12 children in his family, he moved to the village of Arbelia and got a new job.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Following the death of his first wife, the elder Bhattacharya married Basantakumari Devi, the niece of Dwarkanath Vidyabhusan. He was then appointed as a teacher of Sanskrit in the nearby Arbelia English school. The couple had a total of eight children, including the fourth-born Naren.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Naren Bhattacharya's early schooling took place at Arbelia. In 1898 the family moved to Kodalia. Bhattacharya continued his studies at the Harinavi Anglo-Sanskrit School, at which his father taught, until 1905. Tall for his age (eventually growing to 6 feet), Bhattacharya was strong and athletic.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Bhattacharya later enrolled at the National College under Sri Aurobindo, before moving to the Bengal Technical Institute (now Jadavpur University), where he studied Engineering and Chemistry. However, much of Bhattacharya's knowledge was gained through self-study.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Towards the end of the 19th century revolutionary nationalism began to spread among the educated middle classes of Bengal, inspired by the writings of Bankim and Vivekananda. Naren Bhattacharya was swept up in this movement, reading both of these leading luminaries.


title: M. N. Roy

text: According to one biographer, Roy gained an appreciation from Bankim that true religion required one not to be cloistered from the world, but to work actively for the public good; Vivekananda reinforced this notion of social service and further advanced the idea that Hinduism and Indian culture was superior to anything the Western world could offer.


title: M. N. Roy

text: With his cousin and childhood friend Hari Kumar Chakravarti (1882–1963), he formed a group of free-thinkers including Satcowri Banerjee and the brothers, Saileshvar and Shyamsundar Bose. Two other cousins of Bhattacharya and Chakravarti, Phani and Narendra Chakravarti, often came from Deoghar, where they went to school with Barin Ghosh. A mysterious Vedic scholar, Mokshadacharan Samadhyayi, who was an active organiser of secret branches of the Anushilan Samiti in Chinsura, started joining this Bhattacharya group.


title: M. N. Roy

text: In July 1905 a partition of Bengal was announced, scheduled to start in October. A spontaneous mass movement aimed at annulment of the partition emerged, giving radical nationalists like Naren Bhattacharya and his co-thinkers an opportunity to build broader support for their ideas. Following his expulsion from high school for organising a meeting and a march against the partition, Bhattacharya and Chakravarti moved to Kolkata and joined in the active work of the Anushilan.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Under Mokshada's leadership, on 6 December 1907 Bhattacharya successfully committed the first act of political theft to raise money for the secret society. When arrested, he was carrying two seditious books by Barin Ghosh. Defended by the Barrister J. N. Roy (close friend of Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin) and the pleader Promothonath Mukherjee, he got released on bail, thanks to his reputation as a student and social worker.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Unhappy with Barin's highly centralised and authoritative way of leadership, Bhattacharya and his group had been looking for something more constructive than making bombs at the Maniktala garden. Two incidents sharpened their interest in an alternative leadership.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Barin had sent Prafulla Chaki with Charuchandra Datta to see Bagha Jatin at Darjeeling who was posted there on official duty, and do away with the Lt. Governor; on explaining to Prafulla that it wasn't the right time, Jatin promised to contact him later. Though Prafulla was much impressed by this hero, Barin cynically commented that it would be too much of an effort for a Government officer to serve a patriotic cause. Phani returned from Darjeeling, after a short holiday: fascinated by Jatin's charisma, he informed his friends about the unusual man. On hearing Barin censuring Phani for disloyalty, Bhattacharya decided to see that exceptional Dada and got caught for good.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Many Indian nationalists, including Roy, became convinced that only through an armed struggle against the British would they be able to separate India from the British Empire. To further this end, revolutionary nationalists looked to a rival imperial power, that of Kaiser Wilhelm's Germany, as a potential source of funds and weapons.


title: M. N. Roy

text: In August 1914, World War I began, affecting both the UK and Germany. Expatriate Indian nationalists organised as the Indian Revolutionary Committee in Berlin made an informal approach to the German government in support of aid to the cause of anti-British armed struggle in India. These contacts were favourable and towards the end of the year word reached India the Germans had agreed to provide money and necessary materials to start an armed struggle against British rule. Revolution seemed near.


title: M. N. Roy

text: The task of getting funds and armaments for the coming struggle was entrusted to Naren Bhattacharya. Bhattacharya was sent to Java, where over the next two months he was able to obtain limited funds, and no armaments.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Early in 1915, Bhattacharya set out again, leaving India in search of vaguely promised German armaments which were believed to be en route, somewhere on the Pacific. Roy would not see his homeland again for 16 years.


title: M. N. Roy

text: The actual plan seemed fantastic, as Bhattacharya-Roy later recounted in his posthumously published memoirs:


title: M. N. Roy

text: "The plan was to use German ships interned in a port at the northern tip of Sumatra, to storm the Andaman Islands and free and arm the prisoners there, and land the army of liberation on the Orissa coast. The ships were armoured, as many big German vessels were, ready for wartime use. they also carried several guns each. The crew was composed of naval ratings. They had to escape from the internment camp, seize the ships, and sail... Several hundred rifles and other small arms with an adequate supply of ammunition could be acquired through Chinese smugglers who would get then on board the ships."


title: M. N. Roy

text: At the last minute, money for the conduct of the operation failed to materialise and "the German Consul General mysteriously disappeared on the day when he was to issue orders for the execution of the plan," Bhattacharya recalled.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Disgusted but still holding out hope, Bhattacharya left Indonesia for Japan, hoping to win Japanese support for their cause, despite Japan's nominal alliance with Great Britain. There he met with Chinese nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen, who had escaped to Japan following the failure of a July 1913 uprising in Nanking.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Sun Yat-sen refused to assist Bhattacharya in his task of organising an anti-British revolution in India, instead informing Roy that Japanese support would prove sufficient. His own inability to assist them was due to Hong Kong's status as a British colony, Sun's base of operations in South China. Efforts to raise money from the German Ambassador to China were likewise unsuccessful.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Bhattacharya's activities soon drew the attention of the Japanese secret police, who were concerned about Bhattacharya's drumming up a revolution. When he learnt he was about to be served formal notice to leave Japan within 24 hours, and not wishing to be deported to Shanghai, Bhattacharya immediately set about leaving the country overland through Korea.


title: M. N. Roy

text: He tried to make his way from there to Peking (Beijing), but by this time he was spotted and identified by the British secret police, who detained him. However, Bhattacharya was able to win his release from the police, due to the British Consul General's ill ease with holding a British subject indefinitely without having formal charges first.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Further efforts to raise funds for armaments from the German consulate at Hankow resulted in a further tentative agreement. However, this plan also came to naught because of the size of the commitment, which had to be approved in Berlin, according to German Ambassador to China Admiral Paul von Hintze. Bhattacharya decided to take his plan for German funding next to the German Ambassador in the United States, before heading to Germany itself. Employees of the German embassy were able to assist Bhattacharya in obtaining a place as a stowaway aboard an American ship with a German crew, bound for San Francisco.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Although they knew he was on board the ship, British colonial authorities stopping the vessel in international waters were unable to locate Bhattacharya in the secret compartment in which he was hurriedly hidden. In an effort to throw the British off his trail – and in an effort to obtain more suitable accommodations for the long trans-Pacific voyage, Bhattacharya stealthily disembarked at Kobe, Japan.


title: M. N. Roy

text: In Kobe Bhattacharya used a false French-Indian passport previously obtained for him by the Germans in China. Posing as a seminary student bound for Paris, Bhattacharya obtained an American visa, bought a ticket, and sailed for San Francisco.


title: M. N. Roy

text: During his stay in Palo Alto, a period of about two months, Roy met his future wife, a young Stanford University graduate and Methodist named Evelyn Leonora Trent (1892–1970; alias Shanthi Devi). The pair fell in love and journeyed together across the country to New York City.


title: M. N. Roy

text: It was in the New York City public library that Roy began to develop his interest in Marxism. His socialist transition under Lala owed much to Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's essays on communism and Vivekananda's message of serving the proletariat. Noting the presence of British spies, Roy fled to Mexico in July 1917 with Evelyn. German military authorities, on the spot, gave him large amounts of money.


title: M. N. Roy

text: The Mexican president Venustiano Carranza and other liberal thinkers appreciated Roy's writings for "El Pueblo". The Socialist Party he founded (December 1917), was converted into the Communist Party of Mexico in 1919, the first Communist Party outside Russia. The Roys lodged a penniless Mikhail Borodin, the Bolshevik leader, under special circumstances. Due to a grateful Borodin's reports on Roy's activities, Moscow planned to invite Roy to the 2nd World Congress of the Communist International, held in Moscow during the summer of 1920.


title: M. N. Roy

text: A few weeks before the Congress, Vladimir Lenin personally received Roy with great warmth. At Lenin's behest, Roy formulated his own ideas as a supplement to Lenin's "Preliminary Draft Theses on the National and the Colonial Questions."


title: M. N. Roy

text: Material from Roy's pen was published by "International Press Correspondence" (Inprecor), the weekly bulletin of the Communist International. Roy served as a member of the Comintern's Presidium for eight years and at one stage was a member of the Presidium, the Political Secretariat, the Executive Committee, and the World Congress.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Commissioned by Lenin to prepare the East – especially India – for revolution, Roy founded military and political schools in Tashkent. In October 1920, as he formed the Communist Party of India (Tashkent group), he contacted his erstwhile revolutionary colleagues who, at this juncture, were determining allegiances between Radicalism ("Jugantar") and Mohandas K. Gandhi's novel programme.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Close to the "Jugantar" in spirit and action, C. R. Das inspired Roy's confidence. From Moscow, Roy published his major reflections, "India in Transition", which was almost simultaneously translated into other languages. In 1922 Roy's own journal, the "Vanguard", which was the organ of the emigre Communist Party of India, was first published. These were followed by "The Future of Indian Politics" (1926) and "Revolution and Counter-revolution in China" (1930), while he had been tossing between Germany and France.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Leading a Comintern delegation appointed by Joseph Stalin to develop agrarian revolution in China, Roy reached Canton in February 1927. Despite fulfilling his mission with skill, a disagreement with the CCP leaders and Borodin led to a fiasco. Roy returned to Moscow where factions supporting Leon Trotsky and Grigory Zinoviev were busy fighting with Stalin's. Here he voted for Trotsky's expulsion from the Executive Committee of the Comintern.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Stalin refused to meet Roy and give him a hearing at the plenum in February 1928. Denied a decent treatment for an infected ear, Roy escaped with Nikolai Bukharin's help, sparing himself Stalin's anger. Shortly after Trotsky's deportation, on 22 May 1928, Roy received the permission to go abroad for medical treatment on board a Berlin-bound plane of the Russo-German Airline Deruluft. In December 1929, the "Inprecor" announced Roy's expulsion from the Comintern, almost simultaneously with Bukharin's fall from grace.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Roy returned to India for the first time in December 1930. Upon reaching Bombay, Roy met leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose, the former of whom recalled that despite significant political differences, "I was attracted to him by his remarkable intellectual capacity."


title: M. N. Roy

text: Roy's political activity in India proved to be brief, on 21 July 1931 he was arrested in Bombay on an arrest warrant issued in 1924. Roy was taken to Kanpur to face charges under Section 121-A of the Indian Penal Code, "conspiring to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty in India."


title: M. N. Roy

text: No trial was held in open court; rather, the proceedings were conducted inside the jail in which Roy was held. Roy was allowed neither trial by jury nor defense witnesses, nor was he allowed to make a defense statement. Proceedings were conducted from 3 November 1931 until 9 January 1932, at which time Roy was sentenced to 12 years of rigorous imprisonment.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Roy was taken immediately under armed guard to Bareilly Central Jail for completion of his sentence managing, however, he was able to smuggle out the defence statement which he was not allowed to present in court. This disallowed declaration was published in full by Roy's supporters in India as "My Defence," and in abridged form in New York as "I Accuse".


title: M. N. Roy

text: Roy was unapologetic for his advocacy of the use of armed struggle against British colonial rule, in his own defence declaring


title: M. N. Roy

text: Roy filed an appeal in his case to the Allahabad High Court, but this was dismissed on 2 May 1933 – although Roy's sentence was at the same time reduced from 12 years to 6 by the court. Roy ultimately served 5 years and 4 months of this term, sitting in five different jails. Dismal prison conditions took a severe toll on Roy's health, and he suffered lasting damage to his heart, kidneys, lungs, and digestive tract as a result of his time behind bars. Roy also lost several teeth, was frequently feverish, and suffered constant pain from a chronically infected inner ear.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Despite his imprisonment, Roy still managed to contribute to the Indian independence movement. A steady stream of letters and articles were smuggled out of jail. He also wrote a 3000-page draft manuscript provisionally titled "The Philosophical Consequence of Modern Science". His followers, including A. A. Alwe, formed the Bombay Provincial Working Class Party in 1933 to continue his work while he was imprisoned.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Released in November 1936 in broken health, Roy went to Allahabad for recovery, invited by Nehru. Defying the Comintern order to boycott the Indian National Congress, Roy urged Indian Communists to join this Party to radicalise it. Nehru, in his presidential address at Faizpur session in December 1936, greeted the presence of Roy, as


title: M. N. Roy

text: From the podium Roy in his speech recommended the capture of power by "Constituent Assembly". Unable to collaborate with Gandhi, however, Roy was to stick to his own conviction. In April 1937, his weekly "Independent India" appeared and was welcomed by progressive leaders like Bose and Nehru, unlike Gandhi, and the staunch Communists who accused Roy of deviation.


title: M. N. Roy

text: In marrying Ellen Gottschalk, his second wife, "Roy found not only a loving wife but also an intelligent helper and close collaborator." They settled in Dehra Dun. Roy proposed an alternative leadership, seized the crisis following Bose's re-election as the Congress President, in 1938: in Pune, in June, he formed his "League of Radical Congressmen". Disillusioned with both bourgeois democracy and communism, he devoted the last years of his life to the formulation of an alternative philosophy which he called "Radical Humanism" and of which he wrote a detailed exposition in "Reason, Romanticism and Revolution".


title: M. N. Roy

text: With the declaration of World War II, Roy (in a position close to that of Sri Aurobindo) condemned the rising totalitarian regimes in Germany and Italy, instead supporting England and France in the fight against fascism. He severed connections with the Congress Party and created the Radical Democratic Party in 1940. Gandhi proceeded to lead the "Quit India" movement in August 1942. In response, the British colonial government imprisoned without trial almost the entire Indian National Congress leadership within hours. Roy's line was clearly different from that of the mainstream of the independence movement. According to Roy, a victory for Germany and the Axis powers would have resulted in the end of democracy worldwide and India would never be independent. In his view India could win her independence only in a free world. On the other hand, Subhas Chandra Bose took the stance that "The enemy of my enemy is my friend", leading him to seek alliances with Axis powers. Escaping house-arrest and India, Bose formed the "Azad Hind Provisional Indian Government in Exile" and allied with the Japanese, bringing the Indian National Army to India's doorstep.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Sensing India's independence to be a post-war reality following the defeat of the Axis powers and the weakening of the British Empire, Roy wrote a series of articles in "Independent India" on the economic and political structures of new India, even presenting a concrete ten-year plan, and drafting a "Constitution of Free India" (1944).


title: M. N. Roy

text: Roy in his philosophy devised means to ensure human freedom and progress. Remembering Bagha Jatin who "personified the best of mankind", Roy worked "for the ideal of establishing a social order in which the best in man could be manifest." In 1947, he elaborated his theses into a manifesto, "New Humanism", expected to be as important as the "Communist Manifesto" by Marx a century earlier.


title: M. N. Roy

text: Beginning in 1987, Oxford University Press began the publication of the "Selected Works of M.N. Roy." A total of 4 volumes were published through 1997, gathering Roy's writings through his prison years. Project editor Sibnarayan Ray died in 2008, however, and the Roy works publishing project was therefore prematurely terminated. Noted personalities like T. M. Tarkunde, Govardhandas Parekh, V. B. Karnik, Sunil Bhattacharya, B. R. Sunthankar, Saleel Wagh, V. R. Jawahire and Dr. Nalini Taralekar were influnced by M. N. Roy and his philosophy.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Mathew B. Brady ( – January 15, 1896) was one of the earliest photographers in American history. Best known for his scenes of the Civil War, he studied under inventor Samuel Morse, who pioneered the daguerreotype technique in America. Brady opened his own studio in New York City in 1844, and photographed Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Abraham Lincoln, among other public figures.


title: Mathew Brady

text: When the Civil War started, his use of a mobile studio and darkroom enabled vivid battlefield photographs that brought home the reality of war to the public. Thousands of war scenes were captured, as well as portraits of generals and politicians on both sides of the conflict, though most of these were taken by his assistants, rather than by Brady himself.


title: Mathew Brady

text: After the war, these pictures went out of fashion, and the government did not purchase the master-copies as he had anticipated. Brady's fortunes declined sharply, and he died in debt.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Brady left little record of his life before photography. Speaking to the press in the last years of his life, he stated that he was born between 1822 and 1824 in Warren County, New York, near Lake George. He was the youngest of three children to Irish immigrant parents, Andrew and Samantha Julia Brady. In official documents before and during the war, however, he claimed to have himself been born in Ireland.


title: Mathew Brady

text: At age 16, Brady moved to Saratoga, New York, where he met portrait painter William Page and became Page's student. In 1839, the two traveled to Albany, New York, and then to New York City, where Brady continued to study painting with Page, and also with Page's former teacher, Samuel F. B. Morse. Morse had met Louis Jacques Daguerre in France in 1839, and returned to the US to enthusiastically push the new daguerreotype invention of capturing images. At first, Brady's involvement was limited to manufacturing leather cases that held daguerreotypes. But soon he became the center of the New York artistic colony that wished to study photography. Morse opened a studio and offered classes; Brady was one of the first students.


title: Mathew Brady

text: In 1844, Brady opened his own photography studio at the corner of Broadway and Fulton Street in New York, and by 1845, he began to exhibit his portraits of famous Americans, including the likes of Senator Daniel Webster and poet Edgar Allan Poe. In 1849, he opened a studio at 625 Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., where he met Juliet (whom everybody called 'Julia') Handy, whom he married in 1850 and lived with on Staten Island. Brady's early images were daguerreotypes, and he won many awards for his work; in the 1850s ambrotype photography became popular, which gave way to the albumen print, a paper photograph produced from large glass negatives most commonly used in the American Civil War photography.


title: Mathew Brady

text: In 1850, Brady produced "The Gallery of Illustrious Americans", a portrait collection of prominent contemporary figures. The album, which featured noteworthy images including the elderly Andrew Jackson at the Hermitage, was not financially rewarding but invited increased attention to Brady's work and artistry. In 1854, Parisian photographer André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri popularized the "carte de visite" and these small pictures (the size of a visiting card) rapidly became a popular novelty; thousands were created and sold in the United States and Europe.


title: Mathew Brady

text: In 1856, Brady placed an ad in the New York Herald offering to produce "photographs, ambrotypes and daguerreotypes." This inventive ad pioneered, in the US, the use of typeface and fonts that were distinct from the text of the publication and from that of other advertisements.


title: Mathew Brady

text: At first, the effect of the Civil War on Brady's business was a brisk increase in sales of "cartes de visite" to departing soldiers. Brady readily marketed to parents the idea of capturing their young soldiers' images before they might be lost to war by running an ad in "The New York Daily Tribune" that warned, "You cannot tell how soon it may be too late." However, he was soon taken with the idea of documenting the war itself. He first applied to an old friend, General Winfield Scott, for permission to have his photographers travel to the battle sites, and eventually, he made his application to President Lincoln himself. Lincoln granted permission in 1861, with the provision that Brady finance the project himself.


title: Mathew Brady

text: His efforts to document the American Civil War on a grand scale by bringing his photographic studio onto the battlefields earned Brady his place in history. Despite the dangers, financial risk, and discouragement by his friends, Brady was later quoted as saying "I had to go. A spirit in my feet said 'Go,' and I went." His first popular photographs of the conflict were at the First Battle of Bull Run, in which he got so close to the action that he barely avoided capture. While most of the time the battle had ceased before pictures were taken, Brady came under direct fire at the First Battle of Bull Run, Petersburg, and Fredericksburg.


title: Mathew Brady

text: He also employed Alexander Gardner, James Gardner, Timothy H. O'Sullivan, William Pywell, George N. Barnard, Thomas C. Roche, and seventeen other men, each of whom was given a traveling darkroom, to go out and photograph scenes from the Civil War. Brady generally stayed in Washington, D.C., organizing his assistants and rarely visited battlefields personally. However, as author Roy Meredith points out, "He [Brady] was essentially the director. The actual operation of the camera though mechanical is important, but the selection of the scene to be photographed is as important, if not more so than just 'snapping the shutter.'"


title: Mathew Brady

text: This may have been due, at least in part, to the fact that Brady's eyesight had begun to deteriorate in the 1850s. Many of the images in Brady's collection are, in reality, thought to be the work of his assistants. Brady was criticized for failing to document the work, though it is unclear whether it was intentional or due simply to a lack of inclination to document the photographer of a specific image. Because so much of Brady's photography is missing information, it is difficult to know not only who took the picture, but also exactly when or where it was taken.


title: Mathew Brady

text: In October 1862 Brady opened an exhibition of photographs from the Battle of Antietam in his New York gallery, titled "The Dead of Antietam". Many images in this presentation were graphic photographs of corpses, a presentation new to America. This was the first time that many Americans saw the realities of war in photographs, as distinct from previous "artists' impressions".


title: Mathew Brady

text: Mathew Brady, through his many paid assistants, took thousands of photos of American Civil War scenes. Much of the popular understanding of the Civil War comes from these photos. There are thousands of photos in the US National Archives and the Library of Congress taken by Brady and his associates, Alexander Gardner, George Barnard and Timothy O'Sullivan. The photographs include Lincoln, Grant, and soldiers in camps and battlefields. The images provide a pictorial cross reference of American Civil War history. Brady was not able to photograph actual battle scenes, as the photographic equipment in those days was still in the infancy of its technical development and required that a subject be still for a clear photo to be produced.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Following the conflict, a war-weary public lost interest in seeing photos of the war, and Brady's popularity and practice declined drastically.


title: Mathew Brady

text: During the war, Brady spent over $100,000 (About $1,878,001 in 2022) to create over 10,000 plates. He expected the US government to buy the photographs when the war ended. When the government refused to do so he was forced to sell his New York City studio and go into bankruptcy. Congress granted Brady $25,000 in 1875, but he remained deeply in debt. The public was unwilling to dwell on the gruesomeness of the war after it had ended, and so private collectors were scarce.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Depressed by his financial situation and loss of eyesight, and devastated by the death of his wife in 1887, he died penniless in the charity ward of Presbyterian Hospital in New York City on January 15, 1896, from complications following a streetcar accident. Brady's funeral was financed by veterans of the 7th New York Infantry. He was buried in the Congressional Cemetery, which is located in Barney Circle, a neighborhood in the Southeast quadrant of Washington, D.C.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Brady photographed 18 of the 19 American presidents from John Quincy Adams to William McKinley. The exception was the 9th President, William Henry Harrison, who died in office three years before Brady started his photographic collection. Brady photographed Abraham Lincoln on many occasions. His Lincoln photographs have been used for the $5 bill and the Lincoln penny. One of his Lincoln photos was used by the National Bank Note Company as a model for the engraving on the 90c Lincoln Postage issue of 1869.


title: Mathew Brady

text: The thousands of photographs which Mathew Brady's photographers (such as Alexander Gardner and Timothy O'Sullivan) took have become the most important visual documentation of the Civil War, and have helped historians and the public better understand the era.


title: Mathew Brady

text: On the Confederate side, Brady photographed: Jefferson Davis, P. G. T. Beauregard, Stonewall Jackson, Albert Pike, James Longstreet, James Henry Hammond, Henry Hopkins Sibley, and Robert E. Lee. Brady also photographed Lord Lyons, the British ambassador to Washington during the Civil War.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Brady is credited with being the father of photojournalism. He can also be considered a pioneer in the orchestration of a "corporate credit line." In this practice, every image produced in his gallery was labeled "Photo by Brady"; however, Brady dealt directly with only the most distinguished subjects and most portrait sessions were carried out by others.


title: Mathew Brady

text: As perhaps the best-known US photographer in the 19th century, it was Brady's name that came to be attached to the era's heavy specialized end tables which were factory-made specifically for use by portrait photographers. Such a "Brady stand" of the mid-19th century typically had a weighty cast iron base for stability, plus an adjustable-height single-column pipe leg for dual use as either a portrait model's armrest or (when fully extended and fitted with a brace attachment rather than the usual tabletop) as a neck rest. The latter was often needed to keep models steady during the longer exposure times of early photography. While "Brady stand" is a convenient term for these trade-specific articles of studio equipment, there is no proven connection between Brady himself and the Brady stand's invention circa 1855.


title: Mathew Brady

text: In 2013, Brady Street in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was officially renamed "Mathew Brady Street." The original namesake Brady was W. Tate Brady, a prominent businessman in Tulsa's early history, who had connections to the Ku Klux Klan and other racist organizations. Following considerable controversy, the City Council of Tulsa, OK on August 15, 2013, voted to retain the name Brady for the street, but that it would now refer to and honor Mathew B. Brady instead. Mathew Brady never visited Tulsa in his lifetime.


title: Mathew Brady

text: Brady and his Studio produced over 7,000 pictures (mostly two negatives of each). One set "after undergoing extraordinary vicissitudes," came into U.S. government possession. His own negatives passed in the 1870s to E. & H. T. Anthony & Company of New York, in default of payment for photographic supplies. They "were kicked about from pillar to post" for 10 years, until John C. Taylor found them in an attic and bought them; from this they became "the backbone of the Ordway–Rand collection; and in 1895 Brady himself had no idea of what had become of them. Many were broken, lost, or destroyed by fire. After passing to various other owners, they were discovered and appreciated by Edward Bailey Eaton," who set in motion "events that led to their importance as the nucleus of a collection of Civil War photos published in 1912 as "The Photographic History of the Civil War."


title: Mathew Brady

text: Some of the lost images are mentioned in the last episode of Ken Burns' 1990 documentary on the Civil War. Burns claims that glass plate negatives were often sold to gardeners, not for their images, but for the glass itself to be used in greenhouses and cold frames. In the years that followed the end of the war, the sun slowly burned away their filmy images and they were lost.


title: Mathew Brady

text: On September 19, 1862, two days after the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest day of combat on U.S. soil with more than 23,000 killed, wounded or missing, Mathew Brady sent photographer Alexander Gardner and his assistant James Gibson to photograph the carnage. In October 1862, Brady displayed the photos by Gardner at Brady's New York gallery under the title "The Dead of Antietam." The "New York Times" published a review.


title: Mathew Brady

text: In October 2012, the National Museum of Civil War Medicine displayed 21 original Mathew Brady photographs from 1862 documenting the Civil War's Battle of Antietam.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Programming languages are used for controlling the behavior of a machine (often a computer). Like natural languages, programming languages follow the rules for syntax and semantics.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: There are thousands of programming languages and new ones are created every year. Few languages ever become sufficiently popular that they are used by more than a few people, but professional programmers may use dozens of languages in a career.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Most programming languages are not standardized by an international (or national) standard, even widely used ones, such as Perl or Standard ML (despite the name). Notable standardized programming languages include ALGOL, C, C++, JavaScript (under the name ECMAScript), Smalltalk, Prolog, Common Lisp, Scheme (IEEE standard), ISLISP, Ada, Fortran, COBOL, SQL and XQuery.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: The following table compares general and technical information for a selection of commonly used programming languages. See the individual languages' articles for further information.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Most programming languages will print an error message or throw an exception if an input/output operation or other system call (e.g., chmod, kill) fails, unless the programmer has explicitly arranged for different handling of these events. Thus, these languages fail safely in this regard.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Some (mostly older) languages require that programmers explicitly add checks for these kinds of errors. Psychologically, different cognitive biases (e.g., optimism bias) may affect novices and experts alike and lead them to skip these checks. This can lead to erroneous behavior.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Failsafe I/O is a feature of , Ada (exceptions), ALGOL (exceptions or return value depending on function), Ballerina, C#, Common Lisp ("conditions and restarts" system), Curry, D (throwing on failure), Erlang, Fortran, Go (unless result explicitly ignored), Gosu, Harbour, Haskell, ISLISP, Java, Julia, Kotlin, LabVIEW, Mathematica, Objective-C (exceptions), OCaml (exceptions), OpenLisp, PHP, Python, Raku, Rebol, Rexx (with optional signal on... trap handling), Ring, Ruby, Rust (unless result explicitly ignored), Scala, Smalltalk, Standard ML , Swift ≥ 2.0 (exceptions), Tcl, Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET, Visual Prolog, Wolfram Language, Xojo, XPath/XQuery (exceptions), and Zeek.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: AutoHotkey (global ErrorLevel must be explicitly checked), C, COBOL, Eiffel (it actually depends on the library and it is not defined by the language), GLBasic (will generally cause program to crash), RPG, Lua (some functions do not warn or throw exceptions), and Perl.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Some I/O checking is built in C++ (STL iostreams throw on failure but C APIs like stdio or POSIX do not) and Object Pascal, in Bash it is optional.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: The literature on programming languages contains an abundance of informal claims about their relative expressive power, but there is no framework for formalizing such statements nor for deriving interesting consequences. This table provides two measures of expressiveness from two different sources. An additional measure of expressiveness, in GZip bytes, can be found on the Computer Language Benchmarks Game.


title: Comparison of programming languages

text: Benchmarks are designed to mimic a particular type of workload on a component or system. The computer programs used for compiling some of the benchmark data in this section may not have been fully optimized, and the relevance of the data is disputed. The most accurate benchmarks are those that are customized to your particular situation. Other people's benchmark data may have some value to others, but proper interpretation brings many challenges. The Computer Language Benchmarks Game site warns against over-generalizing from benchmark data, but contains a large number of micro-benchmarks of reader-contributed code snippets, with an interface that generates various charts and tables comparing specific programming languages and types of tests.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Harry and the Hendersons is a 1987 American fantasy comedy film directed and produced by William Dear and starring John Lithgow, Melinda Dillon, Don Ameche, David Suchet, Margaret Langrick, Joshua Rudoy, Lainie Kazan, and Kevin Peter Hall. Steven Spielberg served as its uncredited executive producer, while Rick Baker provided the makeup and the creature designs for Harry. The film tells the story of a Seattle family's encounter with the cryptozoological creature Bigfoot, partially inspired by the numerous claims of sightings in the Pacific Northwest, California, and other parts of both the United States and Canada over three centuries. In conjunction with the film's setting, shooting took place at several locations in the Cascade Range of Washington state near Interstate 90 and the town of Index near US 2, as well as Seattle's Wallingford, Ballard and Beacon Hill neighborhoods and other locations in or around Seattle.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: "Harry and the Hendersons" grossed $50 million worldwide. It won an Oscar for Best Makeup at the 60th Academy Awards, and inspired a television spin-off of the same name. In the United Kingdom, the film was originally released as Bigfoot and the Hendersons, though the television series retained the American title. The DVD and all current showings of the film in the UK now refer to the film by its original title. The original title was and still is used in Spain.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Following a camping trip in the nearby Cascade mountains, George Henderson drives home to suburban Seattle with his family when he hits a Bigfoot with his station wagon. Believing it to be dead and the key to fame and fortune, the family straps the creature to the roof of their car. A lone hunter tracking the creature discovers the Hendersons' damaged license plate.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: That night, George goes to the garage to examine the Bigfoot and discovers it was alive and has escaped. He finds the creature in the kitchen, having knocked over the refrigerator while looking for food. The family soon realizes that the creature is intelligent and friendly. The family bonds with the creature and George decides to return him to the wilderness. Naming the Bigfoot "Harry", George tries to lure him into the station wagon with food, but Harry becomes upset and runs off.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Saddened, the family attempt to resume their normal lives, but sightings of Harry become more frequent as media fervor heightens. George tries to find Harry and visits the "North American Museum of Anthropology" to speak with Dr. Wallace Wrightwood, a supposed expert on Bigfoot. Giving his phone number to the museum clerk, George resumes his search. The legendary hunter-turned-Bigfoot-tracker, Jacques LaFleur, finds the Henderson household. At work, George's father asks him to make a poster of a vicious Bigfoot to drum up gun sales, but George throws the sketch away, replacing it with a proper depiction of the peaceful Harry. His father in turn alters it to make him look threatening, resulting in George quitting his job. George soon follows a Bigfoot sighting into the city while the terrified and confused Harry continues to evade hunters and the police as he attempts to find safety. George saves Harry from LaFleur, who is arrested. George brings Harry home and he is reunited with the Henderson family.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: George invites Dr. Wrightwood to dinner, revealed to have been the museum clerk. He urges the Hendersons to give up on Bigfoot as it has destroyed his life. He then meets Harry, restoring his enthusiasm. Bailed out of jail, LaFleur travels to the Henderson house to kill Harry. Harry and the Hendersons escape with Dr. Wrightwood in his truck, and LaFleur gives chase. Fleeing back to the mountains, George tries to force Harry to leave. Confused and upset, Harry departs but the family realizes that LaFleur can track Harry's footprints in the snow. Despite their efforts to misdirect him, LaFleur tracks Harry and attempts to shoot him with a rifle. Harry subdues LaFleur and George intervenes when LaFleur attempts to escape, but Harry stops George from assaulting LaFleur. Through Harry's kindness, LaFleur gives up the hunt when he realizes that Harry is more than a simple beast.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: As the family says goodbye, George thanks Harry and the two embrace. George tells him to take care of himself, to which Harry replies, "Okay" – revealing he has the ability to learn language. As Harry leaves, three other hiding Bigfoots and one adolescent suddenly emerge and then quickly disappear into the wilderness with Harry as the Henderson family watches in amazement.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Bruce Broughton composed the film's original score, and co-wrote "Love Lives On" with Barry Mann (music), Cynthia Weil (lyrics) and Will Jennings (lyrics), performed by Joe Cocker over the end credits (in place of Broughton's planned end title cue); the soundtrack version of "Love Lives On" has a saxophone solo on a single and was later released as a single. MCA Records released a soundtrack album on record and cassette; in 2007, Intrada Records issued an expanded album, marking the music's premiere CD release, with the exceptions of the original album version of "Love Lives On" and "Your Feet's Too Big".


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: The album begins with the film version of "Love Lives On", which has a flute solo, rather than the guitar heard on the single and on the 1987 soundtrack album.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: "Harry and the Hendersons" opened third behind "Beverly Hills Cop II" and "The Untouchables". It went on to gross $29.8 million at the North American box office and $20.2 million internationally for a total of $50 million worldwide.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Michael Wilmington of the "Los Angeles Times" commended Lithgow's performance and the film's "technical triumphs", the latter of which he noted "seem to overpower its weak, juiceless [...] gags". Dave Kehr, writing for "The Chicago Tribune", wrote that the film "takes a leisurely spin through the standard Spielberg themes, without gathering the visual grandeur or emotional extravagance that are Spielberg's trademarks". Both Wilmington and Kehr noted an influence of Spielberg on director William Dear, with Wilmington calling Dear "a film maker immersing himself so thoroughly in the sensibility of another that he disappears--like a drowning man sinking slowly beneath waves of chocolate"; Kehr wrote that "[Dear's] personality seems wholly subsumed by Spielberg's."


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert reviewed the film negatively, with Siskel calling it "a very manipulative movie that anyone who's seen "E.T." has seen before", and Ebert stating that "What it lacks is any sense of awe about the fact there could be a Bigfoot, an unknown creature living in the woods with a mind of its own, [...] Harry is so cute, so gentle, so lovable that there is no sense of mystery and no sense of awe. There's no belief that he's really Bigfoot."


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: In 2007, "Slant Magazine"s Eric Henderson gave the film a score of two out of four stars, writing that "Just as "Mac and Me" eventually devolved into a feature-length commercial for McDonald's, "Harry and the Hendersons" eventually emerges as a vegetarian screed."


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 45% based on reviews from 22 critics, with an average rating of 5.2/10.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: The film was released in December 1987 on LaserDisc, and was also released on VHS. It was later released on DVD in January 2011. A single-disc Blu-ray of the film was released on March 4, 2014.


title: Harry and the Hendersons

text: The film had a television series spin-off, also called "Harry and the Hendersons". Kevin Peter Hall reprised Harry until his death in 1991. After that, Harry was performed by Dawan Scott in 1991-1992 and by Brian Steele in 1992–1993. Harry's vocal effects were provided by Patrick Pinney.


title: Dark Tourist (TV series)

text: Dark Tourist is a New Zealand documentary series about the phenomenon of dark tourism, presented by journalist David Farrier. The series, which was released by Netflix, has eight episodes.


title: Yuga

text: In the "Rigveda", a "yuga" refers to generations, a long period, a very brief period, or a yoke (joining of two things). In the "Mahabharata", the words "yuga" and "kalpa" (a day of Brahma) are used interchangeably to describe the cycle of creation and destruction.


title: Yuga

text: The names ""Yuga"" and "Age" commonly denote a (pronounced "Chatur Yuga"), a cycle of four world ages, for example, in the "Surya Siddhanta" and "Bhagavad Gita" (part of the "Mahabharata"), unless expressly limited by the name of one of its minor ages: "Krita (Satya) Yuga", "Treta Yuga", "Dvapara Yuga", or "Kali Yuga".


title: Yuga

text: Yuga () means "a yoke" (joining of two things), "generations", or "a period of time" such as an age, where its archaic spelling is yug, with other forms of yugam, ', and yuge, derived from yuj (), believed derived from ""' (Proto-Indo-European: 'to join or unite').


title: Yuga

text: In the Latin language, juga or jug is used from the word jugum, which means "a yoke used to connect two oxen" (e.g. "cali-juga" = "kali-yuga").


title: 2022–23 Serie B

text: The 2022–23 Serie B (known as the Serie BKT for sponsorship reasons) is the 91st season of the Serie B since its establishment in 1929.


title: 2022–23 Serie B

text: The table lists the positions of teams after each week of matches. In order to preserve chronological evolvements, any postponed matches are not included to the round at which they were originally scheduled, but added to the full round they were played immediately afterwards.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Brigitte Gabriel (; born Hanan Qahwaji, 21 October 1964) is a Lebanese-American conservative author, anti-Islam activist, and founder of the anti-Muslim group ACT! for America.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Gabriel was born in the Marjeyoun District of Lebanon to a Maronite Christian couple, a first and only child after over twenty years of marriage. She says that during the Lebanese Civil War, Islamic militants launched an assault on a Lebanese military base near her family's house and destroyed her home. Gabriel, who was ten years old at the time, was injured by shrapnel in the attack. Afterwards, she and her parents were forced to live underground in all that remained, an bomb shelter for seven years, with only a small kerosene heater, no sanitary systems, no electricity or running water, and little food. Gabriel also stated that she had to crawl in a roadside ditch to a spring for water to evade Muslim snipers.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: At one point in the spring of 1978, a bomb explosion caused Gabriel and her parents to become trapped in the shelter for two days. They were eventually rescued by three Christian militia fighters, one of whom befriended Gabriel but was later killed by a land mine.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Gabriel wrote that in 1978 a stranger warned her family of an impending attack by the Islamic militias on all Christians. She says that her life was saved when the Israeli army invaded Lebanon in Operation Litani. Later, when her mother was seriously injured and taken to an Israeli hospital, Gabriel was surprised by the humanity shown by the Israelis, in contrast to the constant propaganda against Jews she saw as a child. She said of her experience:I was amazed that the Israelis were providing medical treatment to Palestinian and Muslim gunmen...These Palestinians and Muslims were sworn, mortal enemies, dedicated to the destruction of Israel and the slaughter of Jews. Yet, Israeli doctors and nurses worked feverishly to save their lives. Each patient was treated solely according to the nature of his or her injury. The doctor treated my mother before he treated an Israeli soldier lying next to her because her injury was more severe than his. The Israelis did not see religion, political affiliation, or nationality. They saw only people in need, and they helped.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: After graduating from high school, Gabriel completed a one-year business administration course at a YWCA in 1984.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Using the pseudonym Nour Semaan, Gabriel was a news anchor for "World News", an Arabic-language evening news broadcast of Middle East Television, which "was then run by Pat Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network to spread his politically conservative, Pentecostal faith in the Middle East." The broadcasts covered Israel, Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon. Gabriel reported on the Israeli withdrawal from central Lebanon, the Israeli Security Zone (occupied South Lebanon), and the Palestinian uprising in the West Bank and Gaza. She moved to Israel before emigrating in 1989 to the United States.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: In February 2017, Gabriel said that she provided a "national security briefing" at the White House. She met with aides at the White House in March 2017.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Her organization, ACT! for America, has been described as anti-Muslim or anti-Islamic. According to "The New York Times", ACT! for America draws "on three rather religious and partisan streams in American politics: evangelical Christian conservatives, hard-line defenders of Israel (both Jews and Christians) and Tea Party Republicans". According to "The Washington Post", the organization "touted as its 'first accomplishment' its 2008 campaign to shut down a Minnesota Islamic school."


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: The Southern Poverty Law Center described ACT! for America as "the largest grassroots anti-Muslim group in the country," and the Council on American–Islamic Relations has described it as "one of the main sources of growing anti-Muslim bigotry in our nation". According to "The Guardian", the organization has been "widely identified as anti-Muslim". Gabriel and ACT! have been described as part of the counter-jihad movement by Hope not Hate.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: According to Peter Beinart in "The Atlantic", "the organization has condemned cities with large Muslim populations for serving halal food in public schools. In 2013, its Houston chapter urged members to 'protest' food companies that certify their meat as compliant with Islamic dietary law. ACT! for America tries to dissuade Jews and Christians from conducting interfaith dialogue with Muslims. And in state after state, it has lobbied state legislatures and school boards to purge textbooks of references that create 'an inaccurate comparison between Islam, Christianity and Judaism.'"


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: According to Laurie Goodstein of "The New York Times", Gabriel "presents a portrait of Islam so thoroughly bent on destruction and domination that it is unrecognizable to those who study or practice the religion." Goodstein says that Gabriel "insists that she is singling out only 'radical Islam' or Muslim 'extremists'—not the vast majority of Muslims or their faith. And yet, in her speeches and her two books, she leaves the opposite impression."


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: "BuzzFeed News" described her as "the most influential leader in America's increasingly influential anti-Islam lobby." "The Washington Post" describes her two books as "alarmist tracts about Islam." Beinart described her as "America's most prominent anti-Muslim activist."


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Stephen Lee, a publicist at St. Martin's Press for Gabriel's second book, has called her views "extreme," and Deborah Solomon of "The New York Times Magazine", who interviewed Gabriel in August 2008, described her as a "radical Islamophobe". According to Clark Hoyt from "The New York Times", over 250 people wrote in to protest that label in the days that followed. Hussein Ibish, a Senior Resident Scholar at The Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, said that her "agenda is pure unadulterated hatred" and that she has "a pathological hatred of Muslims and other Arabs". Gabriel disputes the charge, saying that "I have no quarrel with Muslims who wish to practice the spiritual tenets of their religion in peace".


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: In 2009, Gabriel said that there is a "cancer called Islamofascism" that permeates a Muslim world in which "extreme is mainstream". In June 2014, Gabriel said that "The radicals are estimated to be between 15 to 25 percent" worldwide. In an interview with "The Australian Jewish News", she stated that "A practising Muslim who upholds the tenets of the Koran—it's not that simple—a practising Muslim who goes to mosque every Friday, prays five times a day, and who believes that the Koran is the word of God, and who believes that Mohammed is the perfect man and [four inaudible words] is a radical Muslim."


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: When Gabriel was invited to speak as part of a lecture series organized by Duke University's Jewish community in October 2004, many in attendance were angered by her referring to Arabs as "barbarians." The Freeman Centre for Jewish Life at Duke University later apologized for her comments. Following her speech at a women's campaign event for the Jewish Federation of Ottawa (JFO) in November 2008, many in attendance registered their protests, leading Mitchell Bellman, president and CEO of the JFO, to write a letter in which he acknowledged that Gabriel made, "unacceptable gross generalizations of Arabs and Muslims," distancing his organization from her views.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: In 2007 at the Christians United for Israel annual conference, Gabriel delivered a speech that included the following:


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: The difference, my friends, between Israel and the Arab world is the difference between civilization and barbarism. It's the difference between good and evil [applause]... this is what we're witnessing in the Arabic world, They have no soul, they are dead set on killing and destruction. And in the name of something they call "Allah" which is very different from the God we believe... [applause] because our God is the God of love.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: In March 2011 while being interviewed by Eliot Spitzer on CNN, Gabriel defended the speech, saying "I was talking about how Palestinian mothers are encouraging their children to go out and blow themselves up to smithereens just to kill Christians and Jews. And it was in that context that I – that I contrasted the difference between Israel and the Arabic world, was the difference between democracy and barbarism."


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Regarding the two-state solution, Gabriel stated: "Forcing Israel to accept a two-state solution is not going to work unless the Palestinians first are forced to clean up their act and eliminate hatred from their schoolbooks, teach tolerance to their people, and preach acceptance of Israel and the Jews as a neighbor."


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: In a speech at a conference sponsored by the UN Permanent Mission of Palau and the Aja Eze Foundation, Gabriel said that she viewed Israel as the vanguard in the world's fight against Islamic terrorism, equating Israel's fight against Hamas and Hezbollah with the World's fight against the Islamic State.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Because They Hate: A Survivor of Islamic Terror Warns America is a 2006 book by Gabriel. It describes her childhood experiences in Lebanon and criticizes radical Islamic expression in the Middle East and elsewhere. The book reached number 12 on "The New York Times" Best Seller list for political books.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: The book begins with events from her childhood in Lebanon, where she was raised by her parents as a Maronite Christian. During the Israeli–Lebanese conflict in the 1980s, their house was hit by missiles, causing them to move to a barracks, and eventually to an Israeli hospital. With the help of Israeli people, she was able to start a new life, becoming a journalist and a presenter for the Israeli television World News program.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: In the book, she claims that Islamic governments in Middle East are spreading negative prejudices towards "infidels" (non-Muslims, mostly Christians and Jews), and she argues that Muslims around the world are engaging in jihad against Christians and Jews, branding Islam as threat.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: The book received mixed responses from critics, some feeling that it provided a critical analysis of Islam and a warning to the American people, while others criticized the tone and the distorted view of the author and her description of Islam as a 'horrible religion.' It has been described as a counter-jihadist book.


title: Brigitte Gabriel

text: Fox News military analyst Paul E. Vallely praised Gabriel's book as a "dire warning" to the Western world. The book was also placed on the FBI Academy reading list and made mandatory reading for Navy SEALS Special Forces troops heading to the Middle East.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: Point of No Return (also known as The Assassin) is a 1993 American action film directed by John Badham and starring Bridget Fonda and Gabriel Byrne. It is a remake of Luc Besson's 1990 film "La Femme Nikita".


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: In Washington, D.C., Maggie Hayward is a drug addict found guilty of murdering a police officer during a robbery shootout, and is about to be executed by lethal injection. Her demise is faked and a spy, "Bob", informs her she has to work for him. She reluctantly agrees to cooperate and begins a regimen of intensive training that includes not only martial arts and firearms training, but etiquette and computer use.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: Senior Operative Amanda transforms her into a more refined, elegant woman. She is taken on a dinner date with Bob, who informs her about the first job: an assassination of a VIP eating at the same restaurant. Maggie kills the VIP and his bodyguard and then is pursued by a team of the VIP's bodyguards. She shoots several of the bodyguards and escapes from the kitchen by jumping down a laundry chute. This task was her final test and she has now completed her training.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: The following morning she leaves for Venice, California, where she enters into a romantic relationship with apartment house manager J.P. While her first assignments, both hit jobs, are ultimately successful, Maggie quickly comes to hate her work and tries to quit her job as a professional killer. As things progress between her and J.P. and her double life threatens their relationship, she asks for help in leaving the agency. Her request is denied, but Bob agrees to get her out of the agency if she completes the next task, to masquerade as Angela, the girlfriend of Fahd Bakhtiar, an Iranian trading in nuclear weapons. As she prepares for the job, J.P. continues to complain about her mysterious friends and mocks the improvised backstory that Bob had provided for himself and Maggie.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: Taking out Angela proves problematic and results in the deaths of Angela's two bodyguards and the injury of her partner, Beth. Director Kaufman then sends in Victor, a "cleaner", to get rid of the bodies and salvage the mission. Unknown to Maggie, he has also been ordered to kill both agents as well because one failure results in death. After killing the wounded Beth in front of Maggie, he drives her to Fahd's home. At gunpoint, she gets Fahd to unlock his computer and reveal his secrets, but he evades death and she is forced to flee.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: As they purportedly drive back to her residence, Maggie sees a gun in Victor's waistband and correctly suspects he is going to kill her. This leads to a struggle and the car spins out of control. Ultimately, Victor is dragged over a ravine and killed. Maggie makes her way back to her apartment, but leaves sometime during the night. Bob subsequently learns of her disappearance from J.P. As Bob is leaving, he sees Maggie watching him through the mist. Instead of reporting her, he calls Kaufman informing him the cleaner is dead, and after some hesitation, tells him that Maggie is dead also.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: Gaumont, who handled the sales of distribution rights for "La Femme Nikita", sold the remake rights to Warner Bros. In 1991, it was reported Luc Besson had been commissioned to write the English-language remake. Although Besson and a team of American writers completed a first draft of the script, Besson and Warner Bros. did not agree on a directing deal, stalling development until John Badham joined the project later that year. Prior to the casting of Fonda, a number of actresses who campaigned for the role including Winona Ryder, Madonna, Demi Moore, Juliette Lewis, and Robin Wright. Julia Roberts supposedly turned down two offers to star in the lead. Bridget Fonda was hesitant to accept the lead role not sold on doing a remake of such a recent film, but was eventually convinced to do the film after being convinced by John Badham and her "Single White Female" director Barbet Schroeder. Filming began in March 1992 in Los Angeles, New Orleans, and Washington, D.C. The movie was known under the working title "La Femme Nikita" during development, but was also considered for the title "The Specialist" before settling on "Point of No Return".


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews. Film critic Roger Ebert, who gave the original "La Femme Nikita" three and a half stars out of four, gave "Return" three stars, saying: ""Point of No Return" is actually a fairly effective and faithful adaptation and Bridget Fonda manages the wild identity swings of her role with intensity and conviction, although not the same almost poetic sadness that Anne Parillaud brought to the original movie. If I didn't feel the same degree of involvement with "Point of No Return" that I did with "Nikita" it may be because the two movies are so similar in plot, look, and feel. I had déjà vu all through the movie. There are a few changes, mostly not for the better. By making the heroine's boyfriend a photographer this time instead of a checkout clerk, the movie loses the poignancy of their relationship; Nikita liked her clerk precisely because he was completely lacking in aggression." The film holds an approval rating of 52% at Rotten Tomatoes gave, based on 25 reviews.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: The film debuted at number 2 at the U.S. box office, behind "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III", with a gross of $7.2 million for the weekend from 1,545 screens. It grossed $30 million in the United States and Canada and $19.9 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $49.9 million.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: Maggie/Claudia has a fascination with the singer/pianist/songwriter Nina Simone. Throughout the film, various songs of Simone's are used.


title: Point of No Return (1993 film)

text: Together with the earlier re-release of "My Baby Just Cares for Me" in 1982, the film helped bring Nina Simone back into the public limelight and made her better known with a younger audience.


title: Old English Latin alphabet

text: The Old English Latin alphabet generally consisted of about 24 letters, and was used for writing Old English from the 8th to the 12th centuries. Of these letters, most were directly adopted from the Latin alphabet, two were modified Latin letters (Æ, Ð), and two developed from the runic alphabet (Ƿ, Þ). The letters Q and Z were essentially left unused outside of foreign names, while the letter K was used by some writers but not by others. The Middle English manuscripts Stowe MS 57 and Cotton Titus D 18 do not present the letters in the exact same order, but both place the non-standard Latin letters at the end of the alphabet.


title: Old English Latin alphabet

text: Old English was first written in runes ("futhorc") but shifted to a (minuscule) half-uncial script of the Latin alphabet introduced by Irish Christian missionaries from around the 8th century. This was replaced by Insular script, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental Carolingian minuscule (also known as "Caroline") replaced the insular, along with a shift in spelling conventions toward the Old French alphabet, leading to Middle English.


title: Old English Latin alphabet

text: The letter ðæt (called "eth" or "edh" in modern English) was an alteration of Latin , and the runic letters thorn and wynn are borrowings from futhorc. Also used was a symbol for the conjunction "and", a character similar to the number seven (, called a Tironian et or "ond"), and a symbol for the relative pronoun "þæt", a thorn with a crossbar through the ascender (). Macrons over vowels were rarely used to indicate long vowels, but it was also used occasionally as a nasal indicator (sort of like a tilde) if the vowel was succeeded by an s ("m"s or "n"s would turn into ◌̄s).


title: Piorun (missile)

text: The Piorun (meaning "thunderbolt" in Polish) is a man-portable air-defense system of Polish production, designed to destroy low-flying aircraft, airplanes, helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicles. The set is a deep modernization of the PPZR Grom set, therefore the second designation of the missile is Grom-M.


title: Piorun (missile)

text: The Piorun Portable Anti-Aircraft Missile System is produced by the Mesko company and was created as a result of the GROM system modernization carried out in 2010–15. As part of the modernization, the effectiveness of the homing warhead was significantly improved by increasing the sensitivity of detection, which increased the distance at which the missile is able to target and hit the target, increased resistance to interference was obtained, a proximity fuze was used, an access authorization system and the set for fire was adapted in night conditions.


title: Piorun (missile)

text: In 2016, the Ministry of National Defence signed a contract for the purchase of 420 launchers (launch mechanisms) and 1,300 rockets for the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland, planned for 2017–2020 delivery. Due to delays caused by technical problems with the propulsion system, the delivery of rockets and launch devices began in 2019 after successful testing. In 2020, Piorun missiles were fired from Poprad self-propelled anti-aircraft missile systems. The missiles are used not only by Poprad, but also by anti-aircraft missile and artillery system PSR-A Pilica.


title: Piorun (missile)

text: In 2022, Poland announced the rapid supply of Ukraine with Pioruns during the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis.


title: Piorun (missile)

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Armed Forces of Ukraine alleged that a number of Russian jet fighters (Su-34, Su-25) and helicopters (Mi-24, Ka-52) were shot down with Piorun missiles.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: , whose real name is (alternatively, Altria Pendragon), is a fictional character from the Japanese 2004 visual novel "Fate/stay night" by Type-Moon. Saber is a heroic warrior who is summoned by a teenager named Shirou Emiya to participate in a war between masters and servants who are fighting to accomplish their dreams using the mythical Holy Grail. Saber's relationship with the story's other characters depends on the player's decisions; she becomes a love interest to Shirou in the novel's first route and also serves as that route's servant protagonist, a supporting character in the second, and a villain called in the third route.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber is an agile and mighty warrior who is loyal, independent, and reserved; she appears emotionally cold but is actually suppressing her emotions to focus on her goals. She is also present in the prequel light novel "Fate/Zero", in which she is the servant of Shirou's guardian Kiritsugu Emiya during the previous Holy Grail War, and in the sequel "Fate/hollow ataraxia". Saber also appears in the novel's printed and animated adaptations, reprising her role in the game.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber was created by Kinoko Nasu after the series' leading illustrator suggested having an armored woman as a protagonist for the visual novel; writer Gen Urobuchi commented on her character becoming darker depending on the situations. Urobuchi created his scenario involving Saber and Kiritsugu because their relationship was little explored in the original visual novel. Saber has been voiced by Ayako Kawasumi in her Japanese appearances, and multiple actresses took the role in English-language dubs of the series' animated adaptations.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Critical reception to Saber's character and role in the series and her relationship with Shirou has been generally positive. Her characterization and her relationship with the characters in "Fate/Zero" have also been met with a positive response. However, Saber's lack of character focus in the "Unlimited Blade Works" anime adaptation met mixed reactions. Additionally, Saber has been popular within the "Fate" series and anime in general.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber's real name is Artoria Pendragon (sometimes written as Altria, Arthuria or Arturia). The character was inspired by the legends of King Arthur. At her birth, Uther decides to not publicly announce Artoria's birth or gender, fearing his subjects will never accept a woman as a legitimate ruler. Merlin entrusts Artoria to Sir Ector, a loyal knight who raises her as a surrogate son. When Artoria is fifteen, King Uther dies, leaving no known, eligible heir to the throne. Britain enters a period of turmoil following the growing threat of invasion by the Saxons. Merlin approaches Artoria, explaining that the British people will recognize her as a destined ruler if she draws Caliburn, a ceremonial sword, from the rock in which it is embedded. Pulling this sword, however, means accepting the hardships of a monarch; Artoria will be responsible for preserving the welfare of her people. Without hesitation and despite her gender, she draws Caliburn and becomes king of Britain. The only knights who know the truth of her gender are her foster brother, Sir Kay, and the king's secretary, Sir Agravain.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Artoria is plagued by feelings of guilt and inferiority throughout her reign; she sacrifices her emotions for the good of Britain, but many of her subjects and knights become critical of her lack of humanity and cold calculation. A traitorous knight mortally wounds Artoria, a homunculus named Mordred who is born of her blood during the Battle of Camlann. Morgan le Fay and Sir Bedivere escort the dying king to a holy isle; Artoria orders Bedivere to dispose of Excalibur by throwing it back to Vivian. In her absence, she reflects on her failures, regretting her life as king. Before taking her last breath, she appeals to the world; in exchange for her services as a Heroic Spirit, she asks to be allowed to relive her life, in which someone more suitable and effective would lead Britain in her stead. Artoria possesses the Noble Phantasm , a celestial sword constructed from the collective wishes of mankind. She also possesses , another Noble Phantasm, which compresses and gyrates the air around Saber's blade, turning it invisible, and the holy lance which she possesses if summoned in Lancer class.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In the visual novel "Fate/stay night", Saber is accidentally summoned by a young mage named Shirou Emiya, stopping the servant Lancer in the process.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In the "Fate" route of "Fate/stay night", Shirou and Saber often clash because of their fighting methods. Despite this, Shirou tries to persuade Saber that the past cannot be changed and that trying to change it is unwise. Once Saber discovers the Holy Grail is corrupt and causes only death, she accepts that her wish is indeed impossible to accomplish. She later works with Shirou to save the world she was summoned into.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber and Shirou develop romantic feelings for one another but decide to end their relationship once the Holy Grail War is finished. Having realized Kiritsugu Emiya sealed Excalibur's scabbard, , inside his body, Shirou passes it to his Servant so that she could defeat the Servant Gilgamesh. Saber and Shirou win their respective fights against Gilgamesh and his master Kirei Kotomine. Saber destroys the Holy Grail with Excalibur and, after accepting Shirou's feelings and confessing her own, is sent back to her original time and dies. In the PlayStation 2 remake, an extra ending in which Shirou and Saber reunite following their deaths was added. After accepting her own identity and dying, Saber forgoes becoming a Heroic Spirit so she can wait for Shirou in Avalon, the mystical land where only true heroes may reside. After waiting for many lifetimes for Shirou to earn the right to ascend to Avalon, they are finally reunited for eternity.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In the Unlimited Blade Works route of "Fate/stay night", Saber is stabbed by Caster's Rule Breaker and is forced to become her Servant. Caster then forces Saber to kill Shirou and Rin Tohsaka, but Saber resists the spell, giving Rin and Shirou time to escape. After Archer kills Caster, Rin then forges a contract with her, becoming her new Master. Saber, Shirou and Rin remain conflicted in how to deal with Gilgamesh. Eventually, they decide that Shirou should fight their enemy as he possesses the same powers as the missing Archer while Saber and Rin go to stop the Holy Grail, facing the Servant Assassin in the process. After defeating Assassin, Saber destroys the Holy Grail with Excalibur, and Shirou manages to defeat Gilgamesh with the reappeared Archer's help. In the Good End of this scenario, Saber lives on as one of Rin's familiars along with Shirou. Nasu states her role to be more akin to a mother or guardian figure. In the True End, she disappears after destroying the Holy Grail.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In Heaven's Feel route of "Fate/stay night", Saber is consumed by the Holy Grail during a battle with True Assassin and becomes a stronger, corrupted version of her former self, known as Saber Alter, and a Servant under Sakura Matou, the heroine of this route.<ref name="Fate/stay night"></ref> While Shirou is on his way to seek an alliance with Ilya and Berserker, Saber appears in her Alter form and defeats Berserker, making herself known to Shirou while nearly killing her former allies. Shirou returns to Illya's home and defeats Berserker, who is now working for Sakura. Saber approaches the weakened Shirou but refuses to kill him since she feels honored by his recent fight. In the Normal End and True End, Sakura orders Saber to kill Shirou and the servant Rider. However, the duo manages to overpower Saber, with Shirou killing his former comrade.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In the sequel video game "Fate/hollow ataraxia", Saber continues to protect Shirou; if the player chooses, Shirou can pursue Saber romantically once more. She kills Archer when he attacks Shirou in one loop. In another loop, Saber is killed by Bazett Fraga McRemitz's Fragrach when she tries to use Excalibur on her. In the final loop of Fate/hollow ataraxia, Saber aids Shirou/Avenger to reach the Grail by fending off mysterious monsters with other Heroic Spirits. When the stray hair on Saber's head is pulled, she reverts to her Alter form. Saber Alter is portrayed as crude and obsessed with fast food in direct opposition to Saber's love of Shirou's cooking.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In the prequel light novel series "Fate/Zero", Kiritsugu Emiya summons Saber to participate in the 4th Holy Grail War. To prepare for the war, Kiritsugu persuades his wife Irisviel von Einzbern to act as Saber's guide while he aids her in secret. As in the original visual novel, Saber wishes to obtain the Holy Grail to change her kingdom's past, which results in Gilgamesh and Alexander the Great mocking her ideals. During a fight against Lancer, Kiritsugu ignores knightly ideals and forces Lancer's Master to commit suicide, angering Saber. Shortly afterwards, Kirei Kotomine kidnaps Irisviel, and Saber goes to find her. On the way, Saber confronts Berserker, who is revealed to be her former ally, Lancelot. After Lancelot's death, Saber is ordered to destroy the Holy Grail by her then-master, Kiritsugu, using two back-to-back Command Seals. Still, she only succeeds in destroying its physical form. Saber returns to her world, still aiming to take the Holy Grail for her people.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Artoria Pendragon appears in "Fate/Grand Order" as a recurring Servant. She is one of the Servants of Ritsuka Fujimaru of the Grand Order conflicts of "Fate/Grand Order". She appears as Saber, along with her multiple forms Saber Alter and Saber Lily, as well as her newer forms Lancer and Lancer Alter, and gag forms as Archer, Rider Alter and Ruler form wearing a swimsuit, maid outfit and bunny girl costume respectively, as well as another rider form as "Santa Alter" introduced in the game and a Caster form introduced for the game's 5th anniversary. Her other gag iterations are the Assassin-class Mysterious Heroine X, Berserker-class Mysterious Heroine X Alter, and Foreigner-class Mysterious Heroine XX; all are stated to be Artorias came from space.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: In the main story, Saber Alter appears in the Fuyuki chapter as the main antagonist, Lancer Alter appears in the London chapter, and Lancer in the form of "Lion King/Goddess Rhongomyniad" served as the central villain of Camelot chapter. Heroine X appeared in the Grand Time Temple chapter as one of "event and gag Servants".


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber appears in the anime and manga versions of "Fate/stay night", and the movie "". Three of versions of Saber—regular, Saber Alter, and Saber Lily—appear in the fighting game "Fate/unlimited codes". The Lily form is based on Saber's alternative outfit from "Unlimited Blade Works", which development staff noted was well received by fans. A Lion form of Saber also appeared in "Fate/tiger colosseum". Saber, along with other characters from "Tsukihime", "Melty Blood", and the other characters of "Fate/stay night", appears in the 2011 anime "Carnival Phantasm". Saber also appears in the series "Fate/Labyrinth" as Manaka's Servant during the Subcategory Holy Grail. Together, they defeat many opponents and the bosses of each of the floor levels in Caubac Alcatraz's labyrinth.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: She also appears in "Fate/Extella" as a secret playable character. Saber is also present in the manga and anime adaptations "Today's Menu for the Emiya Family", in which she is living with Shirou, who teaches her to cook. Outside Type-Moon's works and adaptations, Saber appears in the video games "Divine Gate" and "". To promote the animated adaptations of the routes, Saber was added to the video games "Summons Board", "Puzzle & Dragons", and "The Alchemist Code". She is also present in "Phantasy Star Online 2" and "Hortensia Saga". Two videogame adaptations for smartphones, "Fate/Zero The Adventure" and "Fate/Zero Next Encounter", feature Saber.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber is a playable guest character in a fighting game "", a prequel to both "Tsukihime -a piece of blue glass moon-" and original timeline "Melty Blood" games, taking place in a remake timeline. Following the playable inclusion of "Tsukihime"’s Neco Spirit mascot, Neco-Arc, Saber’s inclusion in this game revealed to be the cause of the latter, when the Neco-Spirit inexplicably managed to use her smartphone's "Fate/Grand Order" app to do so. It also reveals that summoning servants like Saber in "Tsukihime" world (currently Remake version) should have been impossible, and even the Dead Apostle Michael Roa Valdamjong knows the risk on doing so and had since develop a distaste of learning its ritual, until Neco-Arc’s presence and the "Fate/Grand Order" app she brought in that world causes it to be possible.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Before Kinoko Nasu started writing "Fate/stay night", he wrote the route "Fate" for fun in his spare time when he was a student. Shirou and Saber's sexes were swapped, mostly due to an experience with the novel "Tsukihime" because Type-Moon believed this would fit the modern demographic. Takeuchi had the idea of drawing an armored woman, which resulted in Saber being female. Takeuchi called Saber as one of his favorite Servants in the series and an ideal bride to the point of drawing her whenever he has free time. The relationship between Shirou and Saber was intended to be different from previous fictional romances because Shirou must accept Saber has to fight for him. As a foreshadowing of Shirou and Saber's first meeting, the team included a dream sequence in which Shirou sees the mythical sword Excalibur, which the latter wields. Because Shirou possessed the scabbard Avalon from Excalibur, Nasu wrote this to explain how the two become Master and Servant. Although Saber does not have the same character in "Unlimited Blade Works" than in "Fate" where she dropped her desires for the Holy Grail, Nasu still wanted Saber to have a similar resolution in regards to what to do in the war once confronting the Grail, leading to its destructions at her hands.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Nasu originally had an idea to extend the Fate route by involving an alternative Fifth Holy Grail War in which Shirou fights alongside Saber, but they do not have a romantic relationship. Following their separation, Shirou would bond with Rin Tohsaka. Because "Unlimited Blade Works" is playable after concluding "Fate", Saber's true identity is revealed early in the story. Saber is not a romantic interest in this route; Nasu considered her a motherly figure to Shirou and Rin. During making the video game's anime adaptation, Nasu said the staff intended to make her more beautiful than the heroine Rin in the previous "Fate" series.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Nasu said:  ... it's difficult to call the relationship between Shirou and Saber a relationship between a man and a woman. Saber has fought for a long time as the ruler of Britain but then turned into a girl all of a sudden and fell in love with Shirou. It's pretty ridiculous when you think about it. But I really wanted to push it towards that sort of boy-meets-girl story. So as a last resort, I had Shirou continually say things to her like "But you're a girl," and "Girls aren't supposed to fight," in order to remind the users that "she is really a girl." It's like the author's actually the one trying to convince Saber that she's a girl... I feel like I could have written it a lot better now, but that was the best I could do at the time. It's true that Rin is different from Saber.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Regarding Saber's alternate designs, Gen Urobuchi referred to Alter as a dark hero rather than a villain. Nasu further commented on Alter, stating she "is an idealist who clings to her own values even though she's been blackened". On the other hand, her becoming a Servant from Caster during Unlimited Blade Works was believed by Urobuchi to take a darker role than Saber Alter due to how she has been defeated in combat with Nasu speculating how her new dress symbolizes her defeat. Takeuchi enjoyed illustrating her due to the impact it left on the character. He added he enjoyed minor changes due to her design, such as her visor and her alternative dresses featured in related works to "Fate". Saber Lily's character was created by Takeuchi, as an alternative costume for Saber, based on the visual novel's Unlimited Blade Works story arcade dress, and got its name because of the similarity of color and shape of the dress to the white lily. After the release of the "Unlimited codes" on the arcade machines, Saber Lily received a lot of positive feedback from fans and, unlike the game costumes of other characters, when porting the game to the PlayStation 2, she had her own name displayed in the match interface. Originally it was planned to include the character only in a limited edition of the game, but later it was added to the standard version.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: During the making of "Fate/Zero", writer Urobuchi had multiple ideas, including Saber being lectured by Gilgamesh and Alexander, which motivated Nasu to write the light novel series. As in the original "Fate/stay night", Saber states she did not know her former master Kiritsugu Emiya properly. Urobuchi created Kiritsugu's wife Irisviel von Einzbern to facilitate communication between Saber and Kiritsugu. The staff worried Urobuchi would handle Kiritsugu's relationship with Saber because more unforgivable actions by the servant would have made it impossible for her to trust his adoptive son Shirou in the sequel. As a result, Urobuchi had to alter some of his original ideas. Urobuchi stated that in his works, the characters who survive the plot's events become "pillars". While Saber, Kiritsugu, and Kirei Kotomine are the major survivors, Kiritsugu dies offscreen. Because Saber does not have a large role in "Fate/Zero", the pillar character is instead Kirei. For the first "Heaven's Feel" movie, there is a scene where Saber battles in the snow in front of the Ryuudou Temple which Ufotable noted as one of the big steps in animation due to its quality.


title: Saber (Fate/stay night)

text: Saber's real name is often written inconsistently. While Artoria Pendragon is the most-used spelling, Nasu has also used Altria Pendragon. As a result, the localization members of the video game "Fate/Grand Order" have found it challenging to properly write her true name in the game whenever it is needed. The translators working for the game stated they enjoyed Saber Alter's interactions with Jeanne Alter based on how the story develops across them.