title: Cerberus Capital Management

text: In December 2006, Cerberus acquired the Austrian bank BAWAG P.S.K. for a reported EUR3.2 billion. In August 2007, Cerberus announced that it was closing one of their mortgage companies, Aegis Mortgage. It owned half of a 9.9% share (5%) with the Gabriel Group in Bank Leumi, purchased in 2005, but as of April 19, 2009, it was decided to sell in order to boost capital. Cerberus also has a controlling interest in Japanese bank Aozora.


title: Cerberus Capital Management

text: In Australia, Cerberus purchased Bluestone Mortgages (specialist mortgage lending and servicing) in 2018, Angle Finance (equipment finance) in 2019 and Westpac Group's Strategic Alliances (Vendor Finance) in 2020.


title: Cerberus Capital Management

text: Acquired Bushmaster Firearms International, from Windham, Maine native Dick Dyke for an undisclosed sum in April 2006, and purchased Remington Arms in April 2007. Under Cerberus direction, Bushmaster Firearms acquired Cobb Manufacturing, a manufacturer of large-caliber tactical rifles in August 2007. Cerberus also acquired DPMS Panther Arms December 14, 2007. Remington Arms acquired Marlin Firearms in January 2008. In October 2009, Remington Military products acquired silencer manufacturer Advanced Armament Corporation. These companies were combined into the Remington Outdoor Company. Cerberus made plans to sell its share in the Remington Outdoor Company on December 18, 2012, after the Bushmaster AR-15 was used in the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. This decision was made due to a threat by the board of the California state teachers' pension plan, which owns a stake in the company, to dispose of stakes it holds in any firearms manufacturer that makes weapons banned by California state law. In March 2014, Cerberus rejected a $1 billion buyout offer for Remington Outdoor Company and thereafter was unable to find a satisfactory buyer. Cerberus continued to have ownership in Remington Outdoor Company, and CalSTRS announced its divestment from Cerberus' gun holdings in June 2015. In March 2018, Freedom Group, now known as Remington Outdoor Company sought chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.


title: Cerberus Capital Management

text: Acquired a group of seven television stations, Four Points Media Group, from CBS Corporation in 2007. On September 8, 2011, Cerberus announced the sale of these same seven stations to the Sinclair Broadcast Group for $200 million; this sale was completed on January 1, 2012.


title: Cerberus Capital Management

text: In the summer of 2007, Cerberus agreed to buy United Rentals, the world's largest equipment rental company that was traded on the NYSE. After the credit markets began to tighten in August, Cerberus decided not to make the acquisition, agreeing to pay United Rentals a $100 million "reverse termination fee" that the parties had negotiated and included in their agreement. United Rentals sued in the Delaware Court of Chancery for specific performance (i.e., a court mandate that Cerberus complete the deal). Cerberus cited the clear language contained in the deal agreement that capped its liability for not completing the transaction at $100 million. After a two-day trial, Delaware Chancellor William B. Chandler, III, ruled in favor of Cerberus, writing in his ruling that "URI knew or should have known what Cerberus' understanding of the merger agreement was." In a statement, Cerberus said it was "gratified" by the court's ruling and was "pleased that the court chose to decide the case on the merits and confirm that Cerberus acted in accordance with its rights and obligations."


title: Mary Jane Watson (Sam Raimi film series)

text: Mary Jane "MJ" Watson is a fictional character in Sam Raimi's Spider-Man film series. Based on the character of the same name, she is portrayed by Kirsten Dunst. In the films, Mary Jane is Peter Parker's next-door neighbor, childhood crush, and primary love interest. Though Mary Jane dates several other men in the first two films, she ultimately falls in love with Peter and Spider-Man and discovers they are one and the same. Despite his strong feelings for her, Peter initially declines a relationship with her in order to keep her safe, but they eventually become a couple in the end.


text: Despite being portrayed as a damsel in distress throughout the film series, Dunst's interpretation of the character has been generally well-received.


text: Mary Jane Watson was first introduced into Spider-Man comics story-lines in "The Amazing Spider-Man #42" in 1966, despite being mentioned earlier in the comics. She was conceived as competition to Gwen Stacy as Spider-Man's primary love interest, and is characterized as a free-spirited, outgoing personality as opposed to Gwen's more serious, academic nature. Peter Parker initially dates Gwen after he stops going out with Mary Jane due to what he sees as her shallow personality while Mary Jane refuses to be tied down in one relationship. Despite this, Mary Jane became more popular with fans and following Gwen's death in the comics, Peter and MJ begin to rekindle their relationship and eventually marry despite ups and downs in the comics.


text: Actress Kirsten Dunst was cast as Mary Jane Watson for the 2002 Spider-Man film, with Mary Jane having been cemented in comics lore as Peter Parker's primary love interest by then. Before director Sam Raimi cast Dunst, he had expressed his interest in casting Alicia Witt. Dunst decided to audition after learning Tobey Maguire had been cast as Peter Parker/Spider-Man, feeling the film would have a more independent feel. Dunst earned the role a month before shooting in an audition in Berlin. In the first two films in the trilogy, Dunst wore a red wig for the part, dying part of her hair in the first film, before dying her full head of blond hair red for the third film. Dunst was also allegedly asked to change her teeth for the films, a demand that she refused. She also declined to do certain stunts in the films.


text: The set-up for Spider-Man and Mary Jane's famous "upside-down kiss" involved several rain-machines at the studio lot, and saw some difficulty as Maguire was hung upside down with water pouring into his nostrils. To achieve the look of Mary Jane pulling Spider-Man's mask down, Dunst was described by Sam Raimi as "doing some hand trickery" as the mask was not pliable in those conditions.


text: Having initially signed on for three "Spider-Man" films, Dunst said that she would consider doing a fourth, but only if Raimi and Maguire also returned. In January 2010, it was announced that the fourth film was cancelled and that the "Spider-Man" film series would be restarted, and therefore dropping the trio from the franchise. Storyboard artist Jeffrey Henderson, who worked on the fourth "Spider-Man" film before the project's cancellation, disclosed in November 2022 that the fourth film would have established that Mary Jane had been "let go" by Peter Parker, leading him to now deeply enjoy being Spider-Man.


text: In 2021, while attending a screening of her latest film "The Power of the Dog", Dunst expressed openness to reprising her role as Mary Jane: "I would do it. Why not? That would be fun. I would never say no to something like that."


text: As portrayed in the Sam Raimi trilogy, Mary Jane Watson is a kind, funny, beautiful, sweet, cheerful, passionate, and energetic young woman who is an aspiring actress. She runs with the stereotypical popular crowd in school, being surrounded by people who have enticing physical features and great skills in ways of performing arts or sports. Mary Jane is somewhat naive, but always knows what's going on. While individuals in MJ's high school clique are rude, snobbish, arrogant, vain and uncaring, Mary Jane is a loyal friend and a warm individual, capable of intense love and real feelings. Mary Jane does not let the attention she gets from boys get to her head. Instead, she uses her looks merely as an advantage for acting and modelling and works to develop independence and smarts. Despite her popularity, MJ struggles with insecurity and an urge to impress people she deems important, both of which most likely come from her abusive father, and is an indecisive dater before Peter finally commits to her. She also deals with the harsh reality of being an actress and has her own struggles in each film.


text: She never bullies or judges Peter Parker and is friendly towards him, despite him being in the unpopular crowd, and even flirts with him and calls him "Tiger" (an homage to her catchphrase in the comics). MJ generally has no one treat her with respect for anything other than her looks, which she may not have noticed until after high school graduation, before she and Peter develop a stronger friendship. It is quite possibly because of this, Mary Jane becomes so smitten by Spider-Man so quickly and later falls for Peter (oblivious that they are one and the same) as he is very kind to her other than just for her looks. After her kiss with Spider-Man, MJ was shown to be a great deal happier and almost ecstatic, because it had perhaps been her first kiss with someone who loved her back for more than just aesthetic reasons. Unfortunately, her involvement with Spider-Man also makes her a common target by his enemies, making her require his rescue in all three films, as noted by Emily Kubincanek of "Film School Rejects".


text: Writing in 2020 after the release of "", Adadora Asidianya of "CBR.com" looked back at Mary Jane's live-action portrayal in the Raimi films and noted that she provides a grounding presence for Peter in the films, also commending her positive outlook in life despite her toxic upbringings.


text: Mary Jane first appears as Peter Parker narrates the first few minutes of the film. She is depicted as a popular girl at Midtown High School and the ex-girlfriend of star athlete Flash Thompson, while Peter, her next-door neighbor who has had a crush on her since they were in first grade, is an academically gifted but shy outsider. Peter struggles to catch the school bus until MJ asks the driver to stop for him. Later, their class attends a field trip to a lab at Columbia University. Peter's friend Harry Osborn flirts with MJ before Peter takes a picture of her for the school newspaper, after which a genetically-altered spider bites him, ultimately giving him his abilities. Peter then saves Mary Jane from slipping in the school cafeteria with his new abilities the next day and inadvertently triggers a fight with Flash, though he is able to easily dodge Flash's punches and knocks him out with one punch. Peter later apologizes to MJ for the fight while she confides in him about wanting to escape her abusive, alcoholic father and pursue an acting career.


text: She breaks up with Flash during high school graduation and takes up work as a waitress while looking for acting gigs. While Mary Jane starts dating Harry, she and Peter begin to form a closer friendship. Peter rescues her as Spider-Man when the Green Goblin attacks a parade she was attending with Harry, and again later on from a gang in an alley. Mary Jane thanks Spider-Man with a kiss without him revealing his identity. MJ grows distant from Harry due to his desire to please his father, Norman, at her expense and also subsequently develops feelings for Peter when she realizes how much he cares for her, causing Harry to break up with MJ upon seeing her and Peter holding hands.


text: Norman, who is the Green Goblin and has deduced Peter is Spider-Man, kidnaps Mary Jane upon realizing Peter loves her, thanks to his son's unwitting confession. The Goblin forces Peter to choose between saving Mary Jane and a Roosevelt Island Tramway car full of children, all of whom he holds hostage on top of the Queensboro Bridge. Spider-Man opts to save both, and despite a struggle, manages to lower MJ and the kids onto a boat, after which the Goblin whisks Spider-Man away for a final confrontation which results in the Goblin's death. At Norman's funeral, Mary Jane tells Peter that she loves him and they kiss. Peter, who decides that for her protection they can't be together, gently rejects her and insists they can only be friends. As he leaves, a saddened Mary Jane realizes that her kiss with Peter reminds her of the one she shared with Spider-Man and suspects that he is the superhero.


text: Two years after the events of the first movie, Mary Jane has found success as a model and Off-Broadway actress. Maintaining her friendships with both Peter and Harry, she continues to pine for Peter, but as he continues to reject her, she starts dating astronaut John Jameson, the son of Peter's boss J. Jonah Jameson. Struggling to balance his vigilantism as Spider-Man with his personal life, Peter fails to make it to one of Mary Jane's performances of "The Importance of Being Earnest".


text: Fed up with being Spider-Man and after losing his powers, Peter tosses his suit away and is able to handle his job and studies and decides to pursue MJ, though she pushes him away when John proposes to her. After Mary Jane kisses John, in a manner that is reminiscent of the upside-down kiss between her and Spider-Man from the first film, she realizes that she does not love John and still wants a relationship with Peter. Later, she meets Peter in a coffee shop where she asks for a kiss to confirm her belief that he is Spider-Man. She even asks him if he loves her which he falsely replies, "I don't", for the sake of his superhero responsibilities and her safety. Before they can kiss, Doctor Octopus attacks the cafe, kidnapping Mary Jane.


text: Peter regains his abilities and takes up being the web-slinger once more, fighting Doc Ock on a runaway New York City Subway train before being subdued and delivered to Harry, who wants revenge on Spider-Man for allegedly killing his father. After Harry unmasks Peter, he reluctantly provides Doc Ock's and Mary Jane's location so Peter can save her. Peter defeats Doctor Octopus this time as the latter tries to create a fusion reactor capable of destroying the city, and unmasks himself to both Doctor Octopus and MJ, confirming her suspicions that Peter and Spider-Man are in fact one and the same. Peter finally confesses his love for MJ, rescuing her as Doctor Octopus regains control of himself from the malicious AI in his tentacles and repents of his prior actions, sacrificing himself to destroy the reactor. Peter explains his reasoning for not being with her, then allows her to reunite with John. However, MJ leaves John at the altar during their wedding and runs to Peter's apartment, stating that she is willing to accept any risks that come with being in a relationship with Peter. The two finally become a couple, and Mary Jane sees Peter off as he swings into action as Spider-Man to help out a situation, uttering her catchphrase ""Go get 'em, Tiger!""


text: Having dated Peter for one year, Mary Jane experiences some struggles in her personal life, losing her Broadway role because of bad reviews and experiencing friction with her boyfriend when an alien symbiote takes him over and brings out the darker parts of his personality which as a result makes him distance himself from her to focus on capturing and killing his uncle's actual killer, Flint Marko. She also faces competition for Peter's affections in the form of his lab partner Gwen Stacy. After she confides in Harry about her problems, Harry, who had suffered amnesia from a prior fight with Peter as the New Goblin, regains his memories after they unwittingly kiss and frightens MJ into breaking up with Peter, setting up a second confrontation between the two former friends which leaves Harry's face disfigured.


text: Peter, now under more influence from the symbiote, later brings Gwen to a jazz club where MJ has found work in an attempt to make her jealous, though Gwen catches on and apologizes to Mary Jane. He then gets into a fight with the club's bouncers and unintentionally hits Mary Jane, leading him to realize what the symbiote suit has turned him into. He leaves and disposes of the symbiote suit, which unintentionally falls onto Eddie Brock, Gwen's failed suitor and Peter's bitter rival and fellow photographer, to create Venom. Brock, who also holds a grudge on Peter for having him fired for defaming Spider-Man and stealing his girlfriend, finds out his secret identity, teaming up with Flint Marko to lure and kill Spider-Man, capturing MJ as bait, though she is able to protect herself this time. The subsequent battle pits Spider-Man and the New Goblin (who no longer begrudges Peter after discovering the truth about his father's death) against Venom and the Sandman; the two villains are defeated, but Harry loses his life in the process, dying with MJ and Peter at his side after taking a blade intended for Peter.


text: Sometime after Harry's funeral, Peter arrives at MJ's jazz club, and the two begin to mend their relationship, sharing a dance.


text: Kirsten Dunst's portrayal of Mary Jane Watson in the Spider-Man films was generally well-received, as she was nominated for several awards for her performance, winning four, including the Empire Award for Best Actress in 2003. Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" remarked on Dunst's ability to "lend even the smallest line a tickle of flirtatious music". In the "Los Angeles Times" review, critic Kenneth Turan noted that Dunst and Maguire made a real connection on screen, concluding that their relationship "involved audiences to an extent rarely seen in films".


text: However, elements of her character were met with a mixed response. In his review of "Spider-Man 3", Ryan Gilbey of the "NewStatesman" was critical of Dunst's character: "the film-makers couldn't come up with much for Mary Jane to do other than scream a lot". Allie Gemmill of "Bustle" wrote in 2017 that the films portray Mary Jane as a constant damsel in distress and gave the illusion that she was defined primarily through the men in her life. Conversely, Adadora Asidianya wrote that Mary Jane provides a voice of reason for Peter, whether as a friend or a love interest.


text: Spider-Man and Mary Jane's "upside-down kiss" in "Spider-Man" is now regarded as one of the most iconic moments in film history. "Entertainment Weekly" put "the kiss in "Spider-Man"" on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying: "There's a fine line between romantic and corny. And the rain-soaked smooch between Spider-Man and Mary Jane from 2002 tap-dances right on that line. The reason it works? Even if she suspects he's Peter Parker, she doesn't try to find out. And that's sexy."


text: Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, the screenwriters of "", revealed that they'd originally wanted to bring Dunst's portrayal of Mary Jane back for the film, due to the multiversal crossover aspect of the plot bringing over villains from both the Raimi and Marc Webb films, alongside the two versions of Spider-Man played by Maguire and Andrew Garfield, it would make for a poignant addition and a tribute to Raimi's trilogy. While director Jon Watts was in favor of this, Maguire spoke against it, instead preferring that very little be revealed about his incarnation's life following "Spider-Man 3", save mentioning they made their relationship work as time went on. His reasoning being "As awesome as it'd be to have me and Kirsten back up on screen together, there's some downsides. One, you'd be going way overbudget getting her, Rosemary [Harris] and Emma [Stone] here on set, and the film's already pretty crowded in cast and scope as is. And two, Tom [Holland]'s the star here. I wouldn't want my story to be overshadowing his when me and Andrew [Garfield] are essentially backup and anniversary additions."


title: ATMOS 2000

text: ATMOS (Autonomous Truck Mounted howitzer System) is a 155 mm/52 calibre self-propelled gun system manufactured by Israeli military manufacturer Soltam Systems.


title: ATMOS 2000

text: The system is long range, fast moving, truck mounted with high firepower and mobility, rapid deployment, short response time, operable in all terrain areas. The system is integrated with a fully computerized system, providing an automatic control, accurate navigation and target acquisition, the system is offered with various gun barrel lengths, ranging from 39 to 52 calibre, in order to meet different customer requirements.


title: ATMOS 2000

text: The ATMOS is fitted with a 155 mm/52 calibre ordnance which conforms to NATO Joint Ballistic Memorandum of Understanding (JBMoU), and is mounted on a 6 × 6 cross-country truck chassis. The breech mechanism is horizontal sliding which automatically opens to the right with a self-sealing metal obturating ring. The buffer is a hydraulic cylinder with a hydro-pneumatic recuperator. Recoil length is variable from 850 to 1,100 mm with two pneumatic equilibrators. Weapon elevation and traverse are all hydraulic and computer controlled. The gun's aiming gears, load assist systems and spades are operated by a hydraulic power pack. With a 155 mm/52 barrel, a 41 km maximum range can be achieved, using Extended Range Full-Bore - Base Bleed (ERFB-BB) projectile, 30 km firing the NATO L15 High Explosive (HE) projectile and 24.5 km firing the older M107 HE projectile.


title: ATMOS 2000

text: The ATMOS 2000 carries a total of 27 155 mm projectiles and associated charges and can be operated by a 4-man crew, consisting of two loaders positioned one either side at the rear. The system provides a rate of fire of between 4 and 9 rds/min.


title: ATMOS 2000

text: Late in 2001, Soltam Systems released details of the latest version of its ATMOS 2000 whose existence was first revealed late in 1999. At that time, it was also referred to as the 155 mm Self-Propelled Wheeled Gun (SPWG). The ATMOS was developed as a private venture and is aimed mainly for export markets, although it has already been demonstrated to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Wheeled self-propelled guns are usually cheaper to procure than their more common tracked counterparts, have lower life cycle costs and are easier to operate and maintain. In addition, they also have greater strategic mobility and do not rely on Heavy Equipment Transporters (HETs). By late 2001, the system fired over 1,000 rounds, during extensive trials in Israel.


title: ATMOS 2000

text: In mid-2003, an undisclosed export customer had placed a contract with the company worth USD5 million for an undisclosed batch of ATMOS 2000 systems. From late 2004 the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) carried out extensive field tests the ATMOS 155 mm/39 calibre system.


title: ATMOS 2000

text: There is also a Romanian version, called ATROM, that uses the same 155mm Soltam gun on a locally developed ROMAN 26.360 DFAEG 6x6 truck chassis. This project was put on hold after three prototypes were built.


title: Archbishop

text: In Christian denominations, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In most cases, such as the Catholic Church, there are many archbishops who either have jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province in addition to their own archdiocese (with some exceptions), or are otherwise granted a titular archbishopric. In others, such as the Lutheran Church of Sweden and the Church of England, the title is borne by the leader of the denomination.


title: Archbishop

text: The word archbishop () comes via the Latin "archiepiscopus." This in turn comes from the Greek , which has as components the etymons -, meaning 'chief', , 'over', and , 'seer'.


title: Archbishop

text: The earliest appearance of neither the title nor the role can be traced. The title of "metropolitan" was apparently well known by the 4th century, when there are references in the canons of the First Council of Nicæa of 325 and Council of Antioch of 341, though the term seems to be used generally for all higher ranks of bishop, including patriarchs. The term "archbishop" does not appear in the modern sense until the 6th century, although the role, above ordinary bishops but below patriarchs, seems to be established for metropolitans by the 5th century.


title: Archbishop

text: Episcopal sees are generally arranged in groups in which one see's bishop has certain powers and duties of oversight over the others. He is known as the metropolitan archbishop of that see. In the Catholic Church, canon 436 of the Code of Canon Law indicates what these powers and duties are for a Latin Church metropolitan archbishop, while those of the head of an autonomous ("sui iuris") Eastern Catholic Churches are indicated in canon 157 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. All Catholic metropolitans are archbishops, but not all archbishops are metropolitans, though most are.


title: Archbishop

text: As well as the much more numerous metropolitan sees, there are 77 Catholic sees that have archiepiscopal rank. In some cases, such a see is the only one in a country, such as Luxembourg or Monaco, too small to be divided into several dioceses so as to form an ecclesiastical province. In others, the title of archdiocese is for historical reasons attributed to a see that was once of greater importance.


title: Archbishop

text: Some of these archdioceses are suffragans of a metropolitan archdiocese; examples are the Archdiocese of Avignon, which is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Marseille, and the Archdiocese of Trnava, Slovakia. Others are immediately subject to the Holy See and not to any metropolitan archdiocese. These are usually "aggregated" to an ecclesiastical province. An example is the Archdiocese of Hobart in Australia, with the Metropolitan ecclesiastical province of Melbourne, but not of it. The ordinary of such an archdiocese is an archbishop.


title: Archbishop

text: In the Anglican Communion, non-metropolitan archiepiscopal sees are much less common. The Anglican Diocese of Jerusalem, established in 1841, was raised to the status of a non-metropolitan archiepiscopal see in 1957, but reduced to the status of an ordinary bishopric again in 1976. In 2014 it was again elevated to the status of non-metropolitan archbishopric, with its ordinary bearing the title "Archbishop in Jerusalem", despite having no ex officio right to be the metropolitan of the province.


title: Archbishop

text: Until 1970, a coadjutor archbishop, one who has special faculties and the right to succeed to the leadership of a see on the death or resignation of the incumbent, was assigned also to a titular see, which he held until the moment of succession. Since then, the title of Coadjutor Archbishop of the see is considered sufficient and more appropriate.


title: Archbishop

text: The rank of archbishop is conferred on some bishops who are not ordinaries of an archdiocese. They hold the rank not because of the see that they head but because it has been granted to them personally ("ad personam"). Such a grant can be given when someone who already holds the rank of archbishop is transferred to a see that, though its present-day importance may be greater than the person's former see, is not archiepiscopal. The bishop transferred is then known as the Archbishop-Bishop of his new see. An example is Gianfranco Gardin, appointed Archbishop-Bishop of Treviso on 21 December 2009. The title borne by the successor of such an archbishop-bishop is merely that of Bishop of the see, unless he also is granted the personal title of Archbishop. Another example is Arthur Roche, who was Bishop of Leeds until his appointment as Secretary of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments. Roche remained a bishop by virtue of his position as Bishop Emeritus of Leeds – rather than being transferred to a different titular archbishopric, he was appointed as an Archbishop "ad personam".


title: Archbishop

text: The distinction between metropolitan sees and non-metropolitan archiepiscopal sees exists for titular sees as well as for residential ones. The "Annuario Pontificio" marks titular sees of the former class with the abbreviation "Metr." and the others with "Arciv."


title: Archbishop

text: Many of the titular sees to which nuncios and heads of departments of the Roman Curia who are not cardinals are assigned are not of archiepiscopal rank. In that case the person who is appointed to such a position is given the personal title of archbishop ("ad personam"). They are usually referred to as Archbishop of the see, not as its Archbishop-Bishop.


title: Archbishop

text: If an archbishop resigns his see without being transferred to another, as in the case of retirement or assignment to head a department of the Roman Curia, the word "emeritus" is added to his former title, and he is called archbishop emeritus of his former see. Until 1970, such archbishops were transferred to a titular see.


title: Archbishop

text: There can be several archbishops emeriti of the same see: the 2008 "Annuario Pontificio" listed three living archbishops emeriti of Taipei.


title: Archbishop

text: There is no archbishop emeritus of a titular see: an archbishop who holds a titular see keeps it until death or until transferred to another see.


title: Archbishop

text: In the Anglican Communion, retired archbishops formally revert to being addressed as "bishop" and styled "The Right Reverend", although they may be appointed "archbishop emeritus" by their province on retirement, in which case they retain the title "archbishop" and the style "The Most Reverend", as a right. Archbishop Desmond Tutu was a prominent example, as Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town. Former archbishops who have not received the status of archbishop emeritus may still be informally addressed as "archbishop" as a courtesy, unless they are subsequently appointed to a bishopric (not an bishopric), in which case the courtesy ceases.


title: Archbishop

text: While there is no difference between the official dress of archbishops, as such, and that of other bishops, Roman Catholic metropolitan archbishops are distinguished by the use in liturgical ceremonies of the pallium, but only within the province over which they have oversight.


title: Archbishop

text: Roman Catholic bishops and archbishops are styled "The Most Reverend" and addressed as "Your Excellency" in most cases. In English-speaking countries (except the United States), a Catholic archbishop is addressed as "Your Grace", while a Catholic bishop is addressed as "Your Lordship". Before December 12, 1930, the title "Most Reverend" was only for archbishops, while bishops were styled as "Right Reverend". This practice is still followed by Catholic bishops in the United Kingdom to mirror that of the Church of England.


title: Archbishop

text: In Roman Catholic heraldry, an archbishop has an ecclesiastical hat called a galero with ten tassels on each side of his coat of arms, while a bishop has only six. The archiepiscopal cross behind the shield has two bars instead of one. Such a cross may be borne before him in liturgical processions.


title: Archbishop

text: In processions and other occasions where strict protocol is observed, archbishops are ranked higher than diocesan bishops in the order of precedence.


title: Archbishop

text: In the Anglican Communion, archbishops are styled "The Most Reverend" and addressed as "Your Grace", while bishops are styled "The Right Reverend" and addressed as "My Lord" or "Your Lordship". (In some countries, this usage is followed also by the Roman Catholic Church, but in others no distinction is made and "The Most Reverend" and "Your Excellency" are used for archbishops and bishops alike.) Anglican archbishops are entitled to be preceded by a server carrying an archiepiscopal processional cross (with two bars instead of one) in liturgical processions. The archbishop of Canterbury's metropolitical processional cross is always carried before him by a priest-chaplain, and (like other archbishops) is a two-barred processional cross. However, the archbishop of Canterbury is also entitled to be preceded by the ancient primatial cross of Canterbury (still in ceremonial use) which is of an ornate historical design, made of precious metal, and with precious stones inserted, but unlike his metropolitical cross (or those of other archbishops) it is not double-barred.


title: Archbishop

text: Archbishops exist in all traditional denominations of the Eastern Christianity, including Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Churches, Eastern Catholic Churches and others.


title: Archbishop

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the office and title of archbishop can be traced from the 4th and 5th century. Historically, the title was used variously, in terms of rank and jurisdiction.


title: Archbishop

text: In some Eastern Orthodox Churches, archbishops are ranked above metropolitans in precedence, while in others that order is reversed. Primates of autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Churches below patriarchal rank are generally designated as archbishops. In the Greek Orthodox Church, archbishops are ranked above metropolitans in precedence. The reverse is true for some Slavic Orthodox Churches (Russian Orthodox, Bulgarian Orthodox) and also for Romanian Orthodox Church, where metropolitans rank above archbishops.


title: Archbishop

text: In terms of jurisdiction, there are two basic types of archbishops in the Eastern Orthodox Church: real archbishops, and honorary archbishops. Real archbishops are primates of autocephalous or autonomous (regional) churches, and they have actual jurisdiction over other bishops, while honorary archbishops are in fact just diocesan bishops with honorary titles of archbishops and no jurisdiction outside their own diocese. The honorary title is usually conferred to bishops of historically important sees. For example, in the Serbian Orthodox Church, both types were represented: head of the autonomous Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric is styled "Archbishop of Ohrid" and invested with regional jurisdiction over all diocesan bishops in North Macedonia, while former diocesan bishop (late Amfilohije Radović) of the Eparchy of Montenegro and the Littoral, with seat in Cetinje, was personally given only the honorary title "Archbishop of Cetinje", but without any jurisdiction over other diocesan bishops in Montenegro.


title: Archbishop

text: Historically, within the Patriarchate of Constantinople, honorary archiepiscopal titles were also granted to those diocesan bishops who were exempt from jurisdictions of local metropolitans, and transferred to the direct jurisdiction of the patriarchal throne. Such titular hierarchs were contentiously styled as ""autocephalous archbishops"" (self-headed, just in terms of not having a metropolitan, but without connotations to real autocephaly). For example, until the end of the 8th century, bishop of Amorium was under the jurisdiction of metropolitan of Pessinus, but he was later exempt and placed under direct patriarchal jurisdiction. On that occasion, he was given an honorary title of an "autocephalous archbishop", but with no jurisdiction over other bishops. Sometime later (), metropolitan province of Amorium was created, and local archbishop finally gained regional jurisdiction as a metropolitan.


title: Archbishop

text: The Oriental Orthodox custom generally agrees with the Slavic rather than the Greek with respect to the archbishop/metropolitan distinction.


title: Archbishop

text: Instead of the term "archbishop", Eastern Catholic Churches sometimes use the word "archeparch" by analogy with "eparch", the term used for a diocesan (or eparchial) bishop. However, the word "archeparch" is not found in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.


title: Hatmaking

text: Hat-making or millinery is the design, manufacture and sale of hats and other headwear. A person engaged in this trade is called a milliner or hatter.


title: Hatmaking

text: Historically, milliners, typically women shopkeepers, produced or imported an inventory of garments for men, women, and children and sold these garments in their millinery shop. Many milliners worked as both milliner and fashion designer, such as Rose Bertin, Jeanne Lanvin, and Coco Chanel.


title: Hatmaking

text: The millinery industry benefited from industrialization during the nineteenth century. In 1889 in London and Paris, over 8,000 women were employed in millinery, and in 1900 in New York, some 83,000 people, mostly women, were employed in millinery. Though the improvements in technology provided benefits to milliners and the whole industry, essential skills, craftsmanship, and creativity are still required. Since the mass-manufacturing of hats began, the term milliner is usually used to describe a person who applies traditional hand-craftsmanship to design, make, sell or trim hats primarily for a mostly female clientele.


title: Hatmaking

text: The term milliner, originally from "Milener", originally meant someone from Milan, in northern Italy, in the early 16th century. It referred to Milanese merchants who sold fancy bonnets, gloves, jewellery and cutlery. In the 16th to 18th centuries, the meaning of milliner gradually changed from a foreign merchant to a dealer in small articles relating to dress. Although the term originally applied to men, milliner came to mean a woman who makes and sells bonnets and other headgear for women since 1713.


title: Hatmaking

text: Milliners work independently based on job order specifications or their designs, observing the regulations regarding work safety, health protection, environmental protection, and ensuring quality and efficiency. They combine their uniqueness, innovation, and technical skills and use different materials and auxiliary materials. In some cases, they plan and organize their schedules in cooperation with their customers' various needs. They also collaborate with the team or the apprentice to the presentation and sale of the products.


title: Hatmaking

text: The millinery industry's apprenticeship culture is commonly seen since the 18th century, while milliner was more like a stylist and created hats or bonnets to go with costumes and chose the laces, trims, and accessories to complete an ensemble piece. Millinery apprentices learned hat-making and styling, running the business, and skills to communicate with customers. Nowadays, this apprenticeship is still a standard process for the students who freshly graduated from the millinery schools. Many well-known milliners experienced this stage. For example, Rose Bertin was an apprentice to a successful milliner Mademoiselle Pagelle before her success.


title: Hatmaking

text: There are many renowned millinery schools located in Europe, especially in London, Paris, and Italy. During the COVID-19, many millinery courses were taught virtually.


title: Hatmaking

text: A wooden hat block is an intricately carved wood form shaped by skillful woodworkers. Hat blocks are the tools of the trade for milliners in creating a unique hat crown shape. Some of the hat blocks are ensembles with crown and brimmed, while some are only with crown or brim or designed for fascinators. Milliners always have an extensive collection of different hat blocks because there are specific hat sizes and custom shapes for every hat block. In the blocking process of a hat, milliners used push pins and a hammer to hold the adjustable string along the crown's collar and the brim's edge.


title: Hatmaking

text: A floral-making iron is a unique iron used by milliners to create different floral petals or leaves as the ornament for hat decoration. In the past, candles were used to heat these irons with various shapes of metal in one set. Nowadays, these irons are electric. A ball-shaped metal heading is commonly used for the curve of floral pastels.


title: Hatmaking

text: Milliners often use buckram, a stiff cotton (occasionally linen or horse hair) cloth with a loose weave. Millinery buckram is impregnated with a starch which allows it to be softened in water, pulled over a hat block, and left to dry into a hard shape. Millinery buckram comes in many weights, including lightweight or baby buckram (often used for children's and dolls' hats), single-ply buckram, and double buckram (also known as "theatrical buckram" or "crown buckram").


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Eleanor Gwyn (2 February 1650 – 14 November 1687; also spelled "Gwynn", "Gwynne") was a celebrity figure of the Restoration period. Praised by Samuel Pepys for her comic performances as one of the first actresses on the English stage, she became best known for being a long-time mistress of King Charles II of England and Scotland. Called "pretty, witty Nell" by Pepys, she has been regarded as a living embodiment of the spirit of Restoration England and has come to be considered a folk heroine, with a story echoing the rags-to-royalty tale of Cinderella. Gwyn had two sons by King Charles: Charles Beauclerk (1670–1726) and James Beauclerk (1671–1680) (the surname is pronounced "boh-clair"). Charles was created Earl of Burford and later Duke of St. Albans.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: The details of Gwyn's background are somewhat obscure. A horoscope in the Ashmolean manuscripts gives her date of birth as 2 February 1650. On the other hand, an account published in "The New Monthly Magazine and Humorist" in 1838 states that she was born about 1642. The earlier date of birth was asserted without documentation, but various scholars have supported both the earlier and later dates. The eight-year difference between these two possible birth years can offer different readings of what Gwyn achieved during her lifetime.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: The obscurity surrounding Gwyn's date of birth parallels numerous other obscurities that run through the course of her life. The information we have about Gwyn is collected from various sources, including the plays she starred in, satirical poetry and pictures, diaries, and letters. As such, much of this information is founded on hearsay, gossip, and rumour, and must therefore be handled with caution.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Her mother Ellen (or a variant, being referred to in her lifetime as "Old Madam", "Madam Gwyn" and "Old Ma Gwyn") was born, according to a monumental inscription, in the parish of St Martin in the Fields, which stretched from Soho and Covent Garden to beyond Mayfair, and is thought to have lived most of her life there in the West End. She is also believed, by most Gwyn biographers, to have been "low-born". Her descendant and biographer Charles Beauclerk calls this conjecture, based solely on what is known of her later life. Madam Gwyn is sometimes said to have had the maiden surname Smith. This appears to be derived from a fragmentary pedigree by Anthony Wood that shows signs of confusion between different Gwyn families and it has not been firmly established. Nell's mother is said to have drowned when she fell into the water at her house near Chelsea. She was buried on 30 July 1679, in her 56th year, at St Martin in the Fields.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Nell Gwyn is reported in a manuscript of 1688 to have been a daughter of "Tho [Thomas] Guine a Cap [captain] of ane antient fammilie in Wales", although the reliability of the statement is doubtful as its author does not seem to have hesitated to create or alter details where the facts were unknown or perhaps unremarkable. There is some suggestion, from a poem dated to 1681, again of doubtful accuracy, that Gwyn's father died at Oxford, perhaps in prison. It has been suggested, based on the pedigree by Anthony Wood, that Gwyn was a granddaughter of Edward or Edmund Gwyn, Canon of Christ Church from 1615 to 1624. However, administration records show that Edmund Gwyn died unmarried. Moreover, Wood did not give a forename for the supposed grandfather of Nell and there are reasons to think that the "Dr ... Gwyn" in the pedigree was intended to be not Edmund Gwyn but rather his brother Matthew. In either case, the available evidence indicates that Nell was not a member of their family.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Gwyn was assigned arms similar to those of the Gwynnes of Llansannor. However, her specific connection to that family, if any, is unknown.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Three cities make the claim to be Gwyn's birthplace: Hereford, London (specifically Covent Garden) and Oxford. Evidence for any one of the three is scarce. The fact that "Gwyn" is a name of Welsh origin might support Hereford, as its county is on the border with Wales; "The Dictionary of National Biography" notes a traditional belief that she was born there in Pipe Well Lane, renamed to Gwynne Street in the 19th century. There is also the legend that Nell Gwynne chose red coats for the Chelsea Pensioners of the Royal Hospital Chelsea she allegedly influenced Charles II to found because she remembered the pensioners of Coningsby Hospital in Hereford wore coats of the same colour. London is the simplest choice, perhaps, since Gwyn's mother was born there and that is where she raised her children. Alexander Smith's 1715 "Lives of the Court Beauties" says she was born in Coal Yard Alley in Covent Garden and other biographies, including Wilson's, have followed suit. Her noble descendant Beauclerk pieces together circumstantial evidence to favour an Oxford birth.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: One way or another, Gwyn's father seems to have been out of the picture by the time of her childhood in Covent Garden, and her "dipsomaniac mother, [and] notorious sister", Rose, were left in a low situation. She experimented with cross-dressing between 1663 and 1667 going under the name "William Nell" and adopting a false beard; her observations informed a most successful and hilarious character interpretation acting as a man on the stage in March 1667. Old Madam Gwyn was by most accounts an alcoholic whose business was running a bawdy house (or brothel). There, or in the bawdy house of one Madam Ross, Nell would spend at least some time. It is possible that she herself was a child prostitute; Peter Thomson, in the "Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre", says it is "probable". A rare mention of her upbringing from the source herself might be seen to contradict the idea: A 1667 entry in Samuel Pepys' diary records, second-hand, that.Here Mrs. Pierce tells me [...] that Nelly and Beck Marshall, falling out the other day, the latter called the other my Lord Buckhurst's whore. Nell answered then, "I was but one man's whore, though I was brought up in a bawdy-house to fill strong waters to the guests; and you are a whore to three or four, though a Presbyter's praying daughter!" It is not out of the question that Gwyn was merely echoing the satirists of the day, if she said this at all.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Various anonymous verses are the only other sources describing her childhood occupations: bawdyhouse servant, street hawker of herring, oysters, or turnips, and cinder-girl have all been put forth. Tradition has her growing up in Coal Yard Alley, a poor slum off Drury Lane.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Around 1662, Nell is said to have taken a lover by the name of Duncan or Dungan. Their relationship lasted perhaps two years and was reported with obscenity-laced acidity in several later satires; "For either with expense of purse or p---k, / At length the weary fool grew Nelly-sick". Duncan provided Gwyn with rooms at a tavern in Maypole Alley, and the satires also say he was involved in securing Nell a job at the theatre being built nearby.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: During the decade of protectorate rule by the Cromwells, pastimes regarded as frivolous, including theatre, had been banned. Charles II had been restored to the English throne in 1660 and quickly reinstated the theatre. One of Charles' early acts as king was to license the formation of two acting companies and to legalise acting as a profession for women. In 1663 the King's Company, led by Thomas Killigrew, opened a new playhouse, the Theatre in Bridges/Brydges Street, which was later rebuilt and renamed the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Mary Meggs, a former prostitute nicknamed "Orange Moll" and a friend of Madam Gwyn's, had been granted the licence to "vend, utter and sell oranges, lemons, fruit, sweetmeats and all manner of fruiterers and confectioners wares" within the theatre. Orange Moll hired Nell and her elder sister Rose as scantily clad ‘orange-girls’, selling the small, sweet "china" oranges to the audience inside the theatre for a sixpence each. The work exposed her to multiple aspects of theatre life and to London's higher society: this was after all "the King's playhouse", and Charles frequently attended performances. The orange-girls would also serve as messengers between men in the audience and actresses backstage; they received monetary tips for this role and some of these messages would end in sexual assignations. Whether this activity rose to the level of pimping may be a matter of semantics.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: The new theatres were the first in England to feature actresses; earlier, women's parts had been played by boys or men. Gwyn joined the rank of actresses at Bridges Street when she was fourteen (if we take her birth year to be 1650), less than a year after becoming an orange-girl.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: If her good looks, strong clear voice, and lively wit were responsible for catching the eye of Killigrew, she still had to prove herself clever enough to succeed as an actress. This was no easy task in the Restoration theatre; the limited pool of audience members meant that very short runs were the norm for plays and fifty different productions might be mounted in the nine-month season lasting from September to June. She was reputed to have been illiterate.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: She was taught her craft of performing at a school for young actors developed by Killigrew and one of the fine male actors of the time, Charles Hart, and learned dancing from another, John Lacy; both were rumoured by satirists of the time to be her lovers, but if she had such a relationship with Lacy (Beauclerk thinks it unlikely), it was kept much more discreet than her well-known affair with Hart.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Much like the dispute over her date of birth, it is unclear when Gwyn began to perform professionally on the Restoration stage. It is possible that she first appeared in smaller parts during the 1664–65 season. For example, The Bodleian Manuscript of "The Siege of Urbin" has the part of Pedro (Melina- a maid servant in breeches) played by a 'Mrs. Nell'. Additionally, 'Nelle' was intended to play the small role of Paulina, a courtesan, in Killigrew's "Thomaso, or The Wanderer" in November 1664, but the play seems to have been cancelled. The use of 'Mrs' would imply that Gwyn was more likely born in 1642 than 1650 as it indicates an actress over the age of 21 (not her marital status) for which certain roles would be more suitable. Nonetheless, since players of less substantial parts are seldom mentioned in cast lists or playgoers' diaries of the period, an absolute date for Gywn's debut cannot be ascertained.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Whatever her first role as an actress may have been, it is evident that she had become a more prominent actress by 1665. It is around this time when she is first mentioned in Pepys' diary, specifically on Monday 3 April 1665, while attending a play, where the description 'pretty, witty Nell' is first recorded. This unusual use of only her first name would imply that Gwyn had made herself known both on the stage and off as her celebrity status started to emerge. Her first recorded appearance on-stage was in March 1665, in John Dryden's heroic drama "The Indian Emperour", playing Cydaria, daughter of Moctezuma and love interest to Cortez, played by her real-life lover Charles Hart.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: However, Pepys, whose diary usually has great things to say about Gwyn, was displeased with her performance in this same part two years later: "...to the King's playhouse, and there saw 'The Indian Emperour;' where I find Nell come again, which I am glad of; but was most infinitely displeased with her being put to act the Emperour's daughter; which is a great and serious part, which she do most basely."


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Gwyn herself seems to agree that drama did not suit her, to judge from the lines she was later made to say in the epilogue to a Robert Howard drama:


title: Nell Gwyn

text: It was in the new form of restoration comedy that Gwyn would become a star. In May 1665, she appeared opposite Hart in James Howard's comedy "All Mistaken, or the Mad Couple".


title: Nell Gwyn

text: There is some debate over the year "The Mad Couple" debuted, with earlier authorities believing it to be 1667. This was the first of many appearances in which Gwyn and Hart played the "gay couple", a form that would become a frequent theme in restoration comedies. The gay couple, broadly defined, is a pair of witty, antagonistic lovers, he generally a rake fearing the entrapment of marriage and she feigning to do the same in order to keep her lover at arm's length. Theatre historian Elizabeth Howe goes so far as to credit the enduring success of the gay couple on the Restoration stage entirely to "the talent and popularity of a single actress, Nell Gwyn".


title: Nell Gwyn

text: The Great Plague of London shut down the Bridges Street theatre, along with most of the city, from mid-1665 until late 1666. Gwyn and her mother spent some of this time in Oxford, following the King and his court. The King's Company is presumed to have mounted some private theatrical entertainments for the court during this time away from the virulent capital. Gwyn and the other ten "women comedians in His Majesty's Theatre" were issued the right (and the cloth) to wear the King's livery at the start of this exile, proclaiming them official servants of the King.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: After the theatres reopened, Gwyn and Hart returned to play role after role that fit the mould of the gay couple, including in James Howard's "The English Monsieur" (December 1666), Richard Rhodes' "Flora's Vagaries", an adaptation of John Fletcher's "The Chances" by George Villiers, and then in their greatest success, "Secret Love, or The Maiden Queen".


title: Nell Gwyn

text: This play, a tragicomedy written by the theatre's house dramatist, John Dryden, was performed in March 1667. It was a great success: King Charles "graced it with the Title of His Play" and Pepys' praise was effusive:


title: Nell Gwyn

text: ... to the King's house to see 'The Maiden Queen', a new play of Dryden's, mightily commended for the regularity of it, and the strain and wit; and the truth is, there is a comical part done by Nell, which is Florimell, that I never can hope ever to see the like done again, by man or woman. The King and the Duke of York were at the play. But so great performance of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world before as Nell do this, both as a mad girl, then most and best of all when she comes in like a young gallant; and hath the notions and carriage of a spark the most that ever I saw any man have. It makes me, I confess, admire her.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: After seeing the play for the third time, Pepys writes, "It is impossible to have Florimel’s part, which is the most comical that ever was made for woman, ever done better than it is by Nelly." Killigrew must have agreed with Pepys's opinion. Once Gwyn left the acting profession, it would be at least ten years before his company revived "The Maiden Queen" and even the less favoured "The Indian Emperour" because "the management evidently felt that it would be useless to present these plays without her."


title: Nell Gwyn

text: "The Maiden Queen" featured breeches roles, where the actress appeared in men's clothes under one pretence or another, and as Bax supposes "was one of the first occasions upon which a woman appeared in the disguise of a man"; if nothing else this could draw an audience eager to see the women show off their figures in the more form-fitting male attire. The attraction had another dynamic: the theatres sometimes had a hard time holding onto their actresses, as they were swept up to become the kept mistresses of the aristocracy. In 1667, Gwyn made such a match with Charles Sackville, titled Lord Buckhurst at that time. She supposedly caught his eye during an April performance of "All Mistaken, or The Mad Couple", especially in one scene in which, to escape a hugely fat suitor able to move only by rolling, she rolls across the stage herself, her feet toward the audience and her petticoats flying about. A satire of the time describes this and also Hart's position now, in the face of competition from the upper echelons of society:


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Beauclerk describes Buckhurst: "Cultured, witty, satirical, dissolute, and utterly charming". He was one of a handful of court wits, the "merry gang" as named by Andrew Marvell. Sometime after the end of April and her last recorded role that season (in Robert Howard's "The Surprisal"), Gwyn and Buckhurst left London for a country holiday in Epsom, accompanied by Charles Sedley, another wit in the merry gang. Pepys reports the news on 13 July: "[Mr. Pierce tells us] Lord Buckhurst hath got Nell away from the King's house, lies with her, and gives her £100 a year, so she hath sent her parts to the house, and will act no more." Gwyn was acting once more in late August, and her brief affair with Buckhurst had ended. Pepys reports that by 22 August 1667, Gwyn had returned to the King's Playhouse in "The Indian Emperour". On 26 August, Pepys learns from Moll Davis that, 'Nell is already left by my Lord Buckhurst, and that he makes sport of her, and swears she hath had all she could get of him; and Hart, her great admirer, now hates her; and that she is very poor, and hath lost my Lady Castlemayne, who was her great friend also but she is come to the House, but is neglected by them all'.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Late in 1667, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham took on the role of unofficial manager for Gwyn's love affairs. He aimed to provide King Charles II with someone who would supplant Barbara Palmer, his principal current mistress and Buckingham's cousin, moving Buckingham closer to the King's ear. The plan failed; reportedly, Gwyn asked £500 a year to be kept and this was rejected as it was regarded as too expensive. Buckingham had an alternative plan, which was to set the King up with Moll Davis, an actress with the rival Duke's Company. Davis would be Gwyn's first rival for the King. Several anonymous satires from the time relate a tale of Gwyn, with the help of her friend Aphra Behn, slipping a powerful laxative into Davis's tea-time cakes before an evening when she was expected in the King's bed.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: The love affair between the King and Gwyn allegedly began in April 1668. Gwyn was attending a performance of George Etherege's "She Wou'd if She Cou'd" at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In the next box was the King, who from accounts was more interested in flirting with Gwyn than watching the play. Charles invited Gwyn and her escort, Mr. Villiers, a cousin of Buckingham's, to supper along with his brother the Duke of York. The anecdote turns charming if perhaps apocryphal at this point: the King, after supper, discovered that he had no money on him; nor did his brother, and Gwyn had to foot the bill. "Od's fish!" she exclaimed, in an imitation of the King's manner of speaking, "but this is the poorest company I ever was in!"


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Having previously been the mistress of Charles Hart and Charles Sackville, Gwyn jokingly called the King "her Charles the Third". By mid-1668, Gwyn's affair with the King was well-known, though there was little reason to believe it would last for long. She continued to act at the King's House, her new notoriety drawing larger crowds and encouraging the playwrights to craft more roles specifically for her. June 1668 found her in Dryden's "An Evening's Love", or "The Mock Astrologer", and in July she played in Lacy's "The Old Troop", a farce about a company of Cavalier soldiers during the English Civil War, based on Lacy's own experiences. Possibly, Gwyn's father had served in the same company, and Gwyn's part—the company whore—was based on her own mother. As her commitment to the King increased, though, her acting career slowed, and she had no recorded parts between January and June 1669, when she played Valeria in Dryden's very successful tragedy "Tyrannick Love".


title: Nell Gwyn

text: King Charles II had a considerable number of mistresses through his life, both short affairs and committed arrangements. He also had a wife, Portuguese Queen consort Catherine of Braganza, whose pregnancies all ended in miscarriages, and she had little or no say over Charles's choice to have mistresses. This had come to a head shortly after their marriage in 1662, in a confrontation between Catherine and Barbara Palmer which became known as the "Bedchamber crisis". Ostracised at Court and with most of her retinue sent back to Portugal, Catherine had been left with little choice but to acquiesce to Charles's mistresses being granted semi-official standing.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: During Gwyn's first years with Charles, there was little competition in the way of other mistresses: Barbara Palmer was on her way out, while others, such as Moll Davis, kept quietly away from the spotlight of public appearances or Whitehall. Gwyn gave birth to her first son, Charles, on 8 May 1670. This was the King's seventh son—by five separate mistresses.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Several months later, Louise de Kérouaille came to England from France, ostensibly to serve as a maid of honour to Queen Catherine, but also to become another mistress to King Charles, probably by design on both the French and English sides. She and Gwyn would prove rivals for many years to come. They were opposites in personality and mannerism; Louise a proud woman of noble birth used to the sophistication of Versailles, Gwyn a spirited and pranking ex-orange-wench. Gwyn nicknamed Louise "Squintabella" for her looks and the "Weeping Willow" for her tendencies to sob. In one instance, recorded in a letter from George Legge to Lord Preston, Gwyn characteristically jabbed at the Duchess's "great lineage," dressing in black at Court, the same mourning attire as Louise when a prince of France died. Someone there asked, "What the deuce was the Cham of Tartary to you?" to which Gwyn responded, "Oh, exactly the same relation that the French Prince was to Mademoiselle de Kérouaille." The Duchess of Portsmouth's only recorded riposte was, "anybody may know she has been an orange-wench by her swearing". Their relationship was not strictly adversarial; they were known to get together for tea and cards, for example. Basset was the popular game at the time, and Gwyn was a frequent—and high-stakes—gambler.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Gwyn returned to the stage again in late 1670, something Beauclerk calls an "extraordinary thing to do" for a mistress with a royal child. Her return was in Dryden's "The Conquest of Granada", a two-part epic produced in December 1670 and January 1671. This may have been her last play; 1671 was almost certainly her last season. Gwyn's theatrical career spanned seven years and ended at the age of 21 (if we take 1650 to be her birth year).


title: Nell Gwyn

text: In the cast list of Aphra Behn's "The Rover", produced at Dorset Garden in March 1677, the part of Angelica Bianca, "a famous Curtezan" is played by a Mrs. Gwin. This has sparked some confusion. The spelling of 'Gwin' does not refer to Nell Gwyn, but to Mrs. Anne Quin. Nell Gwyn had left the stage by this point.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: In February 1671, Gwyn moved into a brick townhouse at 79 Pall Mall. The property was owned by the crown and its current resident was instructed to transfer the lease to Gwyn. It would be her main residence for the rest of her life. Gwyn seemed unsatisfied with being a lessee only—in 1673, a letter written by that of Joseph Williamson stated that "Madam Gwinn complains she has no house yet." Gwyn is said to have complained that "she had always conveyed free under the Crown, and always would; and would not accept [the house] till it was conveyed free to her by an Act of Parliament." In 1676, Gwyn was granted the freehold of the property, which remained in her family until 1693; as of 1960 the property was still the only one on the south side of Pall Mall not owned by the Crown.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Gwyn gave birth to her second child by the King, christened James, on 25 December 1671. Sent to school in Paris when he was six, he died there in 1681. The circumstances of the child's life in Paris and the cause of his death are both unknown, one of the few clues being that he died "of a sore leg", which Beauclerk speculates could mean anything from an accident to poison. Her family's history has been published in the authoritative book: "The House of Nell Gwyn" (1974).


title: Nell Gwyn

text: There are two stories about how the eldest of her two children by Charles was given the Earldom of Burford, both of which are unverifiable. The first, and most popular, is that when Charles was six years old, on the arrival of the King, Gwyn said, "Come here, you little bastard, and say hello to your father." When the King protested against her calling Charles that, she replied, "Your Majesty has given me no other name by which to call him." In response, Charles created him Earl of Burford. Another is that Gwyn grabbed young Charles and hung him out of a window of Lauderdale House in Highgate, where she briefly resided, and threatened to drop him unless he was granted a peerage. The King cried out "God save the Earl of Burford!" and subsequently officially created the peerage, saving his son's life. On 21 December 1676, a warrant was passed for "a grant to Charles Beauclerc, the King's natural son, and to the heirs male of his body, of the dignities of Baron of Heddington, co. Oxford, and Earl of Burford in the same county, with remainder to his brother, James Beauclerc, and the heirs male of his body." A few weeks later, James was given "the title of Lord Beauclerc, with the place and precedence of the eldest son of an earl."


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Shortly afterwards, the King granted Gwyn and their son a house, which was renamed Burford House, on the edge of the Home Park in Windsor. She lived there when the King was in residence at Windsor Castle. In addition to the properties mentioned above, Gwyn had a summer residence on the site of what is now 61–63 King's Cross Road, London, which enjoyed later popularity as the Bagnigge Wells Spa. According to the London Encyclopedia (Macmillan, 1983) she "entertained Charles II here with little concerts and breakfasts". An inscribed stone of 1680, saved and reinserted in the front wall of the present building, shows a carved mask which is probably a reference to her stage career.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Just after the death of Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans on 5 January 1684, King Charles granted his son Charles the title of Duke of St Albans, gave him an allowance of £1,000 a year, and also granted him the offices of Chief Ranger of Enfield Chase and Master of the Hawks in reversion; i.e., after the death of the current incumbents.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: King Charles died on 6 February 1685. James II, obeying his brother's deathbed wish, "Let not poor Nelly starve," eventually paid most of Gwyn's debts and gave her an annual pension of £1,500. He also paid off the mortgage on Gwyn's Nottinghamshire lodge at Bestwood, which remained in the Beauclerk family until 1940. At the same time, James applied pressure on Gwyn and her son Charles to convert to Roman Catholicism, something she resisted.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: In March 1687, Gwyn suffered a stroke that left her paralysed on one side. In May, a second stroke left her confined to the bed in her Pall Mall house; she made out her will on 9 July and a codicil on 18 October with her executors, Laurence Hyde (the Earl of Rochester), Thomas Earl of Pembroke, Sir Robert Sawyer the Attorney General, and Henry Sidney each receiving £100. Gwyn died from apoplexy "almost certainly due to the acquired variety of syphilis" on 14 November 1687, at ten in the evening, less than three years after the King's death. She was 37 years old (if she was born in 1650). Her balance at Child's Bank was reported to be well over four figures, and she possessed almost 15,000 ounces of plate. The Oxford Dictionary of Actors therefore suggests that 'perhaps most of her wealth was in trust or not in liquid assets' which might explain why the rich girl was so poor. A letter from Wigmore to Etherege, the day after Gwyn's burial, reports that Gwyn left 'about 1,000,000 l. stirling, a great many say more, few less'. The majority of her estate went to her son. Gwyn's will also conveys her charitable side with her leaving £100 to be distributed to the poor of the parish of St Martins-in-the-field and Westminster and £50 to release debtors from prison every Christmas.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: She was buried in the Church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, London, on 17 November 1687. In compliance with one of Gwyn's final requests, Thomas Tenison, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, preached a sermon on 17 December from the text of Luke 15:7 "Just so, I tell you, there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who need no repentance." Her will and codicil were proved on 7 December 1687.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Though Gwyn was often caricatured as an empty-headed woman, John Dryden said that her greatest attribute was her native wit, and she certainly became a hostess who was able to keep the friendship of Dryden, the playwright Aphra Behn, William Ley, 4th Earl of Marlborough (a lover of hers), John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, and the King's other mistresses. She is especially remembered for one particularly apt witticism, which was recounted in the memoirs of the Comte de Gramont, remembering the events of 1681:Nell Gwynn was one day passing through the streets of Oxford, in her coach, when the mob mistaking her for her rival, the Duchess of Portsmouth, commenced hooting and loading her with every opprobrious epithet. Putting her head out of the coach window, "Good people", she said, smiling, "you are mistaken; I am the "Protestant" whore." The "Catholic" whore was still the Frenchwoman Louise de Kérouaille, who had been created Duchess of Portsmouth in 1673.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: The author of her 1752 biography relates a conversation (more than likely fabricated) between Gwyn and Charles II in which he, feeling at a loss, said, "O, Nell! What shall I do to please the People of England? I am torn to pieces by their clamours."


title: Nell Gwyn

text: "If it please your Majesty," she replied, "there is but one way left, which expedient I am afraid it will be difficult to persuade you to embrace. Dismiss your ladies, may it please your Majesty, and mind your business; the People of England will soon be "pleased"."


title: Nell Gwyn

text: She is noted for another remark made to her coachman, who was fighting with another man who had called her a whore. She broke up the fight, saying, "I "am" a whore. Find something else to fight about."


title: Nell Gwyn

text: In 1937, a new ten-storey block of 437 flats in Sloane Avenue, Chelsea, was given the name Nell Gwynn House, and in a high alcove above the main entrance is a statue of Gwyn, with a Cavalier King Charles spaniel at her feet. Mostly unnoticed by passers-by, this is believed to be the only statue of a royal mistress in the capital city.


title: Nell Gwyn

text: Gwyn has appeared as the principal, or a leading character, in numerous stage works and novels, including:


title: Opel GT

text: The Opel GT is a front-engine, rear-drive two-seat sports car manufactured and marketed by Opel in two generations — separated by a 34-year hiatus.


title: Opel GT

text: The first generation Opel GT (1968 –1973) debuted as a styling exercise in 1965 at the Paris and Frankfurt motor shows. The production vehicle used mechanical components from the contemporary Opel Kadett B and two-door hard top bodywork by French contractor Brissonneau & Lotz. The styling of the GT was often cited as similar to the 1968 Chevrolet Corvette which went on sale in September 1967.


title: Opel GT

text: Opel marketed a second generation "GT" (2007-2009) as a rebadged variant of the Saturn Sky two-seater convertible (which was based on the Pontiac Solstice), manufactured in Wilmington, Delaware, USA.


title: Opel GT

text: In 2016, Opel introduced the "GT Concept" at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show as a lightweight, turbocharged, rear-wheel drive two-seater.


title: Opel GT

text: The Opel GT was equipped with a base 1.1 L OHV inline-four engine, which produced 67 hp (SAE) at 6,000 rpm. However, most buyers chose an optional 1.9 L camshaft in head engine, which produced 102 hp (SAE) at 5200 to 5400 rpm. Some of the early 1968 models also came with a slightly higher compression "H" code cylinder head. In 1971, due to emissions regulations, Opel reduced the compression ratio of the 1.9 L engine used in the US and output fell to 83 hp (SAE). There was also a GT/J model, which was a less expensive version of the 1900-engined GT which was sold only in Europe. Standard transmission was a manual four-speed. A three-speed automatic was available with the 1.9 L engine. The model run of the Opel GT was from 1968 to 1973.


title: Opel GT

text: The Opel GT uses a steel unibody and a front mid-engined, rear-wheel drive layout. The engine is mounted far back in the chassis to improve weight distribution. Front suspension consists of upper A-arms and a lower transverse leaf spring — aside from the Opel's styling, the unusual use of a transverse leaf-spring in the suspension was another remarkable commonality with Chevrolet's Corvette. A live axle and coil springs are used in the rear. The power-assisted braking system uses discs in the front, drums in the rear. Steering is unassisted.


title: Opel GT

text: One unusual feature of the Opel GT is the operation of the pop-up headlights. They are manually operated, by way of a large lever along the center console next to the shifter. Unlike most pop-up headlights, they both rotate in the same direction (counterclockwise from inside the car) about a longitudinal axis.


title: Opel GT

text: Designed by Opel stylist Erhard Schnell, the GT is a fastback, that has neither an externally accessible trunk nor a conventional hatchback. There is a parcel shelf behind the seats that can only be accessed through the main doors. Behind the parcel shelf is a fold-up panel that conceals a spare tire and jack.


title: Opel GT

text: During 1968 to 1973, a total of 103,463 cars were sold. The most collectible GTs are probably the first few hundred cars hand-assembled in 1968 and the 1968–1970 models with the 1.1 L engine, which totaled 3,573 cars. Of the later cars, 10,760 were the cheaper model (GT/J), which lacked nearly all chrome parts and offered fewer standard features. In some markets, items like a limited slip differential, front and rear anti-sway bars, heated rear window, and engine bay light were standard, although most cars were shipped without them.


title: Opel GT

text: In North America, the GT was sold at Buick dealerships. Reasons for ending production were the need to redesign the car to remain competitive with up-and-coming sports models, such as the Datsun 240Z, as well as the termination of Brissonneau and Lotz' bodybuilding contract. Unusually for the period, there was no Vauxhall equivalent model to the GT sold in the United Kingdom.


title: Opel GT

text: The Opel GT was also used by Italian coachbuilder Sergio Coggiola to create the Opel Sylvia GT, an angular design of the folded-paper school. The 1973 Sylvia was also designed with an eye to safety.


title: Opel GT

text: Automotive magazine "Road & Track" reviewed the GT in their June 1969 issue, recording 0–96 km/h in 10.8 seconds and a top speed of 182 km/h. "Road & Track" also found the car to have strong understeer, suggesting the 165x13 tires to be too small, although the ride was comfortable.


title: Opel GT

text: The new Opel GT was produced from 2007 to 2010. It was a badge engineered variant of the Pontiac Solstice and the Saturn Sky and was available solely with the 2.0 L, direct injection turbocharged Ecotec four-cylinder engine. It had 18-inch alloy wheels. The car replaced the Opel Speedster in the European lineup; however, it is not sold in right-hand drive in the UK, thus there is no replacement for the Vauxhall VX220. The situation is similar to Holden in Australia, as the Saturn Sky and Pontiac Solstice are produced at a North American plant, which does not have the necessary tooling for producing right-hand drive vehicles.


title: Opel GT

text: The 2016 Opel GT concept debuted on 27 January 2016. Built on an all-new compact rear-wheel-drive platform, the GT has a lightweight construction and stripped down interior. Power comes from a turbocharged 1.0-liter three-cylinder engine producing 145 hp with a 6-speed semi-automatic gearbox.


title: Opel GT

text: The concept features historic design cues associated with Opel's past products; the twin tailpipes with the GT wordmark in the middle are reminiscent of those on the original 1965 GT prototype.


title: Opel GT

text: The car made its first public debut on March 1st at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show. A production version was being conjectured to follow in 2018, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the original Opel GT's unveiling in 1968, and Opel didn't rule out the possibility.


title: Opel GT

text: However, the production Opel GT concept was cancelled not only due to a shrinking market for sports cars, but also the brand's acquisition by Groupe PSA.


title: Six Abodes of Murugan

text: The Six Abodes of Murugan (Tamil: ) are six temples situated in the state of Tamil Nadu in South India. The god is known by different names such as Murugan, Kandaswamy, Kartikeya, Skanda, Vadivela at various temples. The six most sacred abodes of Murugan was mentioned in Tamil sangam literature, "Thirumurugatrupadai", written by Nakkeerar and in "Thiruppugazh", written by Arunagirinathar. The six abodes are Thiruparankundram, Tiruchendur, Palani, Swamimalai, Thiruthani and Pazhamudircholai.


title: Six Abodes of Murugan

text: The story of Lord Murugan is described in Skanda Purana. According to the legend, in the olden days the demon Soorapadman tortured the Devas, who went to complain to Lord Vishnu and Brahma. They assigned Kamadeva to awake Lord Shiva from his penance, who later gave birth to Murugan. Murugan killed Soorapadman and saved the devas. Lord Muruga is depicted as the god of love and war. Muruga married Valli by love and married Deivayanai by winning the war held at Tiruchendur.


title: Six Abodes of Murugan

text: In Tamil literature five types of lands are explained. They are Kurinji (mountainous region), Mullai (forest region), Marutham (agricultural region), Neithal (coastal region) and Palai (desert region). Separate gods for these land types are clearly told in Sangam literature. According to the literature Lord Muruga is a leader of the Kurinji region.


title: Six Abodes of Murugan

text: Arunagirinathar was a 15th-century Tamil poet born in Tiruvannamalai. He spent his early years as a rioter and seducer of women. After ruining his health, he tried to commit suicide by throwing himself from the northern tower of Annamalaiyar Temple, but was saved by the grace of god Murugan. He became a staunch devotee and composed Tamil hymns glorifying Murugan, the most notable being "Thirupugazh". Arunagirinathar visited various Murugan temples and on his way back to Tiruvannamalai, visited Palani and sung praises about Swaminathaswamy. Tiruparamkundram is considered the first of the six abodes. This is the only temple where abishekam is performed for Vel instead of Lord Murugan. Palani is considered the most prominent abodes of Lord Muruga.


title: Six Abodes of Murugan

text: One of the main traditions of the six temples, is the tonsuring of devotees, who vow to discard their hair in imitation of the Palani deity. Another is the anointing of the head of the presiding deity's idol with sandalwood paste, at night, prior to the temple being closed for the day. The paste, upon being allowed to stay overnight, is said to acquire medicinal properties, and is much sought after and distributed to devotees, as . A commonly followed worship practice involves devotees wearing ochre clothes and carrying a , an ornamental mount decked with flowers, glazed paper, and tinsel work, on foot for long distances.


title: Six Abodes of Murugan

text: According to Tamil sangam literature five types of lands are seen, where Lord Muruga is the God of Mountainous Regions.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Tamil Nadu Police is the primary law enforcement agency of the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is over 150 years old and is the fifth largest state police force in India. Tamil Nadu has a police-population ratio of 1:632.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: For administrative purposes, the state has been divided into four police zones – North, South, West and Central each headed by an Inspector General of Police.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Inspector-general of police will be assisted by a Deputy Inspector-General Of Police with jurisdiction of range comprising 2 or more districts.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Each district is headed by a Superintendent of Police, whereas major metropolitan cities such as Chennai and it's satellite commissionerates in Tambaram and Avadi are headed by the Commissioner of Police equivalent to the rank of Additional Director General of Police and Madurai, Tiruchirappalli, Salem, Tiruppur, Tirunelveli, Coimbatore are headed by a City Commissioner Of Police equivalent to the rank of Inspector-General of Police.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: North Zone having jurisdiction over 10 Districts (excluding Chennai City, Avadi City, Tambaram City) viz., Kanchipuram, Thiruvallur, Villuppuram, Cuddalore, Vellore,


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Thirupattur, Tiruvannamalai, Kallakurichi, Chengalpattu.The Inspector General of Police in the North Zone is N. Kannan IPS


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: West Zone having jurisdiction over 8 Districts (exclude Coimbatore City, Salem City, Tiruppur City) viz., Coimbatore Rural, Tiruppur Rural, Salem Rural, The Nilgiris, Erode, Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Namakkal. The Inspector General of Police in the West Zone is R. Sudhakar IPS


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Central Zone having jurisdiction over 9 Districts (excluding Tiruchirappalli City and Thanjavur City ) viz., Thanjavur rural, Tiruchirappalli Rural, Perambalur, Ariyalur, Karur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Pudukottai and Mayiladuthurai. The Inspector General of Police in the Central Zone is Santhosh Kumar IPS


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: South Zone having jurisdiction over 10 Districts (excluding Madurai City and Tirunelveli City) viz., Madurai Rural, Dindigul, Ramanathapuram, Sivagangai, Theni, Virudhunagar, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli Rural, Kanyakumari and Tenkasi.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: The ranks, posts and designations of all police officers vary from state to state as law and order is a state matter. But, generally the following pattern is observed:


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Majority of the equipment used by Tamil Nadu police are manufactured by Indian Ordnance Factories controlled by the Ordnance Factories Board, Ministry of Defence, and the Government of India. Tamil Nadu police are equipped with various weapons such as AK-47, Ishapore 2A1 rifle, Lee–Enfield rifle, INSAS rifle, FN FAL rifle, Glock handguns, shotguns and grenade launchers.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: The special units of Tamil Nadu Police headed by Additional Director General of Police/Inspector general of police which is also supervised overall by Director General of Police. These Special Units perform specific functions related to security, intelligence, criminal investigations and support services. They are as follows:


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Routine cyber offences including phishing, vishing, morphing, extortion and cyber stalking complainants from individuals are investigated by the cyber crime police stations in districts and cities. The Cyber crime wing is headed by the Additional Director General of Police, Cyber Crime.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: The Cyber Crime Investigation Centre located at the hear quarter of Cyber Crime Wing of Tamil Nadu police in Ashok Nagar, Chennai, deals exclusively with organised cyber crime, ransomware attacks and cryptocurrency frauds . The Cyber Crime Investigation Centre was notified as a police station with wider power and jurisdiction across the state. It investigates cases with undefined jurisdiction of suspects and complainants. It also investigates social media posts that abuse constitutional functionaries, damage state integrity, disturbs public order, anti-national activities, media that affect the sovereignty and integrity of India.


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: Social Media Monitoring Centre, in 2022, the Tamil Nadu Government announced its formation "to monitor and curb the spread of fake news and misinformation online".


title: Tamil Nadu Police

text: The Cyber crime helpline phone number is 1930. Victims of any cyber financial fraud can contact the helpline to block and revert the money transferred to criminals. In the financial year 2021 more than were recovered by Tamil Nadu police based on complaints of cyber crime.


title: Jacob (name)

text: Jacob is a common male given name and a less well-known surname. It is a cognate of James, derived from Late Latin "Iacobus", from Greek "Iakobos", from Hebrew ("Yaʿaqōḇ"), the name of the Hebrew patriarch, Jacob son of Isaac and Rebecca. The name comes either from the Hebrew root "ʿqb" meaning "to follow, to be behind" but also "to supplant, circumvent, assail, overreach", or from the word for "heel", "ʿaqeb". It can also be taken to mean "may God protect."


title: Jacob (name)

text: In the narrative of Genesis, it refers to the circumstances of Jacob's birth when he held on to the heel of his older twin brother Esau (Genesis 25:26).


title: Jacob (name)

text: In a Christian context, Jacob – "James" in English form – is the name for several people in the New Testament: (1) the apostle James, son of Zebedee, (2) another apostle, James, son of Alphaeus, and (3) James the brother of Jesus (James the Just), who led the original Nazarene Community in Jerusalem. There are several Jacobs in the genealogy of Jesus.


title: Mysterious Girlfriend X

text: The series follows the relationship of Akira Tsubaki and Mikoto Urabe. Urabe is a transfer student who recently came to Tsubaki's school. After a series of strange events, Tsubaki finds himself addicted to Urabe's drool. Once she claims the addiction as love sickness, the relationship slowly progresses, focusing on the odd bond that comes out of the drool attachment.


title: Mysterious Girlfriend X

text: As the story progresses, the relationship between the two deepens into genuine love. The manga strongly foreshadows that they will never break up, but rather will stay together for life.


title: Mysterious Girlfriend X

text: "Mysterious Girlfriend X" is written and illustrated by Riichi Ueshiba. A one-shot chapter was first published in Kodansha's "seinen" manga magazine "Monthly Afternoon" in 2004. It was then serialized in the same magazine from March 25, 2006, to September 25, 2014. Kodansha collected its chapters in twelve "tankōbon" volumes, released from August 23, 2006 to November 21, 2014.


title: Mysterious Girlfriend X

text: The manga is available in English as part of a read-only/download-only subscription from Crunchyroll and Kodansha. Vertical licensed the series for release in North America, and released the manga in six omnibus volumes from spring 2016 to summer 2017.


title: Mysterious Girlfriend X

text: An anime adaptation by Hoods Entertainment aired in Japan between April 7, 2012 and June 30, 2012 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll. An original video animation episode was released with the ninth volume of the manga on August 23, 2012. The series has been licensed in North America by Sentai Filmworks and began streaming on The Anime Network and Hulu 31 days following its airdate. Sentai Filmworks released a box-set containing the entire 13 episode TV series on Blu-ray and DVD June 11, 2013. The opening theme is by Ayako Yoshitani, whilst the ending theme is by Yoshitani. An English dub was released in Australia by Hanabee Entertainment on June 5, 2013.


title: Arabesque

text: The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, used in the Islamic world, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems". It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. Within the very wide range of Eurasian decorative art that includes motifs matching this basic definition, the term "arabesque" is used consistently as a technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from the Renaissance onwards. Interlace and scroll decoration are terms used for most other types of similar patterns.


title: Arabesque

text: Arabesques are a fundamental element of Islamic art but they develop what was already a long tradition by the coming of Islam. The past and current usage of the term in respect of European art is confused and inconsistent. Some Western arabesques derive from Islamic art, but others are closely based on ancient Roman decorations. In the West they are essentially found in the decorative arts, but because of the generally non-figurative nature of Islamic art, arabesque decoration is there often a very prominent element in the most significant works, and plays a large part in the decoration of architecture.


title: Arabesque

text: Claims are often made regarding the theological significance of the arabesque and its origin in a specifically Islamic view of the world; however, these are without support from written historical sources since, like most medieval cultures, the Islamic world has not left us documentation of their intentions in using the decorative motifs they did. At the popular level such theories often appear uninformed as to the wider context of the arabesque. In similar fashion, proposed connections between the arabesque and Arabic knowledge of geometry remains a subject of debate; not all art historians are persuaded that such knowledge had reached, or was needed by, those creating arabesque designs, although in certain cases there is evidence that such a connection did exist. The case for a connection with Islamic mathematics is much stronger for the development of the geometric patterns with which arabesques are often combined in art. Geometric decoration often uses patterns that are made up of straight lines and regular angles that somewhat resemble curvilinear arabesque patterns; the extent to which these too are described as arabesque varies between different writers.


title: Arabesque

text: The Islamic arabesque was probably invented in Baghdad around the 10th century. It first appeared as a distinctive and original development in Islamic art in carved marble panels from around this time.


title: Arabesque

text: The arabesque developed out of the long-established traditions of plant-based scroll ornament in the cultures taken over by the early Islamic conquests. Early Islamic art, for example in the famous 8th-century mosaics of the Great Mosque of Damascus, often contained plant-scroll patterns, in that case by Byzantine artists in their usual style. The plants most often used are stylized versions of the acanthus, with its emphasis on leafy forms, and the vine, with an equal emphasis on twining stems. The evolution of these forms into a distinctive Islamic type was complete by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the Mshatta Facade. In the process of development the plant forms became increasingly simplified and stylized. The relatively abundant survivals of stucco reliefs from the walls of palaces (but not mosques) in Abbasid Samarra, the Islamic capital between 836 and 892, provide examples of three styles, Styles A, B, and C, though more than one of these may appear on the same wall, and their chronological sequence is not certain.


title: Arabesque

text: Though the broad outline of the process is generally agreed, there is a considerable diversity of views held by specialist scholars on detailed issues concerning the development, categorization and meaning of the arabesque. The detailed study of Islamic arabesque forms was begun by Alois Riegl in his formalist study "Stilfragen: Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik" ("Problems of style: foundations for a history of ornament") of 1893, who in the process developed his influential concept of the "Kunstwollen". Riegl traced formalistic continuity and development in decorative plant forms from ancient Egyptian art and other ancient Near Eastern civilizations through the classical world to the Islamic arabesque. While the "Kunstwollen" has few followers today, his basic analysis of the development of forms has been confirmed and refined by the wider "corpus" of examples known today. Jessica Rawson has recently extended the analysis to cover Chinese art, which Riegl did not cover, tracing many elements of Chinese decoration back to the same tradition, the shared background helping make the assimilation of Chinese motifs into Persian art after the Mongol invasion harmonious and productive.


title: Arabesque

text: Many arabesque patterns disappear at (or "under", as it often appears to a viewer) a framing edge without ending and thus can be regarded as infinitely extendable outside the space they actually occupy; this was certainly a distinctive feature of the Islamic form, though not without precedent. Most but not all foliage decoration in the preceding cultures terminated at the edge of the occupied space, although infinitely repeatable patterns in foliage are very common in the modern world in wallpaper and textiles.


title: Arabesque

text: Typically, in earlier forms there is no attempt at realism; no particular species of plant is being imitated, and the forms are often botanically impossible or implausible. "Leaf" forms typically spring sideways from the stem, in what is often called a "half-palmette" form, named after its distant and very different looking ancestor in ancient Egyptian and Greek ornament. New stems spring from leaf-tips, a type often called honeysuckle, and the stems often have no tips, winding endlessly out of the space. The early Mshatta Facade is recognisably some sort of vine, with conventional leaves on the end of short stalks and bunches of grapes or berries, but later forms usually lack these. Flowers are rare until about 1500, after which they appear more often, especially in Ottoman art, and are often identifiable by species. In Ottoman art the large and feathery leaves called "saz" became very popular, and were elaborated in drawings showing just one or more large leaves. Eventually floral decoration mostly derived from Chinese styles, especially those of Chinese porcelain, replaces the arabesque in many types of work, such as pottery, textiles and miniatures.


title: Arabesque

text: The arabesques and geometric patterns of Islamic art are often said to arise from the Islamic view of the world (see above). The depiction of animals and people is generally discouraged, which explains the preference for abstract geometric patterns.


title: Arabesque

text: There are two modes to arabesque art. The first mode recalls the principles that govern the order of the world. These principles include the bare basics of what makes objects structurally sound and, by extension, beautiful (i.e. the angle and the fixed/static shapes that it creates—esp. the truss). In the first mode, each repeating geometric form has a built-in symbolism ascribed to it. For example, the square, with its four equilateral sides, is symbolic of the equally important elements of nature: earth, air, fire and water. Without any one of the four, the physical world, represented by a circle that inscribes the square, would collapse upon itself and cease to exist. The second mode is based upon the flowing nature of plant forms. This mode recalls the feminine nature of life giving. In addition, upon inspection of the many examples of Arabesque art, some would argue that there is in fact a third mode, the mode of Islamic calligraphy.


title: Arabesque

text: Instead of recalling something related to the 'True Reality' (the reality of the spiritual world), Islam considers calligraphy a visible expression of the highest art of all; the art of the spoken word (the transmittal of thoughts and of history). In Islam, the most important document to be transmitted orally is the Qur'an. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an can be seen today in Arabesque art. The coming together of these three forms creates the Arabesque, and this is a reflection of unity arising from diversity; a basic tenet of Islam.


title: Arabesque

text: The arabesque may be equally thought of as both art and science. The artwork is at the same time mathematically precise, aesthetically pleasing, and symbolic. Due to this duality of creation, the artistic part of this equation may be further subdivided into both secular and religious artwork. However, for many Muslims there is no distinction; all forms of art, the natural world, mathematics and science are seen to be creations of God and therefore reflections of the same thing: God's will expressed through his creation. In other words, man can discover the geometric forms that constitute the arabesque, but these forms always existed before as part of God's creation, as shown in this picture.