title: Ergodicity

text: For the coin-flip process, the time-evolution operator formula_64 is the shift operator that says "throw away the first coin-flip, and keep the rest". Formally, if formula_65 is a sequence of coin-flips, then formula_66. The measure is obviously shift-invariant: as long as we are talking about some set formula_28 where the first coin-flip formula_68 is the "don't care" value, then the volume formula_7 does not change: formula_70. In order to avoid talking about the first coin-flip, it is easier to define formula_71 as inserting a "don't care" value into the first position: formula_72. With this definition, one obviously has that formula_73 with no constraints on formula_14. This is again an example of why formula_71 is used in the formal definitions.


title: Ergodicity

text: The above development takes a random process, the Bernoulli process, and converts it to a measure-preserving dynamical system formula_1 The same conversion (equivalence, isomorphism) can be applied to any stochastic process. Thus, an informal definition of ergodicity is that a sequence is ergodic if it visits all of formula_2; such sequences are "typical" for the process. Another is that its statistical properties can be deduced from a single, sufficiently long, random sample of the process (thus uniformly sampling all of formula_2), or that any collection of random samples from a process must represent the average statistical properties of the entire process (that is, samples drawn uniformly from formula_2 are representative of formula_2 as a whole.) In the present example, a sequence of coin flips, where half are heads, and half are tails, is a "typical" sequence.


title: Ergodicity

text: There are several important points to be made about the Bernoulli process. If one writes 0 for tails and 1 for heads, one gets the set of all infinite strings of binary digits. These correspond to the base-two expansion of real numbers. Explicitly, given a sequence formula_65, the corresponding real number is


title: Ergodicity

text: The statement that the Bernoulli process is ergodic is equivalent to the statement that the real numbers are uniformly distributed. The set of all such strings can be written in a variety of ways: formula_83 This set is the Cantor set, sometimes called the Cantor space to avoid confusion with the Cantor function


title: Ergodicity

text: The Cantor set plays key roles in many branches of mathematics. In recreational mathematics, it underpins the period-doubling fractals; in analysis, it appears in a vast variety of theorems. A key one for stochastic processes is the Wold decomposition, which states that any stationary process can be decomposed into a pair of uncorrelated processes, one deterministic, and the other being a moving average process.


title: Ergodicity

text: The Ornstein isomorphism theorem states that every stationary stochastic process is equivalent to a Bernoulli scheme (a Bernoulli process with an "N"-sided (and possibly unfair) gaming die). Other results include that every non-dissipative ergodic system is equivalent to the Markov odometer, sometimes called an "adding machine" because it looks like elementary-school addition, that is, taking a base-"N" digit sequence, adding one, and propagating the carry bits. The proof of equivalence is very abstract; understanding the result is not: by adding one at each time step, every possible state of the odometer is visited, until it rolls over, and starts again. Likewise, ergodic systems visit each state, uniformly, moving on to the next, until they have all been visited.


title: Ergodicity

text: Systems that generate (infinite) sequences of "N" letters are studied by means of symbolic dynamics. Important special cases include subshifts of finite type and sofic systems.


title: Ergodicity

text: The term "ergodic" is commonly thought to derive from the Greek words ("ergon": "work") and ("hodos": "path", "way"), as chosen by Ludwig Boltzmann while he was working on a problem in statistical mechanics. At the same time it is also claimed to be a derivation of "ergomonode", coined by Boltzmann in a relatively obscure paper from 1884. The etymology appears to be contested in other ways as well.


title: Ergodicity

text: The idea of ergodicity was born in the field of thermodynamics, where it was necessary to relate the individual states of gas molecules to the temperature of a gas as a whole and its time evolution thereof. In order to do this, it was necessary to state what exactly it means for gases to mix well together, so that thermodynamic equilibrium could be defined with mathematical rigor. Once the theory was well developed in physics, it was rapidly formalized and extended, so that ergodic theory has long been an independent area of mathematics in itself. As part of that progression, more than one slightly different definition of ergodicity and multitudes of interpretations of the concept in different fields coexist.


title: Ergodicity

text: For example, in classical physics the term implies that a system satisfies the ergodic hypothesis of thermodynamics, the relevant state space being position and momentum space.


title: Ergodicity

text: In dynamical systems theory the state space is usually taken to be a more general phase space. On the other hand in coding theory the state space is often discrete in both time and state, with less concomitant structure. In all those fields the ideas of time average and ensemble average can also carry extra baggage as well—as is the case with the many possible thermodynamically relevant partition functions used to define ensemble averages in physics, back again. As such the measure theoretic formalization of the concept also serves as a unifying discipline. In 1913 Michel Plancherel proved the strict impossibility for ergodicity for a purely mechanical system.


title: Ergodicity

text: A review of ergodicity in physics, and in geometry follows. In all cases, the notion of ergodicity is "exactly" the same as that for dynamical systems; "there is no difference", except for outlook, notation, style of thinking and the journals where results are published.


title: Ergodicity

text: Physical systems can be split into three categories: classical mechanics, which describes machines with a finite number of moving parts, quantum mechanics, which describes the structure of atoms, and statistical mechanics, which describes gases, liquids, solids; this includes condensed matter physics.


title: Ergodicity

text: The case of classical mechanics is discussed in the next section, on ergodicity in geometry. As to quantum mechanics, there is no universal quantum definition of ergodocity or even chaos (see quantum chaos). However, there is a quantum ergodicity theorem stating that the expectation value of an operator converges to the corresponding microcanonical classical average in the semiclassical limit formula_85. Nevertheless, the theorem does not imply that "all" eigenstates of the Hamiltionian whose classical counterpart is chaotic are features and random. For example, the quantum ergodicity theorem do not exclude the existence of non-ergodic states such as quantum scars. In addition to the conventional scarring, there are two other types of quantum scarring, which further illustrate the weak-ergodicity breaking in quantum chaotic systems: perturbation-induced and many-body quantum scars.


title: Ergodicity

text: This section reviews ergodicity in statistical mechanics. The above abstract definition of a volume is required as the appropriate setting for definitions of ergodicity in physics. Consider a container of liquid, or gas, or plasma, or other collection of atoms or particles. Each and every particle formula_86 has a 3D position, and a 3D velocity, and is thus described by six numbers: a point in six-dimensional space formula_87 If there are formula_39 of these particles in the system, a complete description requires formula_89 numbers. Any one system is just a single point in formula_90 The physical system is not all of formula_91, of course; if it's a box of width, height and length formula_92 then a point is in formula_93 Nor can velocities be infinite: they are scaled by some probability measure, for example the Boltzmann–Gibbs measure for a gas. None-the-less, for formula_39 close to Avogadro's number, this is obviously a very large space. This space is called the canonical ensemble.


title: Ergodicity

text: A physical system is said to be ergodic if any representative point of the system eventually comes to visit the entire volume of the system. For the above example, this implies that any given atom not only visits every part of the box formula_95 with uniform probability, but it does so with every possible velocity, with probability given by the Boltzmann distribution for that velocity (so, uniform with respect to that measure). The ergodic hypothesis states that physical systems actually are ergodic. Multiple time scales are at work: gasses and liquids appear to be ergodic over short time scales. Ergodicity in a solid can be viewed in terms of the vibrational modes or phonons, as obviously the atoms in a solid do not exchange locations. Glasses present a challenge to the ergodic hypothesis; time scales are assumed to be in the millions of years, but results are contentious. Spin glasses present particular difficulties.


title: Ergodicity

text: Formal mathematical proofs of ergodicity in statistical physics are hard to come by; most high-dimensional many-body systems are assumed to be ergodic, without mathematical proof. Exceptions include the dynamical billiards, which model billiard ball-type collisions of atoms in an ideal gas or plasma. The first hard-sphere ergodicity theorem was for Sinai's billiards, which considers two balls, one of them taken as being stationary, at the origin. As the second ball collides, it moves away; applying periodic boundary conditions, it then returns to collide again. By appeal to homogeneity, this return of the "second" ball can instead be taken to be "just some other atom" that has come into range, and is moving to collide with the atom at the origin (which can be taken to be just "any other atom".) This is one of the few formal proofs that exist; there are no equivalent statements "e.g." for atoms in a liquid, interacting via van der Waals forces, even if it would be common sense to believe that such systems are ergodic (and mixing). More precise physical arguments can be made, though.


title: Ergodicity

text: Ergodicity is a wide-spread phenomenon in the study of Riemannian manifolds. A quick sequence of examples, from simple to complicated, illustrates this point.


title: Ergodicity

text: The geodesic flow of a flat torus following any irrational direction is ergodic; informally this means that when drawing a straight line in a square starting at any point, and with an irrational angle with respect to the sides, if every time one meets a side one starts over on the opposite side with the same angle, the line will eventually meet every subset of positive measure. More generally on any flat surface there are many ergodic directions for the geodesic flow.


title: Ergodicity

text: There are similar results for negatively curved compact Riemann surfaces; note that in this case the definition of geodesic flow is much more involved since there is no notion of constant direction on a non-flat surface. More generally the geodesic flow on a negatively curved compact Riemannian manifolds is ergodic, in fact it satisfies the stronger property of being an Anosov flow.


title: Ergodicity

text: Models used in finance and investment assume ergodicity, explicitly or implicitly. The ergodic assumption is prevalent in modern portfolio theory, discounted cash flow (DCF) models, and aggregate indicator models that infuse macroeconomics, among others.


title: Ergodicity

text: The situations modeled by these theories can be useful. But often they are only useful during much, but not all, of any particular time period under study. They can therefore miss some of the largest deviations from the standard model, such as financial crises, debt crises and systemic risk in the banking system that occur only infrequently.


title: Ergodicity

text: Nassim Nicholas Taleb has argued that a very important part of empirical reality in finance and investment is non-ergodic. An even statistical distribution of probabilities, where the system returns to every possible state an infinite number of times, is simply not the case we observe in situations where “absorbing states" are reached, a state where "ruin" is seen. The death of an individual, or total loss of everything, or the devolution or dismemberment of a nation state and the legal regime that accompanied it, are all absorbing states. Thus, in finance, path dependence matters. A path where an individual, firm or country hits a "stop"—an absorbing barrier, "anything that prevents people with skin in the game from emerging from it, and to which the system will invariably tend. Let us call these situations "ruin", as the entity cannot emerge from the condition. The central problem is that if there is a possibility of ruin, cost benefit analyses are no longer possible."—will be non-ergodic. All traditional models based on standard probabilistic statistics break down in these extreme situations.


title: Ergodicity

text: Let formula_96 be a measurable space. If formula_64 is a measurable function from formula_2 to itself and formula_3 a probability measure on formula_96 then we say that formula_64 is formula_3-ergodic or formula_3 is an ergodic measure for formula_64 if formula_64 preserves formula_3 and the following condition holds:


title: Ergodicity

text: In other words there are no formula_64-invariant subsets up to measure 0 (with respect to formula_3). Recall that formula_64 preserving formula_3 (or formula_3 being formula_64-invariant) means that formula_73 for all formula_107 (see also measure-preserving dynamical system).


title: Ergodicity

text: Note that some authors (eg, "An introduction to infinite ergodic theory" by Anderson, p. 21) relax the requirement that formula_3 is formula_64-invariant to the requirement that pullbacks of measure-zero sets are measure-zero, i.e., the pushforward measure formula_121 is singular with respect to formula_3.


title: Ergodicity

text: The simplest example is when formula_2 is a finite set and formula_3 the counting measure. Then a self-map of formula_2 preserves formula_3 if and only if it is a bijection, and it is ergodic if and only if formula_64 has only one orbit (that is, for every formula_128 there exists formula_129 such that formula_130). For example, if formula_131 then the cycle formula_132 is ergodic, but the permutation formula_133 is not (it has the two invariant subsets formula_134 and formula_135).


title: Ergodicity

text: Importantly for applications, the condition in the last characterisation can be restricted to square-integrable functions only:


title: Ergodicity

text: Let formula_151 be a finite set and formula_152 with formula_3 the product measure (each factor formula_151 being endowed with its counting measure). Then the shift operator formula_64 defined by formula_156 is .


title: Ergodicity

text: There are many more ergodic measures for the shift map formula_64 on formula_2. Periodic sequences give finitely supported measures. More interestingly, there are infinitely-supported ones which are subshifts of finite type.


title: Ergodicity

text: Let formula_2 be the unit circle formula_160, with its Lebesgue measure formula_3. For any formula_162 the rotation of formula_2 of angle formula_164 is given by formula_165. If formula_166 then formula_167 is not ergodic for the Lebesgue measure as it has infinitely many finite orbits. On the other hand, if formula_164 is irrational then formula_167 is ergodic.


title: Ergodicity

text: Let formula_170 be the 2-torus. Then any element formula_171 defines a self-map of formula_2 since formula_173. When formula_174 one obtains the so-called Arnold's cat map, which is ergodic for the Lebesgue measure on the torus.


title: Ergodicity

text: If formula_3 is a probability measure on a space formula_2 which is ergodic for a transformation formula_64 the pointwise ergodic theorem of G. Birkhoff states that for every measurable functions formula_178 and for formula_3-almost every point formula_19 the time average on the orbit of formula_181 converges to the space average of formula_150. Formally this means that


title: Ergodicity

text: The mean ergodic theorem of J. von Neumann is a similar, weaker statement about averaged translates of square-integrable functions.


title: Ergodicity

text: An immediate consequence of the definition of ergodicity is that on a topological space formula_2, and if formula_185 is the σ-algebra of Borel sets, if formula_64 is formula_3-ergodic then formula_3-almost every orbit of formula_64 is dense in the support of formula_3.


title: Ergodicity

text: This is not an equivalence since for a transformation which is not uniquely ergodic, but for which there is an ergodic measure with full support formula_191, for any other ergodic measure formula_192 the measure formula_193 is not ergodic for formula_64 but its orbits are dense in the support. Explicit examples can be constructed with shift-invariant measures.


title: Ergodicity

text: A transformation formula_64 of a probability measure space formula_196 is said to be mixing for the measure formula_3 if for any measurable sets formula_198 the following holds:


title: Ergodicity

text: It is immediate that a mixing transformation is also ergodic (taking formula_14 to be a formula_64-stable subset and formula_202 its complement). The converse is not true, for example a rotation with irrational angle on the circle (which is ergodic per the examples above) is not mixing (for a sufficiently small interval its successive images will not intersect itself most of the time). Bernoulli shifts are mixing, and so is Arnold's cat map.


title: Ergodicity

text: The transformation formula_64 is said to be "properly ergodic" if it does not have an orbit of full measure. In the discrete case this means that the measure formula_3 is not supported on a finite orbit of formula_64.


title: Ergodicity

text: The definition is essentially the same for continuous-time dynamical systems as for a single transformation. Let formula_96 be a measurable space and for each formula_208, then such a system is given by a family formula_209 of measurable functions from formula_2 to itself, so that for any formula_211 the relation formula_212 holds (usually it is also asked that the orbit map from formula_213 is also measurable). If formula_3 is a probability measure on formula_96 then we say that formula_209 is formula_3-ergodic or formula_3 is an ergodic measure for formula_64 if each formula_209 preserves formula_3 and the following condition holds:


title: Ergodicity

text: As in the discrete case the simplest example is that of a transitive action, for instance the action on the circle given by formula_227 is ergodic for Lebesgue measure.


title: Ergodicity

text: An example with infinitely many orbits is given by the flow along an irrational slope on the torus: let formula_228 and formula_229. Let formula_230; then if formula_231 this is ergodic for the Lebesgue measure.


title: Ergodicity

text: If formula_2 is a compact metric space it is naturally endowed with the σ-algebra of Borel sets. The additional structure coming from the topology then allows a much more detailed theory for ergodic transformations and measures on formula_2.


title: Ergodicity

text: A very powerful alternate definition of ergodic measures can be given using the theory of Banach spaces. Radon measures on formula_2 form a Banach space of which the set formula_235 of probability measures on formula_2 is a convex subset. Given a continuous transformation formula_64 of formula_2 the subset formula_239 of formula_64-invariant measures is a closed convex subset, and a measure is ergodic for formula_64 if and only if it is an extreme point of this convex.


title: Ergodicity

text: In the setting above it follows from the Banach-Alaoglu theorem that there always exists extremal points in formula_239. Hence a transformation of a compact metric space always admits ergodic measures.


title: Ergodicity

text: In general an invariant measure need not be ergodic, but as a consequence of Choquet theory it can always be expressed as the barycenter of a probability measure on the set of ergodic measures. This is referred to as the "ergodic decomposition" of the measure.


title: Ergodicity

text: In the case of formula_243 and formula_244 the counting measure is not ergodic. The ergodic measures for formula_64 are the uniform measures formula_246 supported on the subsets formula_134 and formula_248 and every formula_64-invariant probability measure can be written in the form formula_250 for some formula_251. In particular formula_252 is the ergodic decomposition of the counting measure.


title: Ergodicity

text: Everything in this section transfers verbatim to continuous actions of formula_253 or formula_254 on compact metric spaces.


title: Ergodicity

text: The transformation formula_64 is said to be uniquely ergodic if there is a unique Borel probability measure formula_3 on formula_2 which is ergodic for formula_64.


title: Ergodicity

text: In the examples considered above, irrational rotations of the circle are uniquely ergodic; shift maps are not.


title: Ergodicity

text: If formula_259 is a discrete-time stochastic process on a space formula_260, it is said to be ergodic if the joint distribution of the variables on formula_261 is invariant under the shift map formula_262. This is a particular case of the notions discussed above.


title: Ergodicity

text: The simplest case is that of an independent and identically distributed process which corresponds to the shift map described above. Another important case is that of a Markov chain which is discussed in detail below.


title: Ergodicity

text: A similar interpretation holds for continuous-time stochastic processes though the construction of the measurable structure of the action is more complicated.


title: Ergodicity

text: Let formula_151 be a finite set. A Markov chain on formula_151 is defined by a matrix formula_265, where formula_266 is the transition probability from formula_267 to formula_268, so for every formula_269 we have formula_270. A stationary measure for formula_271 is a probability measure formula_272 on formula_151 such that formula_274 ; that is formula_275 for all formula_269.


title: Ergodicity

text: Using this data we can define a probability measure formula_277 on the set formula_152 with its product σ-algebra by giving the measures of the cylinders as follows:


title: Ergodicity

text: Stationarity of formula_272 then means that the measure formula_277 is invariant under the shift map formula_282.


title: Ergodicity

text: The measure formula_277 is always ergodic for the shift map if the associated Markov chain is irreducible (any state can be reached with positive probability from any other state in a finite number of steps).


title: Ergodicity

text: The hypotheses above imply that there is a unique stationary measure for the Markov chain. In terms of the matrix formula_271 a sufficient condition for this is that 1 be a simple eigenvalue of the matrix formula_271 and all other eigenvalues of formula_271 (in formula_287) are of modulus <1.


title: Ergodicity

text: Note that in probability theory the Markov chain is called ergodic if in addition each state is aperiodic (the times where the return probability is positive are not multiples of a single integer >1). This is not necessary for the invariant measure to be ergodic; hence the notions of "ergodicity" for a Markov chain and the associated shift-invariant measure are different (the one for the chain is strictly stronger).


title: Ergodicity

text: Moreover the criterion is an "if and only if" if all communicating classes in the chain are recurrent and we consider all stationary measures.


title: Ergodicity

text: If formula_288 for all formula_289 then the stationary measure is the counting measure, the measure formula_290 is the product of counting measures. The Markov chain is ergodic, so the shift example from above is a special case of the criterion.


title: Ergodicity

text: Markov chains with recurring communicating classes are not irreducible are not ergodic, and this can be seen immediately as follows. If formula_291 are two distinct recurrent communicating classes there are nonzero stationary measures formula_292 supported on formula_293 respectively and the subsets formula_294 and formula_295 are both shift-invariant and of measure 1.2 for the invariant probability measure formula_296. A very simple example of that is the chain on formula_297 given by the matrix formula_298 (both states are stationary).


title: Ergodicity

text: The Markov chain on formula_297 given by the matrix formula_300 is irreducible but periodic. Thus it is not ergodic in the sense of Markov chain though the associated measure formula_3 on formula_302 is ergodic for the shift map. However the shift is not mixing for this measure, as for the sets


title: Ergodicity

text: The definition of ergodicity also makes sense for group actions. The classical theory (for invertible transformations) corresponds to actions of formula_307 or formula_253.


title: Ergodicity

text: For non-abelian groups there might not be invariant measures even on compact metric spaces. However the definition of ergodicity carries over unchanged if one replaces invariant measures by quasi-invariant measures.


title: Ergodicity

text: Important examples are the action of a semisimple Lie group (or a lattice therein) on its Furstenberg boundary.


title: Ergodicity

text: A measurable equivalence relation it is said to be ergodic if all saturated subsets are either null or conull.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: 1776 is a musical with music and lyrics by Sherman Edwards and a book by Peter Stone. The show is based on the events leading up to the signing of the Declaration of Independence, telling a story of the efforts of John Adams to persuade his colleagues to vote for American independence and to sign the document.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The show premiered on Broadway in 1969, earning warm reviews, and ran for 1,217 performances. The production won three Tony Awards, including Best Musical. In 1972, it was made into a film adaptation. It was revived on Broadway in 1997, and again in 2022 with a cast made up of people who identify as female, trans, and non-binary.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: In 1925, Rodgers and Hart wrote a musical about the American Revolution called "Dearest Enemy". In 1950, a musical about the Revolution was presented on Broadway, titled "Arms and the Girl", with music by Morton Gould, lyrics by Dorothy Fields, and book by Herbert Fields, Dorothy Fields and Rouben Mamoulian, the show's director.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Sherman Edwards, a writer of pop songs with several top 10 hits in the late 1950s and early '60s, spent several years developing lyrics and libretto for a musical based on the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Edwards recounted that "I wanted to show [the founding fathers] at their outermost limits. These men were the cream of their colonies. ... They disagreed and fought with each other. But they understood commitment, and though they fought, they fought affirmatively." Producer Stuart Ostrow recommended that librettist Peter Stone collaborate with Edwards on the book of the musical. Stone recalled, The minute you heard ["Sit Down, John"], you knew what the whole show was. ... You knew immediately that John Adams and the others were not going to be treated as gods or cardboard characters, chopping down cherry trees and flying kites with strings and keys on them. It had this very affectionate familiarity; it wasn't reverential. Adams, the outspoken delegate from Massachusetts, was chosen as the central character, and his quest to persuade all 13 colonies to vote for independence became the central conflict. Stone confined nearly all of the action to Independence Hall and the debate among the delegates, featuring only two female characters, Abigail Adams and Martha Jefferson, in the entire musical. After tryouts in New Haven, Conn., and Washington, D.C. the show opened on Broadway at the 46th Street Theatre on March 16, 1969. Peter Hunt directed.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: On May 8, 1776, in Philadelphia, the Second Continental Congress proceeds with its business. John Adams, the widely disliked delegate from Massachusetts, is frustrated because Congress will not even debate his proposals on independence. The other delegates, preoccupied by the rising heat, implore him to "Sit Down, John." Adams denounces the do-nothing Congress ("Piddle, Twiddle, and Resolve"), then reads the latest missive to his loving wife Abigail, who speaks to him in his imagination ("Till Then"). Later that day, Adams meets delegate Benjamin Franklin, who suggests that because Adams is unpopular, another delegate must propose a resolution on independence. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia enters, having been earlier invited by Franklin; Adams and Franklin persuade Lee to ask the Virginia House of Burgesses to authorize a pro-independence resolution ("The Lees of Old Virginia").


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Weeks later, new delegate Dr. Lyman Hall of Georgia arrives and is introduced to many important members of Congress, including Andrew McNair, the custodian; Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island; Edward Rutledge of South Carolina; and Caesar Rodney of Delaware, among others. As Congress is assembled, John Hancock, the president of Congress, notes that the entire New Jersey delegation has been gone for quite some time. A gloomy letter from George Washington, commander the Continental Army, appears by courier, and it is read aloud by Charles Thomson, the Congressional Secretary. Comically, the proceedings are interrupted when a fire wagon passes by. Shortly thereafter, Richard Henry Lee returns, bearing a resolution for independence. Elated, Adams seconds the motion to open debate on the resolution.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, a conservative and royal apologist, immediately moves to table the debate. The vote is close, but debate is ultimately approved, prompting Dickinson to denounce desire for independence as overreaction to petty squabbles with Great Britain. The debate becomes more heated and personal, sparking a fight between Dickinson and Adams and causing Caesar Rodney (who is ailing from cancer) to swoon and collapse. Rodney is taken back to Delaware, leaving their delegation as George Read alone. Since Read is a conservative, South Carolina's Edward Rutledge moves to quickly end the debate and vote on independence, knowing it is likely to fail. At this moment, the new delegation from New Jersey, arrives, with leader John Witherspoon announcing he has explicit orders to vote "for" independence. Adams, now seeing a path to victory, pushes to proceed with the vote, since ties are broken by Hancock and Adams believes Hancock is a firm believer in independence.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Dickinson suddenly makes another motion: to make the vote for independence require a unanimous vote. The vote, predictably, ends in a tie, but Hancock unexpectedly votes in favor of unanimity, explaining that if the colonies are not unanimous in their opinion, loyalist colonies will be turned against pro-independence colonies, spawning a civil war.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Looking for a way to save the independence movement, Adams proposes to adjourn the vote for three weeks time to allow for the creation of a formal Declaration of Independence, that can be used in the courts of Europe to rally favor and assistance to the cause of American independence (this will also grant Adams time to persuade the anti-independence delegates to his side). Again, the vote to adjourn ties; this time, Hancock breaks the tie, as many in Congress would like to have a break. Before they adjourn, John Hancock appoints a committee of Adams, Franklin, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert Livingston of New York, and Jefferson to draft the declaration. The five argue about who should write the declaration ("But, Mr. Adams"), deciding on a reluctant Jefferson.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: A week later, Adams and Franklin visit Jefferson, who has spent the week moping. But Adams has sent for Jefferson's beloved wife Martha. She enters and Adams and Franklin leave the young lovers in peace. Adams, alone, again exchanges letters with his wife Abigail ("Yours, Yours, Yours"). The next morning, Franklin and Adams ask Martha how deeply intellectual Jefferson wooed her ("He Plays the Violin").


title: 1776 (musical)

text: John Dickinson leads his congressional allies in a defense of their wealth and status ("Cool, Cool Considerate Men"). They depart, leaving Andrew McNair (the custodian), the courier, and a workman in the chamber. The courier describes how his two closest friends were killed on the same day at Lexington ("Momma Look Sharp").


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Jefferson is outside the chamber while Mr. Thomson reads the declaration to Congress. Adams and Franklin arrive, delighted: An exhibition of shooting by the Continental Army has convinced Chase, and Maryland will vote in favor of independence. They congratulate Jefferson on his work, and Franklin compares the creation of this new country to the hatching of a bird ("The Egg"). They debate which bird would best represent America; Franklin argues for the turkey, and Jefferson suggests the dove, but Adams insists on the eagle. The others resign themselves to that choice.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: On June 28, Hancock asks if there are any alterations to be offered to the Declaration of Independence. Many delegates voice suggestions.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Edward Rutledge of South Carolina objects to a clause condemning the slave trade. He accuses the northern colonies of hypocrisy, as they also prosper from slavery, through the Triangle Trade ("Molasses to Rum"). Rutledge leads a walk-out with the delegates from both Carolinas and Georgia. The resolve of the other delegates is broken, and most of them also leave. Adams' faith in himself is shaken. Re-reading a dispatch from Washington, Adams, now alone, wonders "Is Anybody There?"


title: 1776 (musical)

text: It is now July 2. Hancock calls for the vote on the Lee Resolution. Thomson calls on each delegation. Rutledge again presses to have the slavery clause removed under threat of none of the southern states signing; Franklin argues they must first win independence before there is any hope of abolishing slavery, and Jefferson reluctantly crosses it out with his pen. But Pennsylvania still opposes independence. When Dickinson is about to announce that his colony votes "nay," Franklin demands that the delegation be polled. Everyone turns to James Wilson, the deciding vote in the Pennsylvania delegation. Wilson all along has subordinated himself to Dickinson. Suddenly, fearing that he would be forever remembered as the man who prevented American independence, Wilson changes his vote and votes for independence. There are now no dissenting colonies.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Hancock proposes that no man be allowed to sit in Congress without signing the Declaration. Dickinson announces that he cannot in good conscience sign it, and still hopes for reconciliation with England; however, he resolves to join the army to fight for and defend the new nation. Adams leads Congress in a salute to Dickinson as he leaves the chamber.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: On the evening of July 4, McNair rings the Liberty Bell in the background as Thomson calls each delegate to sign the Declaration. The delegates freeze in position as the Liberty Bell rings to a fevered pitch.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: After out-of-town tryouts, the original Broadway production opened on Broadway on March 16, 1969, at the 46th Street Theatre (now the Richard Rodgers Theatre) and closed on February 13, 1972, after 1,217 performances. In its three-year run, it played in three different theatres: the 46th Street, the St. James Theatre (1970) and, finally, the Majestic Theatre (1971). The principal cast included William Daniels, Howard Da Silva, Paul Hecht, Clifford David, Ronald Holgate, David Ford, Virginia Vestoff and Ken Howard. Rex Everhart, who was Da Silva's understudy, replaced him on the original Broadway cast album after Da Silva suffered a mild heart attack, which required him to leave the show temporarily. Betty Buckley made her Broadway debut as Martha Jefferson in the original stage production. Clifford David left the production soon after opening. He was replaced as Rutledge by David Cryer who was in turn replaced by John Cullum who became one of the few Broadway replacements in history to recreate a role on film. (Cullum was succeeded in the Broadway production by Paul-David Richards.)


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The musical toured for two years in the United States and was given a London production, opening on June 16, 1970, at the New Theatre. The production starred Lewis Fiander as Adams, Vivienne Ross as Abigail Adams, Ronald Radd, Bernard Lloyd, David Kernan as Rutledge, John Quentin as Jefferson and Cheryl Kennedy as Martha Jefferson.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: An Australian production, also with Lewis Fiander, opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in Melbourne on 26 June 1971 and moved to the Theatre Royal in Sydney on 11 September 1971.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: "1776" was revived by the Roundabout Theatre Company, opening on August 4, 1997, in a limited engagement at the Roundabout's home theater, the Criterion Center, before transferring to the George Gershwin Theatre on December 3, 1997, for a commercial run. It closed on June 14, 1998, after 333 performances and 34 previews. The production was directed by Scott Ellis with choreography by Kathleen Marshall, and featured Brent Spiner as Adams, Michael Cumpsty as Dickinson, Pat Hingle as Franklin, and Paul Michael Valley as Jefferson. Rex Everhart, who replaced Howard Da Silva on the original cast album, understudied Hingle as Franklin.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The musical was produced in an Encores! City Center staged concert from March 30 to April 3, 2016. Directed by Garry Hynes, the cast starred Santino Fontana as John Adams, John Larroquette as Benjamin Franklin, John Behlmann as Thomas Jefferson, Christiane Noll as Abigail Adams, Nikki Renée Daniels as Martha Jefferson, Bryce Pinkham as John Dickinson, Alexander Gemignani as Edward Rutledge, André De Shields as Stephen Hopkins, and Jubilant Sykes as Richard Henry Lee. The cast included MacIntyre Dixon, Ric Stoneback, and Kevin Ligon reprising their roles from the 1997 revival as Andrew McNair, Samuel Chase, and George Read respectively. The production notably sported a racially diverse cast in light of the recent success of another musical about the Founding Fathers, "Hamilton".


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The musical was produced in Chicago, Illinois by Porchlight Music Theatre as part of their "Porchlight Revisits" series in November 2018. Directed by Michael Weber, Music Directed by Jeremy Ramey, with Musical Staging by Michelle Lauto.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: A new revival of "1776" was to be staged at the American Repertory Theater (A.R.T.) in mid-2020, under the direction of Diane Paulus (Terrie and Bradley Bloom Artistic Director of A.R.T.), and then in Los Angeles at the Ahmanson Theatre, before arriving at the American Airlines Theatre, co-produced by ART and Roundabout Theatre Company. The team held a two-week workshop on Zoom in April 2020, but the production was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2021, A.R.T. announced that the production, now directed by Jeffrey L. Page and Paulus, would begin performances at A.R.T. in May 2022. In April 2022 A.R.T. announced the revival cast of performers who identify as female, non-binary, and trans, and that the production would transfer to Roundabout's American Airlines Theatre in September 2022 and begin a 16-city national tour in February 2023. The show received mixed to negative reviews, with Jesse Green of "The New York Times" criticizing its casting, writing that it "intensifies and complicates the argument." Green also wrote of the overall production that despite "underlining one’s progressiveness a thousand times, as this "1776" does, [it] will not actually convey it better; rather it turns characters into cutouts and distracts from the ideas it means to promote."


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Scene Three of "1776" holds the record for the longest time in a musical without a single note of music played or sung – over thirty minutes pass between "The Lees of Old Virginia" and "But Mr. Adams", the next song in the show. On the DVD commentary, Peter Stone says that he experimented with adding various songs in this section, but nothing ever worked. During this scene, dubbed "Big Three" by cast members, musicians were allowed to leave the pit, reportedly the first time in Broadway history that they were permitted to do so in the middle of a show. Stone also notes that people often told him that, because of the subject matter and the large amount of dialogue, "1776" should have been a conventional play rather than a musical. Stone believes that the songs create a playful, irreverent tone that helps bring the historical characters to life.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: According to "The Columbia Companion to American History on Film", historical "[i]naccuracies pervade "1776", though few are very troubling." Because Congress was held in secrecy and there are no contemporary records on the debate over the Declaration of Independence, the authors of the play created the narrative based on later accounts and educated guesses, inventing scenes and dialogue as needed for storytelling purposes. Some of the dialogue was taken from words written, often years or even decades later, by the actual people involved, and rearranged for dramatic effect.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The central departure from history is that the separation from Great Britain was accomplished in two steps: the actual vote for independence came on July 2 with the approval of Lee's resolution of independence. The wording of the Declaration of Independence—the statement to the world as to the reasons necessitating the split—was then debated for three days before being approved on July 4. The vote for independence did not hinge on some passages being removed from the Declaration, as implied in the play, since Congress had already voted in favor of independence before debating the Declaration. For the sake of drama, the play's authors combined the two events. In addition, some historians believe that the Declaration was not signed on July 4, as shown in "1776", but was instead signed on August 2, 1776. The authors of "1776" had the delegates sign the Declaration on July 4 for dramatic reasons.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Of the four principal characters, the musical also notably focuses on Jefferson's wife, Martha, and Adams' wife, Abigail, but omits Dickinson's wife, Mary Norris, who was actually in Philadelphia at the time, unlike the other wives, and had a different perspective than the other wives. Franklin's common-law wife, Deborah Read, was deceased at this point, and his mistresses are not depicted, although he does mention a "Rendez-vous" he has to attend to.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Many characters in "1776" differ from their historical counterparts. Central to the drama is the depiction of John Adams as "obnoxious and disliked". According to biographer David McCullough, however, Adams was one of the most respected members of Congress in 1776. Adams' often-quoted description of himself in Congress as "obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular" is from a letter written 46 years later, in 1822, after his unpopular presidency had likely colored his view of the past. According to McCullough, no delegate described Adams as obnoxious in 1776. Historian Garry Wills earlier made a similar argument, writing that "historians relay John Adams's memories without sufficient skepticism", and that it was Dickinson, not Adams, who was advocating an unpopular position in 1776.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Dickinson, who refused to sign Adams' and Jefferson's declaration based on "rights of man" and "natural law", was seeking to avoid reopening issues from the English Civil Wars, including Oliver Cromwell's Puritan regime, and the Jacobitism cause. In 1689, these issues had been definitively resolved in the Glorious Revolution and the constitutionalization of the English Bill of Rights based in "rights and responsibilities of person"; the word "man" is not used except in the context of treason. The last Jacobite rebellion, seeking to re-establish Catholicism and the religious concept of "natural law", had only just happened in 1745, however. None of this background of Dickinson's position is depicted. (Dickinson would later draft the Articles of Confederation, a codification of the Continental Congress system that governed the United States until the present United States Constitution supplanted it; the Articles draw upon the "rights and responsibilities of person" language.)


title: 1776 (musical)

text: For practical and dramatic purposes, the play does not depict all of the more than 50 members of Congress who were present at the time. The John Adams of the play is, in part, a composite character, combining the real Adams with his cousin Samuel Adams, who was in Congress at the time but is not depicted in the play (though he is mentioned). Although the play depicts Caesar Rodney as an elderly man near death from skin cancer (which would eventually kill him), he was just 47 at the time and continued to be very active in the Revolution after signing the Declaration. He was not absent from the voting because of health; however, the play is accurate in having him arrive "in the nick of time", having ridden 80 miles the night before (an event depicted on Delaware's 1999 State Quarter). In the play, Richard Henry Lee announces that he is returning to Virginia to serve as governor. He was never governor; his cousin Henry Lee III (who is anachronistically called "General 'Lighthorse' Harry Lee", a rank and nickname earned later) did eventually become governor and would also become the father of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. John Adams was also depicted in the play and the film as disliking Richard Henry Lee. That is not the case as, according to David McCullough, Adams expressed nothing but "respect and admiration for the tall, masterly Virginian." He did, however, contrary to what was portrayed in the play and the film, dislike Benjamin Franklin. Martha Jefferson never traveled to Philadelphia to be with her husband. In fact, she was extremely ill during the summer of 1776, having just endured a miscarriage. The play's authors invented the scene "to show something of the young Jefferson's life without destroying the unity of setting." James Wilson was not the indecisive milquetoast depicted in the play. The real Wilson, who was not yet a judge in 1776, had been cautious about supporting independence at an earlier date, but he supported the resolution of independence when it came up for a vote. Pennsylvania's deciding swing vote was actually cast by John Morton, who is not depicted in the musical.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The quote attributed to Edmund Burke by Dr. Lyman Hall in a key scene with John Adams is a paraphrase of a real quote by Burke.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The song "Cool Considerate Men" is anachronistic because the terms "right" and "left" in politics were not in use until the French Revolution of 1789. John Dickinson, who is portrayed as an antagonist here, was motivated mainly by his Quaker roots and his respect for the British Constitution, having lived in England for 3 years in the 1750s. He was no wealthier than some members of the pro-Independence faction, and freed his slaves in 1777. Thomas Jefferson wrote that "his name will be consecrated in history as one of the great worthies of the revolution".


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The musical also deviates from history in its portrayal of attitudes about slavery. In "1776", after a dramatic debate over slavery, the southern delegates walk out in protest of the Declaration's reference to the slave trade, and only support independence when that language is removed from the Declaration. The walkout is fictional, and apparently most delegates, northern and southern, supported the deletion of the clause.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The musical claims that Edward Rutledge led the opposition to the supposedly anti-slavery clause in the original draft of the Declaration. This is inaccurate on two counts. First, the musical does not mention the motivation of the clause, namely the fact that, following Lord Dunmore's Proclamation, England was granting freedom to runaway slaves who joined its army. Second, Rutledge's leadership against the clause is completely fictional. According to Jefferson, the clause was opposed by South Carolina and Georgia, plus unspecified "northern brethren"; that is the "limit" of known information about opposition to the clause.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Thomas Jefferson is depicted as saying that he has resolved to free his slaves, something he did not do, except for a few slaves freed after his death 50 years later. Franklin claims that he is the founder of an abolitionist organization, but the real Franklin did not become an active abolitionist until after the American Revolution, becoming president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society in 1785.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: James Wilson is portrayed as subordinating himself to Dickinson's opposition to independence, only changing his vote so that he would not be remembered unfavorably. In fact, Wilson was considered one of the leading thinkers behind the American cause, consistently supporting and arguing for independence, although he would not cast his vote until his district had been caucused.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The phrase "We are about to brave the storm in a skiff made of paper", placed in the mouth of John Hancock, was actually stated by John Dickinson ("Others strenuously assert...we ought to brave the Storm in a Skiff made of Paper.") in his arguments against independence.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: In both the play and the film, John Adams sarcastically predicts that Benjamin Franklin will receive from posterity too great a share of credit for the Revolution. "Franklin smote the ground and out sprang—George Washington. Fully grown, and on his horse. Franklin then electrified them with his magnificent lightning rod and the three of them—Franklin, Washington, and the horse—conducted the entire Revolution all by themselves." Adams did make a similar comment about Franklin in April 1790, just after Franklin's death, although the mention of the horse was a humorous twist added by the authors of the musical.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The 2022 revival production includes an excerpt of Abigail Adams' March 1776 letter to John Adams, known for its "remember the ladies" statement for women's rights.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: In his review of the original 1969 production, Clive Barnes of "The New York Times" wrote, On the face of it, few historical incidents seem more unlikely to spawn a Broadway musical than that solemn moment in the history of mankind, the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Yet "1776"... most handsomely demonstrated that people who merely go 'on the face of it' are occasionally outrageously wrong... "[1776]" is a most striking, most gripping musical. I recommend it without reservation. It makes even an Englishman's heart beat faster... the characters are most unusually full... for Mr. Stone's book is literate, urbane and, on occasion, very amusing... William Daniels has given many persuasive performances in the past, but nothing, I think, can have been so effective as his John Adams here. This is a beautiful mixture of pride, ambition, an almost priggish sense of justice and yet – the saving grace of the character – an ironic self-awareness.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: John Chapman of the "New York Daily News" wrote, This is by no means a historical tract or a sermon on the birth of this nation. It is warm with a life of its own; it is funny, it is moving... Often, as I sat enchanted in my seat, it reminded me of Gilbert and Sullivan in its amused regard of human frailties... The songs and lyrics are, as I have indicated, remarkably original.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The "New York Post" noted, In this cynical age, it requires courage as well as enterprise to do a musical play that simply deals with the events leading up to the signing of the Declaration of Independence. And "1776"... makes no attempt to be satirical or wander off into modern bypaths. But the rewards of this confidence reposed in the bold conception were abundant. The result is a brilliant and remarkably moving work of theatrical art... it is Mr. Daniels' John Adams who dominates the evening, as he did the Congress. Peter Hunt's direction, the choreography of Onna White, and the setting by Jo Mielziner are just right.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: "(Note: William Daniels, who starred as John Adams, was ruled ineligible for the Best Actor nomination because his name was not billed above the title of the show. He was nominated for Best Featured Actor, but refused the nomination.)"


title: 1776 (musical)

text: The 1972 film version of "1776" was produced by Jack L. Warner with Hunt again directing and Stone writing the screenplay. The film featured William Daniels as Adams, Ken Howard as Jefferson, Howard Da Silva as Franklin, John Cullum as Edward Rutledge, Ron Holgate as Richard Henry Lee, and Virginia Vestoff as Abigail Adams, all of whom had performed their roles on Broadway. The supporting cast was also mostly recruited from the Broadway production. The principal exceptions were Donald Madden and Blythe Danner, who took over the roles of John Dickinson and Martha Jefferson.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: A Director's Cut of the original film has been released on DVD and Blu-ray. Both the look and sound of the original film have been improved through modern technology. Many cuts to the original film by the producer Jack Warner have been restored, including verses from the songs "Piddle Twiddle and Resolve" and "He Plays the Violin" and the entire "Cool, Cool, Considerate Men". Musical underscoring has been removed from several scenes without songs in order to strengthen the focus on dialogue. Bonus material includes commentary by Director Peter Hunt and by Peter Stone, the book/screenwriter. Among other topics, they discuss artistic liberties and anachronisms used to dramatize the events.


title: 1776 (musical)

text: Throughout the course of the third season of the Netflix original series "Grace and Frankie", Robert, played by Martin Sheen, and his husband Sol, played by Sam Waterston, are persuaded to audition for a local production of "1776" by the local gay men's theater group, resulting in Robert landing the lead role of John Adams, much to the disappointment of Sol who was not cast.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomical terminology uses many unique terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek and Latin. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise, reducing ambiguity and errors. Also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: To illustrate how inexact day-to-day language can be: a scar "above the wrist" could be located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand or at the base of the hand; and could be on the palm-side or back-side of the arm. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology: the same prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term often refers to an organ or tissue. For example, the Latin names of structures such as "musculus biceps brachii" can be split up and refer to, "musculus" for muscle, "biceps" for "two-headed", "brachii" as in the brachial region of the arm. The first word describes what is being spoken about, the second describes it, and the third points to location.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: When describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the "umbilicus" or "sternum," or anatomical "lines", such as the "midclavicular line" from the centre of the clavicle. The "cephalon" or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is further differentiated into the "cranium" (skull), "facies" (face), "frons" (forehead), "oculus" (eye area), "auris" (ear), "bucca" (cheek), nasus (nose), "os" (mouth), and "mentum" (chin). The neck area is called the "cervix" or cervical region. Examples of structures named according to this include the "frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane" and "orbicularis oculi muscle."


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body. For example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, "rostral" refers to proximity to the front of the nose, and is particularly used when describing the skull. Similarly, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as to what the "front", "back", "inner" and "outer" surfaces are. For this reason, the terms below are used:


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Other terms are also used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet, and other structures such as the eye.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and other areas of the health sciences. It facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences' branch. In this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism. It is descriptive and functional. Basically, it covers the gross anatomy and the microscopic (histology and cytology) of living beings. It involves both development anatomy (embryology) and the anatomy of the adult. It also includes comparative anatomy between different species. The vocabulary is extensive, varied and complex, and requires a systematic presentation.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Within the international field, a group of experts reviews, analyzes and discusses the morphological terms of the structures of the human body, forming today's Terminology Committee (FICAT) from the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). It deals with the anatomical, histological and embryologic terminology. In the Latin American field, there are meetings called Iberian Latin American Symposium Terminology (SILAT), where a group of experts of the Pan American Association of Anatomy (PAA) that speak Spanish and Portuguese, disseminates and studies the international morphological terminology.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The current international standard for human anatomical terminology is based on the Terminologia Anatomica (TA). It was developed by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) and the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) and was released in 1998. It supersedes the previous standard, "Nomina Anatomica". "Terminologia Anatomica" contains terminology for about 7500 human gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures. For microanatomy, known as histology, a similar standard exists in Terminologia Histologica, and for embryology, the study of development, a standard exists in Terminologia Embryologica. These standards specify generally accepted names that can be used to refer to histological and embryological structures in journal articles, textbooks, and other areas. As of September 2016, two sections of the Terminologia Anatomica, including central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, were merged to form the Terminologia Neuroanatomica.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Recently, the Terminologia Anatomica has been perceived with a considerable criticism regarding its content including coverage, grammar and spelling mistakes, inconsistencies, and errors.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomical terminology is often chosen to highlight the relative location of body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as "inferior to" another or a physician might describe a tumor as "superficial to" a deeper body structure.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomical terms used to describe location are based on a body positioned in what is called the standard anatomical position. This position is one in which a person is standing, feet apace, with palms forward and thumbs facing outwards. Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body "map," or anatomical position, is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Using the standard anatomical position reduces confusion. It means that regardless of the position of a body, the position of structures within it can be described without ambiguity.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: In terms of anatomy, the body is divided into regions. In the front, the trunk is referred to as the "thorax" and "abdomen". The back as a general area is the dorsum or dorsal area, and the lower back is the lumbus or lumbar region. The shoulder blades are the scapular area and the breastbone is the sternal region. The abdominal area is the region between the chest and the pelvis. The breast is also called the mammary region, the armpit as the axilla and axillary, and the navel as the umbilicus and umbilical. The pelvis is the lower torso, between the abdomen and the thighs. The groin, where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The entire arm is referred to as the brachium and brachial, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis and antecubital, the back of the elbow as the olecranon or olecranal, the forearm as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the wrist as the carpus and carpal area, the hand as the manus and manual, the palm as the palma and palmar, the thumb as the pollex, and the fingers as the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal. The buttocks are the gluteus or gluteal region and the pubic area is the pubis.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomists divide the lower limb into the thigh (the part of the limb between the hip and the knee) and the leg (which refers only to the area of the limb between the knee and the ankle). The thigh is the femur and the femoral region. The kneecap is the patella and patellar while the back of the knee is the popliteus and popliteal area. The leg (between the knee and the ankle) is the crus and crural area, the lateral aspect of the leg is the peroneal area, and the calf is the sura and sural region. The ankle is the tarsus and tarsal, and the heel is the calcaneus or calcaneal. The foot is the pes and pedal region, and the sole of the foot is the planta and plantar. As with the fingers, the toes are also called the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal area. The big toe is referred to as the hallux.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient's abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, the abdominal cavity can be divided into either nine regions or four quadrants.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The abdomen may be divided into four quadrants, more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient's umbilicus (navel). The right upper quadrant (RUQ) includes the lower right ribs, right side of the liver, and right side of the transverse colon. The left upper quadrant (LUQ) includes the lower left ribs, stomach, spleen, and upper left area of the transverse colon. The right lower quadrant (RLQ) includes the right half of the small intestines, ascending colon, right pelvic bone and upper right area of the bladder. The left lower quadrant (LLQ) contains the left half of the small intestine and left pelvic bone.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity into nine regions, with two vertical and two horizontal lines drawn according to landmark structures. The vertical; or midclavicular lines, are drawn as if dropped from the midpoint of each clavicle. The superior horizontal line is the "subcostal line", drawn immediately inferior to the ribs. The inferior horizontal line is called the "intertubercular line", and is to cross the iliac tubercles, found at the superior aspect of the pelvis. The upper right square is the right hypochondriac region and contains the base of the right ribs. The upper left square is the left hypochondriac region and contains the base of the left ribs.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The epigastric region is the upper central square and contains the bottom edge of the liver as well as the upper areas of the stomach. The diaphragm curves like an upside down U over these three regions. The central right region is called the right lumbar region and contains the ascending colon and the right edge of the small intestines. The central square contains the transverse colon and the upper regions of the small intestines. The left lumbar region contains the left edge of the transverse colon and the left edge of the small intestine. The lower right square is the right iliac region and contains the right pelvic bones and the ascending colon. The lower left square is the left iliac region and contains the left pelvic bone and the lower left regions of the small intestine. The lower central square contains the bottom of the pubic bones, upper regions of the bladder and the lower region of the small intestine.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: When anatomists refer to the right and left of the body, it is in reference to the right and left of the subject, not the right and left of the observer. When observing a body in the anatomical position, the left of the body is on the observer's right, and vice versa.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Each locational term above can define the direction of a vector, and pairs of them can define axes, that is, lines of orientation. For example, blood can be said to flow in a proximal or distal direction, and anteroposterior, mediolateral, and inferosuperior axes are lines along which the body extends, like the X, Y, and Z axes of a Cartesian coordinate system. An axis can be projected to a corresponding plane.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Anatomy is often described in "planes", referring to two-dimensional "sections" of the body. A "section" is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body. Three planes are commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine:


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The term anatomical variation is used to refer to a difference in anatomical structures that is not regarded as a disorder. Many structures vary slightly between people, for example muscles that attach in slightly different places. For example, the presence or absence of the palmaris longus tendon. Anatomical variation is unlike congenital anomalies, which are considered a disorder.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Joints, especially synovial joints allow the body a tremendous range of movements. Each movement at a synovial joint results from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are attached to the bones on either side of the articulation. The type of movement that can be produced at a synovial joint is determined by its structural type.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Movement types are generally paired, with one being the opposite of the other. Body movements are always described in relation to the anatomical position of the body: upright stance, with upper limbs to the side of body and palms facing forward.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Muscle action that moves the axial skeleton work over a joint with an origin and insertion of the muscle on respective side. The insertion is on the bone deemed to move towards the origin during muscle contraction. Muscles are often present that engage in several actions of the joint; able to perform for example both flexion and extension of the forearm as in the biceps and triceps respectively. This is not only to be able to revert actions of muscles, but also brings on stability of the actions though muscle coactivation.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The muscle performing an action is the "agonist", while the muscle which contraction brings about an opposite action is the "antagonist". For example, an extension of the lower arm is performed by the triceps as the agonist and the biceps as the antagonist (which contraction will perform flexion over the same joint). Muscles that work together to perform the same action are called synergists. In the above example synergists to the biceps can be the brachioradialis and the brachialis muscle.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body. One particularly important aspect of gross anatomy of muscles is pennation or lack thereof. In most muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same direction, running in a line from the origin to the insertion. In pennate muscles, the individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end. Because the contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, but this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more force) in a muscle of a given size. Pennate muscles are usually found where their length change is less important than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the "biceps brachii". The tough, fibrous epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and continuous with the tendons. In turn, the tendons connect to the periosteum layer surrounding the bones, permitting the transfer of force from the muscles to the skeleton. Together, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the deep fascia of the body.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: Movement is not limited to only synovial joints, although they allow for most freedom. Muscles also run over symphysis, which allow for movement in for example the vertebral column by compression of the intervertebral discs. Additionally, synovial joints can be divided into different types, depending on their axis of movement.


title: Anatomical terminology

text: A serous membrane (also referred to as a serosa) is a thin membrane that covers the walls of organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The serous membranes have two layers; parietal and visceral, surrounding a fluid filled space. The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organ (the viscera), and the parietal layer lines the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity. For example, the pericardium is the serous cavity which surrounds the heart.


title: Terry Kiser

text: Terry Kiser (born August 1, 1939) is an American actor. Besides portraying the deceased title character of the comedy "Weekend at Bernie's" and its sequel, "Weekend at Bernie's II", he has more than 140 acting credits to his name, with a career spanning more than 50 years. He is the co-founder of the now defunct acting school The Actors Arena in Austin, Texas.


title: Terry Kiser

text: Kiser was born on August 1, 1939 in Elmhurst, Illinois, and was raised in Omaha, Nebraska. He attended the University of Kansas, where he received a football scholarship. He graduated in 1962 with a degree in industrial engineering.


title: Terry Kiser

text: A few years later, on the advice of a drama teacher, he made the decision to quit his engineering profession in order to pursue acting full-time and moved to New York City in 1965. He joined the Actors Studio and worked with Lee Strasberg.


title: Terry Kiser

text: After college, Kiser returned to his hometown Omaha and worked as an engineer for three years while acting in amateur productions; more than 50 plays. His first two years in New York City included an array of small parts, ranging from theater to television to commercials. By 1967, Kiser gained significant recognition for his work, winning both an Obie Award and Theater World Award for "Fortune and Men's Eyes".


title: Terry Kiser

text: Becoming a life member of The Actors Studio, Kiser was a regular on several soap operas, "The Secret Storm" and "The Doctors". In 1978, he starred on the short-lived sitcoms "The Roller Girls", and "Sugar Time!". It was during the 1970s and early 1980s that Kiser appeared in "Three's Company", "Hardcastle and McCormick", "One Day At A Time", "The Love Boat", "Night Court", "227", "Maude" and "The Golden Girls".


title: Terry Kiser

text: One of his roles was on the TV drama "Hill Street Blues", playing comedian Vic Hitler ("Vic the Narcoleptic Comic"). He was a cast member on the syndicated sketch comedy show "Off the Wall" and a part of the ensemble on Carol Burnett's "Carol & Company", which aired in 1990. In the 1990s, he appeared on "Walker, Texas Ranger", "The Golden Girls", "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air", "" (as H. G. Wells) and "Will & Grace".


title: Terry Kiser

text: His film appearances include "Fast Charlie... the Moonbeam Rider" (1979), "Rich Kids" (1979), "Steel" (1979), "An Eye for an Eye" (1981), "Making Love" (1982), "Six Pack" (1982), "" (1983), "Surf II" (1984), "From a Whisper to a Scream" (1987) and "" (1988).


title: Terry Kiser

text: Kiser starred in "Weekend at Bernie's" (1989), in the title role of Bernie Lomax, the corrupt insurance executive who is dead for most of the film. Bernie's young employees, played by Jonathan Silverman and Andrew McCarthy, attempt to convince people that Bernie is still alive. He reprised the role in "Weekend at Bernie's II" (1993). Since 2012, several YouTube videos featuring "The Bernie Dance" generated more than 17 million views collectively by April 2016. Other film appearances include "" (1991), "Into the Sun" (1992), "The Pledge" (2011), and "A Christmas Tree Miracle" (2013).


title: Terry Kiser

text: In 2013, Kiser moved to Austin, Texas where he founded an acting school, The Actors Arena, which closed in 2016. Instruction was open to students of all ages and experience levels, and served approximately 300 students during its three-year run.


title: Barbary Wars

text: The Barbary Wars were a series of two wars fought by the United States, Sweden, and the Kingdom of Sicily against the Barbary states (including Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli) of North Africa in the early 19th century. Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800 and was joined by the newly independent US. The First Barbary War extended from 10 May 1801 to 10 June 1805, with the Second Barbary War lasting only three days, ending on 19 June 1815.


title: Barbary Wars

text: The wars were largely a reaction to piracy carried out by the Barbary states. Since the 16th century, Muslim pirates operating out of North Africa had captured ships and even raided cities across the Mediterranean Sea. By the 19th century, pirate activity had declined, but Barbary pirates continued to demand tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. Refusal to pay would result in the capturing of American ships and goods, and often the enslavement or ransoming of crew members.


title: Barbary Wars

text: After Thomas Jefferson became president of the US in March 1801, he sent a US Naval fleet to the Mediterranean to combat the Barbary pirates. The fleet bombarded numerous fortified cities in present-day Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, ultimately extracting concessions of safe conduct from the Barbary states and ending the first war.


title: Barbary Wars

text: During the War of 1812, with the encouragement of the United Kingdom, the Barbary corsairs resumed their attacks on American vessels. Following the conclusion of the War of 1812 and America's attainment of peace with Britain, James Madison, Jefferson's successor, directed military forces against the Barbary states in the Second Barbary War. Lasting only three days, the second conflict ended the need for further tributes by the United States, granted the U.S. full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea, and significantly reduced incidents of piracy in the region.


title: Barbary Wars

text: The Barbary corsairs were pirates and privateers who operated out of North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers. This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast, in reference to the Berbers. Their predation extended throughout the Mediterranean, south along West Africa's Atlantic seaboard and even to the eastern coast of South America with Brazil, and into the North Atlantic Ocean as far north as Iceland, but they primarily operated in the western Mediterranean. In addition to seizing ships, they engaged in "razzias", raids on European coastal towns and villages, mainly in Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, but also in England, Scotland, the Netherlands, Ireland, and as far away as Iceland. The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Europeans for the slave market in North Africa.


title: Barbary Wars

text: The Barbary states were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, but in practice they were independent and the Ottoman government in Constantinople was not involved.


title: Barbary Wars

text: Since the 1600s, the Barbary pirates had attacked British shipping along the North Coast of Africa, holding captives for ransom or enslaving them. Ransoms were generally raised by families and local church groups. The British became familiar with captivity narratives written by Barbary pirates' prisoners and slaves.


title: Barbary Wars

text: During the American Revolutionary War, the pirates attacked American ships. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as America's oldest unbroken friendship treaty with a foreign power. In 1787, Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States of America.


title: Barbary Wars

text: Starting in the 1780s, realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy, the Barbary pirates had started seizing American ships in the Mediterranean. As the U.S. had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force, its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks. On March 20, 1794, at the urging of President George Washington, Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy, in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money. The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786–1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone, and by 1797, the United States had paid out $1.25 million or a fifth of the government's annual budget then in tribute. These demands for tribute had imposed a heavy financial drain and by 1799 the U.S. was in arrears of $140,000 to Algiers and some $150,000 to Tripoli. Many Americans resented these payments, arguing that the money would be better spent on a navy that would protect American ships from the attacks of the Barbary pirates, and in the 1800 Presidential Election, Thomas Jefferson won against incumbent second President John Adams, in part by noting that the United States was "subjected to the spoliations of foreign cruisers" and was humiliated by paying "an enormous tribute to the petty tyrant of Algiers".


title: Barbary Wars

text: The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitian War or the Barbary Coast War, was the first of two wars fought between the alliance of the United States and several European countries against the Northwest African Muslim states known collectively as the Barbary states. These were Tripoli and Algiers, which were quasi-independent entities nominally belonging to the Ottoman Empire, and (briefly) the independent Sultanate of Morocco. This war began during Thomas Jefferson's term when he refused to pay tribute, an amount that was greatly increased when he became president. A U.S. naval fleet was sent on May 13, 1801, at the beginning of the war under the command of Commodore Richard Dale. Other notable officers in the fleet included Stephen Decatur, assigned to the frigate and William Bainbridge in command of "Essex" which was attached to Commodore Richard Dale's squadron which also included , and .


title: Barbary Wars

text: During this war, the ship "Philadelphia" was blockading Tripoli's harbor when she ran aground on an uncharted reef. Under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan gunboats, the Captain, William Bainbridge, tried to refloat her by casting off all of her guns and other objects that weighed it down. The ship was eventually captured and the crew taken prisoners and put into slavery. To prevent this powerful war ship from being used by the Barbary pirates the ship was later destroyed by a raiding party of American Marines and soldiers and allied sailors from the armed forces of King Ferdinand of Sicily, led by Stephen Decatur.


title: Barbary Wars

text: The Second Barbary War (1815), also known as the Algerine or Algerian War, was the second of two wars fought between the United States and the Ottoman Empire's North African regencies of Tripoli, Tunis and Algeria, known collectively as the Barbary states. The war between the Barbary States and the U.S. ended in 1815; the international dispute would effectively be ended the following year by the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The war brought an end to the American practice of paying tribute to the pirate states and helped mark the beginning of the end of piracy in that region, which had been rampant in the days of Ottoman domination (16th–18th centuries). Within decades, European powers built ever more sophisticated and expensive ships which the Barbary pirates could not match in numbers or technology.


title: Barbary Wars

text: When the United States military efforts of the early 19th century were successful against the pirates, partisans of the Democratic-Republicans contrasted their presidents' refusals to buy off the pirates by paying tribute with the failure of the preceding Federalist administration to suppress the piracy. The Federalist Party had adopted the slogan, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," but had failed to end the attacks on merchant ships. From 1796 to 1797 French raiders seized some 316 American merchant ships flying American colors. To counter this ongoing advent three frigates, , and , were soon built to answer the call for security.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The sixth season of the American television series "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., follows S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and allies as they try to save humanity following the death of director Phil Coulson. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the continuity of the franchise's films. The season is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: Clark Gregg, who portrays Coulson in the series and films, returns as a new character in the season, alongside series regulars Ming-Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, Henry Simmons, and Natalia Cordova-Buckley. They are joined by Jeff Ward, promoted from a recurring role in the fifth season. The sixth season was ordered in May 2018, and filming took place from that July until December. Unlike previous seasons, which featured direct tie-ins with MCU films, this season avoids referencing the films "" (2018) and "" (2019) due to logistical issues, and so it can tell its own story.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The sixth season premiered on ABC on May 10, 2019, and ran for 13 episodes until August 2. The season debuted to lower ratings and had a lower average viewership than the previous season, but it was the highest ranking program in its timeslot for the 2019 summer period and the best performing series for ABC in the timeslot since 2016. It received positive reviews, with praise for its lighter tone and pacing, which critics credited to its shorter run of episodes in comparison to previous seasons. Critics also praised the performances and writing. In November 2018, before the season debuted, ABC renewed the series for a seventh and final season.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: In January 2018, ABC Entertainment president Channing Dungey was optimistic about "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." receiving a renewal for a sixth season, but in March, Nellie Andreeva of "Deadline Hollywood" described the series as being "on the bubble", meaning it "could go either way". Despite receiving low live ratings in its fifth season, the series was considered a "strong DVR gainer and an even stronger international seller" as well as Marvel Television's only chance to have a series on ABC in the 2018–19 television season given that fellow series "Inhumans" was considered "dead", and ultimately canceled. The series' crew believed that it was likely to be cancelled, and they made the fifth-season finale as if it was the last episode of the series. On May 14, 2018, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." was renewed for a sixth season, consisting of 13 episodes. Some commentators, as well as the series' crew, assumed that this shorter season (previous seasons consisted of 22 episodes) would be the series' last, but Dungey denied this, and a seventh season was ordered in November 2018. The sixth-season premiere features an onscreen tribute to S.H.I.E.L.D. co-creator Stan Lee, who died in November 2018.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: Because showrunners Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell knew that a seventh season had been ordered while they were working on the sixth, they and the series' writers had the confidence to plan a story that is split over both seasons, with a cliffhanger ending for the sixth season that will be resolved in the seventh. The writers tried to create more episodes in the season that were "outside of [their] normal form of storytelling", like the third season episode "4,722 Hours", and noted that at this point they had gone beyond all of their initial plans for the series and had to work to create new storylines that did not repeat elements from previous seasons. For previous seasons, the writers divided their stories into different "pods" rather than stretching a single story over 22 episodes, but this was not necessary for the shorter 13-episode season.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The season begins one year after the end of the fifth season, in part because the writers wanted to give the characters time to mourn the death of Phil Coulson before starting their next adventure. This season finds the cast split into two groups: a team in space searching for Leo Fitz following the events of season five, and the rest of S.H.I.E.L.D. on Earth. The space sequences expand on elements that were introduced in the fifth season, including the alien Confederacy which Whedon described as a "nod to the tone" of the space elements in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) but also an attempt to find a new area of that world to explore for the series. Whedon added, "I think that fans are going to be excited to see the nooks and crannies of space that we explore." On Earth, the characters investigate a series of energy anomalies while rebuilding S.H.I.E.L.D. and carrying on Coulson's legacy, with Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie taking over as director of the organization. They eventually come into contact with Sarge, a new threat to the world who looks like Coulson. Star Chloe Bennet revealed ahead of the season's premiere that there would be an element of fantasy that previous seasons did not have.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The season's storyline revolves around several monoliths, magical stones that were introduced in previous seasons. The writers had not intended this when they first introduced the objects, but when approaching the sixth season they wanted a way to have Sarge be created from Coulson and used the monoliths established control over space, time, and manifesting fear to do so. The writers felt that having Sarge join the heroes at the end of the season would result in a "watered-down" version of Coulson, and they did not want to repeat themselves by carrying the villain over to the next season, so they chose to kill the character off at the end of the season. The season also introduces the Chronicoms as a threat to Earth for the seventh season, with the majority of their story told in short "tag" scenes at the end of each episode leading up to the final episode's cliffhanger.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: After the airing of the fifth season's finale, which implied the death of Coulson, actor Clark Gregg said there was "some interest" in having him be involved in the sixth season, and that he would be meeting with the showrunners to discuss this. He speculated that this involvement could be for flashbacks, and was unsure if he would remain a series regular as he had been for the previous five seasons. At San Diego Comic-Con 2018, main cast members Ming-Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, Henry Simmons, and Natalia Cordova-Buckley were confirmed to return from previous seasons as Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie, and Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez, respectively. Additionally, Jeff Ward was promoted to series regular for the season, after recurring in the fifth as Deke Shaw. That December, Coulson was confirmed to have died between the events of the fifth and sixth seasons. In the season's first teaser released the next month, Gregg was revealed to be portraying a new character in the season, named Sarge. Gregg was confirmed in March 2019 to be retaining his series regular status for the season.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: Also returning from previous seasons are Briana Venskus as Piper and Maximilian Osinski as Davis, two minor S.H.I.E.L.D. agents that fans responded positively to in previous seasons. Tancharoen stated that they would be explored more in this season, with the executive producers all agreeing that they had grown to love the characters just as the fans had. This expanded role promoted Venskus and Osinski to recurring status, after having "off-and-on" roles in previous seasons. Additional returners include Joel Stoffer as Enoch and Coy Stewart as Flint. In April 2018, Karolina Wydra, Christopher James Baker, and Barry Shabaka Henley were announced as cast in the roles of mercenary Izel, assassin Malachi, and natural science professor Marcus Benson. Whedon hoped the new characters would bring some "new flavors" to the series. In May, with the season's premiere, several recurring actors were revealed to be portraying members of Sarge's team: Brooke Williams as Snowflake, Winston James Francis as Jaco, and Matt O'Leary as Pax. Shainu Bala also recurs in the season as agent Trevor Khan, while Tancharoen has a role as Deke's girlfriend Sequoia.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: Costume designer Whitney Galitz updated Bennet's Quake costume and hairstyle for the season. The updated costume pays homage to the character's appearance in the animated film "" (where Bennet also voices the character), and retains her gauntlets and utility belt from previous seasons albeit "streamlined and slimmed down". The Quake symbol on the costume's back is also retained, and updated with "contrasting leather panels to make it pop". As part of the inspiration from "Marvel Rising", the updated suit has "an additional punch of color to it ... [with] some purple embellishments near the neckline running down the front sides" along with below the waist, while Bennet has longer, blonde hair with purple highlights. Britt Lawrence of Cinema Blend felt Bennet's hair "works fantastically opposite Quake's new costume" with the hair "an extension of Quake's outfit... Instead of being a standalone look, her hair is contributing to it." Lawrence pointed out that the animated version had more purple accents in the costume and a darker, shorter hairstyle where the purple highlights "[frame] her face", compared to the use of purple in Bennet's hair which was more like "softer highlights".


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: Filming for the season began on July 16, 2018, in Culver City, California, with Gregg directing the first episode of the season. After the emotional fifth-season finale, Wen felt that returning for the sixth season with Gregg directing was "wonderful out of the gate, and like we got a new life". She added that the shorter season length was a relief due to the series being "mentally, emotionally, and physically" taxing to film, allowing the cast to work at "150, 200 percent" for the whole season instead of "feeling like, by the 16th episode, we are just trying to swim up river". Filming wrapped by December 18, 2018.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: Composer Bear McCreary created a "rollickin' blues theme" for Sarge in the season, and composed the musical theme Izel sung "during her creepy transformations".


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: When asked how the season would connect to the then-upcoming MCU film "", Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb suggested in March 2019 that the one year time jump between the previous season of the series and this one was part of the series' tie-in to that film. "Endgame" is a direct sequel to "" (2018), which saw the death of half of all life in the universe beginning shortly after the events of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." season five. "Endgame" features a five-year time-jump before reversing these deaths, setting the sixth season of "S.H.I.E.L.D." during a time that half of all life is still dead. After "Endgame" was released in April, the showrunners and Loeb revealed that the series would not be depicting this loss of life for several reasons: they began production on the season without knowing all of "Endgame"s plot or how "" (2019) would be depicting a post-"Endgame" MCU; they were unsure when the season would be released in relation to "Endgame" and how much they would be allowed to reveal if they had begun airing before the film was released; and they wanted to focus on telling their own story rather than be "shackled too much to the universe-changing events from the films". They acknowledged that this meant the series no longer lined-up with the films' timeline, but Whedon said the writers had an explanation for this that made sense to them even though they did not plan to "burden the audience" with it. Tim Baysinger of TheWrap suggested that the time travel plot of the fifth season could explain the discrepancy by moving the sixth season into an alternate future not seen by Doctor Strange during "Infinity War", one in which the deaths never happened. The season has some thematic similarities with "Endgame", as both depict their heroes dealing with loss, which Whedon said was "not a coincidence" and described as "the nature of these stories".


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: A teaser for the season was released in January 2019, revealing Gregg's role. In March, Marvel released a promotional image for the season recreating Leonardo da Vinci's painting "The Last Supper" with the season's main cast members. Marketing producer Geoffrey Colo clarified that it was not an image from any of the season's episodes, but a "thematic representation" of the season filled with Easter eggs for upcoming episodes on which Colo said, "Some you'll recognize, others won't hold any significance until you've seen the particular episode." The image led to speculation from commentators as to which of the Twelve Apostles from the original painting were being represented by each of the series' characters, and whether any character would represent the betrayer Judas Iscariot. The premiere episode was first screened at WonderCon on March 30. On July 18, 2019, the series had a panel at San Diego Comic-Con with the main cast and executive producers. A sneak peek for the end of the season was also shown.