title: American Born Chinese

text: According to Min Hyoung Song, "American Born Chinese" possesses strong themes of racial stereotypes, particularly American stereotypes of the Chinese and other East Asian ethnicities. The primary example of these stereotypes is Chin-Kee, who is the embodiment of the term "coolie," a nineteenth-century racial slur for unskilled Chinese workers. According to Chaney, he is "an incarnation of the 'Yellow Peril' era of racism" which Song defines as "slant-eyes, short stature, sallow skin, predictably Chinese clothing, claw-like fingertips, and long menacing queue". In addition, Chin-Kee continually switches his "L's" and "R's" during speech. The American roots of Chin-Kee's stereotypes are emphasized by the style of the illustrations, which are drawn to simulate an American television show. Song mentions that "[t]o emphasize further that this is an image originally formalized in newspapers and popular entertainment and later largely disseminated through the growth of popular mass media, the words 'clap clap clap' line the entire bottom of the panel...This, and the words 'ha ha ha,' are likewise repeated in other panels, replicating the canned laughter and applause of television sit-coms." Just as the media that have enforced these stereotypes have changed, so have some of the stereotypes themselves. Chin-Kee does not only represent a version of nineteenth-century racial stereotypes, but also of the more contemporary stereotype that all Asians make exceptional students. During class with Danny, Chin-Kee knows the answer to every question in every school subject, including algebra, Spanish, anatomy, chemistry, and U.S. government.


title: American Born Chinese

text: Chin-Kee's academic ability brings to light what Cheryl Gnomes describes as a misguided distinction between "good" stereotypes and "bad" stereotypes. Gnomes mentions that a seemingly "good stereotype" such as Chin-Kee's stellar academic performance is still a negative stereotype overall, because if an Asian student is struggling with a particular academic subject and is believed (and/or expected) to be naturally gifted in the subject, the stereotyped student will feel pressured to perform and fear asking for help.


title: American Born Chinese

text: Chaney argues that the Monkey King serves as a metaphor for minority races and/or ethnicities, particularly those who shun their racial or ethnic backgrounds in order to assimilate into the majority culture. The Monkey King is not allowed into the celestial dinner party because he is a monkey, and therefore inherently inferior in the eyes of the other deities. When he is rejected, he is determined to prove to the world that he is more than just a Monkey, and masters the "four disciplines of invulnerability" in order to become "The Great Sage, Heaven's Equal."


title: American Born Chinese

text: The primary characters of "American Born Chinese" undergo phases of identity crises that are coupled with some sort of mental or physical transformation(s). Chaney states that the novel "celebrates transformations of identity by way of creaturely alterity. Put another way, Yang's characters become not simply other than what they are, but the other that they are." Transforming toys are introduced very early in the narrative to foreground this theme, and the narrative structure itself transforms in the final act, making this a theme not only of the characters but a key element of the way the story is told.


title: American Born Chinese

text: The Monkey King desires to be recognized as a powerful deity, and more than simply a monkey. Through meditation and practicing Kung-Fu, he is transformed into The Great Sage. Chaney argues that for readers, the use of an animal character like the Monkey King within graphic novels and literature in general allows an understanding of human identity, often more than any other type of character. He argues that the use of an animal character with human characteristics, particularly pathos, simultaneously invokes within the reader the Latin warnings of "memento mori" and "memento bestie" ("remember your mortality" and "remember you are animal"). According to Chaney, when characteristics generally considered to be human are given to the Monkey King, readers identify with their human identity more than with the human characters of the novel, such as Jin Wang.


title: American Born Chinese

text: Later in the novel, the Monkey King transforms, or disguises himself into Chin-Kee, Danny's cousin, in order to reveal Danny his true identity as Jin Wang. Fu argues that the Monkey King's transformation into Chin-Kee is a representation of "[t]he legendary trickster figure [that] has been repeatedly re-imagined by Chinese American writers as a source of cultural strength, a symbol of subversion and resistance, and a metaphor for cross-cultural and interracial negotiation." The Monkey King in Yang's version of the classic tale does not use his trickery so much for rebellion as for helping Jin Wang explore and accept himself and identify with his culture.


title: American Born Chinese

text: Jin Wang "struggles to survive exclusion and racist bullying in his search for an identity in a predominantly white suburban school." To deal with his crisis of identity he transforms himself into "Danny," a white boy who is the protagonist of the third narrative of the novel. Ultimately, his crisis is only deepened when he has to deal the grotesque representation of Chinese stereotypes that his cousin, Chin-Kee displays. Chin-Kee turns out to be the Monkey King. Jin Wang (disguised/transformed into Danny) has been taught to hate about his own culture via racist American stereotypes. When his true identity is revealed, the Monkey King tells Jin Wang that he used the disguise to serve as Jin Wang's conscience, not as a punishment. Ultimately, Jin Wang begins to accept his own identity and dismisses his alter-ego, Danny.


title: American Born Chinese

text: Wei-Chen Sun is actually the Monkey King's eldest son, sent to earth in human form as an emissary for Tze-Yo-Tzuh. His test of virtue is to spend forty years in the mortal world while remaining free of human vice. When he initially arrives to Jin Wang's school he is "presented as a nerdy but fearless recent immigrant from Taiwan." After Jin kisses Suzy Nakamura and Jin and Wei-Chen have a falling out, Wei-Chen transforms into an "angry and despondent Asian American hipster" and gives up his mission for Tze-Yo-Tzuh. Despite Wei-Chen's multiple transformations, hints of his identity as a monkey are subtly and blatantly represented throughout the story. During the scene with Amelia in the biology lab, Wei-Chen has an affinity to the teacher's lipstick-wearing monkey, who will not leave him alone. Wei-Chen can easily recognize that the monkey is actually a male, just as the monkey can actually recognize that Wei-Chen is a monkey himself. When Jin tells Wei-Chen that he has spoken to Wei-Chen's father (the Monkey King), a panel depicting Wei-Chen's true identity as a monkey juxtaposes his hipster human form in the next panel. No matter what transformation Wei-Chen takes, he cannot dismiss his true identity as a monkey.


title: American Born Chinese

text: Gnomes states that "American Born Chinese" is a great resource to help academically struggling students (particularly struggling readers) and students with social-cognitive disabilities to find motivation to learn, to relate a piece of text to their lives, and to use the graphics to help them understand/relate to the words.


title: American Born Chinese

text: In 2021, Disney+ ordered a television adaptation of the graphic novel. It will be produced by Disney's 20th Television with Kelvin Yu and Charles Yu as writers and executive producers, Melvin Mar and Jake Kasdan as executive producers, and Destin Daniel Cretton as director and executive producer. In February 2022, it was announced that Ben Wang, Michelle Yeoh, Chin Han, Yeo Yann Yann, Daniel Wu, Ke Huy Quan, Jim Liu and Sydney Taylor were cast in the starring roles.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: The third series of the revived British science fiction programme "Doctor Who", and the twenty-ninth season of the show overall, was preceded by the 2006 Christmas special "The Runaway Bride". Following the special, a regular series of thirteen episodes was broadcast, starting with "Smith and Jones" on 31 March 2007. In addition, a 13-part animated serial (equivalent to one regular episode) was produced and broadcast as part of "Totally Doctor Who".


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: The series stars David Tennant as the tenth incarnation of the Doctor, an alien Time Lord who travels through time and space in his TARDIS, which appears to be a British police box on the outside. In the Christmas special he is joined by Catherine Tate as Donna Noble. The series also introduces Freema Agyeman as the Doctor's new companion Martha Jones, who leaves at the end of the series due to the fact that her family need support whilst recovering from the events of the series finale, which involved her mother, sister and brother being tortured. John Barrowman also reprises his role as Captain Jack Harkness in the final three episodes which serve as the finale. The series is connected by a loose story arc consisting of the recurring phrase "Vote Saxon", which ultimately is revealed to be the return of the Doctor's enemy Time Lord the Master, first played by Derek Jacobi before regenerating into John Simm.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Three episodes from Series 3 were adapted from previously published works: "Human Nature" / "The Family of Blood" was adapted by Paul Cornell from his own New Adventures novel, also entitled "Human Nature," while "Blink" originated as a short story in the 2006 "Doctor Who" annual by Steven Moffat called "What I Did on My Christmas Holidays' By Sally Sparrow".


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: "Human Nature" is also the first instance of the Doctor's previous incarnations prior to his ninth being explicitly referenced in the revived era through the sketches in "The Journal of Impossible Things".


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: A 13-part animated serial, "The Infinite Quest", was produced and broadcast as part of the children's programme "Totally Doctor Who" on CBBC, leading up to the finale of series 3. Each instalment was approximately minutes in length and, when compiled, was equivalent to a regular episode. The serial was broadcast in its entirety on 30 June 2007 and later released on DVD.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Series 3 was David Tennant's second series in the role of the Doctor, during which he is joined by three companions: Donna Noble, Martha Jones and Captain Jack Harkness.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Actress and comedian Catherine Tate was cast as one-off companion Donna Noble for the Christmas special. At the end of the episode the character turns down the chance to travel in the TARDIS, but Tate later reprised her role and returned for a full series starting in the 2008 episode "Partners in Crime".


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Following the departure of Billie Piper as Rose Tyler at the end of Series 2, a new full-time companion was needed. On 5 July 2006, the BBC confirmed that Freema Agyeman would join the show as new companion Martha Jones. Agyeman had previously appeared in the 2006 episode "Army of Ghosts". John Barrowman also returned as Captain Jack Harkness for the three-part series finale.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Recurring guest stars for the series included Adjoa Andoh, Trevor Laird, Gugu Mbatha-Raw and Reggie Yates, who portrayed Martha's family.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Other guest stars included Thelma Barlow, Ryan Carnes, Matthew Chambers, Chipo Chung, Christina Cole, Michelle Collins, Lenora Crichlow, Anthony Flanagan, Andrew Garfield, Lucy Gaskell, Mark Gatiss, Don Gilet, Jennifer Hennessy, Anna Hope, Gerard Horan, Jessica Hynes, Derek Jacobi, Dean Lennox Kelly, Matt King, Chris Larkin, Harry Lloyd, Eric Loren, Stephen Marcus, Roy Marsden, McFly, Alexandra Moen, Carey Mulligan, Michael Obiora, Ardal O'Hanlon, Travis Oliver, Sharon Osbourne, Sarah Parish, Angela Pleasence, Hugh Quarshie, Miranda Raison, Anne Reid, Finlay Robertson, Thomas Sangster, John Simm, Rebekah Staton and Ann Widdecombe.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Following the success of the first series, the BBC announced that "Doctor Who" had been recommissioned for a third series on 16 June 2005, only two months after the announcement of the second series. Recording for the Christmas special began on 4 July 2006, with production on the series itself beginning on 8 August 2006 and concluding on 2 April 2007.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: First-time writers for the show included Gareth Roberts, who previously wrote the interactive episode "Attack of the Graske" and the TARDISODEs, Helen Raynor, one of the show's script editors, Chris Chibnall, the head writer and co-producer of spin-off series "Torchwood", and Stephen Greenhorn. Previous writers Paul Cornell, Steven Moffat and Russell T Davies all contributed to the series, with Davies continuing to act as head writer and executive producer. Phil Collinson and Susie Liggat acted as producers, with Julie Gardner as executive producer. Euros Lyn, Charles Palmer, Richard Clark, James Strong, Graeme Harper, Hettie MacDonald and Colin Teague directed episodes in the series.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: The episodes in series three are arranged in a loose story arc: "Mr Saxon", an alias for the Master. The character's name was first mentioned in "The Runaway Bride"; the Ministry of Defence shot down an alien craft at Saxon's request. Several elements from episodes in the series are contributory to the three-part finale: the events of "The Lazarus Experiment" and "42" were directly influenced by the Master; the Face of Boe's prophecy is directly related to Master; and a similar fob-watch that was used by the Doctor to change his Time Lord biology into human was also used by the Master to hide from the Time Lords.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: An animated serial, "The Infinite Quest", was also produced alongside the series and was broadcast as part of the CBBC programme "Totally Doctor Who".


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: The third series premiered on 31 March 2007 with "Smith and Jones", and concluded after 13 episodes on 30 June 2007 with "Last of the Time Lords". The series was initially planned to conclude a week earlier, but on 2 May 2007, episodes 7–13 were pushed back a week due to the Eurovision Song Contest 2007, rather than air "42" in an earlier timeslot. "Doctor Who Confidential" also aired alongside each episode of the series, continuing on from the previous series.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Arnold T. Blumberg of "IGN" gave an overwhelmingly positive review of the third series. He praised the acting of Tennant, Agyeman and John Simm, describing Simm's portrayal as "a master stroke". Overall he said, "With an assured air earned by success, Series 3 of Doctor Who is a tour de force excursion across time and space...it doesn't get much better than this". He gave the series 9 out of 10 (Amazing).


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Nick Lyons of "DVD Talk" gave a positive review saying, "series three is on par with the last two seasons of the new series." He said that the character of Martha and series three, "will no doubt please fans". He gave the series 4 and a half stars out of 5.


title: Doctor Who (series 3)

text: Selected pieces of score from this series (and "Voyage of the Damned"), as composed by Murray Gold, were released on 5 November 2007 by Silva Screen Records.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The Era of Good Feelings marked a period in the political history of the United States that reflected a sense of national purpose and a desire for unity among Americans in the aftermath of the War of 1812. The era saw the collapse of the Federalist Party and an end to the bitter partisan disputes between it and the dominant Democratic-Republican Party during the First Party System. President James Monroe strove to downplay partisan affiliation in making his nominations, with the ultimate goal of national unity and eliminating political parties altogether from national politics. The period is so closely associated with Monroe's presidency (1817–1825) and his administrative goals that his name and the era are virtually synonymous.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: During and after the 1824 presidential election, the Democratic-Republican Party split between supporters and opponents of Jacksonian Democracy, leading to the Second Party System.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The designation of the period by historians as one of good feelings is often conveyed with irony or skepticism, as the history of the era was one in which the political atmosphere was strained and divisive, especially among factions within the Monroe administration and the Democratic-Republican Party.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The phrase "Era of Good Feelings" was coined by Benjamin Russell in the Boston Federalist newspaper "Columbian Centinel" on July 12, 1817, following Monroe's visit to Boston, Massachusetts, as part of his good-will tour of the United States.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The Era of Good Feelings started in 1815 at the end of the War of 1812. Exultation replaced the bitter political divisions between Federalists and Republicans, the North and South, and the East Coast cities and settlers on the American frontier. The political hostilities declined because the Federalist Party had largely dissolved after the fiasco of the Hartford Convention in 1814–15. As a party, Federalists "had collapsed as a national political force". The Democratic-Republican Party was nominally dominant, but in practice it was inactive at the national level and in most states.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The era saw a trend toward national institutions that envisioned "a permanent federal role in the crucial arena of national development and national prosperity". Monroe's predecessor, President James Madison, and the Republican Party, had come to appreciate – through the crucible of war – the expediency of Federalist institutions and projects, and prepared to legislate them under the auspices of John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay's American System.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Madison announced this shift in policy with his Seventh Annual Message to Congress in December 1815, subsequently authorizing measures for a national bank and a protective tariff on manufactures. Vetoing the Bonus Bill on strict constructionist grounds, Madison nevertheless was determined, as had been his predecessor, Thomas Jefferson, to see internal improvements implemented with an amendment to the US Constitution. Writing to Monroe, in 1817, Madison declared that "there has never been a moment when such a proposition to the states was so likely to be approved".


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The emergence of "new Republicans" – undismayed by mild nationalist policies – anticipated Monroe's "era of good feelings" and a general mood of optimism emerged with hopes for political reconciliation.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Monroe's landslide victory against Federalist Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election was so widely predicted that voter turnout was low. A spirit of reconciliation between Republicans and Federalists was well underway when Monroe assumed office in March 1817.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: As president, Monroe was widely expected to facilitate a rapprochement of the political parties in order to harmonize the country in a common national outlook, rather than party interests. Both parties exhorted him to include a Federalist in his cabinet to symbolize the new era of "oneness" that pervaded the nation.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Monroe reaffirmed his conviction that the Federalist Party was committed to installing a monarch and overthrowing republican forms of government at the first opportunity. He stated that if he appointed a Federalist, he would prolong their inevitable decline and fall, and that his administration would never allow itself to become tainted with Federalist ideology.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Monroe stated that his drive to eliminate the Federalists was part of his campaign to eliminate party associations altogether from national politics, including his own Republican party. All political parties, he wrote, were incompatible with free government by their very nature. He worked to deflate the Federalist Party through neglect. Federalists were denied political patronage, administrative appointments, and federal support. Monroe indicated that he wished to eradicate Federalists from positions of political power, both Federal and State, especially in its New England strongholds. He believed that any expression of official approval would only encourage hope for a Federalist revival, and this he could not abide.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Some historians believe that Monroe reduced party politics, evidenced by his unopposed run in the 1820 presidential election. The Federalists ran no candidate to oppose him, running only a vice-presidential candidate, Richard Stockton. Monroe and his vice president Daniel D. Tompkins would have won reelection unanimously through the electoral college, had there not been a handful of faithless electors; one presidential elector cast his vote for John Quincy Adams, while a handful of electors (mostly former Federalists) cast votes for a number of Federalist candidates for Vice President. It remains the last presidential election in which a candidate ran essentially unopposed.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The most perfect expression of the Era of Good Feelings was Monroe's country-wide Goodwill tour in 1817 and 1819. His visits to New England and to the Federalist stronghold of Boston, Massachusetts, in particular, were the most significant of the tour. Here, the descriptive phrase "Era of Good Feelings" was bestowed by a local Federalist journal.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The President's physical appearance, wardrobe and personal attributes were decisive in arousing good feelings on the tour. He donned a Revolutionary War officer's uniform and tied his long, powdered hair in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century. "Tall, rawboned, venerable", he made an "agreeable" impression and had a good deal of charm and "most men immediately liked him ... [in] manner he was rather formal, having an innate sense of dignity, which allowed no one to take liberties. Yet in spite of his formality, he had the ability to put men at their ease by his courtesy, lack of condescension, his frankness, and what his contemporaries looked upon as the essential goodness and kindness of heart which he always radiated."


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Monroe's visit to Boston elicited a huge outpouring of nationalist pride and expressions of reconciliation. New England Federalists were especially eager to demonstrate their loyalty after the debacle of the Hartford Convention. Amidst the festivities – banquets, parades, receptions – many took the opportunity to make the most "explicit and solemn declarations" to remove, as Monroe wrote afterwards, "impressions of that kind, which they knew existed, and to get back into the great family of the union". Abigail Adams dubbed the catharsis an "expiation".


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Here, in the heart of Federalist territory, Monroe gained the primary goal of his tour; in effect, permitting "the Federalists by solemn public demonstrations to reaffirm their loyalty to the government and their acceptance of Republican control". Even in this atmosphere of contrition, Monroe was assiduous in avoiding any remarks or expressions that might chasten or humiliate his hosts. He presented himself strictly as the head of state, and not as the leader of a triumphant political party.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: In the ensuing years the New England states capitulated, and all but Massachusetts were in Republican Party hands. De-Federalization was virtually complete by 1820 and the appointment of former Federalist Party members seemed in order; however, Monroe feared a backlash even at this advanced stage in the process of amalgamation. Most anti-Federalist sentiments were political posturing, but Monroe was not so secure of support for his domestic and foreign programs and was concerned at the mounting hostilities over the upcoming presidential contest in 1824, a purely intraparty affair. Monroe's final reconciling with the Federalists was never consummated.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Monroe's success in mitigating party rancor produced an appearance of political unity, with almost all Americans identifying themselves as Republicans. His nearly unanimous electoral victory for reelection in 1820 seemed to confirm this.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: Recognizing the danger of intraparty rivalries, Monroe attempted to include prospective presidential candidates and top political leaders in his administration. His cabinet comprised three of the political rivals who would vie for the presidency in 1824: John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun and William H. Crawford. A fourth, Andrew Jackson, held high military appointments. Here, Monroe felt he could manage the factional disputes and arrange compromise on national politics within administration guidelines. His great disadvantage was that amalgamation deprived him of appealing to Republican "solidarity" that would have cleared the way for passage of his programs in Congress.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: "From the moment that Monroe adopted as his guiding principle the maxim that he was head of a nation, not the leader of a party, he repudiated for all practical purposes the party unity" that would have served to establish his policies. The result was a loss of party discipline. Absent was the universal adherence to the precepts of Jeffersonianism: state sovereignty, strict construction and stability of Southern institutions. Old Republican critics of the new nationalism, among them John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, had warned that the abandonment of the Jeffersonian scheme of Southern preeminence would provoke a sectional conflict, North and South, that would threaten the union. Former president James Madison had cautioned Monroe that in any free government, it was natural that party identity would take shape.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: The disastrous Panic of 1819 and the Supreme Court's "McCulloch v. Maryland" reanimated the disputes over the supremacy of state sovereignty and federal power, between strict construction of the US Constitution and loose construction. The Missouri Crisis in 1820 made the explosive political conflict between slave and free soil open and explicit. Only through the adroit handling of the legislation by Speaker of the House Henry Clay was a settlement reached and disunion avoided.


title: Era of Good Feelings

text: With the decline in political consensus, it became imperative to revive Jeffersonian principles on the basis of Southern exceptionalism. The agrarian alliance, North and South, would be revived to form Jacksonian Nationalism and the rise of the modern Democratic Party. The interlude of the Era of Good Feelings was at an end.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: Jenny Julia Eleanor Marx (16 January 1855 – 31 March 1898), sometimes called Eleanor Aveling and known to her family as Tussy, was the English-born youngest daughter of Karl Marx. She was herself a socialist activist who sometimes worked as a literary translator. In March 1898, after discovering that her partner Edward Aveling had secretly married the previous year, she poisoned herself at the age of 43.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: Eleanor Marx was born in London on 16 January 1855, the sixth child and fourth daughter of Karl Marx and his wife Jenny von Westphalen. She was called "Tussy" by her family from a young age. She showed an early interest in politics, even writing to political figures during her childhood. The hanging of the "Manchester Martyrs" when she was twelve, for example, horrified her and shaped her lifelong sympathy for the Fenians. Her father's story-telling also inspired an interest in literature, she could recite passages by William Shakespeare at the age of three. By her teenage years this love of Shakespeare led to the formation of the "Dogberry Club" at which she, her family, and the family of Clara Collet, all recited Shakespeare whilst her father watched.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: While Karl Marx was writing his major work "Das Kapital" in the family home, his youngest daughter Eleanor played in his study. Marx invented and narrated a story for Eleanor based on an antihero called Hans Röckle. Eleanor reports that this was one of her favourite childhood stories. The story is significant because it offered Eleanor lessons through an allegory of Marx's critique of political economy which he was writing in "Das Kapital". As an adult, Eleanor was involved in translating and editing volumes of "Das Kapital". She also edited Marx's lectures "Value, Price and Profit" and "Wage Labour and Capital", which were based on the same material, into books. Eleanor Marx's biographer, Rachel Holmes, writes: "Tussy's childhood intimacy with [Marx] whilst he wrote the first volume of "Das Kapital" provided her with a thorough grounding in British economic, political and social history. Tussy and "Capital" grew up together".


title: Eleanor Marx

text: At the age of sixteen, Eleanor became her father's secretary and accompanied him around the world to socialist conferences. A year later, she fell in love with Prosper-Olivier Lissagaray, a journalist and participant of the Paris Commune, who had fled to London after the Commune's suppression. Although he agreed with the man politically, Karl Marx disapproved of the relationship because of the age gap between the two, Lissagaray being 34 years old. In May 1873 Eleanor moved away from home to Brighton working as a schoolteacher; she lived at 6 Vernon Terrace in the Montpelier suburb, returning to London in September 1873.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1876 she helped Lissagaray write "History of the Commune of 1871", and later translated it into English. Her father liked the book but was still disapproving of his daughter's relationship with its author. By 1880 Karl changed his view of the situation, allowing her to marry him. However, by then Eleanor herself was having second thoughts. She terminated the relationship in 1882.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In the early 1880s, she had to nurse her ageing parents, but her mother died in December 1881. From August 1882 she also cared for her young nephew Jean Longuet for several months, easing the burden on her elder sister, Jenny Longuet, who died in January 1883 of bladder cancer. Her father died two months later, in March 1883. After this, Eleanor and Edward Aveling, overseen by Friedrich Engels, prepared the first English language edition of "Das Kapital" volume I, published in 1887. On Engels' death in 1895, they together sorted and stored her father's extensive papers.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: Marx identified strongly with her Jewish heritage, proudly declaring "I am a Jewess", in a reversal of her paternal grandparents' abandonment of Judaism and conversion to Christianity. Her interest in her Jewish heritage was sparked by her interactions with working-class Jewish sweatshop workers involved in social justice struggles in the East End of London, as well as by the Dreyfus affair in France. Her earliest Jewish engagement was in October 1890, when she attended a meeting of a group of Jewish socialist workers in London in order to protest against antisemitic persecution in Czarist Russia. She learned Yiddish and sometimes delivered lectures in the language.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1884, Eleanor joined the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) led by Henry Hyndman and was elected to its executive. During her work in the SDF, she met Edward Aveling, with whom she would spend the rest of her life despite his faithlessness, thievery from the movement, and mental cruelty.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1885, after some bitter polemics, there was a split in the organization. Eleanor Marx and some others left SDF and founded the rival Socialist League.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: The split had two root causes: personality problems, as Hyndman was accused of leading the SDF in a dictatorial fashion, and disagreements on the issue of internationalism. In this point, Hyndman was accused by Marx among others of nationalist tendencies. He was, for example, opposed to Marx's idea of sending delegates to the French Workers' Party calling the proposal a "family manoeuvre", since Eleanor Marx's sister Laura and her husband Paul Lafargue were members of that party. Therefore, both Marx and Aveling became founding members of the Socialist League, whose most prominent member was William Morris.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: Other leaders of the Socialist League were Ernest Belfort Bax, Sam Mainwaring, and Tom Mann, the latter two being representatives of the working class. Annie Besant was also an active member.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: Marx wrote a regular column called "Record of the Revolutionary International Movement" for the Socialist League's monthly newspaper, "Commonweal."


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1884, Marx met Clementina Black, a painter and trade unionist, and became involved in the Women's Trade Union League. She would go on to support numerous strikes including the Bryant & May strike of 1888 and the London Dock Strike of 1889. She spoke to the Silvertown strikers at an open meeting in November 1889 alongside her friends Edith Ellis and Honor Brooke. She helped organise the Gasworkers' Union and wrote numerous books and articles.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1885, she helped organise the International Socialist Congress in Paris. The following year, she toured the United States along with Aveling and the German socialist Wilhelm Liebknecht, raising money for the Social Democratic Party of Germany.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: By the late 1880s, the Socialist League was deeply divided between those advocating political action and its opponents – who were themselves split between those like William Morris who felt that parliamentary campaigns represented inevitable compromises and corruptions, and an anarchist wing which opposed all electoral politics as a matter of principle. Marx and Aveling, as firm advocates of the principle of participation in political campaigns, found themselves in an uncomfortable minority in the party. At the 4th Annual Conference of the Socialist League the Bloomsbury branch, to which Marx and Aveling belonged, moved that a meeting of all socialist bodies should be called to discuss the formation of a united organisation. This resolution was voted down by a substantial margin, as was another put forward by the same branch in support of contesting seats in both local and parliamentary elections. Moreover, the Socialist League at this occasion suspended the 80 members of the Bloomsbury branch on the grounds that the group had put up candidates jointly with the SDF, against the policy of the party. The Bloomsbury branch thus exited the Socialist League for a new, albeit brief, independent existence as the Bloomsbury Socialist Society.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: Along with many other leading Socialists, Eleanor took an active role in organizing the London demonstration of 13 November 1887, which was violently suppressed in what became known as Bloody Sunday. Several other demonstrations followed in the aftermath, with Eleanor urging the radical line. In the aftermath of Bloody Sunday, Marx wrote a report on the brutal treatment of women activists and protestors at the hands of police, decrying their actions of targeting women.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1893, Keir Hardie founded the Independent Labour Party (ILP). Marx attended the founding conference as an observer, while Aveling was a delegate. Their goal of shifting the ILP's positions towards Marxism failed, however, as the party remained under a strong Christian socialist influence. In 1897, Marx and Aveling re-joined the Social Democratic Federation, like most former members of the Socialist League.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: After acquiring admission into the Reading Room of the British Museum, Eleanor first began work as a paid translator during the late 1870s. She spent many days here, taking information and working on her translations. In the late 1880s, Eleanor accomplished the first English translation of "Madame Bovary". Additionally, Eleanor translated "Reuben Sachs" by Amy Levy to German. Eleanor was involved as a translator or editor in 14 known works.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In the 1880s, Eleanor Marx became more interested in theatre and took up acting, believing in its potential for promulgating socialism. In 1886, she performed a groundbreaking if critically unsuccessful reading of Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House" in London, with herself as Nora Helmer, Aveling as Torvald Helmer, and George Bernard Shaw as Krogstad.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: She also translated various literary works, including the first English translation of Gustave Flaubert's "Madame Bovary". She expressly learned Norwegian in order to translate Ibsen's plays into English, and in 1888, was the first to translate "An Enemy of Society". Two years later, the play was revised and renamed "An Enemy of the People" by William Archer. Marx also translated Ibsen's "The Lady from the Sea" in 1890.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: In 1898, Eleanor discovered that the ailing Edward Aveling had secretly married a young actress, to whom he remained committed. Aveling's illness seemed to her to be terminal, and Eleanor was deeply depressed by the faithlessness of the man she loved.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: On 31 March 1898, Eleanor sent her maid to the local chemist with a note to which she signed the initials of the man the chemist knew as "Dr. Aveling," asking for chloroform (some sources say "padiorium") and a small quantity of hydrogen cyanide (then called "prussic acid") for her dog. On receiving the package, Eleanor signed a receipt for the poisons, sending the maid back to the chemists to return the receipt book. Eleanor then retired to her room, wrote two brief suicide notes, undressed, got into bed, and swallowed the poison.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: The maid discovered Eleanor in bed, scarcely breathing when she returned. A doctor was called for but Eleanor had died by the time he arrived, aged 43. A "post mortem" examination determined the cause of death to have been poison. A subsequent coroner's inquest delivered a verdict of "suicide while in a state of temporary insanity," clearing Aveling of criminal wrongdoing, but he was widely reviled throughout the socialist community as having caused Eleanor to take her life.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: A funeral service was held in a room at the London Necropolis railway station at Waterloo on 5 April 1898, attended by a large throng of mourners. Speeches were made by Aveling, Robert Banner, Eduard Bernstein, Pete Curran, Henry Hyndman and Will Thorne. Following the memorial, Eleanor Marx's body was taken by rail to Woking and cremated. An urn containing her ashes was subsequently kept safe by a succession of left-wing organisations, including the Social Democratic Federation, the British Socialist Party, and the Communist Party of Great Britain, before finally being buried alongside the remains of Karl Marx and other family members in the tomb of Karl Marx at Highgate Cemetery in London in 1956.


title: Eleanor Marx

text: On 9 September 2008, an English Heritage blue plaque was placed on the house at 7 Jews Walk, Sydenham, south-east London, where Eleanor spent the last few years of her life.


title: Vaibhav Reddy

text: Sumanth Reddy (born 21 April 1978), better known as Vaibhav, is an Indian actor who works primarily in Tamil film industry. He made his debut with the Telugu film "Godava" (2007) under his father, A. Kodandarami Reddy's direction. He is best known for his performances in Venkat Prabhu films "Saroja" (2008), "Goa" (2010), "Mankatha" (2011), "Aambala" (2015), "Chennai 600028" (2016), "Aranmanai 2" (2016) and "Meyaadha Maan" (2017).


title: Vaibhav Reddy

text: Vaibhav Reddy was born in Chennai to Telugu filmmaker A. Kodandarami Reddy. He did his schooling at the Cambridge Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Lloyds Road, Chennai, Tamil Nadu and at St. Bede's Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School in Chennai. His elder brother, Sunil Reddy, made his acting debut with "Seethakaathi" (2018).


title: Vaibhav Reddy

text: He made his acting debut in 2007, starring in the Telugu film "Godava" under his father's direction opposite Shradha Arya, which didn't do well at the box office. Before he made his debut, he was trained at the Asha Chandra School of Acting in Mumbai and also with Sathyanand of Vizag. He next starred in the Tamil comedy-thriller film "Saroja." The film, a Venkat Prabhu directorial was a critical as well as commercial success, bringing fame to Vaibhav. He worked with the same team again in another comedy film "Goa" that released in early 2010.


title: Vaibhav Reddy

text: His next release was "Easan" by director M. Sasikumar. He worked for the third time with Venkat Prabhu in "Mankatha" starring Ajith Kumar alongside Arjun Sarja. The film released generally to positive reviews while marking the second highest-grossing opening for a Tamil film and become big blockbuster. In 2014, he had first solo lead role in "Damaal Dumeel" in which he played a typical software industry professional. He has also acted in "Anamika", a remake of Bollywood film "Kahaani." and "Kappal" in which he is a small town boy, who moves to the city. He played the role of a stage performer in "Meyaadha Maan". His next in a lead role, "Sixer" directed by debutant Chachi and then "RK Nagar" was released on 17 December 2019 in Netflix. His two films in 2020 are "Taana" and "Lock Up". In 2021, he starred in web series, "Live Telecast" with Kajal Aggarwal followed by "Malaysia To Amnesia" with Vani Bhojan.


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: Mary Jo Catlett (born September 2, 1938) is an American actress. She is a main cast member on the animated series "SpongeBob SquarePants", providing the voice of Mrs. Puff. She is also known for originating the role of Ernestina in the 1964 Broadway production of "Hello, Dolly!" and for playing Pearl Gallagher, the third housekeeper on "Diff'rent Strokes".


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, where she performed in a variety of plays and eventually directed a company of "Pirates of Penzance". Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, she performed in Off-Broadway and Broadway musicals, often taking light-hearted, humorous roles. Since the late 1960s, Catlett has appeared in television shows such as "M*A*S*H", "The Dukes of Hazzard", and "General Hospital". Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards in 1978 and 1980, a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards in 1995, and a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 1990.


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: In 1998, Catlett joined the main cast of the then-upcoming cartoon "SpongeBob SquarePants" as the voice of Mrs. Puff, the title character's teacher, who has become her longest-running and most well-known role. Series creator Stephen Hillenburg had seen Catlett perform on stage and sought her out for the part himself. She quickly accepted and has since voiced Mrs. Puff in every season of the cartoon, in addition to all of the theatrical "SpongeBob" films and video games. In 2001, she received an Annie Award nomination for her voice-over work as Mrs. Puff.


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, on September 2, 1938, the daughter of Cornelia M. (née Callaghan) and Robert J. Catlett. She has a sister, Patricia Marie, who is a nun with the Dominican Order. Catlett is a Catholic.


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: In 1974, Catlett originated the role of Mrs. Tiffany in "Fashion: or, Life in New York". Her performance was well-received; "The New York Times" theater critic Clive Barnes called Catlett and co-star Henrietta Valor "exceptional ... both particular delights," and Jerry Tallmer of the "New York Post" said that the play's casting was "top-notch, with particular praise from this quarter for Mary Jo Catlett." Catlett would reprise her role in the 1994 revival of "Fashion".


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: Catlett described herself as a character actress. In a 1988 interview with the "Orlando Sentinel", she said, "It has been a plus to be a character actress. There are plenty of them out there but far fewer than ingenues and leading ladies, who perhaps eventually become character actresses. But I always was a character actress. I always was round and funny."


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: In 1976 and 1980, Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards for her roles in "Come Back, Little Sheba" and "Philadelphia, Here I Come!", respectively. In 1995, Catlett's role as Madame de la Grande Bouche in "Beauty and the Beast" earned her a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards. Catlett became a main cast member on "Diff'rent Strokes" in its fifth season, playing the third housekeeper, Pearl Gallagher. She also played characters on "General Hospital" (for which she was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award) and in several episodes of the television sitcom "M*A*S*H".


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: In 1987, Catlett directed a production of Dan Goggin's "Nunsense" after meeting with Goggin and discussing the character of Sister Mary Regina. It was staged at the Mark Two Dinner Theatre in Orlando, Florida. Catlett decided to play Sister Mary as well, taking on a dual role as both director and performer. She was partially inspired to direct the show after witnessing directors' unfair treatment of her castmates in previous productions. She said, "I have worked with many directors who were tyrannical. You get afraid to do anything because he'll yell, 'Don't do that!' It makes you crazy... as a director, I believe that there can be a democracy."


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: In 1998, Catlett was cast as the voice of Mrs. Puff, one of the main characters of Nickelodeon's then-upcoming animated series "SpongeBob SquarePants". She is one of the show's nine main cast members and has performed in every season, as well as in all of the theatrical "SpongeBob" films and video games. Mrs. Puff has become her longest-running and most well-known role. Stephen Hillenburg, the creator of the cartoon, specifically sought out Catlett to voice Mrs. Puff. He had seen her perform on stage and had a strong vision for Mrs. Puff as a character. Catlett quickly accepted and attended early practice sessions with the rest of the voice cast. Her first official recording as Mrs. Puff took place on August 24, 1998; she recorded dialogue with Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants and Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star in a single booth at Nickelodeon Animation Studio for the episode "Boating School".


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: In 2001, Catlett was nominated for an Annie Award for her voice-over work as Mrs. Puff, placing in the category "Best Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Production." Kenny was also nominated at the same ceremony, making Catlett and Kenny the first two "SpongeBob" cast members to be nominated for an award.


title: Mary Jo Catlett

text: As of 2017, voicing Mrs. Puff is Catlett's only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other "SpongeBob" cast members, making the "SpongeBob" recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances. The About Group's Nancy Basille noted in 2016 that Catlett's "rich, low tones as teacher Mrs. Puff recall other roles she has had," citing "Diff'rent Strokes" and "M*A*S*H" as programs on which she had used a similar voice.


title: Snapped

text: Snapped is an American true crime television series produced by Jupiter Entertainment. The series depicts high profile or bizarre cases of women accused of murder. Each episode outlines the motivation for murder, whether it be revenge against a cheating husband or lover, a large insurance payoff, or the ending to years of abuse, with each murder's circumstances as unique as the women profiled.


title: Snapped

text: "Snapped" premiered on August 6, 2004 on Oxygen. It has since become the network's longest-running original series, with its 28 defined seasons and sixteen years in production (and two spin-offs) outlasting the seventeen seasons and thirteen years of the "Bad Girls Club". The show also played a large role in the decision by parent company NBCUniversal to relaunch Oxygen as a crime network in 2017. , 500 original episodes of "Snapped" have aired.


title: Snapped

text: The series features non-fiction narratives of people who have committed murder or attempted murder or have been accused of committing or attempting to commit murder. Often the target is the individual's spouse. The program is edited in a documentary style, using a central voice-over narration by actress Jody Flader, as well as interviews with people in possession of first-hand knowledge of the case, including law-enforcement officials, lawyers, journalists, friends and family members of both the victims and the accused, and at times the criminals or victims themselves. A few rare episodes during the series run have centered on male perpetrators, while a larger number of episodes have featured men who conspired with the central female perpetrator in the crime.


title: Snapped

text: "Snapped" first aired on August 6, 2004, with the pilot episode, "Celeste Beard Johnson" The series is currently in its thirty-first season of production at Jupiter Entertainment.


title: Snapped

text: Actresses Laura San Giacomo and Ronnie Farer narrated the first and second seasons, respectively. Sharon Martin took the role of narrator in its third season, with a distinctive and pronounced oral cadence. She acquired an additional credit as a supervising producer of the series. In February 2018, Martin announced she would no longer narrate the series. The new narrator is actress Jody Flader, according to the end-of-episode credits and Flader's web site.


title: Snapped

text: In October 2020, Oxygen announced—in celebration of the series' 500th episode—it would air a two-week experience, billed as ""Snapped": The Killer Women Event." The event will include original pilot episode and a never-before-seen episode. The event culminated in the airing of the 500th episode, focusing on the murder of Randy Sheridan, on November 22, 2020.


title: Snapped

text: To celebrate its twentieth season, Oxygen announced it would open its "killer season" with a two-hour "Notorious" specials focusing on infamous criminals.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Lynne Ramsay (born 5 December 1969) is a Scottish film director, writer, producer, and cinematographer best known for the feature films "Ratcatcher" (1999), "Morvern Callar" (2002), "We Need to Talk About Kevin" (2011), and "You Were Never Really Here" (2017).


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Ramsay began her career by garnering attention through her short films beginning with “Small Deaths”, followed by “Kill the Day” and “Gasman”, all receiving awards and nominations. Gaining recognition from these films she was approached to write a treatment that would eventually become her  debut feature film "Ratcatcher" funded by BBC Scotland and Pathé. Ramsay’s "Ratcatcher" was given many awards along with Ramsay being awarded  BAFTA’s Award for Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Her films are marked by a fascination with children and young people and the recurring themes of grief, guilt, death, and its aftermath. They are low on dialogue and explicit story exposition, and instead use images, vivid details, music, and sound design to create their worlds. In April 2013, she was selected as a member of the main competition jury at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. In 2015, she was named as a member of the jury for the main competition at the 2015 Venice Film Festival.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Ramsay was born in Glasgow on 5 December 1969. She studied fine art and photography at Napier College, Edinburgh. Ramsay cites watching Maya Deren's film "Meshes of the Afternoon" in school as a turning point in her career, inspiring her to apply to film school on a whim and encouraging her turn towards filmmaking. Originally focused solely on cinematography she eventually moved toward directing feeling a stronger connection to being a director and documentarian. In 1995, she graduated from the National Film and Television School in Beaconsfield, England, where she specialised in cinematography and direction.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Ramsay won the 1996 Cannes Prix de Jury for her graduation short film, "Small Deaths". Her second short film, "Kill the Day", won the Clermont Ferrand Prix du Jury; her third, "Gasman", won her another Cannes Prix du Jury in addition to a Scottish BAFTA for Best Short Film.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Small Deaths" (1996), is Ramsay's debut short film that she completed as her graduating film at the UK's National Film and Television School. It is a series of three vignettes of children grappling with familial realities and the repercussions of their actions. Ramsay is the writer, director and cinematographer for this film.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Kill the Day" (1997), written and directed by Ramsay, captures a day in the life of a heroin addict recently released from jail, and in the process inventively probes the inner workings of memory.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Gasman" (1997), also written and directed by Ramsay, is about a brother and sister who attend a Christmas party with their father, and encounter two other children who are strangely familiar with him.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Swimmer" (2012), was co-commissioned by BBC Films, Film4 and the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The short was nominated for the British Independent Film Awards (BIFA) in the category for Best Short Film. It won a BAFTA Award for Best Short Film at the 66th British Academy Film Awards in 2013.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Ratcatcher" (1999), Ramsay's debut feature, won critical acclaim and numerous awards. It was screened at the 1999 Cannes Film Festival and opened the Edinburgh International Film Festival, winning her the Guardian New Directors prize. She also won the Carl Foreman Award for Newcomer in British Film at the 2000 BAFTA Awards, the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival and the Silver Hugo for Best Director at the Chicago International Film Festival.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Morvern Callar" (2002), won Samantha Morton the British Independent Film Award for Best Actress, and Kathleen McDermott the Scottish BAFTA Award for Best Actress. It also won the 2002 C.I.C.A.E. Award and the Award of The Youth at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival. The motion picture soundtrack includes tracks from Stereolab, Aphex Twin, Broadcast, Velvet Underground, and Nancy Sinatra. Ramsay is credited as the writer and director. The film is based on Alan Warner's 1995 novel of the same name, "Morvern Callar". It was featured in the Directors Fortnight for the Cannes Film Festival 2002 and then went on to open the Edinburgh International Film Festival in August of the same year. The film also featured at the Telluride, Toronto, San Sebastian, Dinard and Stockholm Film Festivals of 2002. It was nominated for seven British Independent Film Awards.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: In 2001, it was announced she was slated to direct the adaptation of Alice Sebold's "The Lovely Bones", which she had read in a manuscript form prior to its publication. She experienced great frustration in her involvement with adapting the novel, during which personal and professional problems saw her step away from the project in 2004, with the job of directing eventually going to Peter Jackson, whose version of the film received largely negative reviews. She stated in an interview: "People started to call it 'The Lovely Money,' they were getting greedy around it. And I could feel the vibes. It became like the Holy Bible, I kept handing in drafts and I thought they were good, but it was like 'But that's not exactly like the book, the book's going to be a success.' That was the mistake they made with the project." She stated additionally that she considered Jackson's interpretation of the film, with a desire to stick as closely as possible to the original story, as partially responsible for what she considered the lacklustre quality of the finished product.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "We Need to Talk About Kevin" (2011), was Ramsay's next feature-length film in which she was the writer, producer and director. The film, based on Lionel Shriver's novel, is about a mother dealing with the aftermath of a school massacre committed by her son. Budgetary difficulties held the production up, but after several script drafts, the film, which employed a fragmented, elliptical narrative and starred Tilda Swinton as the tormented mother, premiered in 2011, to great acclaim at the Cannes Film Festival. Ramsay went on to receive a BAFTA nomination for Best Director as well as taking the Best Director prize at the British Independent Film Awards, and a win for Best Film Screenplay at the Writer's Guild of Great Britain.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: In 2013, Ramsay was slated to direct "Jane Got a Gun". Natalie Portman signed on to star and produce the film as the farmer wife of an outlaw husband, who, after his gang turns on him, she must defend with the help of an old lover. In March 2013, Ramsay left the project due to creative differences with producers and funders, including over the latter's demand for a happy ending. She was replaced by Gavin O'Connor. Actor Jude Law also left the production shortly after. This caused significant backlash towards the director, during the fallout she would go to Santorini where she worked on the script that would be her next film "You Were Never Really Here".


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Ramsay was planning to direct a modern adaptation of Herman Melville's "Moby Dick". She has stated that the film will be set in space, and deal with themes of psychology and claustrophobia, quoting "So we're creating a whole new world, and a new alien. [It's] a very psychological piece, mainly taking place in the ship, a bit like "Das Boot", so it's quite claustrophobic. It's another monster movie, cos the monster's Ahab." The film has yet to come to fruition.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Ramsay directed "You Were Never Really Here", an adaptation of Jonathan Ames's novella of the same name. It premiered to wide critical acclaim in competition at the 70th Cannes Film Festival in 2017, where it received a seven-minute standing ovation, and Ramsay won the Best Screenplay award. The film, starring Joaquin Phoenix, was released by Amazon Studios.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: In 2018, she revealed she had started writing a script that she describes as an "epic environmental horror". In November 2020, it was announced Ramsay would be filming an adaptation of Stephen King's "The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon". and adapted Margaret Atwood's "Stone Mattress"


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Ramsay directed the promotional video for the Manchester-based indie-rock band Doves' single "Black and White Town", which was released on 7 February 2005. However, Ramsay's version was re-edited and the released version was significantly different from her original piece.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Ratcatcher" reflects these themes through the death of a young child and rebirth for the protagonist in moving out of Glasgow.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Morvern Callar" feature these themes in the visual metaphor of a maggot and carrot as a symbolization of death and transformation.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: In 2007, Ramsay was rated number 12 in Guardian Unlimited's list of the world's 40 best directors working at that time.


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Sean O'Hagan wrote in "The Guardian" that "Ramsay is entertaining company, whether talking about the art films she loves —by Bergman, Cassavetes, Fassbinder— or railing against the 'bullshitters and backstabbers' of the film industry."


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: The Harvard Film Archive describes Ramsay as "an uncompromising filmmaker fascinated by the tremendous power of cinema to appeal directly to the senses and awaken new depths in our audio-visual imagination. Immersive and at times almost overwhelming, Ramsay's films abound with uncommon imagery arresting for its remarkable use of texture, composition, color, music and sound."


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: In her "The New York Times" biography, Ramsay's work is described as having a "gritty, realistic visual style that demands attention."


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: Tilda Swinton, whom Ramsay directed in "We Need To Talk About Kevin", called her "the real McCoy", saying, "She is one of those rare directors who creates the kind of films that just would not be there if she didn't make them."


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: British film critic Jonathan Romney, when speaking on "We Need To Talk About Kevin", opined "Ramsay thinks not in concepts but in images. She doesn't make intellectual films, but ones that are close to music, taking visuals to the point of abstraction."


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: "Los Angeles Times" columnist Mark Olsen considered Ramsay "one of the leading lights of young British cinema", describing her additionally as "among the most celebrated British filmmakers of her generation."


title: Lynne Ramsay

text: On 8 October 2013, Ramsay was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Edinburgh for her contribution to British film.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Chữ Nôm (, ; ) is a logographic writing system formerly used to write the Vietnamese language. It uses Chinese characters ("Chữ Hán") to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, with other words represented by new characters created using a variety of methods, including phono-semantic compounds. This composite script was therefore highly complex, and was accessible only to the small proportion of the Vietnamese population who had mastered written Chinese.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Although formal writing in Vietnam was done in classical Chinese until the early 20th century (except for two brief interludes), chữ Nôm was widely used between the 15th and 19th centuries by the Vietnamese cultured elite for popular works in the vernacular, many in verse. One of the best-known pieces of Vietnamese literature, "The Tale of Kiều", was written in chữ Nôm by Nguyễn Du.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The Vietnamese alphabet created by Portuguese Jesuit missionaries, with the earliest known usage occurring in the 17th century, replaced chữ Nôm as the preferred way to record Vietnamese literature from the 1920s. While Chinese characters are still used for decorative, historic and ceremonial value, chữ Nôm has fallen out of mainstream use in modern Vietnam. The Institute of Hán-Nôm Studies at Hanoi is the main research centre for pre-modern texts from Vietnam, both Chinese-language texts written in Chinese characters () and Vietnamese-language texts in chữ Nôm.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The Vietnamese word 'character' is derived from the Middle Chinese word , meaning '[Chinese] character'. The word 'Southern' is derived from the Middle Chinese word , meaning 'south'.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: There are many ways to write the name in chữ Nôm characters. The word may be written as , , , , , , , , or , while may be written as or .


title: Chữ Nôm

text: is the logographic writing system of the Vietnamese language. It is based on the Chinese writing system but adds a large number of new characters to make it fit the Vietnamese language.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: In Vietnamese, Chinese characters are called ( 'Han characters'), ( 'Han characters') and ( 'Confucian characters', due to the connection with Confucianism). "Hán văn" () means classical Chinese literature.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The term ( 'Han and chữ Nôm characters') in Vietnamese designates the whole body of premodern written materials from Vietnam, either written in Chinese () or in Vietnamese (). Hán and Nôm could also be found in the same document side by side, for example, in the case of translations of books on Chinese medicine. The Buddhist history "Cổ Châu Pháp Vân phật bản hạnh ngữ lục" (1752) gives the story of early Buddhism in Vietnam both in Hán script and in a parallel Nôm translation. The Jesuit Girolamo Maiorica (1605–1656) had also used parallel Hán and Nôm texts.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The term ( 'national language script') refers to the Vietnamese alphabet in current use, but used to refer to chữ Nôm before the Vietnamese alphabet was widely used.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Chinese characters were introduced to Vietnam after the Han dynasty conquered the country in 111 BC. Independence was achieved in 938 AD, but Literary Chinese was adopted for official purposes in 1010. For most of the period up to the early 20th century, formal writing was indistinguishable from contemporaneous classical Chinese works produced in China, Korea, and Japan.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Vietnamese scholars were thus intimately familiar with Chinese writing. In order to record their native language, they applied the structural principles of Chinese characters to develop "chữ Nôm". The new script was mostly used to record folk songs and for other popular literature. Vietnamese written in "chữ Nôm" briefly replaced Chinese for official purposes under the Hồ dynasty (1400–1407) and under the Tây Sơn (1778–1802), but in both cases this was swiftly reversed.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The use of Chinese characters to transcribe the Vietnamese language can be traced to an inscription with the two characters "", as part of the posthumous title of Phùng Hưng, a national hero who succeeded in briefly expelling the Chinese in the late 8th century. The two characters have literal Chinese meanings 'cloth' and 'cover', which make no sense in this context. They have thus been interpreted as a phonetic transcription, via their Middle Chinese pronunciations "bu kaj", of a Vietnamese phrase, either 'great king', or 'father and mother' (of the people).


title: Chữ Nôm

text: After Vietnam established its independence from China in the 10th century, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh (r. 968–979), the founder of the Đinh dynasty, named the country . The first and third Chinese characters mean 'great' and 'Viet'. The second character was often used to transcribe non-Chinese terms and names phonetically. Scholars assume that it was used here to represent a native Vietnamese word, possibly also meaning 'great', though exactly which Vietnamese word it represents is unclear.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The oldest surviving Nom inscription, dating from 1210, is a list naming 21 people and villages on a stele at the Tự Già Báo Ân pagoda in Tháp Miếu village (Mê Linh District, Hanoi). Another stele at Hộ Thành Sơn in Ninh Bình Province (1343) lists 20 villages.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Trần Nhân Tông (r. 1278–1293) ordered that Nôm be used to communicate his proclamations to the people.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The first literary writing in Vietnamese is said to have been an incantation in verse composed in 1282 by the Minister of Justice Nguyễn Thuyên and thrown into the Red River to expel a menacing crocodile.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Four poems written in Nom from the Tran dynasty, two by Trần Nhân Tông and one each by Huyền Quang and Mạc Đĩnh Chi, were collected and published in 1805.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The Nôm text ('Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents') was printed around 1730, but conspicuously avoids the character , suggesting that it was written (or copied) during the reign of Lê Lợi (1428–1433).


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Based on archaic features of the text compared with the Tran dynasty poems, including an exceptional number of words with initial consonant clusters written with pairs of characters, some scholars suggest that it is a copy of an earlier original, perhaps as early as the 12th century.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: During the seven years of the Hồ dynasty (1400–07) Classical Chinese was discouraged in favor of vernacular Vietnamese written in Nôm, which became the official script. The emperor Hồ Quý Ly even ordered the translation of the Book of Documents into Nôm and pushed for reinterpretation of Confucian thoughts in his book "Minh đạo". These efforts were reversed with the fall of the Hồ and Chinese conquest of 1407, lasting twenty years, during which use of the vernacular language and demotic script were suppressed.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: During the Ming dynasty occupation of Vietnam, chữ Nôm printing blocks, texts and inscriptions were thoroughly destroyed; as a result the earliest surviving texts of chữ Nôm post-date the occupation.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Among the earlier works in Nôm of this era are the writings of Nguyễn Trãi (1380–1442). The corpus of Nôm writings grew over time as did more scholarly compilations of the script itself. , consort of King Lê Thần Tông, is generally given credit for "" (The Explication of the Guide to Jeweled Sounds), a 24,000-character bilingual Hán-to-Nôm dictionary compiled between the 15th and 18th centuries, most likely in 1641 or 1761.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: While almost all official writings and documents continued to be written in classical Chinese until the early 20th century, Nôm was the preferred script for literary compositions of the cultural elites. Nôm reached its golden period with the Nguyễn dynasty in the 19th century as it became a vehicle for diverse genres, from novels to theatrical pieces, and instructional manuals. Although it was prohibited during the reign of Minh Mang (1820–1840), apogees of Vietnamese literature emerged with Nguyễn Du's "The Tale of Kiều" and Hồ Xuân Hương's poetry. Although literacy in premodern Vietnam was limited to just 3 to 5 percent of the population, nearly every village had someone who could read Nôm aloud for the benefit of other villagers. Thus these Nôm works circulated orally in the villages, making it accessible even to the illiterates.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Chữ Nôm was the dominant script in Vietnamese Catholic literature until the late 19th century. In 1838, Jean-Louis Taberd compiled a Nôm dictionary, helping with the standardization of the script.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The reformist Catholic scholar Nguyễn Trường Tộ presented the Emperor Tự Đức with a series of unsuccessful petitions (written in classical Chinese, like all court documents) proposing reforms in several areas of government and society. His petition ( 'Eight urgent matters', 1867), includes proposals on education, including a section entitled ('Please tolerate the national voice'). He proposed to replace classical Chinese with Vietnamese written using a script based on Chinese characters that he called ( 'Han characters with national pronunciations'), though he described this as a new creation, and did not mention chữ Nôm.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: From the latter half of the 19th century onwards, the French colonial authorities discouraged or simply banned the use of classical Chinese, and promoted the use of the Vietnamese alphabet, which they viewed as a stepping stone toward learning French. Language reform movements in other Asian nations stimulated Vietnamese interest in the subject. Following the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan was increasingly cited as a model for modernization. The Confucian education system was compared unfavorably to the Japanese system of public education. According to a polemic by writer Phan Châu Trinh, "so-called Confucian scholars" lacked knowledge of the modern world, as well as real understanding of Han literature. Their degrees showed only that they had learned how to write characters, he claimed.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The popularity of Hanoi's short-lived Tonkin Free School suggested that broad reform was possible. In 1910, the colonial school system adopted a "Franco-Vietnamese curriculum", which emphasized French and alphabetic Vietnamese. The teaching of Chinese characters was discontinued in 1917. On December 28, 1918, Emperor Khải Định declared that the traditional writing system no longer had official status. The traditional Civil Service Examination, which emphasized the command of classical Chinese, was dismantled in 1915 in Tonkin and was given for the last time at the imperial capital of Huế on January 4, 1919. The examination system, and the education system based on it, had been in effect for almost 900 years.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The decline of the Chinese script also led to the decline of chữ Nôm given that Nôm and Chinese characters are so intimately connected. After the First World War, chữ Nôm gradually died out as the Vietnamese alphabet grew more and popular. In an article published in 1935 (based on a lecture given in 1925), Georges Cordier estimated that 70% of literate persons knew the alphabet, 20% knew chữ Nôm and 10% knew Chinese characters.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The Gin people, descendants of 16th-century migrants from Vietnam to islands off Dongxing in southern China, now speak a form of Yue Chinese and Vietnamese, but their priests use songbooks and scriptures written in chữ Nôm in their ceremonies.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: In chữ Nôm, each monosyllabic word of Vietnamese was represented by a character, either borrowed from Chinese or locally created.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: As an analytic language, Vietnamese was a better fit for a character-based script than Japanese and Korean, with their agglutinative morphology.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Partly for this reason, there was no development of a phonetic system that could be taught to the general public, like Japanese kana syllabary or the Korean hangul alphabet.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Moreover, most Vietnamese literati viewed Chinese as the proper medium of civilized writing, and had no interest in turning Nôm into a form of writing suitable for mass communication.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Chữ Nôm has never been standardized. As a result, a Vietnamese word could be represented by several Nôm characters. For example, the very word ('character', 'script'), a Chinese loanword, can be written as either (Chinese character), (Vietnamese-only compound-semantic character) or (Vietnamese-only semantic-phonetic character). For another example, the word ('middle'; 'in between') can be written either as () or (). Both characters were invented for Vietnamese and have a semantic-phonetic structure, the difference being the phonetic indicator ( vs. ).


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Another example of a Vietnamese word that is represented by several Nôm characters is the word for moon, "trăng". It can be represented by a Chinese character that is phonetically similar to trăng, (lăng), a chữ Nôm character, () which is composed of two phonetic components (ba) and (lăng) for the Middle Vietnamese "blăng", or a chữ Nôm character, () composed of a phonetic component (lăng) and a semantic component meaning ('moon').


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The first two categories are similar to the "on" and "kun" readings of Japanese kanji respectively. The third is similar to "ateji", in which characters are used only for their sound value, or the Man'yōgana script that became the origin of hiragana and katakana.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: When a character would have two readings, a diacritic may be added to the character to indicate the "indigenous" reading. The two most common alternate reading diacritical marks are (), (a variant form of ) and (). Thus when is meant to be read as , it is written as , with a diacritic at the upper right corner.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: In contrast to the few hundred Japanese kokuji (国字) and handful of Korean gukja (국자, 國字), which are mostly rarely used characters for indigenous natural phenomena, Vietnamese scribes created thousands of new characters, used throughout the language.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: As in the Chinese writing system, the most common kind of invented character in Nôm is the phono-semantic compound, made by combining two characters or components, one suggesting the word's meaning and the other its approximate sound. For example,


title: Chữ Nôm

text: A smaller group consists of semantic compound characters, which are composed of two Chinese characters representing words of similar meaning. For example, ( or 'sky', 'heaven') is composed of ('sky') and ('upper').


title: Chữ Nôm

text: A few characters were obtained by modifying Chinese characters related either semantically or phonetically to the word to be represented. For example,


title: Chữ Nôm

text: As an example of the way chữ Nôm was used to record Vietnamese, the first two lines of the "Tale of Kiều" (1866 edition), written in the traditional six-eight form of Vietnamese verse, consist of the following 14 characters:


title: Chữ Nôm

text: This is translated as 'A hundred years—in this life span on earth, talent and destiny are apt to feud.'


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The website chunom.org gives a frequency table of the 586 most common characters in Nôm literature. According to this table, the most common 50 characters are as follows, with the modern spelling given in italics:


title: Chữ Nôm

text: In 1993, the Vietnamese government released an 8-bit coding standard for alphabetic Vietnamese (TCVN 5712:1993, or VSCII), as well as a 16-bit standard for Nôm (TCVN 5773:1993). This group of glyphs is referred to as "V0." In 1994, the Ideographic Rapporteur Group agreed to include Nôm characters as part of Unicode. A revised standard, TCVN 6909:2001, defines 9,299 glyphs. About half of these glyphs are specific to Vietnam. Nôm characters not already encoded were added to CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B. (These characters have five-digit hexadecimal code points. The characters that were encoded earlier have four-digit hex.)


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The V2, V3, and V4 proposals were developed by a group at the Han-Nom Research Institute led by Nguyễn Quang Hồng. V4, developed in 2001, includes over 400 ideograms formerly used by the Tày people of northern Vietnam. This allows the Tày language to get its own registration code. V5 is a set of about 900 characters proposed in 2001. As these characters were already part of Unicode, the IRG concluded that they could not be edited and no Vietnamese code was added. (This is despite the fact that national codes were added retroactively for version 3.0 in 1999.) The Nôm Na Group, led by Ngô Thanh Nhàn, published a set of nearly 20,000 Nôm characters in 2005. This set includes both the characters proposed earlier and a large group of additional characters referred to as "V6". These are mainly Han characters from Trần Văn Kiệm's dictionary which were already assigned code points. Character readings were determined manually by Hồng's group, while Nhàn's group developed software for this purpose. The work of the two groups was integrated and published in 2008 as the "Hán Nôm Coded Character Repertoire".


title: Chữ Nôm

text: The characters that do not exist in Chinese have Sino-Vietnamese readings that are based on the characters given in parentheses. The common character for "càng" () contains the radical (insects). This radical is added redundantly to create , a rare variation shown in the chart above. The character ("giàu") is specific to the Tày people. It has been part of the Unicode standard only since version 8.0 of June 2015, so there is still very little font and input method support for it. It is a variation of , the corresponding character in Vietnamese.


title: Chữ Nôm

text: There are a number of software tools that can produce chữ Nôm characters simply by typing Vietnamese words in chữ quốc ngữ:


title: Chữ Nôm

text: Fonts with a sufficient coverage of Chữ Nôm characters include "Han-Nom Gothic", "Han-Nom Minh", "Han-Nom Ming", "Han-Nom Kai", "Nom Na Tong", "STXiHei" ("Heiti TC"), "MingLiU" plus" MingLiU-ExtB", "Han Nom A" plus "Han Nom B", "FZKaiT-Extended" plus "FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)", and Mojikyō fonts which require special software. The following web pages are collections of URLs from which Chữ Nôm capable fonts can be downloaded:


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Cabin pressurization is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic, tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary before it is distributed to the cabin by one or more environmental control systems. The cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: While the first experimental pressurization systems saw use during the 1920s and 1930s, it was not until 1940 that a commercial aircraft would enter service with a pressurized cabin, when the Boeing 307 Stratoliner joined the Transcontinental & Western Air and Pan American Airways fleets. The practice would become widespread a decade later, particularly with the introduction of the British de Havilland Comet jetliner in 1949. While initially a success, two catastrophic failures in 1954 temporarily grounded the worldwide fleet. The cause was found to be a combination of progressive metal fatigue and aircraft skin stresses, both of which aeronautical engineers had limited understanding at the time. Testing involved multiple full scale pressurisation cycle tests of the entire fuselage in a water tank. The key engineering principles learned from the Comet were applied directly to the design of all subsequent jet airliners, such as the Boeing 707.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Certain aircraft have presented unusual pressurization scenarios. The supersonic airliner Concorde had a particularly high pressure differential due to flying at unusually high altitude: up to while maintaining a cabin altitude of . This not only increased airframe weight, but also saw the use of smaller cabin windows than most other commercial passenger aircraft, intended to slow the decompression rate if a depressurization event occurred. The Aloha Airlines Flight 243 incident, involving a Boeing 737-200 that suffered catastrophic cabin failure mid-flight, was primarily caused by its continued operation despite having accumulated more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure. For increased passenger comfort, several modern airliners, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB, feature reduced operating cabin altitudes as well as greater humidity levels; the use of composite airframes has aided the adoption of such comfort-maximising practices.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Pressurization becomes increasingly necessary at altitudes above above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude. For private aircraft operating in the US, crew members are required to use oxygen masks if the cabin altitude (a representation of the air pressure, see below) stays above for more than 30 minutes, or if the cabin altitude reaches at any time. At altitudes above , passengers are required to be provided oxygen masks as well. On commercial aircraft, the cabin altitude must be maintained at or less. Pressurization of the cargo hold is also required to prevent damage to pressure-sensitive goods that might leak, expand, burst or be crushed on re-pressurization. The principal physiological problems are listed below.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The pressure inside the cabin is technically referred to as the "equivalent effective cabin altitude" or more commonly as the "cabin altitude". This is defined as the equivalent altitude above mean sea level having the same atmospheric pressure according to a standard atmospheric model such as the International Standard Atmosphere. Thus a cabin altitude of zero would have the pressure found at mean sea level, which is taken to be .


title: Cabin pressurization

text: In airliners, cabin altitude during flight is kept above sea level in order to reduce stress on the pressurized part of the fuselage; this stress is proportional to the difference in pressure inside and outside the cabin. In a typical commercial passenger flight, the cabin altitude is programmed to rise gradually from the altitude of the airport of origin to a regulatory maximum of . This cabin altitude is maintained while the aircraft is cruising at its maximum altitude and then reduced gradually during descent until the cabin pressure matches the ambient air pressure at the destination.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Keeping the cabin altitude below generally prevents significant hypoxia, altitude sickness, decompression sickness, and barotrauma. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations in the U.S. mandate that under normal operating conditions, the cabin altitude may not exceed this limit at the maximum operating altitude of the aircraft. This mandatory maximum cabin altitude does not eliminate all physiological problems; passengers with conditions such as pneumothorax are advised not to fly until fully healed, and people suffering from a cold or other infection may still experience pain in the ears and sinuses. The rate of change of cabin altitude strongly affects comfort as humans are sensitive to pressure changes in the inner ear and sinuses and this has to be managed carefully. Scuba divers flying within the "no fly" period after a dive are at risk of decompression sickness because the accumulated nitrogen in their bodies can form bubbles when exposed to reduced cabin pressure.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The cabin altitude of the Boeing 767 is typically about when cruising at . This is typical for older jet airliners. A design goal for many, but not all, newer aircraft is to provide a lower cabin altitude than older designs. This can be beneficial for passenger comfort. For example, the Bombardier Global Express business jet can provide a cabin altitude of when cruising at . The Emivest SJ30 business jet can provide a sea-level cabin altitude when cruising at . One study of eight flights in Airbus A380 aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of , and 65 flights in Boeing 747-400 aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of .


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Before 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were assigned a type certificate to fly up to without having to meet high-altitude special conditions. In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25-87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin pressure specifications for new-type aircraft designs. Aircraft certified to operate above "must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system". In the event of a decompression that results from "any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable", the plane must be designed such that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding for more than 2 minutes, nor to an altitude exceeding at any time. In practice, that new Federal Aviation Regulations amendment imposes an operational ceiling of on the majority of newly designed commercial aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers can apply for a relaxation of this rule if the circumstances warrant it. In 2004, Airbus acquired an FAA exemption to allow the cabin altitude of the A380 to reach in the event of a decompression incident and to exceed for one minute. This allows the A380 to operate at a higher altitude than other newly designed civilian aircraft.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Russian engineers used an air-like nitrogen/oxygen mixture, kept at a cabin altitude near zero at all times, in their 1961 Vostok, 1964 Voskhod, and 1967 to present Soyuz spacecraft. This requires a heavier space vehicle design, because the spacecraft cabin structure must withstand the stress of 14.7 pounds per square inch (1 atm, 1.01 bar) against the vacuum of space, and also because an inert nitrogen mass must be carried. Care must also be taken to avoid decompression sickness when cosmonauts perform extravehicular activity, as current soft space suits are pressurized with pure oxygen at relatively low pressure in order to provide reasonable flexibility.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: By contrast, the United States used a pure oxygen atmosphere for its 1961 Mercury, 1965 Gemini, and 1967 Apollo spacecraft, mainly in order to avoid decompression sickness. Mercury used a cabin altitude of (); Gemini used an altitude of (); and Apollo used () in space. This allowed for a lighter space vehicle design. This is possible because at 100% oxygen, enough oxygen gets to the bloodstream to allow astronauts to operate normally. Before launch, the pressure was kept at slightly higher than sea level at a constant above ambient for Gemini, and above sea level at launch for Apollo), and transitioned to the space cabin altitude during ascent. However, the high pressure pure oxygen atmosphere proved to be a factor in a fatal fire hazard in Apollo, contributing to the deaths of the entire crew of Apollo 1 during a 1967 ground test. After this, NASA revised its procedure to use a nitrogen/oxygen mix at zero cabin altitude at launch, but kept the low-pressure pure oxygen atmosphere at in space.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: After the Apollo program, the United States used standard air-like cabin atmospheres for Skylab, the Space Shuttle orbiter, and the International Space Station.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Pressurization is achieved by the design of an airtight fuselage engineered to be pressurized with a source of compressed air and controlled by an environmental control system (ECS). The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed air extracted from the compressor stage of a gas turbine engine, from a low or intermediate stage and also from an additional high stage; the exact stage can vary depending on engine type. By the time the cold outside air has reached the bleed air valves, it is at a very high pressure and has been heated to around . The control and selection of high or low bleed sources is fully automatic and is governed by the needs of various pneumatic systems at various stages of flight.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The part of the bleed air that is directed to the ECS is then expanded to bring it to cabin pressure, which cools it. A final, suitable temperature is then achieved by adding back heat from the hot compressed air via a heat exchanger and air cycle machine known as a PAC (Pressurization and Air Conditioning) system. In some larger airliners, hot trim air can be added downstream of air conditioned air coming from the packs if it is needed to warm a section of the cabin that is colder than others.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: At least two engines provide compressed bleed air for all the plane's pneumatic systems, to provide full redundancy. Compressed air is also obtained from the auxiliary power unit (APU), if fitted, in the event of an emergency and for cabin air supply on the ground before the main engines are started. Most modern commercial aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual back-up control system.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere via an outflow valve, usually at the rear of the fuselage. This valve controls the cabin pressure and also acts as a safety relief valve, in addition to other safety relief valves. If the automatic pressure controllers fail, the pilot can manually control the cabin pressure valve, according to the backup emergency procedure checklist. The automatic controller normally maintains the proper cabin pressure altitude by constantly adjusting the outflow valve position so that the cabin altitude is as low as practical without exceeding the maximum pressure differential limit on the fuselage. The pressure differential varies between aircraft types, typical values are between and . At , the cabin pressure would be automatically maintained at about , ( lower than Mexico City), which is about of atmosphere pressure.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Some aircraft, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, have re-introduced electric compressors previously used on piston-engined airliners to provide pressurization. The use of electric compressors increases the electrical generation load on the engines and introduces a number of stages of energy transfer; therefore, it is unclear whether this increases the overall efficiency of the aircraft air handling system. It does, however, remove the danger of chemical contamination of the cabin, simplify engine design, avert the need to run high pressure pipework around the aircraft, and provide greater design flexibility.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Unplanned loss of cabin pressure at altitude/in space is rare but has resulted in a number of fatal accidents. Failures range from sudden, catastrophic loss of airframe integrity (explosive decompression) to slow leaks or equipment malfunctions that allow cabin pressure to drop.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Any failure of cabin pressurization above requires an emergency descent to or the closest to that while maintaining the Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA), and the deployment of an oxygen mask for each seat. The oxygen systems have sufficient oxygen for all on board and give the pilots adequate time to descend to below . Without emergency oxygen, hypoxia may lead to loss of consciousness and a subsequent loss of control of the aircraft. Modern airliners include a pressurized pure oxygen tank in the cockpit, giving the pilots more time to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The time of useful consciousness varies according to altitude. As the pressure falls the cabin air temperature may also plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of hypothermia or frostbite.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: For airliners that need to fly over terrain that does not allow reaching the safe altitude within a maximum of 30 minutes, pressurized oxygen bottles are mandatory since the chemical oxygen generators fitted to most planes cannot supply sufficient oxygen.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: In jet fighter aircraft, the small size of the cockpit means that any decompression will be very rapid and would not allow the pilot time to put on an oxygen mask. Therefore, fighter jet pilots and aircrew are required to wear oxygen masks at all times.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: On June 30, 1971, the crew of Soyuz 11, Soviet cosmonauts Georgy Dobrovolsky, Vladislav Volkov, and Viktor Patsayev were killed after the cabin vent valve accidentally opened before atmospheric re-entry.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: In the late 1910s, attempts were being made to achieve higher and higher altitudes. In 1920, flights well over were first achieved by test pilot Lt. John A. Macready in a Packard-Le Père LUSAC-11 biplane at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio. The flight was possible by releasing stored oxygen into the cockpit, which was released directly into an enclosed cabin and not to an oxygen mask, which was developed later. With this system flights nearing were possible, but the lack of atmospheric pressure at that altitude caused the pilot's heart to enlarge visibly, and many pilots reported health problems from such high altitude flights. Some early airliners had oxygen masks for the passengers for routine flights.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: In 1921, a Wright-Dayton USD-9A reconnaissance biplane was modified with the addition of a completely enclosed air-tight chamber that could be pressurized with air forced into it by small external turbines. The chamber had a hatch only in diameter that would be sealed by the pilot at . The chamber contained only one instrument, an altimeter, while the conventional cockpit instruments were all mounted outside the chamber, visible through five small portholes. The first attempt to operate the aircraft was again made by Lt. John A. McCready, who discovered that the turbine was forcing air into the chamber faster than the small release valve provided could release it. As a result, the chamber quickly over pressurized, and the flight was abandoned. A second attempt had to be abandoned when the pilot discovered at that he was too short to close the chamber hatch. The first successful flight was finally made by test pilot Lt. Harrold Harris, making it the world's first flight by a pressurized aircraft.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The first airliner to enter commercial service with a pressurized cabin was the Boeing 307 Stratoliner, built in 1938, prior to World War II, though only ten were produced before the war interrupted production. The 307's "pressure compartment was from the nose of the aircraft to a pressure bulkhead in the aft just forward of the horizontal stabilizer."


title: Cabin pressurization

text: World War II was a catalyst for aircraft development. Initially, the piston aircraft of World War II, though they often flew at very high altitudes, were not pressurized and relied on oxygen masks. This became impractical with the development of larger bombers where crew were required to move about the cabin and this led to the first bomber with cabin pressurization (though restricted to crew areas), the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. The control system for this was designed by Garrett AiResearch Manufacturing Company, drawing in part on licensing of patents held by Boeing for the Stratoliner.