title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Beyond lizards, wedge-tailed eagles seldom seem to hunt other types of reptiles. They hunt a few species of snakes, mostly venomous species as these are prevalent in Australia. Snakes known to be included in the diet including tiger snakes ("Notechis scutatus"), eastern brown snake ("Pseudonaja textilis"), ringed brown snake ("Pseudonaja modesta"), bandy-bandy ("Vermicella annulata"), yellow-faced whipsnake ("Demansia psammophis"), red-bellied black snake ("Pseudechis porphyriacus") and brown tree snake ("Boiga irregularis"). Eastern long-necked turtle ("Chelodina longicollis") have been claimed as prey in one report although any other confirmed cases of predation on turtles by this species are not known. Notably, there are no reports of wedge-tailed eagles attacking pythons despite several species being present in Australia nor on crocodiles and perhaps these are the only predators too formidable to be attacked, both of these reptiles can attain extremely large sizes. Predation on frogs or other amphibians is almost unheard of for wedge-tailed eagles, however, based on toxicity reports in eagles, they may consume invasive cane toads ("Rhinella marina") from time to time. Similarly rare in the species’ diet is fish, although common carp ("Cyprinus carpio") and western blue groper ("Achoerodus gouldii") have been documented as prey. Occasionally, wedge-tailed eagles may even attack insects such as "Psaltoda moerens" cicadas and "Heteronychus arator" beetles. Truly exceptional is in the Northern Territory, where a large percentage of 1826 prey items was made up of by insects including unidentified Orthoptera, at about 10.8% of the diet, unidentified beetles, at about 8.4%, as well as some numbers of ants. Why and how they capture a profusion of insects locally is not clear, and they may be often from the stomachs of other prey or even byproduct from the captures of other prey or from the bodies of carcasses.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: The wedge-tailed eagle occupies a fairly unique niche relative to other "Aquila". While primarily continental in distribution, it is distributed well apart from most related species, whereas most "Aquila" are distributed in Eurasia or Africa and face considerable competition over resources, enabling certain specializations of most species in habitat or microhabitat, morphology and behaviours and often life history, including nesting grounds and often foods. The wedge-tailed eagle has the ability to exploit a more catholic variation of both prey and habitat since it exists with relatively fewer competing species. The most considerable potential competition comes in the two other eagles regularly distributed in Australia, the little eagle and white-bellied sea eagle. The little eagle has a few ecological similarities to the wedge-tailed eagle. It is also something of a habitat generalist, although it is found somewhat scarcely in more arid vicinity, high elevation areas and varied semi-open forest than the wedge-tailed eagle. Like the wedge-tailed eagle, the little eagle has in recent decades become a somewhat specialized predator of European rabbits. However, the size difference is extreme between the wedge-tailed and little eagles, with the earlier over four times heavier than the latter, and the little eagle as expected exploits a lower trophic level relative to its more powerful competitor. As in other areas where booted eagles and sea eagles have abutting ranges, sometimes wedge-tailed eagles compete with white-bellied sea eagles. One key difference from elsewhere where competition sometimes occurs such as the golden eagle with the white-tailed eagle ("Haliaeetus albicilla") in Eurasia and the bald eagle ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus") in North America, both of which are slightly heavier than the golden, is that the white-bellied sea eagle is the slightly smaller species than the wedge-tailed eagle, potentially giving the latter a more pronounced competitive edge. However, the white-bellied sea eagle clearly does not shy away from contentious border disputes with wedge-tailed eagles and the two species can often be seen be seen readily attacking each other, occasionally in talon grappling and sometimes cartwheeling attacks on one another. However, the ecological effect of interspecific competition of the two species is not clear. Although the wedge-tailed eagle is considered the dominant species of the two, they clearly do not take the presence of white-bellied sea eagles lightly and some authors feel they may avoid nesting near them. Clearly there is ample partitioning between the wedge-tailed and white-bellied sea eagles, the latter adapted to mostly open wetlands and coasts and, while also a dietary generalist, they tend to derive most of their diet from fish, water birds and other wetland-dwelling prey, and they seldom compete directly for prey such as mammals with wedge-tailed eagles.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Most other diurnal raptors that reside in Australia are considerably smaller and seldom can be said to present great competition to the wedge-tailed eagles, although some such as swamp harriers ("Circus approximans"), black-breasted kites and grey goshawks ("Accipiter novaehollandiae") are relatively large for their taxon and powerful predators in their own rights. In one instance, a square-tailed kite ("Lophoictinia isura") was observed to engage in an apparent territorial fight with a wedge-tailed eagle, including talon-grappling. When it comes to carrion, wedge-tailed eagles tend to dominate other predators, especially most birds, with most kites, other assorted raptors and some large passerine birds, mainly "Corvus" species and butcherbirds, coming to dead animals including roadkills. However, heavier terrestrial meat-eaters can hold their own at times against wedge-tailed eagles, namely red foxes, dingos, monitor lizards and Tasmanian devils, despite all these species sometimes turning up as prey of these eagles as well. Sometimes the wedge-tailed eagle will readily rob various other raptors of their prey, including little eagles, white-bellied sea eagles and brown falcons ("Falco berigora"). Wedge-tailed eagles will opportunistically prey on other birds of prey. They share this aptitude they share with other large eagles in different parts of the world such as golden eagles, although such acts are relatively infrequent, it is clear that the wedge-tailed eagle is considered a primary threat by many raptors based on witnessed attacks by eagles on them and the mobbing behaviour of other raptors. Among the other birds of prey known to occasionally fall prey to these eagles are little eagles, collared sparrowhawks ("Accipiter cirrocephalus"), grey goshawks, brown goshawks ("Accipiter fasciatus"), Pacific bazas ("Aviceda subcristata"), black-breasted buzzards, peregrine falcons ("Falco peregrinus"), Australian hobbys ("Falco longipennis"), black falcons ("Falco subniger"), brown falcons and Nankeen kestrels ("Falco cenchroides"). Occasionally owls are also included in the prey spectrum when an opportunity arises, including barn owls ("Tyto alba"), southern boobooks ("Ninox boobook") and even powerful owls ("Ninox strenua"). Wedge-tailed eagles are apex predators and have no well-documented predators, although presumably they have some nest predators, likely including ravens and currawongs, especially when displaced by human disturbance from their nests. Occasionally, these eagles may possibly risk injury or death in conflicts against other powerful predators and scavengers, such as dingos, quolls, Tasmanian devils, goannas and snakes, but no such verified instances seem to be known in literature, and man is considered to be the wedge-tailed eagle's only true predator. Occasionally they may be injured and even killed via intra- and interspecies territorial conflicts and mobbing by other birds of prey, especially stooping peregrine falcons which have successfully knocked wedge-tailed eagles out of the sky, with a force known to kill both golden and bald eagles in other parts of the world. Due to the formidable aerial attack of the peregrine, it may be the only raptor besides the white-bellied sea eagle that wedge-tailed eagles may avoid nesting near. Most of the large falcons, including peregrine, brown and black falcons, and at times large owls nest in unused or abandoned wedge-tailed eagle nests.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: The breeding season is from July to December through much of range, in New Guinea apparently from May on. They have a distinct tendency that lay earlier in the more northerly part of the range. For instance, in northeastern Australia laying has been recorded in January and February and in Tasmania in September. In western Australia, breeding depends on food and during drought periods there may be no nesting for up to 4 years. Adult wedge-tailed eagles are usually solitary or occur in pairs but immatures are more gregarious. 10–15 May rest or soar together or even hunt together and up to 40 recorded at carcasses. Mated adults perform mutual soaring, undulating dives, and tandem flights with rolling and foot-touching. The female may appear to ignore or more often turn over and present claws when a male is displaying. As possibly part of courtship feedings on pairs have taken place away from the nest and sharing of a cache of food may occur. Allopreening occurs occasionally between pairs but is seldom observed, although at times has been considered a “regular” part of the courtship process. Contrary to historical accounts, wedge-tailed eagles seldom engage in an elaborate courtship display and will instead generally try to conserve energy, instead devoting their energy for the upcoming trying breeding season along with territorial exclusions of conspecifics and obtaining food. Mating tends to occur on a bare branch or dead tree in the nest area, and may continue into the nestling period. Contrary to old accounts, the species does not mate in flight. In the pre-laying phase, mating was recorded to be preceded or accompanied by loud, slow yelping, but in the nestling period, the pair alighted together and the male mounted without preliminaries and a silent copulation lasted for one minute.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Territories are established with aerial displays, which can include high circling by one or both of pair, sometimes interspersed with flight rolls and talon presenting. Most of the time, wedge-tailed eagles typically respect pair boundaries and can limit territorial behaviour to mild aerial flights, with the intruders usually giving the ground to incumbents. Violence is usually avoided but sometimes the most heated territorial disputes can escalate to deaths. Sometimes the displaying eagle may engage in a steep dive on part closed wings followed by an upwards swoop, later may escalate into spectacular sky dance with undulations; they may too loop-the-loop. Cartwheeling is typically rare but in one case, three immatures mock dived at each other, two birds interlocked and cartwheeled several times before breaking away. No cartwheeling or talon grappling has been reported between members of a mated pair, but occasionally reported as used against intruding eagles. Aerial displays may go on for a while normally early in the breeding season, between 3 months and 3 weeks prior to egg laying. Territorial attacks by male wedge-tailed eagles may be against any encountered intruding eagles, including both male and female intruders, while female eagles engage in less territorial attacks and when they do, it is exclusively against other females. Territorial aggression can extend towards hang gliders and aircraft, advances noisily, bill open and talons extended until flying just above and behind or slightly ahead of pilot then swoops repeatedly after making contact with the hang-glider. A core of some radius around the nest is most fervently defended. Foraging ranges from nest may be up to about . Foraging ranges on breeding home ranges may be around for males and for females in arid central western Australia. Range sizes of pair members vary greatly based on topography, habitat and prey access. Several reported densities of 3–6 pairs per , others of 7–12 pairs per . When rabbits were in plague type numbers, pairs may nest as close apart and 4 others no more than from those two pairs. In semi-arid areas of New South Wales near Menindee densities were found to be about a pair per , 10–12 pairs in good years, 3 in drought years. Not far from that in Mutawintji National Park density was around a pair per . Much higher densities in this semi-arid zone of western New South Wales, with a pair per , against around a pair per in other arid zones. In Western Australia, arid areas had a nearest neighbor distance of while those nesting in mesic areas had a distance of . At Fowlers Gap, there were 9–10 pairs per . Near Canberra, around 37 pairs were reported in an area of , including some unusually as close as to paved roads and as close as from suburban spots. This contrasts strongly with 36 years prior, when few nests were near human-altered areas and the amount of pairs in the same area was about 32. In the Fleurieu Peninsula in South Australia during the early to mid 2000s, there was a pair per , active nest sites were apart, while the average home range around the nest is roughly. Resurvey efforts a dozen years later in Fleurieu Peninsula found a more populous population, resulting in a home range estimated at with some active nests as close as apart. In the Perth area, it was projected that the mean home range was about . Meanwhile, in southern Victoria the nearest neighbor distance of breeding pairs was while mean territory size was calculated at .


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Both sexes may participate in building the nest but the female takes the greater share, often standing in the middle and building outwards. Often wedge-tailed eagles build alternative nest, up to 2 to 3 per territory, though when undisturbed uses the same general site repeatedly. In Tasmania, territories held a mean of 1.4 nests. The nest is usually either substantial or massive. The nest is a structure of sticks ranging across and deep when first build but with repeated additions up to across and nearly deep. The interior nest cup is commonly around across about deep. Four studies found the diameter of nests to average from as little as and as much as and in depth from as little as to as much as . Generally speaking in woodland or forest edge areas, nests tend to be larger, while those in sparser, more arid areas tend to have characteristically smaller nests, as they have lesser access to nest building materials. Good sized nests can weigh well over . Nests are usually lined with green leaves and twigs, a common practice in accipitrids. Infrequently, they may use an old nest built by another accipitrid, namely whistling kites ("Haliastur sphenurus") and white-bellied sea eagles, with the earlier's nests apparently added to in order to enlargen it. Ideally the nest is located at above the ground on a lateral branch or main fork of lone or forest tree; in taller trees, nests can be as much as high to the opposite extreme down in lower ground or even on rocks or ground trees are scarce. In a few studies different areas of New South Wales, the mean nest height was from and were often relatively close to human development. Two results in southern Victoria found mean nest heights to be . In often particularly arid Western Australia, mean nest heights were reportedly lower, averaging at . Detailed study in Western Australia found nest heights were higher in Mediterranean scrubland at against in the arid zone, but nest height seemed to not have bearing on occupancy or success, territoriality kept the population regulated within the habitats. Occasionally they may nest in dwarf trees at as low as .


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Favoured nesting trees include many "Eucalyptus" and "Casuarina" species, as well as "Corymbia", "Callitris" and "Syncarpia glomulifera" while in inland areas more often "Acacia", "Flindersia" as well as "Hakea leucoptera" and "Grevillea striata". The amount of "Eucalyptus" tree species used by wedge-tailed eagles is extremely diverse and ultimately the species seem to have no strong overall preferences regarding tree species, more importantly seeking a given tree of ample height and considerable broadness. Furthermore, nest trees are often on slightly elevated ground above the mean ground level, presumably in order to offer a more commanding view of the surrounding environment. Additionally, trees with fewer lower branches may be preferred. Nests are seldom on dead trees, usually this occurs where there is an absence of leafy ones. While Australian nests can be in quite varied surroundings, Tasmanian nests are almost exclusively within well forested areas. Forest type nests tend to have a sparse, open understory and woodlands or nearby glades often are considered perhaps more attractive to the species. In desert-type areas, they may nest on a hill or a rise, and in addition sometimes cliff ledges, or among rocks, and even on ground in both islands and desert-like areas, preferably in areas difficult for or inaccessible to humans. Additionally they've been known to nest on power pylons and telegraph poles. Other smaller animals may nest among the sticks at the base of active wedge-tailed eagle nests such as finches, pardalotes and even possums (which more so than the small birds are presumably vulnerable to the eagles if caught in the open), perhaps gaining some protection from the presence of the eagles. This is a not unknown phenomenon in many bird assemblages for small birds to gain incidental protection from strong raptors. Other species, such as Pacific black ducks ("Anas superciliosa"), falcons and owls, may also benefit by utilizing unused nests for their own breeding purposes, although typically only the falcons usually use them with relative regularity.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Clutch size is usually just one or two but sometimes to 4. About 80% of nests where eagles have managed to lay eggs contain two eggs. Mean clutch size is apparently somewhat higher in the western part of the range. The female lays multi-egg clutches by some 3 days or so apart. The eggs are buff or white in colour, often appearing heavily blotched all over with purple-brown, red-brown or lavender, or more sparsely spotted with reddish brown. The amount of spotting is quite variable on eggs even within a single clutch, some being heavily marked, others hardly at all, and at times concentrated on the pointier end of the egg. When freshly laid, the eggs are glossy but they become more matte and brittle with age. Eggs may range in height from , averaging in a sample of 54, by , averaging . Each egg normally weighs about , the equivalent to about three chicken eggs or about 3% of the female eagle's body weight, 10% when the clutch number is 3, which is typical for an "Aquila" eagle but a small percentage relative to smaller raptors. The larger eagles of Tasmania lay larger eggs on average reportedly. Wedge-tailed eagles sometimes lay runt eggs in nests in normal nests, in a condition apparently unique for Australian raptors, and these reportedly never hatch. If a clutch is lost or stolen early in incubation, some pairs have been documented to replace it, being able to do so about a month later. The incubation stage lasts for 42–48 days. The female of the pair either primarily or entirely incubates on her own and, like many eagles, she is a tight sitter. However, the male will incubate at times as well, at least up to an hour at a time. In New South Wales, the male was found to incubate for 16–20% of daylight during which the nest was unguarded for 3–13% of the day. In some cases, male incubation may vary from 1–6% of daylight to as much as 38% of daylight with shifts in extreme lasting up to 6 hours. Male primarily delivers prey to the nest during incubation (not prior), up about to the stage where the eaglet(s) can be left unattended.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: The chicks are covered in white down up at first and are expectedly semi-altricial. At about 12 days or so, a slightly greyer down develops and this ultimately becomes the woolly undercoat for the contour feathers. Within a couple days later, the black quills of the primaries often start to emerge, and can start to stand and move around the nest. At 28 days, the eaglets are showing their upper wing coverts increasingly through the down. At 35 days of age, some darker feathers are appearing on areas such as the breast, belly, mantle, back and head; mostly these are evident as a few dark rufous feathers poking through the head down while at this age they show a short buff-tipped tail. They are partially feathered up to 37 days and nearly completely feathered by 49 days. At around 37 days, they can attempt to tear food from carcass in the nests without much success. From 50 days onwards, the eaglet(s) play a good deal, pouncing on sticks and degree around the nest. Around this age, they are markedly almost full feathered but for the wing and tail, neither of which has reached its full length, and they may have a few wisps of down about their crown or neck. Weight increases are from about at 15 days with a notably increase in robustness to at 29 days, to at 49 days, making more rapid feathering growth thereafter primarily while body size growth slows considerably. Sibling aggression tends to begin at when around when the eaglets are two weeks of age, as in many birds of prey, the younger sibling(s) in wedge-tailed eagles are not infrequently runts. Unlike related eagles, there is some evidence that higher parental attendance limits instances of aggression, whereas in other eagles this occurs often in the parent's presence. In all eagles, the parent eagles make no attempt to intercede when runting or aggression between siblings occurs. Siblicide occurs occasionally in this species and it is considered a “facultative cainist” rather than an obligate one, meaning siblicide occurs occasionally and as conditions dictate as opposed to some eagles where it occurs almost invariably. Reportedly, in Tasmania, a study reported that all but 2% of recorded nests managed to produce two fledglings, implying extremely low rates of siblicide in this race. The female broods attentively at first but then decreases after the second or third week and then ceases brooding almost entirely by 30 days, even at night. For 40 or more days, the female continues to assist the young with feeding, typically from the male's prey deliveries though the female may resume hunting after nest attendance drops. Potential predators such as goannas are struck when found to be approaching the nest, although the eagles usually abandon the nest when a human approaches. Repeated intrusions and noisy disturbances may have a net negative effect such as on Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagles, as these factors often lead to nest failure. In one case in South Australia, the removal of a dead tree in the vicinity of a wedge-tailed eagle nest resulted in full abandonment of the nest by the parents. The female may too continue to bring green leaves to a late stages, doing so more often in a spell of wet weather. During times of plenty, caches can sometimes form around the nest, with much prey left partially or entirely uneaten. Upon leaving the nest at 11 to 12 weeks of age, the young eagles are not strong fliers for another 20 days or so, but can competent flying can be by about 90 days of ages, though full feather development is not until 120 days. Fledgling occurs at 67 to 95 days, typically being less than 90 days and averaging roughly around 79 days. Dependence lasts up to 4 to 6 months after fledging, with the juvenile eagles which overstay rarely known to be an occasionally fatal danger to the subsequent chick hatched to their parents. During the later periods of fledgling, interactions are restricted to brief prey deliveries and the parent eagles stop feeding the young eagle(s), forcing to go forage elsewhere for foods. A study of post-fledgling dispersal found in one case that a young eagle covered only a range, with a maximum covered in a week of . Most recoveries in one banding study were distributed under from their original banding site, mostly as fledgling age juveniles, but some meandered up to away. After dispersal, young eagles are floaters up until their 4th or 5th year, typically avoiding the territories of adults and searching out feeding opportunities. Up to two-thirds of young wedge-tailed eagles may die some time between fledgling and when they are 3–5 years but adults often have quite low mortality rates and can live the better part of a half century. First breeding is typically at 6 or 7 years old. Lifespans of wedge-tailed eagles in the wild are poorly known, with the maximum recorded in one banding study being merely 9 years, quite a paltry age compared to other large eagles, and it is quite conceivable that eagles who survive to maturity not infrequently live around twice that long or more. In captivity, the species has been known to live to around 40 years of age.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Only one young is typically produced from a clutch of two but occasionally two fledglings may occur. The breeding success rates of the species are variable. In overall studies, at least 52 to 90% of breeding pairs managed to produce a fledgling, with further projected numbers from this of 0.2–0.5 fledgling per pair, 0.7–1.2 fledgling per clutch and 1.1–1.3 fledgling per brood. In southwestern Australia, from 0.7 to 1.2 young are fledged per clutch laid, 0.19–0.46 young per pair per year. In south-central Queensland, fledgling productivity was 1.1 per young to pairs that laid eggs. Northern New South Wales eagles were able to produce 0.8 young per pair from 2005 to 2006 while 0.89 and 0.64 fledged young per pair per year was the fledgling rate in central and western New South Wales, respectively. In a further study in New South Wales at Burrendong Dam, from 1993 to 2003, 15 pairs produced an average of one fledgling per territory but 1998 due to drought conditions, the rate was only 0.4 chick per territory. Within Kinchega National Park, however, the rate of 0.99 young per pair was fairly consistent regardless of climatic conditions. In the Australian Capital Territory, pairs were said to produce 1.1 fledglings per pair. In southeastern Australia, from 0.9 to 1.5 young per clutch are laid, with 0.6–1.0 young per pair per year. In Tasmania, from 0.64 to 0.8 young are fledged per clutch laid, 1.07 per successful nest. 0.91 young were produced per pair in southern South Australia or 1.1 fledglings per successful nesting attempt. Subsequent research in South Australia found 38 successfully fledged young with 10 pairs or 26% producing two fledglings and that production was 1.1 per occupied territory and 1.3 per successful pair. 0.73 fledglings were produced pair per year in south-west Western Australia. Western Australian eagles produced 0.92 fledged young per clutch laid and 1.1 young per successful nest. During periods of drought in Western Australia, some wedge-tailed eagles may forgo breeding for up to four years. Higher annual rainfall in Western Australia, higher in mesic than arid areas, made a big difference in pair productivity, with 12% of arid zone pairs producing young, or 0.13 fledglings per pair, a very low productivity, while the mesic zone 69% of pairs produced fledglings, or 0.77 fledglings per pair. Generally, wedge-tailed eagles can nest in a variety of habitats and climatic conditions but tend to be slightly less productive in more arid environments. Significant broad-scale control is thought to be unlikely to be harming numbers of young being produced with those with a macropod-based diet perhaps having a richer diet. Like most eagles, wedge-tailed eagles fit the mold rather well of a K-selected breeder, i.e. being large, producing fewer young and tending to live relatively long.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: In the 1990s, it was estimated broadly that the global population was somewhere between 10,001 and 1,000,000 individuals. As of 2009, Birdlife International listed the total population as only 100,000 mature individuals, possibly conservative and admittedly from poor supporting data. As of that analysis, Birdlife considers the overall population of wedge-tailed eagles to be “possibly increasing”. Generally, the wedge-tailed eagle appears to be quite stable in population. Although wedge-tailed eagles are often scarcer than those large distribution suggests, their total distribution covers more than 10.5 million square kilometers and the population is quite likely within hundreds of thousands. Thinning of forest cover, mostly inadvertent provisioning of carrion food sources and, particularly, rabbit introductions may have aided the species, and it may actually be commoner now than before European colonization. Though protected, sometimes wedge-tailed eagles are shot or trapped or killed by poison carcasses set out by farmers many of whom consider it a serious sheep killer. Historically, the wedge-tailed eagle was subject to persecution levels to rival any other eagle in the world. The heavy persecution began in the closing decades of the 19th century, due largely to the establishment of large-scale sheep farming in Australia. One Queensland station claimed to have poisoned 1060 eagles over 8 months in 1903. Laws passed from 1909 to 1925 made it mandatory for landowners and farmers to kill eagles as vermin with enforcement determined by a given region's minister or vermin board, resulting in even more sweeping efforts to destroy the species. Steel-jawed rabbit traps were set around carcasses and Heligoland traps could sometimes trap several eagles at once, beyond sustained shooting and poisoning efforts. Between the years 1958 and 1967, 120,000 bounties were paid in merely the states of Queensland and Western Australia on wedge-tailed eagles killed, meaning an average 13,000 were killed each year. Even by 1967 to 1976, likely intentional human killings accounted for 54% of wedge-tailed eagle mortalities in Western Australia, with an estimated 30,000 killed in the year of 1969 throughout Australia. Strong legal protections started in Western Australia in the 1950s increasingly so to the 1970s or later elsewhere, now it is protected and subject to limited persecution throughout. Despite reduced persecution, as of the 1980s, 54% of recovered eagles by the 1980s were killed by human persecution. Despite such stunningly high rates of persecution, the wedge-tailed eagle was remarkably resilient to the haphazard persecution inflicted by humans in a way many other Australian wildlife, especially the regionally endemic mammals, and even other eagles elsewhere often are not.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Often the species is less intentionally harmed via human disturbance via land development particularly intensifying agricultural and modern settlements, which can in turn lead to clearing of mature trees, disturbances at the nest and decline of native prey species, all of which have a net negative effect on the wedge-tailed eagles. Eggshell thickness was not significantly decreased by the use of DDT likely due likely to the largely mammal-based diet of the species, whereas raptors which consume birds or fish are disproportionately effected by DDT. On occasional, the species is still subject to illegal shootings and poisonings, however persecution of the species is significantly less prevalent in recent decades. Occasionally but not commonly, they are killed by sodium fluoroacetate poisons long used to “control” Australian wildlife, but now generally directed at invasive species such as rabbits, feral pigs and foxes. A list of the main persistent threats in the 21st century to wedge-tailed eagles consists of: destruction of habitat, including logging, developments including urbanization, wind farm collisions and the disturbance and destruction associated with their construction, increasing density rural human populations, illegal persecution in sheep farm areas, drowning in open tanks in dry pastoral zones, roadkills (especially while foraging for roadkill carrion), collisions with fences, powerlines and airplanes, regular electrocutions, poisoning from rabbit baits and other baits and exposure to lead and other bullet fragments which may be responsible for some eagle debilitations and deaths. Within the Fleurieu Peninsula, some 1.74 eagles on average are claimed by wind farm turbine collisions. Conservation needs may differ in different habitats, i.e. in more coastal temperate areas, the eagle is reported to have difficulty nesting when hillsides have been cleared of trees, meanwhile inland, they have lesser need of trees in elevated locations because they are more often assisted by thermals. However, they cannot generally persist where leafy trees are clearcut. Surprising resilience even to drought was found recently in the wedge-tailed eagles in the Australian Capital Territory where pair occupancy remained consistent through drought for wedge-tailed eagles but not for little eagles, but this is may have more to do with the wedge-tails more successful uncoupling from a dependence on declining rabbits as prey than the little eagle. Of 84 eagle deaths or debilitating injuries, 52% were attributable to collisions or electrocutions, 15.5% due to persecution, 11% due to natural causes and 15% were due to unknown causes.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: The Tasmanian race of wedge-tailed eagle, "A. a. fleayi", is quite restricted in range and habitat, with estimated numbers having gone from 140 pairs in 1980s down to only 60–80 by the mid-1990s. With the island's population numbering quite low and likely continuing its declining, as evidenced by slow replacement of lost pair members, the subspecies is listed as state-endangered. Furthermore, surveys contrasting 1977–1981 with 1998–2001 data found a decline of around 28% in the island's reported number of eagles. Generally Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagles are even less tolerant of human alterations and disturbances near the nest site than mainland wedge-tailed eagles and have more specific habitat requirements. Historically, the same hunting organization in Tasmania that played a large role in the extinction of the thylacine ("Thylacinus cynocephalus") also intentionally tried to hunt the Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle into extinction, publicly having erroneously claimed that eagles were non-native in Tasmania, however hunting is unlikely to further continue on a large scale in the state. Where habitat clearance and degradation is extensive in Tasmania, the native prey populations be insufficient to support eagles. Furthermore, the clearing or logging of trees is especially critical in Tasmania, where the eagle is by and large a forest-dependent breeder. Studies indicate that the Tasmanian eagles mostly nest in emergent trees in old-growth native forest exposed to early morning sun and sheltered from prevailing strong winds and cold spring winds, given the more temperate climate here relative to most points in mainland Australia. The subspecies requires forest areas greater than in which to breed and is very prone to desert its nest when disturbed. A predicted change was calculated to the carrying capacity of the Tasmanian forest given current operations is modeled, likely driving the population down. Wind farms in Tasmania are also an occasional threat; although not thought to be a significant source of mortality, wedge-tailed eagles, especially young ones, are less success at avoiding invariably fatal collisions with them than Tasmanian white-bellied sea eagles. Furthermore, of 109 eagle carcasses recovered in Tasmania, all of them had trace levels of lead in their livers or femurs with at least part of the exposure likely from lead ammunition. In addition, like all eagles, Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagles are vulnerable to electrocutions, and collisions with vehicles, overhead wires, and fences and poisonings, largely via illegal killings by poachers of Tasmanian devils and forest ravens ("Corvus tasmanicus"). Efforts are underway to ameliorate the harm being done to Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagles, especially via forestry operations. In protected areas, protocols are in place to protect Tasmanian eagle nests and protect them by creating an obligatory nest reserve of at least 10 ha and forestry operation have been restricted during the breeding season to outside a buffer zone of , extending further to if the proposed work is in the line-of-sight of the nesting eagles. About 20% of known pairs are outside protected areas and on private land, so are largely outside the strict legal protection the subspecies has on governmental forest land. Furthermore, researchers are instituting rules to minimize disturbance, limiting breeding surveys to distant observations of whitewash and flattened treetops as proof of nesting and all detailed observations to be obtained after the cessation of breeding activities.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: The bird is an emblem of the Northern Territory. The Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern Territory uses the wedge-tailed eagle, superimposed over a map of the Northern Territory, as their emblem. The New South Wales Police Force emblem contains a wedge-tailed eagle in flight, as does the Northern Territory Correctional Services. La Trobe University in Melbourne also uses the wedge-tailed eagle in its corporate logo and coat of arms. The wedge-tailed eagle is also a symbol of the Australian Defence Force, featuring prominently on the , and the Royal Australian Air Force and Australian Air Force Cadets both use a wedge-tailed eagle on their badges. The Royal Australian Air Force has named its airborne early warning and control aircraft after the bird, the Boeing E-7 Wedgetail.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: Early in 1967, the Australian Army 2nd Cavalry Regiment received its new badge, a wedge-tailed eagle swooping, carrying a lance-bearing the motto "Courage" in its talons. The regiment's mascot is a wedge-tailed eagle named "Courage". Since its formation, there have been two, Courage I and Courage II. In 1997, while on flight training with his handlers, Corporal Courage II refused to cooperate and flew away, not being found for two days following an extensive search. He was charged with being AWOL and reduced to the rank of trooper. He was promoted back to corporal in 1998.


title: Wedge-tailed eagle

text: The West Coast Eagles AFL football club from Western Australia uses a stylised wedge-tailed eagle as their club emblem. In recent years, they have had a real-life wedge-tailed eagle named "Auzzie" perform tricks before matches.


title: Open–closed principle

text: In object-oriented programming, the open–closed principle (OCP) states ""software entities (classes, modules, functions, etc.) should be open for extension, but closed for modification"";


title: Open–closed principle

text: The name "open–closed principle" has been used in two ways. Both ways use generalizations (for instance, inheritance or delegate functions) to resolve the apparent dilemma, but the goals, techniques, and results are different.


title: Open–closed principle

text: Bertrand Meyer is generally credited for having originated the term "open–closed principle", which appeared in his 1988 book "Object Oriented Software Construction".


title: Open–closed principle

text: At the time Meyer was writing, adding fields or functions to a library inevitably required changes to any programs depending on that library. Meyer's proposed solution to this dilemma relied on the notion of object-oriented inheritance (specifically implementation inheritance):


title: Open–closed principle

text: A class is closed, since it may be compiled, stored in a library, baselined, and used by client classes. But it is also open, since any new class may use it as parent, adding new features. When a descendant class is defined, there is no need to change the original or to disturb its clients.


title: Open–closed principle

text: During the 1990s, the open–closed principle became popularly redefined to refer to the use of abstracted interfaces, where the implementations can be changed and multiple implementations could be created and polymorphically substituted for each other.


title: Open–closed principle

text: In contrast to Meyer's usage, this definition advocates inheritance from abstract base classes. Interface specifications can be reused through inheritance but implementation need not be. The existing interface is closed to modifications and new implementations must, at a minimum, implement that interface.


title: Open–closed principle

text: Robert C. Martin's 1996 article "The Open-Closed Principle" was one of the seminal writings to take this approach. In 2001 Craig Larman related the open–closed principle to the pattern by Alistair Cockburn called "Protected Variations", and to the David Parnas discussion of "information hiding".


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The film was released theatrically on April 18, 2015. It is the first Japanese film to be screened in IMAX 3D and receive screenings at 4DX theaters. The film saw a limited theatrical release in North American theaters between August 4 through August 13, 2015. Madman Entertainment released the film in Australian theaters on August 6, where it ran through until August 19, 2015. Manga Entertainment acquired the rights for the release in the United Kingdom in September 2015. It was also released in India in November 2015. The film received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised the quality of animation and the fast-paced action sequences, although its plot received some criticism.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The film was later adapted into the second story arc of "Dragon Ball Super", with the addition of extra scenes and subplots set before its events.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The alien Sorbet, commander of the remnants of Frieza's military, travels to Earth where the Pilaf Gang are forced to collect and use the magical Dragon Balls to summon the wish-granting eternal dragon Shenron to resurrect Frieza. However, due to Frieza having been killed when Future Trunks chopped him up with his sword, he is revived in many pieces which Sorbet's minions manage to reassemble using their advanced technology. Once restored and back in command of his forces, Frieza abuses some of his minions and plots revenge against the Super Saiyans. Upon learning that Goku has grown far more powerful over time, Frieza postpones the invasion so he can train himself for the first time.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Jaco the Galactic Patrolman travels to Earth to warn Bulma that Frieza is approaching and with Goku and Vegeta away training with Whis on the Beerus' planet, Gohan, Piccolo, Krillin, Master Roshi, Tien Shinhan and Jaco assemble to resist Frieza's conquest and they fight and defeat thousands of his soldiers. Having greatly increased his power as the result of his training, Frieza overwhelms the warriors but Bulma is successful in making contact with Whis, notifying Goku and Vegeta of Frieza's return. The Saiyans return to Earth, rescue their allies, and face Frieza while Whis and Beerus watch on. Goku fights Frieza first and quickly gains the advantage but the latter deduces that he is holding back, so the two foes agree to fight at full power. Goku transforms into a new godly Super Saiyan form with a glowing blue hair and aura (later dubbed Super Saiyan Blue) and Frieza assumes his new gold-plated form, which he dubs "Golden Frieza". Although Frieza initially gains the upper hand, Goku soon realizes that Frieza's energy drains quickly due to his lack of experience with the golden form.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Goku eventually bests Frieza in battle and gives him an opportunity to leave Earth, but is blasted in the chest by Sorbet's raygun when his guard is lowered. Frieza stands over the incapacitated Goku, and offers Vegeta a chance to kill him in order to become his second-in-command. Vegeta refuses, transforms into Super Saiyan Blue, and attacks Frieza. When Krillin attempts to revive Goku with a healing Senzu bean, Frieza attacks him, but Vegeta deflects the energy blast which subsequently kills Sorbet. Vegeta dominates Frieza who is humiliated and proceeds to launch a surprise energy blast into the Earth, completely destroying it and subsequently killing Vegeta. Goku, Beerus, and the others are shielded by Whis and left floating in space on a small patch of earth where they lament on the loss. Whis remarks that he has the ability to reverse time up to three minutes and, after doing so, Goku quickly kills Frieza with a "Kamehameha" wave; much to Vegeta's anger.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: In the aftermath, Goku and Vegeta discuss the assertion by Whis that, if the two of them were to properly learn to work together, opponents like Frieza would be defeated much easier. Vegeta scoffs and indicates that he would rather die and Goku humorously agrees. Vegeta remarks that it is about time they finally agree on something. In a post-credits scene, Frieza returns to Hell, and to his dismay, is welcomed back.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The film was originally announced in July 2014 under the tentative title of "Dragon Ball Z 2015" in the September 2014 issue of "V Jump" magazine. The image of Son Goku in Super Saiyan form using the "Shunkan Idō" technique confirmed Akira Toriyama's credits for the original concept, screenplay and character designs and his mention that the film would be a continuation of his original manga. The author stated that the film will also be a sequel to "Battle of Gods", that he strictly scrutinized all the dialogue, and promised more action scenes. A flyer of the same image, with a backside showing Shenlong, handed out at the Jump Victory Carnival event on July 19 revealed that "Dragon Ball Z" animation supervisor Tadayoshi Yamamuro is directing the new film. Later that month, a short teaser trailer was released of Shenlong bringing someone back to life with text calling this , followed by Goku transforming into a Super Saiyan.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: In November 2014, the film's Japanese title of "Dragon Ball Z: Fukkatsu no F" and basic plot outline were unveiled in the January 2015 issue of "V Jump". A promotional image released for the film depicts Frieza, Goku, Vegeta, Piccolo, Son Gohan, Krillin, as well as the God of Destruction Beerus and Whis from the previous film "Battle of Gods". Also featured in the image were two new characters that are servants of Frieza, Sorbet and Tagoma.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Producer Norihiro Hayashida said that although Toriyama came up with the story for "Battle of Gods", its script was actually written by someone else. Therefore, "Resurrection 'F"' marks the first time the original creator wrote a screenplay for the series. He revealed that Toriyama had the idea to bring Frieza back while attending a concert by the metal band Maximum the Hormone. It came to him while watching them perform their 2008 song "F", which is about the fictional character. Hayashida also admitted that the team gave the film a fast pace by focusing on fight scenes for the American audience, which "may have caused some shortcomings on the dramatic level."


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: On December 5, 2014, the first full trailer for the film was aired on Fuji TV's morning show "Mezamashi TV". The following day a slightly different trailer and a special audio message from Frieza (Ryūsei Nakao) were added to the film's official website, as well as some of the cast and crew. People who order advance tickets receive an earphone jack strap of either Goku or Frieza designed by Toriyama.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Momoiro Clover Z appeared with Masako Nozawa at a press conference in Tokyo on February 3, 2015, where it was announced that all five members will have roles in the film as "angels from hell." Costumed mascots of Son Goku and Frieza were also present at the event which was held on Setsubun, and accordingly beans were thrown at Frieza in the "mamemaki" tradition.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: On March 2, 2015, a second full trailer was released for "Resurrection 'F' " revealing Frieza's new form, covering his skin in both gold and dark shades of purple. Other details included in the trailer were a defeated Gohan and Goku, Frieza's henchmen fighting against Piccolo, Tien Shinhan, Master Roshi and Krillin. It also features Jaco from Toriyama's 2013 manga series "Jaco the Galactic Patrolman", which is set before "Dragon Ball". A trailer featuring the series' heroes fighting Frieza and his 1,000-man army was released on March 24 by "Mainichi Shimbun".


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: In April 2015, the 20th issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump" revealed Goku's new form of the Super Saiyan God transformation he acquired in "Battle of Gods". Toei released a short advertisement depicting Goku and Frieza fighting in their new forms, days before the magazine's official release.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Like the previous film, the music in "Resurrection 'F' " was composed by Norihito Sumitomo. Its theme song is by the Japanese idol group, Momoiro Clover Z. A Toei producer said each member is a fan of the series. The song was released as a single on April 29, 2015, and includes a cover of Hironobu Kageyama's "Cha-La Head-Cha-La", the original opening theme of "Dragon Ball Z". An English-language version of the song has also been recorded for use in international versions of the film. Maximum the Hormone's 2008 song "F" appears in the film during two different scenes. The film's original soundtrack, containing 32 tracks, was released on May 8, 2015.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: In December 2014, Toho Cinemas collaborated with "Resurrection 'F' " for a television commercial promoting their Cinemileage Card. In it Frieza explains how the card program works and Goku's yelling of Frieza's name appears as a pun on the word "free."


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: A three-chapter manga adaptation of the film, drawn by Toyotarou, began in the April 2015 issue of "V Jump".


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: As part of a collaboration with the J. League Division 1 football team Yokohama F. Marinos, a special poster with players mimicking the film's own was displayed in promotion of their matches with Vegalta Sendai on April 12 and Shonan Bellmare on April 25, 2015.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: In March 2015, a collaboration between Toei Animation and Kirin Company spawned two dance parody commercials tying "Resurrection 'F' " with Kirin's "Mets" cola beverage, with the grape flavor advertisement featuring Frieza and his henchmen, and the orange flavor ad featuring Goku and the other heroes.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: A collaboration with Curry House CoCo Ichibanya ran from April 1 to May 31, 2015. Anyone with a receipt of over ¥1,000 from one of the restaurants could send it in to enter a merchandise lottery, where they could win exclusive items such as shot glasses and a platter featuring Goku eating curry.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Frieza's new form from the film is a playable character in the video games "Dragon Ball Heroes", "Dragon Ball Zenkai Battle Royale", "" and "Dragon Ball Xenoverse". "Extreme Butōden" also has Goku's new form from the film as a playable character and Vegeta's as an assist character. Along with Frieza's new form, the Super Saiyan God Super Saiyan forms of both Goku and Vegeta also appear as downloadable content in "Dragon Ball Xenoverse".


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The first 1.5 million filmgoers received a book called , which includes Toriyama's complete script for the film as well as design materials. They also got either a Goku or Vegeta card for the "Dragon Ball Heroes" arcade game and a certificate that gives them access to exclusive content for five different "Dragon Ball" video games. Like its prequel, the events of "Resurrection 'F"' were later adapted as the second story arc of "Dragon Ball Super", with some events being altered or expanded in the series' version of events. The "Resurrection 'F'" arc covers episodes 15-27. An extended version of the film with new scenes titled Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection ‘F’ - Future Trunks Special Edition also aired on Fuji TV on August 27, 2016. The broadcast earned an average household rating of 9.2%. It serves as a prelude to the events of the "Future Trunks" Saga in "Dragon Ball Super".


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: "Resurrection 'F' " opened in 658 2D and 3D theaters across Japan on April 18, 2015. It is the first Japanese film to be screened in IMAX 3D Digital theaters, shown in eighteen such establishments across the country. The previous film "Battle of Gods" was the first ever Japanese film to be shown at IMAX Digital theaters, but was not in 3D. It is also screened in ten 4DX theaters across Japan, which adds environmental effects such as seat motion, wind, rain and scents to the standard video and audio. Prior to its nationwide release, preview screenings were held in seven different cities for 2,264 winners of a lottery held amongst 24 different Shueisha magazines. The earliest four taking place on March 30, two more the following day, and the final two on April 2.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The film was planned to screen in 74 countries worldwide. On March 15, 2015, Funimation announced that they licensed the film for North America and, together with Toei and 20th Century Fox, screened the subtitled film at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Los Angeles on April 11. Their English language production premiered in North American theaters on August 4 for a limited run, initially to August 12, and then extended to August 17. It opened in Canada on Thursday, August 6. Madman Entertainment released the film in Australian theaters on August 6, both subtitled and dubbed in English, where it ran through until August 19, 2015. On July 26, 2015, at MCM Manchester Comic-Con, Manga Entertainment announced the release of the film in the United Kingdom in September 2015.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 83%, based on 18 reviews, with an average rating of 6.28/10. Sam Leach of Anime News Network gave the film a B. "Resurrection 'F"' received a Silver Excellence Award at the 33rd Golden Gross Award and was nominated for Animation of the Year at the 39th Japan Academy Prize. Ryūsei Nakao won Best Voice Actor at the 25th Japanese Movie Critics Awards for his work on the film.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Critical response to the film was mixed. Shawn Saris of IGN awarded the film a score of 8 out of 10, saying ""DBZ: Resurrection ‘F’" is a fast-paced film with tons of action and great animation, but lacks any meaningful punch." in regards Frieza's new powers and rivalry with Goku. Kotaku regarded Frieza as the series' most entertaining villain in the entire series which led to the staff to revive him multiple times in order to appeal to returnining fans. While finding the film enjoyable, Kotaku still felt it was flawed as it "loses its momentum once the main battle begins and tension all but disappears" DVD Talk enjoyed the rematch between Frieza and Goku in "Resurrection F" but still lamented that its length was too much when compared with other subplots. Anime News Network lamented Frieza's role as he felt that he barely gave a decent fight in the film as the writing fails to portray him as a menacing villain with the new powers of Goku and Vegeta easily surpassing him alongside other plot devices like the healing beans. Den of Geek found the fight between Goku's allies and Frieza's army as the best part of the film in contrast to the lead's fights which he felt was "standard" to the point it gets "boring".


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: "Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F' " opened at number one in the Japanese box office, earning approximately with 716,000 tickets sold in its first two days. It made 40.3% more and sold 27.4% more tickets than "Battle of Gods" did in its opening weekend. "Deadline Hollywood" reported that it had the biggest opening in Japan to that point for 2015, making Japan the only territory in the world where "Furious 7" did not debut at number one. The film earned around by its sixth day and sold 1 million tickets by the end of its first week, making it the fastest film to reach that attendance number in Japan to that point in 2015. By May 6, 2015, it grossed 3.1 billion yen (approximately ) on 2.36 million admissions, surpassing "Battle of Gods" in 19 days. The film was the sixth highest-grossing Japanese film at the Japanese box office in 2015, with ().


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: In mid-June, the film debuted in Latin American markets grossing $7.11 million during its opening weekend. In the United States, it debuted with an $1.97 million opening from 895 theaters and grossed another $1.55 million the following day. In Australia it has made AUS $1.5 million by its third weekend of August 20–23. The film opened in Italy on September 11, 2015, and finished with a total weekend gross of €0.52 million (approximately US$0.6 million). In South Korea, the film grossed () in 2015.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: "Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F' " grossed a final total of $8.4 million in the United States and Canada. In other territories, the film grossed an estimated $53.7 million by January 1, 2016. As of March 10, 2016, the film has grossed worldwide, including over in Japan and outside of Japan.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: The film was released in Japan in standard and limited edition DVD and Blu-ray formats on October 7, 2015. The limited edition includes a story board book, booklet, and a Golden Freeza alarm clock, additionally each disc in this set includes bonus content as interviews, video footage from the May 9 "“Goku Day”" event, and much more. The home video release of "Fukkatsu no 'F' " sold approximately 41,442 copies in its first week. By the end of the year, it had sold 65,787 copies of both DVDs and Blu-rays.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: On October 20, 2015, Funimation launched to North America three versions of the home video, the Collector's Edition, Blu-ray/DVD Combo and a standard DVD. As of February 2019, the DVD and Blu-ray releases have grossed over in US retail sales.


title: Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'

text: Madman Entertainment released the film in Australia and New Zealand on DVD and Blu-ray on November 18, 2015 In United Kingdom, Manga Entertainment released the DVD and Blu-ray on January 25, 2016. Selecta Visión released the film in Spain on DVD and Blu-ray on May 11, 2016. On December 9, 2016, Kazé Anime released the DVD and Blu-ray of the film in Germany.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The persecution of Jews has been a major event in Jewish history, prompting shifting waves of refugees and the formation of diaspora communities. As early as 605 BCE, Jews who lived in the Neo-Babylonian Empire were persecuted and deported. Antisemitism was also practiced by the governments of many different empires (Roman empire) and the adherents of many different religions (Christianity), and it was also widespread in many different regions of the world (Middle East and Islamic). Jews were commonly used as scapegoats for tragedies and shortcomings such as those which were seen in the Black Death Persecutions, the 1066 Granada Massacre, the Massacre of 1391 in Spain, the many Pogroms in the Russian Empire, and the tenets of Nazism prior to and during World War II, which lead to The Holocaust and the murder of six million Jews.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The Babylonian captivity or the Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, following their defeat in the Jewish–Babylonian War and the destruction of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. The event is described in the Hebrew Bible, and its historicity is supported by archaeological and non-biblical evidence.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem, which resulted in tribute being paid by the Judean king Jehoiakim. In the fourth year of Nebuchadnezzar II's reign, Jehoiakim refused to pay further tribute, which led to another siege of the city in Nebuchadnezzar II's seventh year that culminated in the death of Jehoiakim and the exile to Babylonia of his successor Jeconiah, his court and many others; Jeconiah's successor Zedekiah and others were exiled in Nebuchadnezzar II's 18th year; a later deportation occurred in Nebuchadnezzar II's 23rd year. The dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees given in the biblical accounts vary. These deportations are dated to 597 BCE for the first, with others dated at 587/586 BCE, and 582/581 BCE respectively.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: When Judea fell under the authority of the Seleucid Empire, the process of Hellenization was enforced by law. This effectively meant requiring pagan religious practice. In 167 BCE Jewish sacrifice was forbidden, sabbaths and feasts were banned and circumcision was outlawed. Altars to Greek gods were set up and animals prohibited to Jews were sacrificed on them. The Olympian Zeus was placed on the altar of the Temple. Possession of Jewish scriptures was made a capital offense.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The Jewish Encyclopaedia refers to the persecution of Jews and the paganization of Jerusalem during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD):


title: Persecution of Jews

text: In the Middle Ages antisemitism in Europe was religious. Although it is not part of Catholic dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, held the Jewish people collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus. As stated in the "Boston College Guide to Passion Plays", "Over the course of time, Christians began to accept … that the Jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus Christ's death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time, have committed the sin of deicide, or 'god-killing'. For 1900 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America."


title: Persecution of Jews

text: During the High Middle Ages in Europe there was full-scale persecution of Jews in many places, with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. An underlying source of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution reached its first peak during the Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096), flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed, a prime example being the Rhineland massacres. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and, in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than a half of the population, Jews were taken as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence in the Black Death persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by papal bull on July 6, 1348 - with another following later in 1348 - several months afterwards, 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: One study finds that persecutions and expulsions of Jews increased with negative economic shocks and climatic variations in Europe during the period from 1100–1600. The authors of the study argue that this stems from people blaming Jews for misfortunes and weak rulers going after Jewish wealth in times of fiscal crisis. The authors propose several explanations for why Jewish persecutions significantly declined after 1600:


title: Persecution of Jews

text: In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods which were called ghettos. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases, the state separated them from their families; the Edgardo Mortara account is one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the Papal States in the second half of the 19th century.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: According to Mark R. Cohen, during the rise of Islam, the first encounters between Muslims and Jews resulted in friendship when the people of Medina gave Muhammad refuge, among them were Jewish tribes of Medina. Conflict arose when Muhammad expelled certain Jewish tribes after they refused to swear their allegiance to him and aided the Meccan Pagans. He adds that this encounter was an exception rather than a rule.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Of the three Jewish tribes of Medina, the Banu Nadir and the Banu Qaynuqa were expelled in the course of Muhammad's rule after suspicion arose in the Muslim leadership that the Jews were planning the assassination of Muhammad. On the other hand, the Banu Qurayza tribe was eliminated by Muhammad in the aftermath of the Battle of the Trench. The tribe was accused of colluding with Meccan enemies during the Meccan siege of Medina and subsequently besieged. When they surrendered, all grown men were executed and women and children were enslaved. Muhammad is recorded as saying that he would expel all Jews and Christians from Arabia, although this was not carried out until the reign of Umar.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Traditionally, Jews living in Islamic states were subjected to the status of "dhimmi", therefore they were allowed to practice their religion and administer their internal affairs but were subjects to certain conditions. They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to Muslims. Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. Contrary to popular belief, the Qur'an did not order Muslims to force Jews to wear distinctive clothing. Obadiah the Proselyte reported in 1100 AD, that the Caliph had created this rule himself.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Resentment toward Jews perceived as having attained too lofty a position in Islamic society also fueled antisemitism and massacres. In Moorish Spain, ibn Hazm and Abu Ishaq focused their anti-Jewish writings on this allegation. This was also the chief motivation behind the 1066 Granada massacre, when "[m]ore than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day", and in Fez in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed. There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah, and which became known as the Mawza Exile.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The Damascus affair occurred in 1840 when a French monk and his servant disappeared in Damascus. Immediately following, a charge of ritual murder was brought against a large number of Jews in the city including children who were tortured. The consuls of the United Kingdom, France and Germany as well as Ottoman authorities, Christians, Muslims and Jews all played a great role in this affair.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. This is known as the Allahdad incident. Between 30 and 40 people were killed, and it was only by forcible conversion that a large-scale massacre was averted.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: In Palestine there were riots and pogroms against Jews in 1920 and 1921. Tensions over the Western Wall in Jerusalem led to the 1929 Palestine riots, whose main victims were the ancient Jewish community at Hebron.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: In 1941, following Rashid Ali's pro-Axis coup, riots known as the "Farhud" broke out in Baghdad in which approximately 180 Jews were killed and about 240 were wounded, 586 Jewish-owned businesses were looted and 99 Jewish houses were destroyed.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: During the Holocaust, the Middle East was in turmoil. Britain prohibited Jewish immigration to the British Mandate of Palestine. In Cairo the Jewish Lehi (also known as the Stern Gang) assassinated Lord Moyne in 1944 fighting as part of its campaign against British closure of Palestine to Jewish immigration, complicating British-Arab-Jewish relations. While the Allies and the Axis were fighting for the oil-rich region, the Mufti of Jerusalem Amin al-Husayni staged a pro-Nazi coup in Iraq and organized the Farhud pogrom that marked the turning point for about 150,000 Iraqi Jews who, following this event and the hostilities generated by the war with Israel in 1948, were targeted for violence, persecution, boycotts, confiscations, and near complete expulsion in 1951. The coup failed and the mufti fled to Berlin, where he actively supported Hitler. In Egypt, with a Jewish population of about 75,000, young Anwar Sadat was imprisoned for conspiring with the Nazis and promised them that "no British soldier would leave Egypt alive" (see Military history of Egypt during World War II) leaving the Jews of that region defenseless. In the French Vichy territories of Algeria and Syria, plans were drawn up for the liquidation of their Jewish populations if the Axis powers were triumphant.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Tensions caused by the Arab–Israeli conflict were a factor in the rise of animosity towards the Jewish people all over the Middle East, as hundreds of thousands of Jews fled as refugees, the main waves fleeing soon after the 1948 and 1956 wars. In reaction to the Suez Crisis of 1956, the Egyptian government expelled almost 25,000 Egyptian Jews and confiscated their property, and sent approximately 1,000 more Jews to prisons and detention camps. The population of the Jewish communities in Muslim Middle East and North Africa was reduced from about 900,000 in 1948 to less than 8,000 today.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: On March 2, 1974, the bodies of four Syrian Jewish girls were discovered by border police in a cave in the Zabdani Mountains northwest of Damascus. Fara Zeibak, 24, her sisters, Lulu Zeibak, 23, Mazal Zeibak, 22 and their cousin, Eva Saad, 18, had contracted with a band of smugglers to flee from Syria to Lebanon and eventually to Israel. The girls' bodies were found raped, murdered and mutilated. The police also found the remains of two Jewish boys, Natan Shaya 18 and Kassem Abadi 20, victims of an earlier massacre. Syrian authorities deposited the bodies of all six in sacks before the homes of their parents in the Jewish ghetto in Damascus.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The persecution of Jews reached its most destructive form in the policies of Nazi Germany, which made the destruction of Jews a high priority, starting with the persecution of Jews and culminating in the killing of approximately 6,000,000 Jews during World War II and the Holocaust from 1941 to 1945. Originally, the Nazis used death squads, the Einsatzgruppen, to conduct massive open-air killings of Jews who lived in the territories that they conquered. By 1942, the Nazi leadership decided to implement the Final Solution, the genocide of the Jews of Europe, and increase the pace of the Holocaust by establishing extermination camps for the specific purpose of killing Jews as well as other undesirables such as people who openly opposed Hitler.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: This was an industrial method of genocide. Millions of Jews who had been confined to disease-ridden and massively overcrowded ghettos were transported (often by train) to death camps, where some of them were herded into a specific location (often a gas chamber), then they were either gassed or shot to death. Other prisoners simply committed suicide, unable to go on after witnessing the horrors of camp life. Afterward, their bodies were often searched for any valuable or useful materials, such as gold fillings or hair, and then their remains were either buried in mass graves or burned. Others were interned in the camps and during their internment, they were given little food and disease was rampant.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Escapes from the camps were few, but they were not unknown. The few escapes from Auschwitz that succeeded were made possible by the Polish underground which operated inside the camp and local people who lived outside. In 1940, the Auschwitz commandant reported that "the local population is fanatically Polish and … prepared to take any action against the hated SS camp personnel. Every prisoner who managed to escape can count on help the moment he reaches the wall of the first Polish farmstead."


title: Persecution of Jews

text: For much of the 19th century, Imperial Russia, which included much of Poland, Ukraine, Moldova and the Baltic states, contained the world's largest Jewish population. From Alexander III's reign until the end of Tsarist rule in Russia, many Jews were often restricted to the Jewish Pale of Settlement and they were also banned from many jobs and locations. Jews were subject to racist laws, such as the May Laws, and they were also targeted in hundreds of violent anti-Jewish riots, called pogroms, which received unofficial state support. During this period a hoax document alleging a global Jewish conspiracy, "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion", was published.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The Tsarist government implemented policies that ensured that the Jews would remain isolated. However, the government tolerated the existence of their religious and national institutions and it also allowed them to emigrate. The restrictions and discriminatory laws drove many Russian Jews to embrace liberal and socialist causes. However, following the Russian Revolution, many politically active Jews forfeited their Jewish identity. According to Leon Trotsky, "[Jews] considered themselves neither Jews nor Russians but socialists. To them, Jews were not a nation but a class of exploiters whose fate it was to dissolve and assimilate." In the aftermath of the overthrow of Tsarist Russia, Jews found themselves in a tragic predicament. Conservative Russians saw them as a disloyal and subversive element, while the radicals viewed the Jews as a doomed social class.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Even though many of the Old Bolsheviks were ethnically Jewish, they sought to uproot Judaism and Zionism and in order to achieve this goal, they established the "Yevsektsiya". By the end of the 1940s, the Communist leadership of the former USSR had liquidated almost all Jewish organizations, with the exception of a few token synagogues. These synagogues were then placed under police surveillance, both openly and through the use of informants.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The campaign of 1948–1953 against so-called "rootless cosmopolitans," the alleged "Doctors' plot," the rise of "Zionology" and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the Anti-Zionist committee of the Soviet public were officially carried out under the banner of "anti-Zionism", and by the mid-1950s the state persecution of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West as well as domestically.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: During the 1930s, many Nationalist Party leaders and wide sections of the Afrikaner people strongly came under the influence of the Nazi movement that dominated Germany from 1933 to 1945. There were many reasons for this. Germany was the traditional enemy of Britain, and whoever opposed Britain was seen as a friend of the Nationalists. Many Nationalists, moreover, believed that the opportunity to re-establish their lost republic would come with the defeat of the British Empire in the international arena. The more belligerent Hitler became, the higher hopes rose that a new era of Afrikanerdom was about to dawn.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The National Party of D F Malan closely associated itself with the policies of the Nazis. Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe was controlled under the Aliens Act and it soon came to an end during this period. Although Jews were accorded status as Europeans, they were not accepted into white society. Many Jews lived in mixed race areas such as District Six, from where they were forcibly removed in order to make way for a whites-only development.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: During the 1930s, the Nationalists found much in common with the 'South African Gentile National Socialist Movement', headed by Johannes von Strauss von Moltke, whose objective was to combat and destroy the alleged 'perversive influence of the Jews in economics, culture, religion, ethics and statecraft, and re-establish European Aryan control in South Africa for the welfare of the Christian peoples of South Africa'.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: During the 1960s, Oswald Mosley, the British fascist leader, was a frequent visitor to South Africa, where he was received by the Prime Minister and other members of the Cabinet. At one time, Mosley had two functioning branches of his organization in South Africa, and one of his supporters, Derek Alexander, was stationed in Johannesburg as his main agent.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: Upon Verwoerd's assassination in 1966, BJ Vorster was elected by the National Party to replace him. While Vorster had been a supporter of Hitler during WWII, his policy towards Jews in his own country, however, can best be described as ambivalent.


title: Persecution of Jews

text: The 1980s saw the rise of far-right neo-Nazi groups such as the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging under Eugene Terreblanche. The AWB modeled itself after Hitler's National Socialist Party replete with fascist regalia and an emblem resembling the swastika.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG engine family consists of V6 engines designed and produced by Nissan for several vehicles in the Nissan lineup. The VG series was introduced in 1983, becoming Nissan's and Japan's first mass-produced V6 engine. VG engines displace between 2.0 L and 3.3 L and featured an iron block and aluminum heads at a 60° vee-angle. The early VG engines featured a SOHC arrangement with 2 valves per cylinder. Later versions featured a slightly different block, a DOHC arrangement with 4 valves per cylinder, and N-VCT, Nissan's own version of variable valve timing, for a smoother idle and more torque at low to medium engine speeds. The production blocks and production head castings were used successfully in the Nissan GTP ZX-Turbo and NPT-90 race cars which won the IMSA GT Championship three years in a row.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: Development of the "VG" series began in 1979 by Nissan Machinery, a former member of the Nissan Group "keiretsu". The objective during development was to replace the Nissan L engine, an engine that was influenced by the Prince G engine, with an all-new V6 engine. The "VG" engine was fully designed by Nissan from scratch, and shared little mechanical components with its predecessor, or with another automaker's engine. Nissan engineers wanted the "VG" engine to have improved performance, fuel economy, reliability, and refinement, as well as being lighter and more compact than its predecessor. Extensive computer design techniques were used during development, which made the "VG" series one of the most advanced and high-tech engines of its day. It featured a sequential multi-port fuel injection system, and Nissan's Electronic Concentrated Control System (ECCS).


title: Nissan VG engine

text: ECCS used a microprocessor and an oxygen sensor to control fuel delivery, spark timing, exhaust gas recirculation rate, and engine idle speed, depending on the current operating conditions of the engine. This system reduced carbon emissions, improved fuel economy, and improved engine performance during cold-start and warm-up conditions.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The advantages of the "VG" engine over its predecessor was that its V6 configuration would allow greater torsional rigidity for higher performance potential, and its shorter length would give Nissan designers and engineers more freedom for vehicle design, allowing them to design vehicles that had frontal crush zone space, and allowed transverse mounting.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: All "VG" engines use a timing belt to synchronize the camshafts with the crankshaft, in comparison to the L engine, which uses a timing chain. Most "VG" engines use an interference design; in the event of a timing belt failure, The pistons will likely bend the valves, and can cause major engine damage.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The "VG" series engine was put into thousands of Nissan vehicles, debuting in Japan in the 1983 Nissan Gloria/Nissan Cedric, and in the US and other markets in the 1984 Nissan 300ZX.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: When the Nissan VQ engine was introduced in 1994, the "VG" engine was slowly phased out in Nissan cars, and after 2000 it was only available in the Nissan Frontier and Nissan Xterra. The "VG" engine was retired in 2004, by which time all V6-powered Nissans had switched to the VQ engine.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG20E is a SOHC engine produced from 1984 on. It produces between and net. In the earlier gross rating system, early eighties' models claim .


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG20ET was based on the VG20E, but with an added turbocharger. The VG20ET produces . This SOHC motor debuted at the same time as the VG20E. Also coming with the Y30, this motor was known as the "Jet Turbo", and came with the Nissan Leopard models XS, and XS-II Grand Selection. Contrary to the VG30ET that came out in the US, the VG20ET came with an intercooler in certain models to push the horsepower output to , a great jump from the normally aspirated VG20E. The turbo included with the VG20ET had two different settings. At low speeds, the turbo's wastegate would stay closed improving the response at low rpm. At high speeds, the flap would stay open, decreasing resistance and increasing exhaust flow. At its maximum flow, the flap would open at an angle of 27 degrees, while the A/R ranged from 0.21–0.77. Being that the VG20ET had a short stroke , it was thought to have insufficient low end torque. Nevertheless, the VG20ET was a great improvement over the VG20E.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG20DET is an DOHC engine with a ceramic turbocharger and intercooler. It has a bore and a stroke of and produces . This engine features NVTCS (Nissan's Valve Timing Control System).


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG20P is the Autogas (Liquified petroleum gas) version of the VG20. It produces at 5,600 rpm and at 2,400 rpm. Later versions (2004–2005) produce at 6,000 rpm and at 2,400 rpm. It is an overhead cam, twelve-valve engine.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG30S is a SOHC twelve-valve engine with an electronic carburettor that produces at 4,800 rpm and at 3,600 rpm. This engine was mainly offered in export markets with more lenient environmental regulations, such as the Middle East and Africa.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG30i is a engine produced from 1986 through 1989. It features a throttle body fuel injection system. It has a long crank snout, a cylinder head temperature sensor positioned behind the timing belt cover, and a knock sensor in the cylinder valley (on California models only). It produces at 4,800 rpm and at 2,800 rpm.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG30E produced and . Bore and stroke is . In the 300ZX, it produced and of torque. In April 1987 the "W" series VG30 was released, adding 5 horsepower but leaving torque unchanged. In 1989, the Maxima received the rating, but also used a variable intake plenum improving torque to at 3200 rpm.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG30ET was available in early production with a single Garrett T3 turbocharger at and a 7.8:1 compression ratio. The USDM and JDM version produced and . European versions produced and . When "W"-Series VG30 was released in April 1987, horsepower was increased to . All 1987 models featured a T3 turbocharger at . In 1988 the compression ratio was changed to 8.3:1 and turbocharged with a single Garrett T25 turbocharger at to reduce turbo lag.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The engine specified as the VG30ET engine in the Nissan GTP ZX-Turbo Racecar, was a heavily modified VG30ET producing over at 8,000 rpm, and over at 5,500 rpm.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The first quad cam 24 valve VG30DE engine was developed for the 1985 MID4 concept. The VG30DE produces and . Bore and stroke is . Original Japanese market units claimed . There are two versions of the VG30DE. The first was introduced in 1986 on the Japanese 300ZR (Z31) and Nissan Leopard F31, and was never sold in North America. The VG30DE has two throttle bodies facing the front of the vehicle (Nissan 300ZX and Fairlady Z) or two throttle bodies to the left (sedans and 300ZR). It was also installed with N-VCT, an early form of variable valve timing.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: Early VG30DEs used large oval intake ports, and round exhaust ports, though the flange was similar to the SOHC VG engine, bolt spacing was slightly different. Late VG30DE's used slightly smaller oval intake ports, and oval exhaust ports. The bolt spacing was shared with the round-port variant from earlier years.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG30DET is a , 24-valve, quad-cam, VTC-equipped engine equipped with a T3 (Nissan N1 Type) 4-bolt Garrett Turbo running between . Generating up to and measuring depending on the production year and application.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: While this engine is similar to the VG30DE, it used different heads and inlet manifold. Contrary to popular belief, it was not available in the Nissan 300ZR model - the 300ZR only had an early version of the VG30DE (non turbo). The engine was available in the Cedric, Gloria, Cima and Leopard chassis. It is a single-turbo engine that was used from 1987 through 1995 in the Japanese market, and the predecessor for the VG30DETT engine.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The production VG30DETT develops at 6400 rpm and at 3600 rpm of torque when mated with a five-speed manual transmission. When mated with the four-speed automatic transmission, it was rated at and of torque. The VG30DETT was first developed for the 1987 MID4-II concept and produced . Coming in at a weight of 523lb it was the last of Nissan's DOHC belt driven 4 valves per cylinder turbocharged engines put into production, being preceded by the CA18DET and RB20DET. It is equipped with hybrid T22/TB02 twin-turbochargers which were developed exclusively for Nissan, twin intercoolers, and NVTCS (Nissan's Valve Timing Control System). The VG30DETT utilizes an iron block with aluminum heads. JDM cars claimed , as the Japanese automobile manufacturers were limited to that number.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG33E is a version built in Smyrna, TN. Bore and stroke is . Output is at 4,800 rpm, depending on year/vehicle, with of torque at 2,800 rpm. It has a cast iron engine block and aluminum SOHC cylinder heads. Compression ratio is 8.9:1. It has sequential fuel injection, two valves per cylinder with self-adjusting hydraulic followers, forged steel connecting rods, one-piece cast camshafts, and a cast aluminum lower intake manifold with either a cast aluminum, or plastic/composite plenum (upper intake manifold).


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG33E reportedly remained in production in the Nissan Paladin (rebadged as Dongfeng Oting) as an optional engine for the Chinese market until 2015.


title: Nissan VG engine

text: The VG33ER is a supercharged version of the VG33, and produces at 4,800 rpm with of torque at 2,800 rpm.


title: Reign of X

text: "Reign of X" is a 2020 relaunch of the "X-Men" line of comic books published by Marvel Comics. It is the sequel to the "Dawn of X" publishing initiative, and was followed by an additional relaunch titled "Destiny of X".


title: Reign of X

text: The "Dawn of X" initiative was announced at "The Next Big Thing" panel at San Diego Comic-Con 2019, intending to tell the story of mutantkind in a new status quo established by Jonathan Hickman after the "House of X"/"Powers of X" ("HOX"/"POX") event concludes, redefining "X-Men" as a brand and its place in the Marvel Universe, with all creative teams working closely under Hickman's supervision.


title: Reign of X

text: "Dawn of X" concluded with the crossover event "X of Swords", which initiated a sequel relaunch titled "Reign of X" in December 2020. This phase saw the line come together for the Hellfire Gala event, as well as Jonathan Hickman's departure from the line with the miniseries "Inferno". "Reign of X" concluded with the twin event series "X Lives of Wolverine" and "X Deaths of Wolverine", during which the majority of the line (aside from "X-Men, New Mutants," and "Sabretooth)" was put on pause. "X Lives" and "X Deaths" then served as the foundation of a new relaunch titled "Destiny of X".


title: Reign of X

text: "Issues marked in bold are marked as red/important in the issue list found in the back of each comic.


title: Ilyushin

text: The public joint stock company Ilyushin Aviation Complex, operating as "Ilyushin" () or as "Ilyushin Design Bureau", is a former Soviet and now a Russian aircraft manufacturer and design bureau, founded in 1933 by Sergey Vladimirovich Ilyushin. Soviet/Russian nomenclature identifies aircraft from Ilyushin with the prefix "Il-" (). Ilyushin has its head office in Aeroport District, Northern Administrative Okrug, Moscow.


title: Ilyushin

text: Ilyushin was established under the Soviet Union. Its operations began on 13 January 1933, by order of P. I. Baranov, People's Commissar of the Heavy Industry and the Head of the Main Department of Aviation Industry.


title: Ilyushin

text: In 2006 the Russian government merged Ilyushin with Mikoyan, Irkut, Sukhoi, Tupolev, and Yakovlev under a new company named United Aircraft Corporation.


title: Ilyushin

text: In July 2014 it was reported that Ilyushin and Myasishchev would merge to form the United Aircraft Corporation business unit Transport Aircraft.


title: Ilyushin

text: Aviation Industries Ilyushin is a subsidiary established in 1992 to act as Ilyushin's marketing and customer service arm.


title: Ilyushin

text: Ilyushin Finance Co is a dedicated leasing and finance subsidiary that provides financial services for Ilyushin as well as other manufacturers.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: The seventh and final season of the American post-apocalyptic science fiction drama "The 100" premiered on May 20, 2020, on The CW, for the 2019–20 United States network television schedule. The series, developed by Jason Rothenberg, is loosely based on the novel series of the same name by Kass Morgan, and follows a group of post-apocalyptic survivors, chiefly a group of criminal adolescents, including Clarke Griffin (Eliza Taylor), Bellamy Blake (Bob Morley), Octavia Blake (Marie Avgeropoulos), Raven Reyes (Lindsey Morgan), and John Murphy (Richard Harmon). They are among the first people from a space habitat, the "Ark", to return to Earth after a devastating nuclear apocalypse. After airing sixteen episodes, the season concluded on September 30, 2020.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. Numerous episodes are named after similarly named episodes from the original series. "Production code" refers to the order in which the episodes were produced while "U.S. viewers (millions)" refers to the number of viewers in the U.S. in millions who watched the episode as it was aired.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: On April 24, 2019, The CW renewed "The 100" for a seventh season ahead of its sixth season premiere. On August 4, 2019, it was announced by Mark Pedowitz and series developer Jason Rothenberg that the new season would be the show's last, and that it would contain sixteen episodes, to finish the series with a grand total of 100 episodes. Various cast members who had recurring roles in previous seasons of "The 100" returned to star in the seventh season, including Sachin Sahel as Eric Jackson, Jarod Joseph as Nathan Miller, and Adina Porter as Indra. On September 19, 2019, Alaina Huffman was cast as Nikki, a character described as being "a bank robber and spree-killer who is both unpredictable and fierce." Additionally, on September 25, 2019, Chuku Modu was upped to series regular in the role of Gabriel Santiago. In the series finale, Paige Turco and Alycia Debnam-Carey both returned in guest appearances in the roles of Abby Griffin and Lexa, respectively.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: Filming for the series finale began in Vancouver on March 4, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, and concluded on March 15.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: On March 4, 2020, it was revealed that the last season of "The 100" would premiere on The CW on May 20, 2020, and that it would feature a timeslot change for the season moving from Tuesday's to Wednesday's at 8 PM ET.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season of "The 100" holds an approval rating of 100% based on 8 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10.


title: The 100 (season 7)

text: From "Entertainment Weekly", Dalene Rovenstine opined that, "Overall, I'm not crazy that this very sci-fi show suddenly went supernatural/spiritual at the end. There were certainly rocky spots in this season for sure, just like the series in general. But honestly, I'm just happy that Clarke, Raven, and Octavia finally get to be happy. And I'm thankful for all the seasons we've got to spend with them." Writing for Collider, Haleigh Foutch lauded the show's characters, and their development throughout the season, stating that "Every character is forced to pull their own personal lever of sorts, placed in a position where they have to make a snap survival judgment that puts their values to the test. Some of their choices may surprise you." Linda Maleh, writing for "Forbes", gave positive feedback to the season's suspenseful storyline, saying that the series helped her go through the quarantine caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, stating that "There's a new set of mysteries and stakes this season that will keep fans on the edge of their seats [...]." From CBR.com, Sam Stone also praised the series for its cast, and suspenseful story, stating that ""The 100"'s new season hits the ground running—literally—barely giving its characters and, by extension, its audience, the chance to breathe as the stakes are raised once again."


title: Ramiel

text: Ramiel (, "Raʿamʾēl"; ), not to be confused with the holy angel "Remiel", is a fallen Watcher (angel) while the other is an Archangel in the apocryphal Book of Enoch. Ramiel [Watcher] mentioned in [Chapter 7], is one of the 20 Watchers (angels) that sinned and rebelled against God by mating with the human woman and creating an offspring called Nephilim.


title: Ramiel

text: Remiel [Archangel] is mentioned later on in [Chapter 20], as one of the seven holy angels who watch; the angel whom God set over those who rise. Remiel is also known as Jeremiel in certain translations of 2 Esdras.


title: Ramiel

text: There are 20 leaders in the Book of Enoch, also called 1 Enoch. The section that mentions them reads:


title: Ramiel

text: As described in 1 Enoch, these are the leaders of 200 angels that are turned into fallen Angels due to their taking wives, mating with human women, and teaching forbidden knowledge. One of 20 leaders, Ramiel is mentioned sixth.


title: Ramiel

text: Remiel, also known as Jeremiel (Hebrew: יְרַחְמְאֵל "Yəraḥməʾēl", Tiberian: "Yăraḥmē̆ʾēl," "God shall have mercy"; Greek: Ρεμειήλ) is mentioned in 2 Baruch where he "presides over true visions" (55:3) and is listed as one of the seven Holy Angels in 1 Enoch 20:8. In this chapter, He is described as "one of the holy angels, whom God set over those who rise".


title: Ramiel

text: Ramiel [or Remiel] is the archangel of hope, and he is credited with two tasks: he is responsible for divine visions, and he guides the souls of the faithful into Heaven. He is called Jeremiel or Uriel in various translations of IV Esdras.


title: Line (geometry)

text: In geometry, a line is an infinitely long object with no width, depth, or curvature. Thus, lines are one-dimensional objects, though they may exist in two, three, or higher dimension spaces. The word "line" may also refer to a line segment in everyday life, which has two points to denote its ends. Lines can be referred by two points that lay on it (e.g., formula_1) or by a single letter (e.g., formula_2).


title: Line (geometry)

text: Euclid described a line as "breadthless length" which "lies evenly with respect to the points on itself"; he introduced several postulates as basic unprovable properties from which he constructed all of geometry, which is now called Euclidean geometry to avoid confusion with other geometries which have been introduced since the end of the 19th century (such as non-Euclidean, projective and affine geometry).