title: University of Idaho

text: As a land-grant university and the primary research university in the state, U of I has the largest campus in the state at , in the rolling hills of the Palouse region at an elevation of above sea level. The school is home to the Idaho Vandals, who compete in NCAA Division I athletics. In addition to the main campus in Moscow, the U of I has branch campuses in Coeur d'Alene, Boise, and Idaho Falls. It also operates a research park in Post Falls, and dozens of extension offices statewide.


title: University of Idaho

text: On January 30, 1889, Governor Edward Stevenson of the Idaho Territory signed the territorial legislature's Council Bill No. 20, which officially established the UI as the upcoming state's land-grant institution. Nearly four years later, the university opened for classes on October 3, 1892.


title: University of Idaho

text: The choice of location for the University of Idaho was an "Olive Branch of Peace" by Gov. Stevenson for his actions in styming the nearly successful effort to detach the north Idaho Panhandle and join the state of Washington.


title: University of Idaho

text: On November 13, 2022, four University of Idaho students were stabbed to death in an off-campus rented home in Moscow, Idaho.


title: University of Idaho

text: According to the U of I Facts Books, the Moscow campus, abutting the Washington state line, is , including 253 buildings with a replacement value of $812 million. It has of parking lots, of bike paths, 22 computer labs, an 18-hole golf course on , of arboreta, and of farms.


title: University of Idaho

text: The east-facing Administration Building, with its clock tower and Collegiate Gothic-style structure, was built from 1907 to 1909 and has become an icon of the university. The building holds classrooms, an auditorium, and administrative offices, including the offices of the President and Provost. Multiple expansions were made, with the north wing added in 1912, the eastern portion of the south wing in 1916 (extended west in 1936 for the library), and the functional annex in 1950, incorporated into the Albertson addition of 2002. The U of I library was housed in the Administration building until 1957, when the Library building opened, constructed on the former site of tennis courts. The College of Law occupied the south wing until its building (Menard) opened in 1973.


title: University of Idaho

text: The original Administration building, with a single tall spire reaching to , was constructed through the decade of the 1890s and ultimately finished in 1899. Unfortunately, it was reduced to embers on March 30, 1906. The cause of the fire, which began in the basement, was never determined, but was likely accidental. After the fire, there was debate whether to rebuild from the remains or start from scratch; the remaining structure was eventually deemed infeasible to recover and was demolished with dynamite. The original building's steps were saved and climb the small hill immediately southeast of the south wing.


title: University of Idaho

text: In the meantime, classes were held at sites in Moscow; the Carnegie library, the Methodist church, and local lodge halls. Insurance policies paid $135,000, but the new building cost twice that. To appease the state legislature, the U of I Regents decided to build Morrill Hall first, use it for classrooms, and finance the new Administration building over three years.


title: University of Idaho

text: The new Administration building was designed by prominent Boise architect John E. Tourtellotte. He designed the state's Roman Revival capitol building in Boise and other buildings, both public and private. Tourtellotte modeled the new U of I structure after the venerable Hampton Court Palace in England, and construction began in 1907.


title: University of Idaho

text: The 1909 Administration building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, at age 69. Two years out of office, former U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt spoke outside the main east entrance of the new building on April 9, 1911, on a platform built of Palouse wheat.


title: University of Idaho

text: "Hello Walk" is one of the best-known and traveled pathways on the Idaho campus. But more than being surrounded by trees and grass, it navigates through a rich history of statues, landmarks, and traditions. It includes monuments such as Presidential Grove, where historical figures, such as Teddy Roosevelt and his wife, planted trees; the Spanish–American War memorial statue who had his hands cut off but was reconstructed by the handless sculptor Bud Washburn; and Administration Lawn that was designed by the Olmsted Brothers, the famous firm that also designed Central Park in New York City.


title: University of Idaho

text: Hello Walk is still used, but the hellos that used to be mandatory are now not often vocalized to strangers.


title: University of Idaho

text: The Idaho Student Union Building, (ISUB) completed in 2000 as the Commons, is the heart of campus and contains a food court, copy center, bagel and coffee shop (Einstein's Bagels), Credit Union, and convenience store. Additionally, there is study space, wireless internet, laptop checkout, and many student services such as the offices of the Associated Students of the University of Idaho (ASUI), Academics Assistance, the University of Idaho Writing Center, and Student Support.


title: University of Idaho

text: With the completion of the Teaching and Learning Center (TLC) at the beginning of the fall semester of 2005, the second phase, the Idaho Student Union Building gained classrooms and completed the vision of a common area where students could learn, study, relax, and get university services all in one place.


title: University of Idaho

text: The Bruce M. Pitman Center is located on the east end of campus on Deakin Street. The building houses the university's financial aid, admissions, new student services, registrar and Graduate & Professional Student Association (GPSA) offices. For students, the Pitman Center also features meeting rooms, a computer lab, wireless access, borrowable laptops and a movie theater. The building began as a motel, the Blue Bucket Inn, which UI purchased in 1936 and later expanded. The VandalStore, built in 1989 on a former parking lot, is located directly across the street to the east; it was previously adjacent to the south.


title: University of Idaho

text: UI student-run media offices are also present on the third floor of the Pitman Center: The Argonaut, a newspaper; KUOI-FM, a radio station; student media advertising; and Blot, a magazine.


title: University of Idaho

text: In October 2014, the University of Idaho announced the renaming of the Student Union Building as Bruce M. Pitman Center in honor of the retiring dean of students and vice provost for student affairs, who had served the campus community for more than 41 years. The name change took effect on January 1, 2015.


title: University of Idaho

text: UI's multi-purpose "Kibbie Dome" is the primary home to Vandal athletics; it is the venue for football, soccer, tennis, and indoor track & field. It was also home to Vandals basketball before the opening of Idaho Central Credit Union Arena in 2021. Its Trus-Dek roof system, constructed in 1975, uses natural wood arches to span at a height of over the field's hashmarks. Built when Idaho was a member of the Big Sky Conference in all sports including football, the Kibbie Dome was long the smallest stadium in Division I FBS football.


title: University of Idaho

text: Previously on this site was Neale Stadium, which opened in 1937 as an earthen horseshoe with wooden sideline grandstands. After 32 seasons, its bleachers were condemned for structural inadequacies due to erosion in the summer of 1969. After an idle 1969 football season, it was destroyed (by suspected arson) on November 22, 1969. After two years away at nearby Rogers Field in Pullman, the new outdoor "Idaho Stadium" opened on October 9, 1971, with concrete grandstands; the Vandals responded with a victory over Idaho State, an 8–3 season, and the Big Sky title.


title: University of Idaho

text: Tartan Turf, similar to AstroTurf, was installed in 1972 with the roll-up mechanism; the arched roof and vertical end walls were completed in time for the 1975 home opener on September 27, enclosing the stadium to become the Kibbie Dome. The seating capacity is 16,000 for football games, 7,000 for basketball games (in a configuration known as the "Cowan Spectrum" since 2001), and 7,500 for concerts. Its innovative roof won the Outstanding Structural Engineering Achievement award from the ASCE in 1976.


title: University of Idaho

text: The original Tartan Turf was replaced with AstroTurf in 1990 and lasted until 2007, when it was replaced with "Real Grass Pro," an infilled synthetic turf (similar to FieldTurf). In 2009, the Kibbie Dome began a multi-phase renovation with millions of dollars of improvements, primarily for safety. The primary change was the entire west wall; its aged dry plywood panels were replaced with non-flammable translucent plastic (upper) and opaque aluminum (lower). New field-level exits were also installed. The east wall was replaced in 2011 and a new press box was built above the north grandstand; the former press box area above the south grandstand was converted to premium seating (Litehouse Center).


title: University of Idaho

text: Idaho Central Credit Union Arena (ICCU Arena), located immediately to the north of the Kibbie Dome, became the new home of Vandals men's and women's basketball for the 2021–22 season. The university had attempted to build a new arena to replace Memorial Gym for over 50 years, but nothing came of the plans until 2018, when a $10 million naming gift from Idaho Central Credit Union encouraged the administration to go forward with construction. Ground was broken the following year. The 4,200-seat facility, costing about $51 million, is primarily made from engineered wood, with the superstructure consisting mainly of over 850 Douglas fir beams prepared from trees logged at the university's experimental forest. Several major forest products companies assisted in the construction process. The arena opened for a media tour on September 29, 2021, with the basketball teams using the main arena and an included practice court during preseason practice. The first event in the new arena was a men's basketball exhibition against NAIA member Evergreen State on October 29. The first regular-season game was a men's game against Long Beach State on November 10. This game served as a homecoming for Beach head coach Dan Monson, son of former longtime Vandals head coach Don Monson and himself a former Vandals football player.


title: University of Idaho

text: The UI Golf Course was established in 1933 on the southwest edge of campus and opened as nine holes in 1937. It was expanded to 18 holes in 1970 and its current clubhouse was built in 1969. Due to its demanding rolling terrain and southwesterly summer winds, the par-72 course's moderate length of from the back tees yields a challenging slope of 135 with a scratch rating of 72.4.


title: University of Idaho

text: Referred to as "Tree City" or "The Arb" by U of I students, the Arboretum is a site adjacent to the golf course which features display gardens, ponds, and a variety of trees and plants from Asia, Europe, and North America.


title: University of Idaho

text: The original Shattuck Arboretum was conceived in 1910 by Charles H. Shattuck, the head of the forestry department. His efforts gradually turned a treeless slope southwest of the Administration Building into a dense forest grove. The arboretum was named for Shattuck in 1933, two years after his death. Until the late 1960s, this area provided the background for left & center field of the MacLean baseball field, whose infield was displaced by the construction of the new College of Education buildings, which were completed in 1968.


title: University of Idaho

text: The newer portion of the arboretum complex is south of the Shattuck area, in the valley below the president's residence (1967), along the eastern edge of the campus' 18-hole golf course.


title: University of Idaho

text: Designed by NAC Architecture and opened in 2002, the Student Recreation Center boasts a freestanding climbing wall, as well as a weight training area, cardio, of climbing area, jogging track, and two full-size gyms. The Rec Center hours are set to meet the schedules of users including students, faculty and staff. The Student Recreation Center offers a number of wellness classes including zumba, TRX, cycling, gravity, belly dancing and yoga. The planned Phase Two of the project includes adding a swimming pool, but has been delayed due to funding problems.


title: University of Idaho

text: The recreation center is located on the corner of Paradise Creek Street and Line Street north of the Theophilus Tower dormitory, an area which formerly housed maintenance buildings.


title: University of Idaho

text: The U of I Library is the state's largest library, with more than 1.4 million books, periodicals, government documents, maps, videorecordings, and special collections. The Library's Special Collections and Archives houses a collection of first edition works by Sir Walter Scott, as well as more than 1200 texts by and about the author. The Library also has materials by many famous Idahoans, including Ezra Pound, Vardis Fisher, Frank Bruce Robinson, and Carol Ryrie Brink of Moscow. Digitized historic photographs from the University of Idaho campus and the state of Idaho, yearbooks, and the student newspaper the Argonaut, can be found on the Library's Digital Initiatives website.


title: University of Idaho

text: Directly north of the Memorial Gymnasium and built on the former site of tennis courts, the library opened in 1957, relocating from the south wing of the Administration Building. The U of I post office station was formerly housed in its lower northwest corner; it was moved to the new U of I bookstore in 1990. The U of I Library was expanded by 50% in 1993 and rededicated in 1994. The first floor underwent major renovation during the 2016 academic year to up-date collaborative spaces and technology.


title: University of Idaho

text: The Tudor Gothic-style Memorial Gymnasium is another U of I icon, known for its whimsical athletic gargoyles perched along the brick building's ledges. The multi-purpose "Mem Gym" has a modest seating capacity of only 1,500. Opened in 1928 to honor the Idaho citizens who died in World War I (1917–18) and Spanish–American War (1898), the heavily buttressed structure was designed by the chairman of the university's architecture department, David C. Lang.


title: University of Idaho

text: Memorial Gym was the primary venue for men's basketball until January 1976, following the enclosure of the Kibbie Dome the previous fall. The women's team hosted its home games in the gym until 2001, when the Cowan Spectrum (inside the Kibbie Dome) was completed. The gym is still in active use today as the home court for the women's volleyball team, and was also used for early-season basketball games before the opening of ICCU Arena. It is also used extensively for intramurals and open recreation, as well as for ROTC.


title: University of Idaho

text: The MacLean baseball field was located directly south of the Memorial Gym, until its infield was displaced by the construction of the College of Education building in 1967. The catcher and batter faced southwest (towards the pitcher's mound); the right field line was just south of the gym, running east–west. The background of left and center field was the Shattuck Arboretum. The new baseball field (Guy Wicks Field) was relocated northwest, to the vast intramural fields near the Moscow-Pullman Highway, northwest of the Wallace Complex dormitories. The batter and catcher now faced southeast, toward campus, an unorthodox configuration resulting in a difficult sun field for the left side of the defense (the recommended alignment is east-northeast). Due to budget constraints, varsity baseball was dropped following the 1980 season, but continued for a while as a club sport. MacLean was also the venue for football until the opening of Neale Stadium in 1937.


title: University of Idaho

text: The swim center and physical education building (formerly known as the "Women's Gym"), which both opened in 1970, are adjacent to the south side of the gym. Before the swim center was opened, the Mem Gym had a narrow swimming pool in its basement.


title: University of Idaho

text: In 1977, the Memorial Gymnasium was added to the National Register of Historic Places after only 49 years.


title: University of Idaho

text: Rare Camperdown elms line the walkway between the Music building, Nichols Building (home to Family and Consumer Sciences) and Administration Building. These "upside-down" trees have been on campus for over 80 years and are among few of their kind in the Northwest. The weeping branches and knotty trunk are formed by being grafted upwards.


title: University of Idaho

text: Built in 1926, the steam plant provides heat to U of I buildings from a single location. Originally designed to burn coal, then oil, then natural gas, the plant was modified in 1986 to burn waste wood chips left over from local sawmills. The use of wood has significantly reduced the emissions of the plant, as well as cut costs to heat the campus. The plant is shut down twice a year for cleaning and maintenance. As a side benefit of the heat generation, the steam pipes are routed underneath campus walkways and provide clean (and ice free) walkways throughout the north Idaho winter.


title: University of Idaho

text: The University of Idaho offers various options for on-campus housing, including four residence halls (Wallace Residence Center, Theophilus Tower, McConnell Hall, and Living Learning Communities) for students and Apartments (South Hill Apartments, South Hill Vista Apartments, and Elmwood Apartments) for non-traditional students or those who need special accommodations.


title: University of Idaho

text: Usually apartments are only available to single parents, married couples (with or without children), law students, and students over 21 years old. Theophilus Tower, 3 of the 4 Wallace Residence wings, and one LLC building is only available for first-year students. Students can also live in a Fraternity or Sorority chapter on campus. Summer housing is available but choices are limited.


title: University of Idaho

text: The Board of Regents authorized the construction of Ridenbaugh Hall as the first women's dormitory on campus. Completed in 1901 at a cost of $17,000, it is the oldest extant building on campus. It was designed by architect Willis A. Ritchie of Spokane, who also designed the Spokane County Courthouse. The building used stone quarried in Latah County for the exterior walls. It was also used as a space for domestic science classes until 1927 when it became a men's dormitory. The building was later used for music practice rooms and currently houses the Art and Architecture gallery.


title: University of Idaho

text: Ridenbaugh Hall was the first U of I campus structure to be named after a person. The hall was dedicated to "the young women of Idaho" in honor of Mary E. Ridenbaugh (1857–1926) of Boise, who was vice president of the U of I Board of Regents, and served as regent from 1901 to 1907. The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.


title: University of Idaho

text: U of I is a rural, residential campus, with four residence hall communities to choose from on campus, as well as 27 housed fraternities and sororities. On-campus residence is currently required for freshmen, and many other upperclassmen choose to live on campus in the Greek system or the residence halls.


title: University of Idaho

text: Apartments on campus are available for families, married couples, graduate students, law students, and non-traditional students. The "Law Cluster" is a group of apartments reserved for law students, allowing for a community close to campus for law students, facilitating study groups.


title: University of Idaho

text: All students are permitted to have cars on campus (parking permits are required for most on-campus parking), which is also served by public transportation. The Intermodal Transit Center (aka ITC) of City of Moscow was built in 2013, which located in Railroad St, on-campus. In town bus services are free of fares, available during daytime of weekdays. The office of university Parking and Transportation Services (aka PTS) is also located in the ITC.


title: University of Idaho

text: Many students participate in a wide variety of over 200 clubs and organizations. Clubs range from sports to faith based, and everything in between. Palousafest is a fair that brings clubs and students together, and is a way for students to find out more about how to get involved with extracurricular activities. The fair is usually the weekend just before the fall semester starts. The literary journal Fugue is published at the university.


title: University of Idaho

text: The University of Idaho is home to 18 housed fraternities, 10 housed sororities, and 6 multicultural Greek organizations that make up more than 20% of the student population, and over 44% of the students who live on campus (around 1,800 students). This fraternity and sorority community is unique in that it's one of the few that allow freshmen to move in first semester as a living option, as opposed to waiting until second semester or sophomore year. This system works very well for the university and the students, with the Greeks having the highest GPA for 9 consecutive semesters as of Spring 2011.


title: University of Idaho

text: Moscow is a college town, with 23,800 residents as of the 2010 census. Also a commercial and agricultural center, it is located in the rolling hills of the Palouse region of north central Idaho. U of I campus is adjacent to the southwest side of town; most stores, restaurants, and bars are within easy walking distance. Moscow lies close to the border with Washington; approximately to the west is Washington State University in Pullman.


title: University of Idaho

text: From 1896 through May 2011, the University of Idaho granted 80,233 bachelor's degrees, 21,734 master's degrees, 2,694 doctoral degrees, 240 honorary degrees, 1,164 specialist degrees, and 3,654 law degrees.


title: University of Idaho

text: The university is organized into ten colleges; two are exclusively for graduate students (Law & Graduate Studies).


title: University of Idaho

text: In July 2002, the College of Letters & Science was split into two separate colleges: the College of Science and the College of Letters, Arts, and Social Sciences (CLASS). Concurrently, the College of Mines and Earth Resources was discontinued; its programs were split between the College of Engineering and the new College of Science.


title: University of Idaho

text: The College of Law opened a second campus in Boise in 2010. Initially, the Boise campus only offered third-year classes. It expanded to offer second-year classes in 2014, and as of law students can take their entire three-year curriculum at either location.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Lukas Okechukwu Nmecha (born 14 December 1998) is a German professional footballer who plays as a forward for Bundesliga club VfL Wolfsburg and the Germany national team.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Nmecha was born in Hamburg, Germany but relocated to England as a child with his family. He represented his birth country for the first time with the Germany U21 national team, despite being capped by England at the same level.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: During a football tournament at his primary school team in Wythenshawe, he was scouted by Manchester City, where he played for their youth ranks for over a decade, before making his debut on 19 December 2017 in the EFL Cup. On his debut he scored the third penalty for Manchester City in their penalty shootout win over Leicester City.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: He made his Premier League debut on 29 April 2018, as a late substitute for Gabriel Jesus against West Ham United at the London Stadium.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: He was involved in several games during Manchester City's first team squad for the 2018–19 pre season tour in the U.S. to compete in the 2018 International Champions Cup. He scored his first goal at first team level on 29 July 2018 in the pre season friendly against Bayern Munich in a 3–2 win.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Nmecha's loan was ended on 3 January 2020 and he joined Middlesbrough on loan. His loan expired on 31 July 2020.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: On 21 August 2020, Nmecha joined former teammate Vincent Kompany's team Anderlecht on loan. On 13 September 2020, he scored his first goal with Anderlecht in a 2–0 win over Cercle Brugge. On 19 September, he scored a brace in a 4–2 win over Waasland-Beveren. He ended the 2020–21 season scoring 18 goals in 37 matches.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Nmecha re-joined VFL Wolfsburg in a permanent deal on 16 July 2021. He scored the winning goal on his Bundesliga debut for the club, in a come-from-behind 2–1 victory over Hertha Berlin on 21 August.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Born in Hamburg to a German mother and a Nigerian father, but raised in England, Nmecha is eligible to play for Nigeria, Germany and England.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: In October 2014, Nmecha scored for the England Under-17 team in a qualifier against Macedonia. Nmecha was included in the England under-19 squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. He scored the only goal of the game in the semi-final against the Czech Republic and also scored the winner in the final against Portugal.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: On 18 May 2018, Nmecha received a call up to the England U21 team by Manager Aidy Boothroyd, for the Toulon Tournament. On 9 June 2018, Nmecha came on as a substitute in the 2018 Toulon Tournament final as England defeated Mexico to retain the title. In November 2018, Nmecha scored for the England Under-20 team against Germany.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: In March 2019, Nmecha declared for Germany and was included in their U21 squad for the first time. He made his debut as a 59th minute substitute during the 2–1 victory over England at Bournemouth on 26 March 2019. On 6 June 2021, he scored the only goal in a 1–0 win over Portugal in the 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship Final, and finished the competition as top scorer with four goals.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: He made his debut for the senior national team on 11 November 2021 in a World Cup qualifier against Liechtenstein.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Nmecha is the older brother of fellow player Felix Nmecha and Sarah Nmecha. He is of Igbo Nigerian descent. They were born in Germany before moving to England at a young age.


title: Lukas Nmecha

text: Nmecha's main position is as a centre forward, but he is also able to play as a winger on either side. He is known for being comfortable with both feet and for his first touch and finishing ability. Nmecha described that he also likes to use his pace to run at defenders.


title: Shape

text: A shape or figure is a graphical representation of an object or its external boundary, outline, or external surface, as opposed to other properties such as color, texture, or material type.


title: Shape

text: A two-dimensional shape or two-dimensional figure (also: 2D shape or 2D figure) may lie on a more general curved "surface" (a non-Euclidean two-dimensional space).


title: Shape

text: Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories. For instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into smaller categories; triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares, etc.


title: Shape

text: Other common shapes are points, lines, planes, and conic sections such as ellipses, circles, and parabolas.


title: Shape

text: Among the most common 3-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and cones.


title: Shape

text: If an object falls into one of these categories exactly or even approximately, we can use it to describe the shape of the object. Thus, we say that the shape of a manhole cover is a disk, because it is approximately the same geometric object as an actual geometric disk.


title: Shape

text: A geometric shape consists of the geometric information which remains when location, scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the description of a geometric object. That is, the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the same shape as the original, and not a distinct shape.


title: Shape

text: Many two-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of points or vertices and lines connecting the points in a closed chain, as well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polygons and include triangles, squares, and pentagons. Other shapes may be bounded by curves such as the circle or the ellipse.


title: Shape

text: Many three-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of vertices, lines connecting the vertices, and two-dimensional faces enclosed by those lines, as well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polyhedrons and include cubes as well as pyramids such as tetrahedrons. Other three-dimensional shapes may be bounded by curved surfaces, such as the ellipsoid and the sphere.


title: Shape

text: A shape is said to be convex if all of the points on a line segment between any two of its points are also part of the shape.


title: Shape

text: Sometimes, two similar or congruent objects may be regarded as having a different shape if a reflection is required to transform one into the other. For instance, the letters "b" and "d" are a reflection of each other, and hence they are congruent and similar, but in some contexts they are not regarded as having the same shape. Sometimes, only the outline or external boundary of the object is considered to determine its shape. For instance, a hollow sphere may be considered to have the same shape as a solid sphere. Procrustes analysis is used in many sciences to determine whether or not two objects have the same shape, or to measure the difference between two shapes. In advanced mathematics, quasi-isometry can be used as a criterion to state that two shapes are approximately the same.


title: Shape

text: Simple shapes can often be classified into basic geometric objects such as a point, a line, a curve, a plane, a plane figure (e.g. square or circle), or a solid figure (e.g. cube or sphere). However, most shapes occurring in the physical world are complex. Some, such as plant structures and coastlines, may be so complicated as to defy traditional mathematical description – in which case they may be analyzed by differential geometry, or as fractals.


title: Shape

text: In geometry, two subsets of a Euclidean space have the same shape if one can be transformed to the other by a combination of translations, rotations (together also called rigid transformations), and uniform scalings. In other words, the "shape" of a set of points is all the geometrical information that is invariant to translations, rotations, and size changes. Having the same shape is an equivalence relation, and accordingly a precise mathematical definition of the notion of shape can be given as being an equivalence class of subsets of a Euclidean space having the same shape.


title: Shape

text: In this paper ‘shape’ is used in the vulgar sense, and means what one would normally expect it to mean. [...] We here define ‘shape’ informally as ‘all the geometrical information that remains when location, scale and rotational effects are filtered out from an object.’


title: Shape

text: Shapes of physical objects are equal if the subsets of space these objects occupy satisfy the definition above. In particular, the shape does not depend on the size and placement in space of the object. For instance, a "" and a "p" have the same shape, as they can be perfectly superimposed if the "" is translated to the right by a given distance, rotated upside down and magnified by a given factor (see Procrustes superimposition for details). However, a mirror image could be called a different shape. For instance, a "b" and a "p" have a different shape, at least when they are constrained to move within a two-dimensional space like the page on which they are written. Even though they have the same size, there's no way to perfectly superimpose them by translating and rotating them along the page. Similarly, within a three-dimensional space, a right hand and a left hand have a different shape, even if they are the mirror images of each other. Shapes may change if the object is scaled non-uniformly. For example, a sphere becomes an ellipsoid when scaled differently in the vertical and horizontal directions. In other words, preserving axes of symmetry (if they exist) is important for preserving shapes. Also, shape is determined by only the outer boundary of an object.


title: Shape

text: Objects that can be transformed into each other by rigid transformations and mirroring (but not scaling) are congruent. An object is therefore congruent to its mirror image (even if it is not symmetric), but not to a scaled version. Two congruent objects always have either the same shape or mirror image shapes, and have the same size.


title: Shape

text: Objects that have the same shape or mirror image shapes are called geometrically similar, whether or not they have the same size. Thus, objects that can be transformed into each other by rigid transformations, mirroring, and uniform scaling are similar. Similarity is preserved when one of the objects is uniformly scaled, while congruence is not. Thus, congruent objects are always geometrically similar, but similar objects may not be congruent, as they may have different size.


title: Shape

text: A more flexible definition of shape takes into consideration the fact that realistic shapes are often deformable, e.g. a person in different postures, a tree bending in the wind or a hand with different finger positions.


title: Shape

text: One way of modeling non-rigid movements is by homeomorphisms. Roughly speaking, a homeomorphism is a continuous stretching and bending of an object into a new shape. Thus, a square and a circle are homeomorphic to each other, but a sphere and a donut are not. An often-repeated mathematical joke is that topologists cannot tell their coffee cup from their donut, since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while preserving the donut hole in a cup's handle.


title: Shape

text: A described shape has external lines that you can see and make up the shape. If you were putting you coordinates on and coordinate graph you could draw lines to show where you can see a shape, however not every time you put coordinates in a graph as such you can make a shape. This shape has a outline and boundary so you can see it and is not just regular dots on a regular paper.


title: Shape

text: The above-mentioned mathematical definitions of rigid and non-rigid shape have arisen in the field of statistical shape analysis. In particular, Procrustes analysis is a technique used for comparing shapes of similar objects (e.g. bones of different animals), or measuring the deformation of a deformable object. Other methods are designed to work with non-rigid (bendable) objects, e.g. for posture independent shape retrieval (see for example Spectral shape analysis).


title: Shape

text: All similar triangles have the same shape. These shapes can be classified using complex numbers "u, v, w" for the vertices, in a method advanced by J.A. Lester and Rafael Artzy. For example, an equilateral triangle can be expressed by the complex numbers 0, 1, (1 + i √3)/2 representing its vertices. Lester and Artzy call the ratio


title: Shape

text: For any affine transformation of the complex plane, formula_2   a triangle is transformed but does not change its shape. Hence shape is an invariant of affine geometry.


title: Shape

text: The shape "p" = S("u,v,w") depends on the order of the arguments of function S, but permutations lead to related values. For instance,


title: Shape

text: The shape of a quadrilateral is associated with two complex numbers "p,q". If the quadrilateral has vertices "u,v,w,x", then "p" = S("u,v,w") and "q" = S("v,w,x"). Artzy proves these propositions about quadrilateral shapes:


title: Shape

text: A polygon formula_9 has a shape defined by "n" – 2 complex numbers formula_10 The polygon bounds a convex set when all these shape components have imaginary components of the same sign.


title: Shape

text: Human vision relies on a wide range of shape representations. Some psychologists have theorized that humans mentally break down images into simple geometric shapes (e.g., cones and spheres) called geons. Others have suggested shapes are decomposed into features or dimensions that describe the way shapes tend to vary, like their "segmentability", "compactness" and "spikiness". When comparing shape similarity, however, at least 22 independent dimensions are needed to account for the way natural shapes vary.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD is a security-focused, free and open-source, Unix-like operating system based on the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD). Theo de Raadt created OpenBSD in 1995 by forking NetBSD 1.0. According to the website, the OpenBSD project emphasizes "portability, standardization, correctness, proactive security and integrated cryptography."


title: OpenBSD

text: The OpenBSD project maintains portable versions of many subsystems as packages for other operating systems. Because of the project's preferred BSD license, many components are reused in proprietary and corporate-sponsored software projects. The firewall code in Apple's macOS is based on OpenBSD's PF firewall code, Android's Bionic C standard library is based on OpenBSD code, LLVM uses OpenBSD's regular expression library, and Windows 10 uses OpenSSH (OpenBSD Secure Shell) with LibreSSL.


title: OpenBSD

text: The word "open" in the name OpenBSD refers to the availability of the operating system source code on the Internet, although the word "open" in the name OpenSSH means "OpenBSD". It also refers to the wide range of hardware platforms the system supports.


title: OpenBSD

text: In December 1994, Theo de Raadt, a founding member of the NetBSD project, was asked to resign from the NetBSD core team over disagreements and conflicts with the other members of the NetBSD team. In October 1995, De Raadt founded OpenBSD, a new project forked from NetBSD 1.0. The initial release, OpenBSD 1.2, was made in July 1996, followed by OpenBSD 2.0 in October of the same year. Since then, the project has issued a release every six months, each of which is supported for one year.


title: OpenBSD

text: On 25 July 2007, OpenBSD developer Bob Beck announced the formation of the OpenBSD Foundation, a Canadian non-profit organization formed to "act as a single point of contact for persons and organizations requiring a legal entity to deal with when they wish to support OpenBSD."


title: OpenBSD

text: It is hard to determine how widely OpenBSD is used, because the developers do not publish or collect usage statistics.


title: OpenBSD

text: In September 2005, the BSD Certification Group surveyed 4330 individual BSD users, showing that 32.8% used OpenBSD, behind FreeBSD with 77%, ahead of NetBSD with 16.3% and DragonFly BSD with 2.6%. However, the authors of this survey clarified that it is neither "exhaustive" nor "completely accurate", since the survey was spread mainly through mailing lists, forums and word of mouth. This combined with other factors, like the lack of a control group, a pre-screening process or significant outreach outside of the BSD community, makes the survey unreliable for judging BSD usage globally.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD features a robust TCP/IP networking stack, and can be used as a router or wireless access point. OpenBSD's security enhancements, built-in cryptography, and packet filter make it suitable for security purposes such as firewalls, intrusion-detection systems, and VPN gateways.


title: OpenBSD

text: Several proprietary systems are based on OpenBSD, including devices from Armorlogic (Profense web application firewall), Calyptix Security, GeNUA, RTMX, and .vantronix.


title: OpenBSD

text: Some versions of Microsoft's Services for UNIX, an extension to the Windows operating system to provide Unix-like functionality, use much of the OpenBSD code base that is included in the Interix interoperability suite, developed by Softway Systems Inc., which Microsoft acquired in 1999. Core Force, a security product for Windows, is based on OpenBSD's pf firewall. The pf firewall is also found in other operating systems: including FreeBSD, and macOS.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD ships with Xenocara, an implementation of the X Window System, and is suitable as a desktop operating system for personal computers, including laptops. , OpenBSD includes approximately 8000 packages in its software repository, including desktop environments such as GNOME, Plasma 4, and Xfce, and web browsers such as Firefox and Chromium. The project also includes three window managers in the main distribution: cwm, FVWM (part of the default configuration for Xenocara), and twm.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD features a full server suite and can be configured as a mail server, web server, FTP server, DNS server, router, firewall, NFS file server, or any combination of these. Since version 6.8, OpenBSD has also shipped with native in-kernel WireGuard support.


title: OpenBSD

text: Shortly after OpenBSD was created, De Raadt was contacted by a local security software company named Secure Networks (later acquired by McAfee). They were developing a network security auditing tool called Ballista, which was intended to find and exploit software security flaws. This coincided with De Raadt's interest in security, so the two cooperated leading up to the release of OpenBSD 2.3. This collaboration helped to define security as the focus of the OpenBSD project.


title: OpenBSD

text: To reduce the risk of a vulnerability or misconfiguration allowing privilege escalation, many programs have been written or adapted to make use of privilege separation, privilege revocation and chrooting. Privilege separation is a technique, pioneered on OpenBSD and inspired by the principle of least privilege, where a program is split into two or more parts, one of which performs privileged operations and the other—almost always the bulk of the code—runs without privilege. Privilege revocation is similar and involves a program performing any necessary operations with the privileges it starts with then dropping them. Chrooting involves restricting an application to one section of the file system, prohibiting it from accessing areas that contain private or system files. Developers have applied these enhancements to OpenBSD versions of many common applications, such as tcpdump, file, tmux, smtpd, and syslogd.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD developers were instrumental in the creation and development of OpenSSH (aka OpenBSD Secure Shell), which is developed in the OpenBSD CVS repositories. OpenBSD Secure Shell is based on the original SSH. It first appeared in OpenBSD 2.6 and is now by far the most popular SSH client and server, available on many operating systems.


title: OpenBSD

text: The project has a policy of continually auditing source code for problems, work that developer Marc Espie has described as "never finished ... more a question of process than of a specific bug being hunted." He went on to list several typical steps once a bug is found, including examining the entire source tree for the same and similar issues, "try[ing] to find out whether the documentation ought to be amended", and investigating whether "it's possible to augment the compiler to warn against this specific problem."


title: OpenBSD

text: The OpenBSD website features a prominent reference to the system's security record. Until June 2002, it read:


title: OpenBSD

text: In June 2002, Mark Dowd of Internet Security Systems disclosed a bug in the OpenSSH code implementing challenge–response authentication. This vulnerability in the OpenBSD default installation allowed an attacker remote access to the root account, which was extremely serious not only to OpenBSD, but also to the large number of other operating systems that were using OpenSSH by that time. This problem necessitated the adjustment of the slogan on the OpenBSD website to:


title: OpenBSD

text: The quote remained unchanged as time passed, until on 13 March 2007, when Alfredo Ortega of Core Security Technologies disclosed a network-related remote vulnerability. The quote was subsequently changed to:


title: OpenBSD

text: This statement has been criticized because the default install contains few running services, and many use cases require additional services. Also, because the ports tree contains unaudited third-party software, it is easy for users to compromise security by installing or improperly configuring packages. However, the project maintains that the slogan is "intended" to refer to a default install and that it is correct by that measure.


title: OpenBSD

text: One of the fundamental ideas behind OpenBSD is a drive for systems to be simple, clean, and secure by default. The default install is quite minimal, which the project states is to ensure novice users "do not need to become security experts overnight", which fits with open-source and code auditing practices considered important elements of a security system.


title: OpenBSD

text: On 11 December 2010, Gregory Perry, a former technical consultant for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), emailed De Raadt alleging that the FBI had paid some OpenBSD ex-developers 10 years prior to insert backdoors into the OpenBSD Cryptographic Framework. De Raadt made the email public on 14 December by forwarding it to the openbsd-tech mailing list and suggested an audit of the IPsec codebase. De Raadt's response was skeptical of the report and he invited all developers to independently review the relevant code. In the weeks that followed, bugs were fixed but no evidence of backdoors was found. De Raadt stated "I believe that NetSec was probably contracted to write backdoors as alleged. If those were written, I don't believe they made it into our tree. They might have been deployed as their own product."


title: OpenBSD

text: In December 2017, Ilja van Sprundel, director at IOActive, gave a talk at the CCC as well as DEF CON, entitled "Are all BSDs created equally? — A survey of BSD kernel vulnerabilities", in which he stated that although OpenBSD was the clear winner of the BSDs in terms of security, "Bugs are still easy to find in those kernels, even in OpenBSD".


title: OpenBSD

text: Two years later, in 2019, a talk named "A systematic evaluation of OpenBSD's mitigations" was given at the CCC, arguing that while OpenBSD has some effective mitigations, a significant part of them are "useless at best and based on pure luck and superstition", arguing for a more rational approach when it comes to designing them.


title: OpenBSD

text: Supported platforms and devices are listed in the OpenBSD Supported Platforms Notes. Other configurations may also work, but simply have not been tested or documented yet. Rough automatically extracted lists of supported device ids are available in a third party repository.


title: OpenBSD

text: Some subsystems have been integrated into other BSD operating systems, and many are available as packages for use in other Unix-like systems.


title: OpenBSD

text: Linux administrator Carlos Fenollosa commented on moving from Linux to OpenBSD that the system is faithful to the Unix philosophy of small, simple tools that work together well: "Some base components are not as feature-rich, on purpose. Since 99% of the servers don't need the flexibility of Apache, OpenBSD's httpd will work fine, be more secure, and probably faster". He characterized the developer community's attitude to components as: "When the community decides that some module sucks, they develop a new one from scratch. OpenBSD has its own NTPd, SMTPd and, more recently, HTTPd. They work great". As a result, OpenBSD is relatively prolific in creating components that become widely reused by other systems.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD runs nearly all of its standard daemons within chroot and privsep security structures by default, as part of hardening the base system.


title: OpenBSD

text: In 2017, Isotop, a french project aiming to adapt OpenBSD to desktops and laptops, using xfce then dwm, started to be developed.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD includes a number of third-party components, many with OpenBSD-specific patches, such as X.Org, Clang (the default compiler on several architectures), GCC, Perl, NSD, Unbound, ncurses, GNU binutils, GDB, and AWK.


title: OpenBSD

text: Development is continuous, and team management is open and tiered. Anyone with appropriate skills may contribute, with commit rights being awarded on merit and De Raadt acting as coordinator. Two official releases are made per year, with the version number incremented by 0.1, and these are each supported for twelve months (two release cycles). Snapshot releases are also available at frequent intervals.


title: OpenBSD

text: Maintenance patches for supported releases may be applied using syspatch, manually or by updating the system against the patch branch of the CVS source repository for that release. Alternatively, a system administrator may opt to upgrade to the next snapshot release using sysupgrade, or by using the branch of the CVS repository, in order to gain pre-release access to recently added features. The sysupgrade tool can also upgrade to the latest stable release version.


title: OpenBSD

text: The generic OpenBSD kernel provided by default is strongly recommended for end users, in contrast to operating systems that recommend user kernel customization.


title: OpenBSD

text: Packages outside the base system are maintained by CVS through a ports tree and are the responsibility of the individual maintainers, known as porters. As well as keeping the current branch up to date, porters are expected to apply appropriate bug-fixes and maintenance fixes to branches of their package for OpenBSD's supported releases. Ports are generally not subject to the same continuous auditing as the base system due to lack of manpower.


title: OpenBSD

text: Binary packages are built centrally from the ports tree for each architecture. This process is applied for the current version, for each supported release, and for each snapshot. Administrators are recommended to use the package mechanism rather than build the package from the ports tree, unless they need to perform their own source changes.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD's developers regularly meet at special events called hackathons, where they "sit down and code", emphasizing productivity.


title: OpenBSD

text: When OpenBSD was created, De Raadt decided that the source code should be available for anyone to read. At the time, a small team of developers generally had access to a project's source code. Chuck Cranor and De Raadt concluded this practice was "counter to the open source philosophy" and inconvenient to potential contributors. Together, Cranor and De Raadt set up the first public, anonymous revision control system server. De Raadt's decision allowed users to "take a more active role", and established the project's commitment to open access. OpenBSD is notable for its continued use of CVS (more precisely an unreleased, OpenBSD-managed fork named OpenCVS), when most other projects that used it have migrated to other systems.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD does not include closed source binary drivers in the source tree, nor do they include code requiring the signing of non-disclosure agreements.


title: OpenBSD

text: Since OpenBSD is based in Canada, no United States export restrictions on cryptography apply, allowing the distribution to make full use of modern algorithms for encryption. For example, the swap space is divided into small sections and each section is encrypted with its own key, ensuring that sensitive data does not leak into an insecure part of the system.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD randomizes various behaviors of applications, making them less predictable and thus more difficult to attack. For example, PIDs are created and associated randomly to processes; the codice_5 system call uses random port numbers; files are created with random inode numbers; and IP datagrams have random identifiers. This approach also helps expose bugs in the kernel and in user space programs.


title: OpenBSD

text: The OpenBSD policy on openness extends to hardware documentation: in the slides for a December 2006 presentation, De Raadt explained that without it "developers often make mistakes writing drivers", and pointed out that "the [oh my god, I got it to work] rush is harder to achieve, and some developers just give up." He went on to say that vendor-supplied binary drivers are unacceptable for inclusion in OpenBSD, that they have "no trust of vendor binaries running in our kernel" and that there is "no way to fix [them] ... when they break."


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD maintains a strict license policy, preferring the ISC license and other variants of the BSD license. The project attempts to "maintain the spirit of the original Berkeley Unix copyrights," which permitted a "relatively un-encumbered Unix source distribution." The widely used Apache License and GNU General Public License are considered overly restrictive.


title: OpenBSD

text: In June 2001, triggered by concerns over Darren Reed's modification of IPFilter's license wording, a systematic license audit of the OpenBSD ports and source trees was undertaken. Code in more than a hundred files throughout the system was found to be unlicensed, ambiguously licensed or in use against the terms of the license. To ensure that all licenses were properly adhered to, an attempt was made to contact all the relevant copyright holders: some pieces of code were removed, many were replaced, and others, such as the multicast routing tools and , were relicensed so that OpenBSD could continue to use them. Also removed during this audit was all software produced by Daniel J. Bernstein. At the time, Bernstein requested that all modified versions of his code be approved by him prior to redistribution, a requirement to which OpenBSD developers were unwilling to devote time or effort.


title: OpenBSD

text: Because of licensing concerns, the OpenBSD team has reimplemented software from scratch or adopted suitable existing software. For example, OpenBSD developers created the PF packet filter after unacceptable restrictions were imposed on IPFilter. PF first appeared in OpenBSD 3.0 and is now available in many other operating systems. OpenBSD developers have also replaced GPL-licensed tools (such as CVS and pkg-config) with permissively licensed equivalents.


title: OpenBSD

text: Although the operating system and its portable components are used in commercial products, De Raadt says that little of the funding for the project comes from the industry: "traditionally all our funding has come from user donations and users buying our CDs (our other products don't really make us much money). Obviously, that has not been a lot of money."


title: OpenBSD

text: For a two-year period in the early 2000s, the project received funding from DARPA, which "paid the salaries of 5 people to work completely full-time, bought about $30k in hardware, and paid for 3 hackathons", from the POSSE project.


title: OpenBSD

text: In 2006, the OpenBSD project experienced financial difficulties. The Mozilla Foundation and GoDaddy are among the organizations that helped OpenBSD to survive. However, De Raadt expressed concern about the asymmetry of funding: "I think that contributions should have come first from the vendors, secondly from the corporate users, and thirdly from individual users. But the response has been almost entirely the opposite, with almost a 15-to-1 dollar ratio in favor of the little people. Thanks a lot, little people!"


title: OpenBSD

text: On 14 January 2014, Bob Beck issued a request for funding to cover electrical costs. If sustainable funding was not found, Beck suggested the OpenBSD project would shut down. The project soon received a US$20,000 donation from Mircea Popescu, the Romanian creator of the MPEx bitcoin stock exchange, paid in bitcoins. The project raised US$150,000 in response to the appeal, enabling it to pay its bills and securing its short-term future.


title: OpenBSD

text: The OpenBSD Foundation is a Canadian federal non-profit organization founded by the OpenBSD project as a "single point of contact for persons and organizations requiring a legal entity to deal with when they wish to support OpenBSD." It was announced to the public by OpenBSD developer Bob Beck on 25 July 2007. It also serves as a legal safeguard over other projects which are affiliated with OpenBSD, including OpenSSH, OpenBGPD, OpenNTPD, OpenCVS, OpenSMTPD and LibreSSL.


title: OpenBSD

text: Since 2014, several large contributions to the OpenBSD Foundation have come from corporations such as Microsoft, Facebook, and Google as well as the Core Infrastructure Initiative.


title: OpenBSD

text: In 2015, Microsoft became the foundation's first gold level contributor donating between $25,000-50,000 to support development of OpenSSH, which had been integrated into PowerShell in July, and later into Windows Server in 2018. Other contributors include Google, Facebook and DuckDuckGo.


title: OpenBSD

text: During the 2016 and 2017 fundraising campaigns, Smartisan, a Chinese company, was the leading financial contributor to the OpenBSD Foundation.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD is freely available in various ways: the source can be retrieved by anonymous CVS, and binary releases and development snapshots can be downloaded by FTP, HTTP, and rsync. Prepackaged CD-ROM sets through version 6.0 can be ordered online for a small fee, complete with an assortment of stickers and a copy of the release's theme song. These, with their artwork and other bonuses, have been one of the project's few sources of income, funding hardware, Internet service, and other expenses. Beginning with version 6.1, CD-ROM sets are no longer released.


title: OpenBSD

text: OpenBSD provides a package management system for easy installation and management of programs which are not part of the base operating system. Packages are binary files which are extracted, managed and removed using the package tools. On OpenBSD, the source of packages is the ports system, a collection of Makefiles and other infrastructure required to create packages. In OpenBSD, the ports and base operating system are developed and released together for each version: this means that the ports or packages released with, for example, 4.6 are not suitable for use with 4.5 and vice versa.


title: OpenBSD

text: Initially, OpenBSD used a haloed version of the BSD daemon mascot drawn by Erick Green, who was asked by De Raadt to create the logo for the 2.3 and 2.4 versions of OpenBSD. Green planned to create a full daemon, including head and body, but only the head was completed in time for OpenBSD 2.3. The body as well as pitchfork and tail was completed for OpenBSD 2.4.


title: OpenBSD

text: Subsequent releases used variations such as a police daemon by Ty Semaka, but eventually settled on a pufferfish named Puffy. Since then, Puffy has appeared on OpenBSD promotional material and featured in release songs and artwork.


title: OpenBSD

text: The promotional material of early OpenBSD releases did not have a cohesive theme or design, but later the CD-ROMs, release songs, posters and tee-shirts for each release have been produced with a single style and theme, sometimes contributed to by Ty Semaka of the Plaid Tongued Devils. These have become a part of OpenBSD advocacy, with each release expounding a moral or political point important to the project, often through parody.


title: OpenBSD

text: Themes have included "Puff the Barbarian" in OpenBSD 3.3, which included an 80s rock song and parody of Conan the Barbarian alluding to open documentation, "The Wizard of OS" in OpenBSD 3.7, related to the project's work on wireless drivers, and "Hackers of the Lost RAID", a parody of Indiana Jones referencing the new RAID tools in OpenBSD 3.8.


The NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), formerly known as Division I-AA, is the second-highest level of college football in the United States, after the Football Bowl Subdivision. Sponsored by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the FCS level comprises 130 teams in 15 conferences as of the 2022 season. The FCS designation is only tied to football with the non-football sports programs of each school generally competing in NCAA Division I.


title: NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision

text: From 1906 to 1955, the NCAA had no divisional structure for member schools. Prior to the 1956 college football season, schools were organized into an upper NCAA University Division and lower NCAA College Division. From 1973 to 1977, all schools participated in a single NCAA Division I group. Prior to the 1978 season, schools were again organized into upper NCAA Division I-A and lower NCAA Division I-AA groupings. These two divisions were renamed as NCAA Division I FBS and NCAA Division I FCS prior to the 2006 season.


text: The FCS has held a post-season playoff to award an NCAA-sanctioned national championship since its inception in 1978. The size of the playoff bracket has increased from 4 teams in 1978 to 24 teams in the 2020 season. This makes the FCS the highest level of college football with an NCAA-sanctioned national championship.


title: Koli people

text: The Koli is an Indian caste found in Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Odisha and Jammu and Kashmir states in India. Koli is an agriculturist caste of Gujarat but in coastal areas they also work as fishermen along with agriculture. In the beginning of 20th century, the Koli caste was recognised as a Criminal Tribe under Criminal Tribes Act by British Indian government because of their anti-social activities during World War I.


title: Koli people

text: The Koli caste forms the largest caste-cluster in Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh, comprising 24% and 30% of the total population in those states respectively.


title: Koli people

text: There has historically been some difficulty in identifying people as Koli or as Bhil people in what is now the state of Gujarat. The two communities co-existed in the hills of that area and even today there is confusion regarding their identity, not helped, in the opinion of sociologist Arvind Shah, by there being "hardly any modern, systematic, anthropological, sociological or historical study" of the Kolis. Sources from the medieval period suggest that the term "koli" was applied generically to lawless people, whilst British colonial studies considered it to be a vague collective noun for varied communities whose sole common feature was that they were inferior to the Kunbis. At some stage, "koli" became accepted as a caste and thus superior to the tribal Bhils.


title: Koli people

text: Records of Koli people exist from at least the 15th century, when rulers in the present-day Gujarat region called their chieftains marauding robbers, dacoits, and pirates. Over a period of several centuries, some of them were able to establish petty chiefdoms throughout the region, mostly comprising just a single village. Although not Rajputs, this relatively small subset of the Kolis claimed the status of the higher-ranked Rajput community, adopting their customs and intermixing with less significant Rajput families through the practice of hypergamous marriage, which was commonly used to enhance or secure social status. There were significant differences in status throughout the Koli community, however, and little cohesion either geographically or in terms of communal norms, such as the establishment of endogamous marriage groups.


title: Koli people

text: Through the colonial British Raj period and into the 20th century, some Kolis remained significant landholders and tenants, although most had never been more than minor landowners and labourers. By this time, however, most Kolis had lost their once-equal standing with the Patidar community due to the land reforms of the Raj period. The Kolis preferred the landlord-based tenure system, which was not so mutually beneficial. They were subject to interference from the British revenue collectors, who intervened to ensure that the stipulated revenue was remitted to the government before any surplus went to the landlord. Being less inclined to take an active role in agriculture personally and thus maximise revenues from their landholdings, the Koli possessions were often left uncultivated or underused. These lands were gradually taken over by Kanbi cultivators, while the Kolis became classified as a criminal tribe due to their failure to meet the revenue demands and their tendency to raid Kanbi villages to survive. The Kanbi land takeovers also reduced the Kolis to being the tenants and agricultural labourers of Kanbis rather than landowners, thus increasing the economic inequality between the communities. The difference was further exacerbated by the Kanbis' providing better tenancy arrangements for members of their own community than for Kolis.


title: Koli people

text: During the later period of the Raj, the Gujarati Kolis became involved in the process of what has subsequently been termed sanskritisation. At that time, in the 1930s, they represented around 20 percent of the region's population and members of the local Rajput community were seeking to extend their own influence by co-opting other significant groups as claimants to the ritual title of Kshatriya. The Rajputs were politically, economically and socially marginalised because their own numbers — around 4 - 5 per cent of the population — were inferior to the dominant Patidars, with whom the Kolis were also disenchanted. The Kolis were among those whom the Rajputs targeted because, although classified as a criminal tribe by the British administration, they were among the many communities of that period who had made genealogical claims of descent from the Kshatriya. The Rajput leaders preferred to view the Kolis as being Kshatriya by dint of military ethos rather than origin but, in whatever terminology, it was a marriage of political expedience.


title: Koli people

text: In 1947, around the time that India gained independence, the Kutch, Kathiawar, Gujarat Kshatriya Sabha (KKGKS) caste association emerged as an umbrella organisation to continue the work begun during the Raj. Christophe Jaffrelot, a French political scientist, says that this body, which claimed to represent the Rajputs and Kolis, "... is a good example of the way castes, with very different ritual status, join hands to defend their common interests. ... The use of the word Kshatriya was largely tactical and the original caste identity was seriously diluted."


title: Koli people

text: The relevance of the Kshatriya label in terms of ritual was diminished by the practical actions of the KKGKS which, among other things, saw demands for the constituent communities to be classified as Backward Classes in the Indian scheme for positive discrimination. Kshatriyas would not usually wish to be associated with such a category and indeed it runs counter to the theory of Sanskritisation, but in this instance, it suited the socio-economic and political desires. By the 1950s, the KKGKS had established schools, loan systems and other mechanisms of communal self-help and it was demanding reforms to laws relating to land. It was also seeking alliances with political parties at the state level; initially, with the Indian National Congress and then, by the early 1960s, with the Swatantra Party. By 1967, the KKGKS was once again working with Congress because, despite being a haven for Patidars, the party leadership needed the votes of the KKGKS membership. The Kolis gained more from the actions of the KKGKS in these two decades than did the Rajputs, and Jaffrelot believes that it was around this time that a Koli intelligentsia emerged. Ghanshyam Shah, a professor at Jawaharlal Nehru University, describes the organisation today as covering a broad group of communities, from disadvantaged Rajputs of high prestige to the semi-tribal Bhils, with the Kolis in the middle. He notes that its composition reflects "a common economic interest and a growing secular identity born partly out of folklore but more out of common resentment against the well-to-do castes".


title: Koli people

text: The Kolis of Gujarat remained educationally and occupationally disadvantaged compared to communities such as the Brahmins and Patidars. Their many Jātis include the Bareeya, Khant and Thakor, and they also use "Koli" as a suffix, giving rise to groups such as the Gulam Koli and Matia Koli. Some do not refer to themselves as Koli at all.


title: Koli people

text: The Koli community classified as Other Backward Class by Government of India in the Indian States of Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. but in Maharashtra, Tokre Koli, Malhar Koli and Mahadev Kolis are listed as Scheduled Tribe by State Government of Maharashtra.


title: Koli people

text: The Government of India classified the Koli community as Scheduled Caste in the 2001 census for the states of Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.


title: Koli people

text: The Koli caste of Maharashtra and Gujarat was classified as a Criminal Tribe under Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 by British Indian Government or Bombay government because of their anti-social activities such as robberies, murder, blackmailing, and crop and animal theft. In 1914, Kolis of Maharashtra revolted against British rule and attacked the British officials and to control the kolis, British government again declared the Kolis as a criminal Tribe under Bombay criminal Tribes Act. Around 7000 kolis were required to attend the call each day. Kolis often attacked the Marwari Banias, Sahukars and Moneylenders. if Kolis were not able to pay the debt given by Moneylenders so they always burnt the house and account books and looted the available valuables. It was much common for Kolis of Maharashtra and Gujarat so kolis were notorious tribe for British officials. in 1925, kolis were registered under Criminal Tribes Act. The indian historian G. S. Ghurye writes that Kolis worked as soldiers in British Indian Army in several Regiments but again in 1940 Koli soldiers were classified as a Criminal Tribe under Criminal Tribe Act by British Bombay Government for their uncommon activities against Britishers.


title: Contemporary dance

text: Contemporary dance is a genre of dance performance that developed during the mid-twentieth century and has since grown to become one of the dominant genres for formally trained dancers throughout the world, with particularly strong popularity in the U.S. and Europe. Although originally informed by and borrowing from classical, modern, and jazz styles, it has come to incorporate elements from many styles of dance. Due to its technical similarities, it is often perceived to be closely related to modern dance, ballet, and other classical concert dance styles.


title: Contemporary dance

text: In terms of the focus of its technique, contemporary dance tends to combine the strong but controlled legwork of ballet with modern that stresses on torso. It also employs contract-release, floor work, fall and recovery, and improvisation characteristics of modern dance. Unpredictable changes in rhythm, speed, and direction are often used, as well. Additionally, contemporary dance sometimes incorporates elements of non-western dance cultures, such as elements from African dance including bent knees, or movements from the Japanese contemporary dance, Butoh.


title: Contemporary dance

text: Contemporary dance draws on both classical ballet and modern dance, whereas postmodern dance was a direct and opposite response to modern dance. Merce Cunningham is considered to be the first choreographer to "develop an independent attitude towards modern dance" and defy the ideas that were established by it. In 1944 Cunningham accompanied his dance with music by John Cage, who observed that Cunningham's dance "no longer relies on linear elements (...) nor does it rely on a movement towards and away from climax. As in abstract painting, it is assumed that an element (a movement, a sound, a change of light) is in and of itself expressive; what it communicates is in large part determined by the observer themselves." Cunningham formed the Merce Cunningham Dance Company in 1953 and went on to create more than one hundred and fifty works for the company, many of which have been performed internationally by ballet and modern dance companies.


title: Contemporary dance

text: Other pioneers of contemporary dance (the offspring of modern and postmodern) include Ruth St. Denis, Doris Humphrey, Mary Wigman, Pina Bausch, Francois Delsarte, Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Paul Taylor, Rudolph von Laban, Loie Fuller, José Limón and Marie Rambert.


title: Contemporary dance

text: There is usually a choreographer who makes the creative decisions and decides whether the piece is an abstract or a narrative one. Dancers are selected based on their skill and training. The choreography is determined based on its relation to the music or sounds that is danced to. The role of music in contemporary dance is different from in other genres because it can serve as a backdrop to the piece. The choreographer has control over the costumes and their aesthetic value for the overall composition of the performance and also in regards to how they influence dancers’ movements.


title: Contemporary dance

text: Dance techniques and movement philosophies employed in contemporary dance may include Contemporary ballet, Dance improvisation, Interpretive dance, Lyrical dance, Modern dance styles from United States such as Graham technique, Humphrey-Weidman technique and Horton technique, Modern dance of Europe Bartenieff Fundamentals and the dance technique of Isadora Duncan (also see Free dance).


title: Contemporary dance

text: Contemporary dancers train using contemporary dance techniques as well as non-dance related practices such as Pilates, Yoga, the acting practice of Corporeal mime - Étienne Decroux technique and somatic practices such as Alexander technique, Feldenkrais Method, Sullivan Technique and Franklin-Methode, American contemporary techniques such as José Limón technique and Hawkins technique and Postmodern dance techniques such as Contact improvisation and Cunningham technique, and Release technique.


title: Contemporary dance

text: Some well-known choreographers and creators of contemporary dance created schools and techniques of their own. Paul Taylor developed a dance technique called Taylor technique, which is now taught at modern dance schools like The Ailey School in New York City.


title: Contemporary dance

text: Reflecting the situation in society at large, contemporary dance is increasingly incorporating overtly technological elements, and, in particular, robots. Robotics engineer/dancer Amy LaViers, for example, has incorporated cell phones in a contemporary dance piece calling attention to the issues surrounding our ever-increasing dependence on technology.


title: Decade

text: A decade () is a period of ten years. Decades may describe any ten-year period, such as those of a person's life, or refer to specific groupings of calendar years.


title: Decade

text: Any period of ten years is a "decade". For example, the statement that "during his last decade, Mozart explored chromatic harmony to a degree rare at the time" merely refers to the last ten years of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's life without regard to which calendar years are encompassed. Also, 'the first decade' of a person's life begins on the day of their birth and ends at the end of their 10th year of life when they have their 10th birthday; the second decade of life starts with their 11th year of life (during which one is typically still referred to as being "10") and ends at the end of their 20th year of life, on their 20th birthday; similarly, the third decade of life, when one is in one's twenties or 20s, starts with the 21st year of life, and so on, with subsequent decades of life similarly described by referencing the tens digit of one's age.


title: Decade

text: The most widely used method for denominating decades is to group years based on their shared tens digit, from a year ending in a 0 to a year ending in a 9 for example, the period from 1960 to 1969 is the 1960s, and the period from 1970 to 1979 is the 1970s. Sometimes, only the tens part is mentioned ("60s" or "sixties", and "70s" or "seventies"), although this may leave it ambiguous as to which century is meant. However, this method of grouping decades cannot be applied to the decade immediately preceding AD10, because there was no year 0.


title: Decade

text: Particularly in the 20th century, "0-to-9" decades came to be referred to with associated nicknames, such as the "Swinging Sixties" (1960s), the "Warring Forties" (1940s) and the "Roaring Twenties" (1920s). This practice is occasionally also applied to decades of earlier centuries; for example, referencing the 1890s as the "Gay Nineties" or "Naughty Nineties".


title: Decade

text: A rarer approach groups years from the beginning of the AD calendar era to produce successive decades from a year ending in a 1 to a year ending in a 0, with the years 1–10 described as "the 1st decade", years 11–20 "the 2nd decade", and so on; later decades are more usually described as 'the st, nd, rd, or th decade of the st, nd, rd, or th century' (using the strict interpretation of 'century'). For example, "the second decad of the 12th. Cent." "(sic)"; "The last decade of that century"; "1st decade of the 16th century"; "third decade of the 16th century"; "the first decade of the 18th century". This decade grouping may also be identified explicitly; for example, "1961–1970"; "2001–2010"; "2021–2030". The BC calendar era ended with the year 1BC and the AD calendar era began the following year, AD1. There was no year 0.


title: Decade

text: A YouGov poll was conducted on December 2, 2019, asking 13,582 adults in the United States, "When do you think the next decade will begin and end?" Results showed that 64% answered that "the next decade" would begin on January 1, 2020, and end on December 31, 2029 ("0-to-9" method); 17% answered that "the next decade" would begin on January 1, 2021, and end on December 31, 2030 ("1-to-0" method); 19% replied that they did not know.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The Bellamy Brothers are an American pop and country music duo consisting of brothers David Milton Bellamy (born September 16, 1950) and Homer Howard Bellamy (born February 2, 1946), from Dade City, Florida. The duo had considerable musical success in the 1970s and 1980s, starting with the release of their crossover hit "Let Your Love Flow" in 1976, a number one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: Starting in the late 1970s, the Bellamy Brothers found success in country music as well, charting 10 number one singles, 25 top 10 and more than 50 hits overall on the country charts. To date, they have released more than 50 albums, primarily on Curb Records. They have also enjoyed success in continental Europe, with a compilation album topping the Norwegian charts in 2011 and over two dozen hit songs that were released outside the US market. In 2013, their album "Bellamy Brothers & Friends: Across the Sea" landed at No. 5 in the Swiss music chart and took the top spot in album sales for weeks in Switzerland. It was their third major release in Europe in three years. Their album "Mermaid Cowgirl", recorded in Switzerland and released in 2014, won them Gold Record status in Switzerland. They also recorded four albums in Germany with Ralph Siegel for release to the European market.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: David and Howard Bellamy were inspired by many musical sources from an early age. Their father played country music around the house, and was also a member of a local Western swing band; in addition, they were inspired by the rock and roll music their sister played. Despite having never had formal music training, both brothers learned how to play guitar, mandolin, and banjo. In addition, David learned accordion, fiddle, organ, and piano.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: Their first musical gig was in 1968 at a benefit concert with their father in San Antonio, Florida, at the Rattlesnake Roundup. Their first paid gigs were playing fraternity parties at the University of Florida. Soon after, the brothers moved to Atlanta and formed a band called Jericho. However, playing in bands and clubs proved tiresome for the brothers, who soon moved back home.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The brothers were soon noticed by a friend of recording artist Jim Stafford, who eventually recorded "Spiders & Snakes", written by Stafford and David. "Spiders & Snakes" went on to become a top five hit, providing the Bellamys with the money to move to Los Angeles. Howard became a road manager for Stafford.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The duo signed to Curb Records in 1975. A single featuring only David, "Nothin' Heavy", was unsuccessful. However, at the suggestion of Neil Diamond's drummer Dennis St. John, the brothers recorded and released the single "Let Your Love Flow", written by Diamond's roadie Larry Williams. Released in 1976, "Let Your Love Flow" was a No. 1 single on the U.S. pop charts, as well as more than a dozen countries worldwide.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: Although "Let Your Love Flow" was also a hit on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart, the Bellamys' country music success was limited until 1979, when "If I Said You Have a Beautiful Body Would You Hold It Against Me" was released. The song, with its "double entendre" title derived from a Groucho Marx quote, landed the Bellamys their first country music No. 1 in the United States. It was first played on radio in the United Kingdom in Northern Ireland in 1979 and went on to become Record of the Year in the UK in 1979. In a 2003 issue of "Country Weekly" magazine, the title was named the number 1 country pick-up line of all time. `


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: After the success of "If I Said You Have a Beautiful Body Would You Hold It Against Me", the brothers continued with a run of country hits, including tunes such as "Redneck Girl", "Santa Fe", and the social commentary pieces "Old Hippie" and "Kids of the Baby Boom". "Billboard" named the Bellamy Brothers as Top Country Duo, and they eventually went on to set the record for most duo nominations from both the Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The brothers worked on a number of collaborative efforts with other musicians during this period. They recorded "Too Much Is Not Enough" with The Forester Sisters in 1986 and "Drive South" with them in 1990. In 1993, they recorded "Stayin' in Love" with Freddy Fender and Flaco Jiménez. In 1997, they recorded "Catahoula" with Eddy Raven and Jo-El Sonnier, while in 1997 they recorded "Everyone's Somebody's Darlin'" with Nicolette Larson. In 1999, they recorded "(Don't Put Me In) The Ex Files" with Buck Owens, and that same year they recorded "Vertical Expression" with Freddy Fender and then with Eduardo Araujo.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 1991, the Bellamys switched to Atlantic Records. Their tenure there produced one album before the duo formed their own label, Bellamy Brothers Records. They were one of the first country music artists to have their own record label, and have been licensing albums from their own record label for 25 years. In 1999, they switched to Blue Hat Records for their "Lonely Planet" album.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 2005, the Bellamys returned to Curb Records to record "Angels & Outlaws, Volume 1", a compilation album featuring re-recordings of the duo's older hits with additional artists, including Dolly Parton, George Jones, Alan Jackson, Tanya Tucker and Montgomery Gentry. A re-recorded version of "If I Said You Had a Beautiful Body Would You Hold It Against Me", featuring Dolly Parton, spent one week at No. 60 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs chart in 2005.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The Bellamys released an album of gospel music, titled "Jesus Is Coming", on May 8, 2007. Its title track was previously recorded on "Native American" in 1995. The album received two Dove Award nominations, and a second gospel album, "Pray for Me", was released in 2012. They had many guest singers on this album. Their sister Ginger sang with them on the song "Suppertime", and Deborah Allen sang background vocals with Vicky Hampton on the album. Irish actor and musician Kieran McHugh played penny whistle for the song "Hymn to Him".


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 2008, the song "Let Your Love Flow" was used in the Barclaycard advert for their new contactless cards. The song re-entered the UK singles chart at No. 48 based on downloads, peaked at No. 21 in the pop charts in March 2009, and was listed on BMI's list of Top 100 Song of the Century at No. 68 that same year. A cover by Petra Haden was used in a 2010 Toyota Prius commercial.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: "The Anthology, Vol. 1" was released in 2009 and includes the single "Guilty of the Crime", which is a collaboration with the Bacon Brothers. The video features Shannen Doherty of "Beverly Hills, 90210" fame. Both sets of brothers performed the song together on the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville, Tennessee, on September 1, 2009.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 2010, the Bellamys recorded "The Greatest Hits Sessions" with Swiss rock star Gölä (Marco Pfeuti) and the project sold double platinum in Europe. It was at number one of the Swiss Schweizer Hitparade for 7 weeks. In 2011, they created "BB&G Platinum" with Gölä. Then, in 2014, they teamed up again with Gölä and recorded "Mermaid Cowgirl" in Switzerland. They achieved gold record status in Switzerland with this album.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In June 2010, their song "Jalepeños", about the problems of political correctness, was banned before it could even be released to radio because of its profanity. The video became a major YouTube hit with almost 3 million views.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 2012, the Bellamy Brothers collaborated with Austrian schlager singer DJ Ötzi to create the album "Simply the Best". It was DJ Ötzi's first full English-language album, and entered the German album charts at number three.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In June 2014, "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked "Old Hippie" #95 in their list of the 100 greatest country songs.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: During these years the brothers worked on many other collaborative song efforts as well. They recorded "Hello, Lady Harley" with Truck Stop in 2003, worked with Alan Jackson in 2005, and collaborated with Tom Astor in 2007.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In April 2018, the group released the memoir "Let Your Love Flow - The Life and Times of the Bellamy Brothers". The Bellamys then released their album "Over the Moon" in 2019, which consisted of 14 original songs written and recorded at the Bellamys' studio on their Darby ranch.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 2018 the brothers became the feature of the reality television series "Honky Tonk Ranch", which aired on the Cowboy Channel and RFD-TV. The series follows the Bellamys in addition to their friends and family. A second season of "Honky Tonk Ranch" aired in 2019. In 2020, the show moved to the Circle Network where seasons one and two aired along with season three.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In the late 1990s, David's sons Noah and Jesse became active in the music scene and the sons currently perform as the duo Jesse and Noah.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The Bellamy Brothers live in Darby, Florida, on a 200-acre ranch, where they raise Brahman cattle and quarter horses, with three generations of their family living in the compound. The ranch is also the location of the recording studio where much of their work is recorded.


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: In 2020, the brothers partnered with a Florida medical cannabis company called Trulieve to produce a signature line of cannabis products named "Old Hippie Stash". Said David: has] helped Howard and me on many levels. There was a stigma for so long, but now people are talking about it seriously and considering cannabis as an alternative for stress, anxiety, pain management and many other health factors."


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The brothers have 200 or more concert dates worldwide each year. They have had concerts in the United States, Europe, Australia and South Africa and have been to distant (from their US base) places like Dubai, Saudi Arabia, India, Sri Lanka, New Caledonia, Qatar, the Faroe Islands and the Czech Republic. In 1999, The Bellamy Brothers played for American troops stationed in Bosnia, and on Easter Sunday 2000, they gave a concert for American troops in war-torn Kosovo as well as a concert at a remote camp in Macedonia. In 2014, they toured in India and Sri Lanka and made history as the first country music act touring in those Asian countries. In 2019 and 2020, the Bellamy Brothers participated in Blake Shelton's "Friends and Heroes Tour".


title: The Bellamy Brothers

text: The brothers have traveled around the world playing benefit concerts for American troops abroad including performances throughout Germany, Italy, Japan, Guam, South Korea, Bosnia and Kosovo. When they played at Camp Bondsteel in Kosovo in 2000, it was the first time that the base had allowed a band to play. In 2011, the brothers supported earthquake victims in New Zealand when they joined the New Zealand Red Cross and Judy Seale International to raise support through live auctions. In 2016, the Bellamy Brothers partnered with the Susan G. Komen Foundation to release a video for "Let Your Love Flow." They supported the foundation's breast cancer research by donating one dollar for every digital download of their 40 Year package.


title: Tic Tac

text: Tic Tac (stylized as "tic tac") is a brand of small, hard mint manufactured by the Italian company Ferrero. They were first produced in 1969 and are now available in a variety of flavours in over 100 countries.


title: Tic Tac

text: Tic Tacs are usually sold in small transparent plastic boxes with a flip-action living hinge lid. Originally, Tic Tacs were dyed specific colours for different flavours, although in many countries the transparent plastic boxes are now coloured and the actual Tic Tacs are white.


title: Tic Tac

text: Tic Tac has featured advertising that emphasizes the low calorie count of the mints. Most flavours have approximately 1.9 calories per mint.


title: Tic Tac

text: Tic Tac were first introduced by Ferrero in 1969, under the name "Refreshing Mints". In 1970, the name was changed to Tic Tac, after the distinctive clicking sound made by the pack being opened and closed. Besides the original mint and orange flavours, several new varieties were added, including aniseed, cinnamon (or "Winter Warmer"), an orange and lime mix (in 1976), spearmint, peppermint, Powermint, sour apple, mandarin, tangerine, berry, fresh orange, strawberry, wintergreen, pink grapefruit, orange and lime together (in 1978), cherry, passionfruit (in 2007), pomegranate (in 2010), mango, lime, and popcorn (2014). The grape flavour was eliminated in 1976 because of health concerns about the red dye amaranth (FD&C Red #2), a suspected carcinogen.


title: Tic Tac

text: Other offerings have included holiday gift packs for Christmas, Easter, St Patricks Day and Valentine's Day.


title: Tic Tac

text: Since 1980, the Tic Tac slogan in the United States has been "The 1½ Calorie Breath Mint." In the UK, France, Ireland, Italy and Australia Tic Tacs are noted as being less than two calories with the slogan "Two hours of Tic Tac freshness in less than two calories." In Canada, New Zealand and Australia, and used once in the United States, the Tic Tac slogan is "It's not just a mint, it's a Tic Tac." In India, the Tic Tac slogan is "Refreshment to be shared."


title: Tic Tac

text: During the 1990s, "double packs" were introduced, featuring a regular Tic Tac container with two flavours inside. Available combinations included Tangerine and Lime, Orange and Grape, and Berry and Cherry.


title: Tic Tac

text: In 2008, Tic Tac introduced "Tic Tac Chill," which is slightly larger than ordinary Tic Tacs and comes in a dual-opening packaging, using the traditional living hinge or a sliding opening on the front of the case. These come in three flavours: Exotic Cherry, Berry Blast, and Paradise Mint. Tic Tac Chill mints are also sugar-free, the Exotic Cherry ones instead being sweetened with xylitol.


title: Tic Tac

text: During May 2010, Australia's Trademark Registrar office rejected Ferrero's application to trademark their Tic Tac container as "not being unique enough to distinguish its products from other manufacturers."


title: Tic Tac

text: Orange, Mint, Spearmint, Mintensity, Peach and Passion, Strawberry Mix, Cherry, Elaichi (cardamom) and Banana flavours are available in India.


title: Tic Tac

text: Tic Tac sometimes provides limited editions to promote films, such as a banana and mandarin flavour for the 2015 movie "Minions". Orange Tic Tacs featured prominently in the 2007 film "Juno", in an orange box with white colour mints as sold in Canada and Brazil. Film promoters distributed boxes of the mints prior to the film's release.


title: Tic Tac

text: Sugar, fructose, maltodextrin, peppermint essential oil, rice starch, gum arabic, filling agent (magnesium salts of fatty acids), glazing agent (carnauba wax).


title: Tic Tac

text: Each pack weighs and contains about 38 Tic Tacs. New packs in Australia and Canada weigh 24 g and contain 50 Tic Tacs, and the Tic Tac "100 pack" weighs 49 g and contains 100 Tic Tacs. The "Big Pack" weighs 29 g and contains 60 Tic Tacs. The "Bottle Pack" weighs 98g and contains 200 Tic Tacs.


title: Tic Tac

text: In the United States, Tic Tac list the sugar content as 0g despite the mints being approximately 90% sugar (depending on the flavour). This stems from the fact that a serving size is one 0.49 g mint, and the American Food and Drug Administration permits manufacturers to list sugar (or other nutritional components) as 0 g if they contain less than 0.5 g. In at least some jurisdictions, the 0g now features a footnote that clarifies "less than 0.5 g".


title: Vaud

text: Vaud ( ; , ; , ), more formally the canton of Vaud, is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of ten districts and its capital city is Lausanne. Its coat of arms bears the motto "Liberté et patrie" on a white-green bicolour.


title: Vaud

text: Vaud is the third largest canton of the country by population and fourth by size. It is located in Romandy, the French-speaking western part of the country; and borders the canton of Neuchâtel to the north, the cantons of Fribourg and Bern to the east, the canton of Valais to the south, the canton of Geneva to the south-west and France to the west. The geography of the canton includes all three natural regions of Switzerland: the Jura Mountains, the Swiss Plateau and the (Swiss) Alps. It also includes some of the largest lakes of the country: Lake Geneva and Lake Neuchâtel. It is a major tourist destination, renowned for its landscapes and gastronomy.


title: Vaud

text: The largest city is Lausanne, followed by Yverdon-les-Bains and Montreux. As of the canton has a population of . It is one of the four cantons where French is the sole official language. Formerly a Bernese bailiwick, Vaud joined the Swiss Confederation as an independent canton in 1803.


title: Vaud

text: Humans lived alongside the Vaud lakes in prehistoric times. Later, the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii inhabited the area. Caesar's troops defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC and as a consequence the Romans settled in the area. The many towns established by the Romans include Vevey () and Lausanne ("Lausonium" or "Lausonna").


title: Vaud

text: In 27 BC the state of "Civitas Helvetiorum" was established around the capital of Avenches ("Aventicum"). There are still many Roman remains around the town today. Between the 2nd and the 4th centuries Alemannic tribes repeatedly invaded the area, and in the 5th century the Burgundians occupied the territory. The Merovingian Franks later replaced the Burgundians. Their control did not last long either, and in 888 the area of the canton of Vaud became part of the Carolingian Empire (the successor state to the Merovingians). In 1032 the Zähringens of Germany defeated the Burgundians. The Zähringens themselves were succeeded in 1218 by the counts of Savoy. It was only under the counts of Savoy that the area gained political unity as the Barony of Vaud. A part stretching from Attalens to the river Sarine, in the north, was absorbed by the canton of Fribourg.


title: Vaud

text: As the power of the House of Savoy declined at the beginning of the 15th century, troops from Bern occupied the land. By 1536 Bern had completely annexed the area. Vaud's Protestant Reformation started with co-workers of John Calvin like Pierre Viret (a famous debate took place at the cathedral of Lausanne), but it was only decisively implemented when Bern put its full force behind it.