title: BBC Radio 2

text: The station lost its medium wave frequencies in 1990 following the launch of BBC Radio 5, and BBC Radio's sports coverage moved from Radio 2 to the new station at the same time. Also around this time, album-rock commercial stations (particularly Virgin Radio) and "gold" spinoffs from Independent Local Radio stations formed, playing classic pop and rock. With the station's audience in decline, a change of emphasis was needed.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In 1992, the weekday daytime music policy was slightly adjusted with pre-1950 music primarily confined to Sundays, and the network's playlist of light classical music was reduced following the launch of Classic FM. Radio 2's profile was boosted by the return of Terry Wogan at the start of 1993, but following the generational shift at Radio 1, commercial radio had taken the highest share of the national audience by the mid-1990s.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Line was replaced by James Moir in 1996. Moir repositioned Radio 2 with a largely AOR/contemporary playlist by day, aimed at a more mature audience than Radio 1 (which, post-Britpop, was again starting to focus on a young audience) but still embracing new music, and more specialist broadcasting by recognised genre experts in the evenings.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Unlike the early-1990s repositioning of Radio 1, in which the BBC lost many well-known names, many former Radio 1 presenters stayed with the corporation and moved across to Radio 2.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Radio 2 has the highest listening figures of any station in the UK, its schedule filled with broadcasters such as Steve Wright, Tony Blackburn, Ken Bruce, Jeremy Vine, Mark Radcliffe, Trevor Nelson, Craig Charles, Jo Whiley, Paul Gambaccini, Gary Davies, Zoe Ball, Johnnie Walker and Bob Harris.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: As well as having most listeners nationally, it ranks first in many regions above local radio stations. BBC Radio 2 played to 27% of the available audience in 2006.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In February 2007, Radio 2 recruited Jeff Smith, director of UK and International programming at Napster and a former head of music at Radio 1, as its new head of music. Smith joined the network on 26 March.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In the first quarter of 2011, Radio 2 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers. His role, according to Andrew Harrison, the chief executive of RadioCentre, was "to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings."


title: BBC Radio 2

text: On 29 July 2013, Radio 2 changed its "sonic logo" for the first time in 15 years, replacing the one composed by US jingle company Groove Worx with a new seven-note melody composed by British composer and producer Jem Godfrey. This coincided with the launch of a new jingle package produced by Godfrey in association with Wisebuddah Productions, marking Radio 2's second new package in as many years.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Radio 2 has run several "pop-up" DAB services to cover special events, the first being BBC Radio 2 Eurovision, providing coverage of the Eurovision Song Contest 2014. The station returned in 2015 for coverage of that year's contest. Others include BBC Radio 2 Country covering the festival and BBC Radio 2 50s, a service dedicated to music programmes covering the 1950s.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: During 2018, Radio 2 had numerous presenter reshuffles. In May, long-time drivetime host Simon Mayo was joined by evening DJ Jo Whiley in a new format. The move proved unpopular with listeners, and by October 2018, Mayo announced his intention to leave the station, later adding that this was so he could help launch the new classical music radio station Scala Radio in March 2019, and would continue his Radio 5 Live film review programme. Mayo and Whiley's last show together was broadcast on 20 December 2018, while Whiley moved back to her evening slot, with Mayo's final show on Radio 2 broadcast on 21 December. Sara Cox was later announced as the new drivetime host, starting on 14 January 2019.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In September 2018, Chris Evans announced that he was leaving "The Radio 2 Breakfast Show" and the network where he had worked since 2010 to join Virgin Radio. He was replaced by former "Radio 1 Breakfast" DJ Zoe Ball on 14 January 2019.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In 2022, the station announced that their annual music festival Radio 2 Live in Hyde Park would not be returning to London's Hyde Park in 2022, but would take place over two days at Leeds' Temple Newsam Park with acts such as Kaiser Chiefs, Simple Minds and the station's "Kitchen Disco" presenter Sophie Ellis-Bextor appearing, but it was cancelled due to the death and state funeral of Elizabeth II.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: The station's audience is now primarily adults over the age of 35 (82% of listeners) although in recent years it has attracted more younger listeners. Its daytime playlist features music from the 1960s to various current chart hits, album and indie music. The station's appeal is broad and deep, with accessible daytime programmes and specialist programmes of particular types or eras of music. In 2009, Radio 2 again won the Music Week Award for National Radio Station of the Year, an award it won for several consecutive years.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Weekday evenings have historically featured specialist music, including jazz, folk, blues, country, reggae, classic rock, show tunes and biographies and documentaries on musical artists and genres. Previously, this specialist programming ran from 20:00–midnight, but now runs only from 21:00–22:00. Radio 2 hosts both the BBC Concert Orchestra and the BBC Big Band.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: "Sounds of the 60s" remains a regular fixture on the Saturday schedule, as does Johnnie Walker's "Sounds of the 70s" on Sundays. On 5 October 2013, these two shows were joined by "Sounds of the 80s", which was originally hosted by Sara Cox and broadcast on Friday from 22:00–midnight. In May 2018 Gary Davies took over this show, with Cox was hosting a live 22:00 to midnight slot from Monday–Thursday, until she moved to drivetime on 14 January 2019. As part of a schedule change in July 2022, "Sounds of the 80s" moved back to Saturday evenings from 20:00-22:00.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: On Sundays, the schedule reverts closer to its old style, with a focus on easy listening and show tunes, with programmes like "Elaine Paige on Sunday" and "Sunday Night Is Music Night".


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Radio 2 does not broadcast complete works of classical music or offer in-depth discussion or drama, although some book readings, comedy and arts coverage still remains on the station. Jeremy Vine's weekday lunchtime show covers current and consumer affairs in an informal manner, a style pioneered by Jimmy Young. Until the launch of Radio 5 in August 1990, Radio 2's medium wave frequencies carried the majority of BBC Radio's sports coverage.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Like all domestic BBC radio stations, Radio 2 is funded by the television licence fee and does not carry advertising.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: The Greenwich Time Signal (also known as "the pips") is broadcast at 07:00, 08:00 and 17:00 on weekdays, 07:00 and 08:00 on Saturdays, and 08:00 and 09:00 on Sundays.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Radio 2 moved its studios from Broadcasting House to the adjacent Western House (renamed Wogan House in 2016) in 2006. Although the majority of programming comes from London, some shows are broadcast from other cities around the UK, including Birmingham and Manchester. For many years, the network's overnight presenters, such as Janice Long and Alex Lester, were based in Birmingham, but made the move to London in April 2008. Since May 2018, the weekday overnight show, now presented by OJ Borg has been broadcast from Salford, in Greater Manchester.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Radio 2 broadcasts news bulletins every hour (except for Saturdays at 23:00 and Sundays at 20:00) from a studio in Wogan House. Headline updates are on the half-hour from 05:30 - 08:30 on weekdays during the early and main Breakfast Show.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Bulletins are normally of three minutes duration. Extended five minute bulletins are broadcast on weekdays at 06:00, 07:00, 08:00, 13:00 and 17:00, on Saturdays at 07:00 and 08:00 and on Sundays at 06:00, 07:00, 08:00 and 09:00.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: These presenters do not have permanent slots on Radio 2 but have sat in relatively recently for shows on the network. The list does not include regularly scheduled presenters who also stand in for other shows, such as Gary Davies covering Zoe Ball, Ken Bruce, Sara Cox and Trevor Nelson or OJ Borg covering Dermot O'Leary.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Those listed below, regularly appear on shows as contributors but don't present a programme themselves.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: Presenter Sarah Kennedy attracted controversy before she left the station in 2010. In May 1999, she gave a "bizarre" performance while standing in for Terry Wogan, blaming the incident on a lack of sleep the previous night. Her slurred speech throughout her show on 13 August 2007 also made the headlines. She blamed a sore throat and later took a month-long break. It was later reported that Kennedy was recovering from pneumonia, and she returned to work on 10 September. In October 2007, she was reprimanded after joking that she had almost run over a black pedestrian because she could not see him in the dark. The BBC later apologised for the comment. She was also "spoken to" by BBC bosses after praising Enoch Powell during a show in July 2009, describing him as "the best prime minister this country never had".


title: BBC Radio 2

text: On 16 October 2008, an episode of "The Russell Brand Show", co-hosted by fellow Radio 2 presenter Jonathan Ross was recorded for transmission at a later date. The show included Russell Brand and Ross leaving four prank messages on actor Andrew Sachs' answerphone, including offensive remarks about his granddaughter and use of foul language. The programme was subsequently broadcast on 18 Octoberpartially censoredhaving passed the various pre-transmission checks from the programme's editors. Initially, the programme only received a negligible number of complaints regarding Ross' bad language; however, the incident was reported a week later by "The Mail on Sunday" and a public outcry soon ensued. The case was referred to both Ofcom and the BBC Trust, and in the interim, Ross and Brand were both suspended for 12 weeks from all BBC programmes pending investigation. Soon after these announcements, Brand announced his resignation from the BBC, shortly followed by the controller at the time, Lesley Douglas. Ross was suspended from the BBC without pay for 12 weeks.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In July 2009, longtime presenter Malcolm Laycock announced his resignation live on air following a long-running dispute over the content of his show, "Sunday Night at 10", and issues regarding his salary.


title: BBC Radio 2

text: In 2022, Paul O’Grady quit his Sunday afternoon show after 14 years as he was not happy with a schedule change which saw younger comic Rob Beckett fill his slot for thirteen weeks before O’Grady was scheduled to come back, with the two comedians switching over again once another thirteen weeks was over. O’Grady presented his last programme on BBC Radio 2 on Sunday 14 August. The decision by O’Grady and Prince to vacate their slot, was part of a number of changes to the station in 2022, which saw Vanessa Feltz deciding to leave the station, after quitting her BBC Radio shows and "Steve Wright in the Afternoon" being replaced by a show presented by BBC Radio 1's Scott Mills.


title: Poldark

text: Poldark is a series of historical novels by Winston Graham, published from 1945 to 1953 and continued from 1973 to 2002. The first novel, "Ross Poldark", was named for the protagonist of the series. The novel series was adapted twice for television by the BBC, firstly in 1975 and later in 2015.


title: Poldark

text: The series comprises 12 novels: the first seven are set in the 18th century, concluding in Christmas 1799; the remaining five are concerned with the early years of the 19th century and the lives of the descendants of the previous novels' main characters. Graham wrote the first four "Poldark" books during the 1940s and 1950s. Following a long hiatus, he decided to resume the series and published "The Black Moon" in 1973.


title: Poldark

text: Each of the novels is subtitled "A Novel of Cornwall". In a preface to "The Black Moon", Graham explained his decision to revive the series after a two-decade hiatus.


title: Poldark

text: Ross Poldark is the eponymous protagonist of the series. He is a British Army officer who returns to his home in Cornwall from the American War of Independence only to find that Elizabeth Chynoweth, having believed him dead, is about to marry his cousin Francis Poldark. Ross attempts to restore his own fortunes by reopening one of the family's derelict copper mines.


title: Poldark

text: After several years, Ross marries Demelza Carne, an urchin he has taken in as a servant. Although gradually reconciled to the loss of Elizabeth's love, it takes Ross some time to realise his love for Demelza. Over 20 years, they have five children: Julia, Jeremy, Clowance, Isabella-Rose (called Bella), and Henry (called Harry).


title: Poldark

text: In his autobiography, Graham states that Ross's character was, in part, based upon a fighter pilot he met on a train during World War II.


title: Poldark

text: Taken home from Redruth Fair by Ross, miner's daughter Demelza and her dog Garrick have an unpromising start. However, she soon develops into a charming, amusing, lovely young woman, eventually winning Ross's affection. Dark and earthy, she is the total opposite of the fragile Elizabeth. The two women are wary but polite towards each other. Demelza shows courage and fierce loyalty to Ross but is somewhat impulsive, causing trouble for both of them. She has six brothers.


title: Poldark

text: A young physician who arrives in Cornwall, England, after medical training in London. He strikes up a firm friendship with Ross which proves strong and enduring. He is conscientious and generous, often not charging his poorest patients for his services. He becomes involved with a young miner's wife with tragic results. After his rescue from a French prison camp in late 1794, he eventually marries a young heiress, Lady Caroline Penvenen, and they become parents to a frail daughter named Sarah Caroline who had died in 1798. In the eleven-year time gap, they have two more daughters named Sophie and Meliora.


title: Poldark

text: Caroline is an orphan, taken in and raised by her rich uncle, Ray. Strong-willed and independent, she begins a romance with Dwight Enys against her uncle's wishes, culminating in a disastrous plan to elope. They eventually marry after Dwight's rescue from a prison camp in France. Caroline and Dwight's first daughter, Sarah, has a congenital heart defect and dies in infancy. Two more daughters, Sophie and Meliora, follow.


title: Poldark

text: She was Ross Poldark's very first love and he hers, but thinking him dead in America she marries Ross's cousin Francis. The marriage is a failure. After Francis's death, Elizabeth struggles with poverty and loneliness, eventually accepting George Warleggan as her husband. She has two sons: one with Francis (Geoffrey Charles), and the other supposedly with George (Valentine). She has a daughter with George called Ursula, but Elizabeth dies in childbirth. Between her betrothal to George and the wedding, Ross pays her a visit and has sex with her. It was established in "The Angry Tide" that Valentine was Ross's son:


title: Poldark

text: "Though Elizabeth had been constitutionally strong enough, perhaps some exhaustion in the ancient Chynoweth strain was to be the cause of this virtual obliteration of her personal appearance in any of her children, and the dominance of the three fathers. Geoffrey Charles was already like Francis. Valentine would grow ever more like the man who had just left the house. And little Ursula would become sturdy and strong and thick-necked and as determined as a blacksmith."


title: Poldark

text: Graham, Winston. "The Angry Tide: A Novel of Cornwall 1798–1799" (Poldark Book 7) (p. 602). Pan Macmillan. Kindle Edition.


title: Poldark

text: Ross's arch-enemy is of a new class of industrialists and bankers. Although regarded as an upstart by the aristocracy, through ruthlessness and cunning he becomes increasingly powerful. Always impeccably dressed and elegantly behaved, he constantly schemes to increase his own wealth at the expense of others, including the Poldarks. He becomes enamoured of Elizabeth, eventually marrying her after she is widowed, and they have two children, Valentine and Ursula. He also becomes a member of Parliament. Eventually, several years after Elizabeth's death, he remarries a wealthy woman named Harriet (who is very fond of her large pet dogs, much to George's disdain), and they have twin daughters.


title: Poldark

text: Ross's cousin Francis has a tendency to be flippant but his feelings are strong and he can be very obstinate. The two cousins were friends as boys but their relationship is tested severely when Francis marries Elizabeth, with lasting repercussions for them all. He has one son with Elizabeth - Geoffrey Charles Poldark, and later dies in a tragic accident in his mine.


title: Poldark

text: Francis's sister and Ross's cousin Verity is described as plain, with fluffy hair and a mobile mouth. She has been a dutiful, unmarried daughter who looks after the affairs of her father, Charles Poldark, and his estate. She meets and falls in love with Andrew Blamey, a sea captain. Unfortunately he has a terrible secret that is soon revealed, and she seems to lose her chance of happiness. Eventually Andrew and Verity marry, and she becomes friends with his first children - Esther and James, Andrew and Verity later have one child - a son named Andrew.


title: Poldark

text: Osborne Whitworth appears briefly in the first "Poldark" series of novels, but comes to feature prominently in the second series when he marries Morwenna Chynoweth, Elizabeth's cousin, who is in love with Drake Carne, Demelza's brother. Whitworth's main preoccupations are money and women. He is loud and arrogant, delivering sermons which intimidate his parishioners more than inspire them. He also sexually abuses his wife; when he is no longer able to force himself upon her during her pregnancy, he begins an affair with her fifteen-year-old sister, Rowella, which proves to be his undoing. He has a son, named John Conan, and two daughters with his first wife.


title: Poldark

text: The brother of Demelza Poldark and Sam Carne, he comes to stay with Ross and Demelza after his father's death and encounters Geoffrey Charles Poldark and his governess Morwenna Chynoweth. He forms a close friendship with Geoffrey Charles and falls in love with Morwenna yet she is forced by George Warleggan to marry Osborne Whitworth. He becomes a blacksmith and later when Osborne Whitworth dies he does marry Morwenna and they have a child named Loveday, when Geoffrey Charles returns to Cornwall from Spain they continue their friendship with him.


title: Poldark

text: Jeremy Poldark is the second child of Ross and Demelza Poldark, he features heavily in the later books, having interests in his fathers mines and in early forms of cars. He falls in love with a local noblewoman- Cuby Trevanion, who continuously rejects him as she is expected to marry into a richer family, eventually she realises she loves him and they run away together. Jeremy and Cuby then go to France where he fights in the army and then dies at Waterloo, leaving Cuby devastated and a pregnant widow.


title: Poldark

text: The son of Elizabeth Warleggan (née Chynoweth & Poldark) and George Warleggan, although it is later acknowledged that he is likely the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Ross Poldark when he had assaulted her upon their argument over her engagement to George. In the later novels he goes about drinking and gambling and being an all round rather bad influence especially on Andrew Blamey (the son of Verity Blamey (née Poldark) and Andrew Blamey). He also marries a rich widow (Selina Pope) and has many secret affairs. He does eventually ask Ross if he is his father, but gets no direct answer from him. He ultimately dies in a fire trying to save his gorilla companion.


title: Poldark

text: The third child of Ross and Demelza, she has flirtations with the miner Benjamin Ross Carter (son of Ginevra "Ginny" Martin and the late James "Jim" Carter) and various noblemen, yet she marries the mysterious Stephen Carrington, the title


title: Poldark

text: character of "The Stranger from the Sea," while unaware of his history of murder of his ex-wife and son.


title: Poldark

text: A character who first appears in the novel The Stranger from the Sea. He's a rather suspicious character who marries Clowance Poldark, despite his history of murder and first wife he announces is dead, but it is later found that his wife was alive when he married Clowance- rendering their marriage void. He embarks on various schemes including one he enacts with Jeremy Poldark and Ben Carter in which they break into a carriage and steal some jewels and money- some of it belonging to George Warleggan and his new wife Harriet Warleggan. He then becomes involved in trading vessels and missions to Europe. His undoing is a flirtation with Harriet Warleggan which ends in him falling off his horse into a ditch and breaking his back.


title: Poldark

text: The first son of Elizabeth Poldark and only child of Francis Poldark. He almost dies of the 'putrid throat' (diphtheria) as an infant and is nursed back to health by Demelza at the cost of Demelza and Ross Poldark's first child - Julia. Later he forms a close friendship with Elizabeth's cousin -Morwenna, and Demelza's brother- Drake. He is sent away to school by his new step-father George Warleggan and later joins the army. He encounters his uncle Ross Poldark at war in Portugal and eventually returns to Cornwall and his home at Trenwith. He marries a woman named Amadora who he met in Spain and they have a child.


title: Poldark

text: The fourth child and youngest daughter of Ross and Demelza Poldark. She has a love of music and singing and gains a reputation for being musically talented.


title: Poldark

text: In his autobiography "Memoirs of a Private Man", Graham explains that some of the stories and plots in the book draw from actual people and events from Cornish history. According to Graham, the names of the original people and places (and sometimes the dates) have been adapted or changed, but essentially the material facts remain the same.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Battle Creek is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan, in northwest Calhoun County, at the confluence of the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek rivers. It is the principal city of the Battle Creek, Michigan Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), which encompasses all of Calhoun County. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 52,731. Nicknamed "Cereal City", it is best known as the home of the Kellogg Company and the founding city of Post Consumer Brands.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: One local legend says Battle Creek was named after an encounter between a federal government land survey party led by Colonel John Mullett and two Potawatomi in March 1824. The two Potawatomi had approached the camp asking for food because they were hungry as the US Army was late delivering supplies promised to them under the 1821 Treaty of Chicago. After a protracted discussion, the Native Americans allegedly tried to take food. One of the surveyors shot and seriously wounded one Potawatomi. Following the encounter, the survey party retreated to Detroit. Surveyors would not return to the area until June 1825, after Governor Lewis Cass had settled issues with the Native Americans. Early white settlers called the nearby stream Battle Creek River and the town took its name from that.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Another folk etymology is attributed to the local river, which was known as "Waupakisco" by Native Americans. The "Waupakisco" or "Waupokisco" was supposedly a reference to a battle or fight fought between indigenous tribes before the arrival of Europeans. However, Virgil J. Vogel, professor emeritus of history and social science at Harry S. Truman College in Chicago, believes the native name has "nothing to do with blood or battle".


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In about 1774, the Potawatomi and the Ottawa Native American tribes formed a joint village near the future Battle Creek, Michigan. The first permanent European settlements in Battle Creek Township, after the removal of the Potawatomi to a reservation, began about 1831. Westward migration from New York and New England had increased to Michigan following the completion of the Erie Canal in New York in 1824. Most settlers chose to locate on the Goguac prairie, which was fertile and easily cultivated. A post office was opened in Battle Creek in 1832 under Postmaster Pollodore Hudson. The first school was taught in a small log house about 1833 or 1834. Asa Langley built the first sawmill in 1837. A brick manufacturing plant, called the oldest enterprise in the township, was established in 1840 by Simon Carr and operated until 1903. The township was established by act of the legislature in 1839.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In the antebellum era, the city was a major stop on the Underground Railroad, used by fugitive slaves to escape to freedom in Michigan and Canada. It was the chosen home of noted abolitionist Sojourner Truth after her escape from slavery.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Battle Creek figured prominently in the early history of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. It was the site of a Protestant church founding convention in 1863. The denomination's first hospital, college, and publishing office would also be constructed in the city. When the hospital and publishing office burned down in 1902, the church elected to decentralize, and most of its institutions were relocated. The first Adventist church (rebuilt in the 1920s) is still in operation.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: World Heavyweight Champion Jack Johnson was once arrested here for marrying his White wife and transporting her across state lines.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The city was noted for its focus on health reform during the late 1800s and early 1900s. The Battle Creek Sanitarium was founded by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg. In addition to some of his sometimes bizarre treatments that were featured in the movie "The Road to Wellville", Kellogg also funded organizations that promoted eugenics theories at the core of their philosophical agenda, which was seen as a natural complement to euthenics. The Race Betterment Foundation was one of these organizations. He also supported the "separate but equal" philosophy and invited Booker T. Washington to speak at the Battle Creek Sanitarium in order to raise money. Washington was the author of the speech "The Atlanta Compromise", which solidified his position of being an accommodationist while providing a mechanism for southern Whites (and their sympathizers), to fund his school (the Tuskegee Institute).


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: W. K. Kellogg had worked for his brother in a variety of capacities at the B.C. Sanitarium. Tired of living in the shadow of his brother John Harvey Kellogg, he struck out on his own, going to the boom-towns surrounding the oilfields in Oklahoma as a broom salesman. Having failed, he returned to work as an assistant to his brother. While working at the sanitariums' laboratory, W.K. spilled liquefied cornmeal on a heating device that cooked the product and rendered it to flakes. He tasted the flakes and added milk to them. He was able to get his brother to allow him to give some of the product to some of the patients at the sanitarium, and the patients' demand for the product exceeded his expectations to the point that W.K made the decision to leave the sanitarium. Along with some investors, he built a factory to satisfy the demand for his "corn flakes".


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: It was during this time of going their separate ways for good that Dr. John Harvey Kellogg sued his brother for copyright infringement. The U.S. Supreme court ruled in W.K. Kellogg's favor, due to the greater sales and public profile of W.K. Kellogg's company.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Inspired by Kellogg's innovation, C. W. Post invented Grape-Nuts and founded his own cereal company in the town. Battle Creek has been nicknamed "the Cereal City."


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In the turbulent 1960s, Battle Creek was not immune to the racial issues of the day. Dr. Martin Luther King spoke here, as did Sen. Hubert Humphrey, President L.B. Johnson, and Heavyweight Champion of the world Muhammad Ali. African Americans were subjected to "stop and frisk" procedures while walking, and housing covenants were in full force. No Blacks worked in the school systems, and only a few Blacks held mid-level manager posts in the local corporate sector. The Federal government sector was better at the Federal Center, and less so at the local Veterans' Administration Hospital.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Black Recondos, a group formed from the local young adult council of the NAACP, forced the local board of education to hire Black teachers and administrative personnel, under the threat of removing every black student from their public schools. They also forced the chief of police to allow Black Recondos to intervene in arrests and gave them the authority to take black law breakers into their custody instead of the local police. This caused the second strike of a police force in U.S. history. The officers were fired and the strike was ended.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water, making Battle Creek the third largest city in Michigan by area, and one of only three incorporated municipalities in the state over in size.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In 1982, at the insistence of the Kellogg Company, the city annexed Battle Creek Township, nearly doubling the city's population. Kellogg's even went so far as to threaten to move their headquarters if the annexation failed to occur.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 53,364 people, 21,348 households, and 13,363 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 23,525 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 74.7% White, 17.8% Black or African American, 1.9% Asian, 0.8% Native American, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.1% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. 4.6% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In the 21,348 households 32.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% were married couples living together, 16.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 31.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.04.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In the city, 27.2% of the population was under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.2 males.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The median income for a household in the city was $35,491, and the median income for a family was $43,564. Males had a median income of $36,838 versus $26,429 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,424. About 10.7% of families and 14.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.5% of those under age 18 and 11.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 52,347 people, 21,118 households, and 12,898 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 24,277 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 71.7% White, 18.2% African American, 0.7% Native American, 2.4% Asian, 2.7% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 6.7% of the population.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In the 21,118 households 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.1% were married couples living together, 18.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.9% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.04.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The median age in the city was 36.3 years. 26.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.9% were from 25 to 44; 25.5% were from 45 to 64; and 13.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.9% male and 52.1% female.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: As of April 2013, Battle Creek had the fifth largest Japanese national population in the state of Michigan, with 358.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Nick Buckley wrote in the "Battle Creek Enquirer": "The 2020 Census is critical for Battle Creek. Falling below the 50,000-resident threshold would mean a change from "urbanized area" to "urban cluster" and a loss of federal entitlement funding." Between the 2010 and 2020 censuses, Battle Creek's population grew from 52,347 to 52,731. There were 20,690 households and 2.40 residents per house, giving Battle Creek a population density (per square mile) of 1,228.6. 89.0% of those households had a computer and 82.8% had broadband internet connection. The city's racial makeup was 68.2% White, 17.3% African American, .6% Native American, 3.7% Asian, 8.1% from two or more races, and 7.9% Hispanic or Latino.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The median age in the city was 36.3 years. 7.0% of residents were under the age of 5; 25.8% were under 18; 15.2% were 65 and older. 51.5% of residents were female and 6.6% were foreign-born. 10.8% of people ages 5 and up speak at least one language other than English at home. Of persons 25 and up, 89.9% had a high school degree and 21.1% had a bachelor's degree or higher. Of those under 65, 11.2% had a disability and 6.1% lacked health insurance.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Median household income in 2020 dollars was $42,285, which works out to a $25,270 per capita income. 22.7% of the population lives in poverty. Median gross rent was $770 and the median value of the houses occupied by people who owned them was $91,700.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The City of Battle Creek has a commission-manager form of government. Cities that follow this plan of government have an elected commission (or council) that appoints a professionally trained and experienced manager to administer the day-to-day operations of the city and to make recommendations to the city commission. Battle Creek also appoints a City Attorney, who provides legal counsel to the city manager and City Commission.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The City Commission makes all policy decisions, including review, revision, and final approval of the annual budget, which is proposed annually by the City Manager. The City Manager serves as an "at-will" employee and they work under an employment contract with the commission. All other city employees, except for the City Attorney's staff, are under the supervision of the City Manager.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: There are five ward commissioners. Residents cast votes for a ward representative, who must live within the area they are representing, as well as for four at-large commissioners. These candidates may live anywhere in the city. All commissioners serve two-year terms and all terms begin and end at the same election.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Before November 2020, the commission held a special meeting to decide which commissioners served as the mayor and vice mayor for the next year. In March 2020, Battle Creek residents voted on a proposal that would change how the city selects its mayor position. This proposal (which passed) amended the city charter to allow residents to directly vote for the mayor. Residents will be able to vote for the mayor starting in the November 2020 general election. The mayor presides over the commission meetings and appoints commissioners and residents to special committees. He may also form special committees to explore community challenges or potential policies. The vice mayor stands in if the mayor is unavailable.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: According to the Battle Creek Unlimited October 2020 update, the thirty largest employers in the city are:


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Japanese School (バトルクリーク補習授業校 "Batoru Kurīku Hoshū Jugyō Kō"), a supplementary weekend Japanese school, holds its classes at the Lakeview School District building.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In 1980 the Western Michigan University Center for International Programs developed a program for Japanese expatriate K-12 students that was sponsored by Battle Creek Unlimited (BCU); the classes were held in the company facility at Fort Custer Industrial Park.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Symphony Orchestra is based at the W.K. Kellogg Auditorium in downtown Battle Creek. The symphony is conducted by Anne Harrigan. It is Michigan's longest-running symphony orchestra.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Brass Band of Battle Creek is composed of 31 brass players and percussionists from around the United States and Europe. "Created in 1989 by brothers Jim and Bill Gray, podiatrists and amateur brass players from Battle Creek, MI, the BBBC has grown to cult status in Battle Creek, where BBBC concerts are regularly sold out and waiting lists are created weeks in advance."


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Leilapalooza - The Leila Arboretum Music Festival is a free summer music festival held at the Leila Arboretum. Proceeds benefit the Leila Arboretum Society and Kingman Museum.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Battle Creek hosts the annual Michigan High School Athletic Association team wrestling, volleyball, baseball, and softball state championships. The town receives quarterly boosts to its economy from the fans who flock there to follow their teams.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Battle Jacks (formerly Bombers) are a collegiate baseball team, a member of the Northwoods League, who began play in 2007. After a last-place finish in 2010, the Bombers went 47–26 in 2011 and won their first NWL championship. It was the first championship in Battle Creek since 2000, when the Michigan Battle Cats won the Midwest League championship. The team's home is C.O. Brown Stadium. In 2011, the team signed a five-year lease, which guarantees the team's ten-year anniversary in Battle Creek in 2017. Actor Tyler Hoechlin, who starred alongside Tom Hanks in the critically acclaimed film "Road to Perdition", previously played for the Battle Creek Bombers.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Michigan Battle Cats/Battle Creek Yankees/Southwest Michigan Devil Rays were a Class A minor league baseball team that played in the Midwest League from 1995 through 2006. The team's home was C.O. Brown Stadium.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Crunch were a member of the Great Lakes Indoor Football League (GLIFL), that began play in 2006. They played one season in Battle Creek before ceasing operations due to financial trouble. The team's home was Kellogg Arena.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Belles, a member of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, played two seasons, 1951 and 1952, before relocating to Muskegon.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Revolution were a member of the All American Hockey League, a low-level professional minor league, from 2008 to 2011. The team's home was Revolution Arena. The organization also started a junior hockey team called the Battle Creek Jr. Revolution in 2010. The junior team was sold renamed to the West Michigan Wolves in 2014 before relocating to Lansing in 2017.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Blaze is a not-for-profit, adult football team that plays NFL rules football as a member of the IFL (Interstate Football League). The Blaze organization raises funds and community awareness in the fight against cancer. They are in their sixth season of operation, and won the IFL North Division Championship in 2010.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Knights are a minor league basketball team. They were a charter member of the International Basketball League (IBL) and went 21-0 during the league's first season in 2005, winning the championship. The team's home is Kellogg Arena. After announcing in July 2009 that they would sit out the 2009 season, that October the team announced that they would return to play in the International Basketball League.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: In June 2019, the Federal Prospects Hockey League (FPHL) announced it had added a tenth team for the 2019–20 season and it would be in Michigan. On July 23, the Battle Creek Rumble Bees were announced with Adam Stio as the general manager after previously serving in the same role with the Southern Professional Hockey League's Evansville Thunderbolts. The FHL had played multiple neutral site games in Battle Creek over the previous seasons before placing an expansion team there. The Rumble Bees hired Clint Hagmaier as their first head coach, however, he was released after a 0–9 start to the season with Stio taking over as interim head coach. The Rumble Bees had a 1–45–0–2 record when the league's 2019–20 season was cancelled due to the coronavirus pandemic. Their losing streak led to them being named "the worst team in professional hockey". After the season, the team's players went to different teams in the FPHL as part of a dispersal draft.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Founded in 1917, Camp Custer, as it was then known, served over the next decades as a training ground, from World War I until the present. Parts of the base were spun off and developed as the Battle Creek Veteran's Hospital, Fort Custer National Cemetery, Fort Custer Recreation Area and Fort Custer Industrial Park. This industrial park contains more than 90 different companies.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The United States Government still owns the land, under an arrangement by which the state of Michigan administers and manages the property. The base, which is still mostly undeveloped, wooded land, takes up a sizable portion of Battle Creek's land area. The part of the base in Battle Creek that is now the industrial park measures in area, which is approximately 10.6% of the city's area. A much larger part of the base lies in Kalamazoo County. The adjoining W.K. Kellogg Airport is a joint civilian-Air National Guard facility.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: The Battle Creek Amtrak Station serves Amtrak trains on the south end of the station and Greyhound and Indian Trails bus lines on the north side of the station. The Canadian National Railway and Norfolk Southern Railway provide freight service to the city.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Battle Creek Transit provides public transit services to Battle Creek area residents. Regular route bus service is provided throughout the City of Battle Creek.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Kalamazoo's Kalamazoo-Battle Creek International Airport serves Battle Creek. Locally, W. K. Kellogg Airport serves the general aviation needs of the community. The airport is also home to Western Michigan University's College of Aviation, Duncan Aviation, WACO Classic Aircraft Corp. a bi-plane manufacturer, and formerly, the Michigan Air National Guard's 110th Attack Wing, which flies the MQ-9 Reaper UAV.


title: Battle Creek, Michigan

text: Battle Creek's relationship with Takasaki is more than 25 years old. Takasaki later established sister city relationships with Santo Andre; Chengde, China; Pilsen, Czech Republic and, in 2006, Muntinlupa, Philippines. These cities take turns hosting annual environmental conferences where technical and administrative staff share ideas and projects about environmental concerns. Battle Creek and Takasaki organize junior high and high school student and teacher exchanges each summer.


title: Boondocks

text: The boondocks is an American expression from the Tagalog (Filipino) word "bundók" ("mountain"). It originally referred to a remote rural area, but now, is often applied to an out-of-the-way area considered backward and unsophisticated by city-folk. It can also occasionally refer to a mountain in both Filipino and American context.


title: Boondocks

text: The expression was introduced to English by U.S. military personnel fighting in the Philippine–American War (1899-1902). It derives from the Tagalog word ""bundók"", which means "mountain". According to military historian Paul A. Kramer, the term originally had "connotations of bewilderment and confusion", due to the guerrilla warfare in which the soldiers were engaged.


title: Boondocks

text: In the Philippines, the word "bundók" is also a colloquialism referring to rural inland areas, which are usually mountainous and difficult to access, as most major cities and settlements in the Philippines are located in lowlands or near the coastline. Equivalent terms include the Spanish-derived "probinsiya" ("province") and the Cebuano term "bukid" ("mountain"). When used generally, the term refers to a mountainous area with a connotation of being rustic or uncivilized. When referring to people ( or in Tagalog; in Cebuano; English: "someone who comes from the mountains/provinces"), it is sometimes used to connote a stereotype of naive or boorish countryside dwellers.


title: Boondocks

text: The term evolved into American slang to refer to "the countryside" or isolated rural/wilderness area, regardless of topography or vegetation. Similar slang or colloquial words are "the sticks", "the wops", "the backblocks", or "Woop Woop" in Australia, "the wop-wops" in New Zealand, "bundu" in South Africa (unrelated to "boondocks" or "bundok"), "out in the weeds" in New Brunswick and "out in the tules" in California. The diminutive "boonies" can be heard in films about the Vietnam War such as Brian De Palma's "Casualties of War" (1989) used by American soldiers to designate rural areas of Vietnam.


title: Boondocks

text: Boondocking refers to camping with a recreational vehicle (RV) in a remote location without the electricity, water, or sewer infrastructure that is available at campgrounds or RV parks.


title: Boondocks

text: In African-American culture, the word "boondocks" refers to all-white towns and cities that are isolated from primarily African-American urban life.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The Hungarian Defence Forces () is the national defence force of Hungary. Since 2007, the Hungarian Armed Forces is under a unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army. A subordinate Joint Forces Command is coordinating and commanding the HDF corps. In 2020, the armed forces had 22,700 personnel on active duty. In 2019, military spending was $1.904 billion, about 1.22% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%. In 2016, the government adopted a resolution in which it pledged to increase defence spending to 2.0% of GDP and the number of active personnel to 37,650 by 2026.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime. In a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to buy 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft for about 800 million EUR. Hungary bought two used Airbus A319 and two Falcon 7X transport aircraft. Three C-17 III Globemaster transport aircraft are operating from Pápa Air Base under Hungarian nationality mark but are maintained by the NATO Heavy Airlift Wing (HAW). An intensive modernization program started in 2016 under the name "Zrínyi 2026". New helicopters, tanks, IFVs and artillery equipment were purchased beside others. Hungarian National Cyber Security Center was re-organized in 2016.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In 2016, the Hungarian military has about 700 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including 100 HDF troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan, 210 Hungarian soldiers in Kosovo under command of KFOR, and 160 troops in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hungary sent a 300-strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war. One soldier was killed in action by a roadside bomb in Iraq.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the HDF drove Habsburg forces from the country in the Spring Campaign of 1849, but was defeated by an Austro-Russian offensive in the summer. The Royal Hungarian Honvéd was established in 1868. During World War I out of the eight million men mobilized by Austria-Hungary, over one million died. Conscription was introduced on a national basis in 1939. The peacetime strength of the Royal Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands. During World War II the Hungarian Second Army was destroyed on the banks of the Don River in December 1942 in the Battle of Stalingrad. During the Socialist and the Warsaw Pact era (1947–1989), the entire 200,000 strong Southern Group of Forces was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regiments, air force and missile troops with nuclear weapons.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The Hungarian tribes of "Árpád vezér" who came to settle in the Carpathian Basin were noted for their fearsome light cavalry, which conducted frequent raids throughout much of Western Europe (as far as present-day Spain), maintaining their military supremacy with long range and rapid-firing reflex bows. Not until the introduction of well-regulated, plate-armored knight heavy cavalry could German emperors stop the Hungarian armies.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During the Árpáds the light cavalry based army was transformed slowly into a western-style one. The light cavalry lost its privileged position, replaced by a feudal army formed mainly from heavy cavalry.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The Hungarian field armies were drawn up into an articulated formation (as it happened in Battle of Przemyśl (1099), Battle at Leitha (1146), Battle of Morvamező (1278), (1349), in three main battle (formation) (1146, 1278, 1349). According to the contemporary sources and later speculations, the first line was formed by light cavalry archers (Battle of Oslava (1116, 1146, 1260, 1278). Usually, they started the battle followed by a planned retreat (1116, 1146), Battle of Kressenbrunn (1260). The major decisive battles of the Hungarian army were placed in the second or third lines consisted mainly of the most valuable parts of the army – in general heavy cavalry (1146, 1278, 1349).


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The commanders of the Hungarian Kingdom's army used different tactics, based on a recognition of their own and the enemies' (Holy Roman Empire, Pechenegs, Uzes, Cumans, Mongols, Byzantine Empire) abilities and deficiencies.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The Hungarian knight army had its golden age under King Louis the Great, who himself was a famed warrior and conducted successful campaigns in Italy due to family matters (his younger brother married Joanna I, Queen of Naples who murdered him later.) King Matthias Corvinus maintained very modern mercenary-based royal troops, called the "Black Army". King Matthias favoured ancient artillery (catapults) as opposed to cannons, which were the favourite of his father, Johannes Hunyadi, former Regent of Hungary.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During the Ottoman invasion of Central Europe (between late 14th century and circa 1700) Hungarian soldiers protected fortresses and launched light cavalry attacks against the Turks (see Hungarian Hussars). The northern fortress of Eger was famously defended in the autumn of 1552 during the 39-day Siege of Eger against the combined force of two Ottoman armies numbering circa 120,000 men and 16 ultra-heavy siege guns. The victory was very important, because two much stronger forts of Szolnok and Temesvár had fallen quickly during the summer. Public opinion attributed Eger's success to the all-Hungarian garrison, as the above two forts have fallen due to treason by the foreign mercenaries manning them. In 1596, Eger fell to the Ottomans for the same reason.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In the 1566 Battle of Szigetvár, Miklós Zrínyi defended Szigetvár for 30 days against the largest Ottoman army ever seen up to that day, and died leading his remaining few soldiers on a final suicide charge to become one of the best known national heroes. His great-grandson, Miklós Zrínyi, poet and general became one of the better-known strategists of the 1660s. In 1686, the capital city Buda was freed from the Ottomans by an allied Christian army composed of Austrian, Hungarian, and Western European troops, each roughly one-third of the army. The Habsburg empire then annexed Hungary.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Under Habsburg rule, Hungarian Hussars rose to international fame and served as a model for light cavalry in many European countries. During the 18th and 19th centuries hundreds of thousands of forcibly enrolled Hungarian males served 12 years or more each as line infantry in the Austrian Imperial Army.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Two independence wars interrupted this era, that of Prince Francis II Rákóczi between 1703 and 1711 and that of Lajos Kossuth in 1848–1849. A July 11, 1848 act of parliament in Budapest called for the formation of an army, the "Honvédség", of 200,000 which would use the Magyar language of command. It was to be formed around already extant imperial units, twenty battalions of infantry, ten hussar regiments, and two regiments of Székely from the Transylvanian Military Frontier. They were further joined by eight companies of two Italian regiments stationed in Hungary and parts of the Fifth Bohemian Artillery Regiment.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In 1848–1849 the Honvédség (mostly made up of enthusiastic patriots with no prior military training) achieved incredible successes against better-trained and -equipped Austrian forces, despite the obvious advantage in numbers on the Austrian side. The Winter Campaign of Józef Bem and the Spring Campaign of Artúr Görgey are to this day taught at prestigious military schools around the globe, including at West Point Academy in the United States. Having suffered initial setbacks, including the loss of Pest-Buda, the Honvéd took advantage of the Austrians' lack of initiative and re-formed around the Debrecen-based Kossuth government. The Hungarians advanced again and by the end of spring 1849, Hungary was basically cleared of foreign forces, and would have achieved independence, were it not for the Russian intervention. At the request of the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph, the Russians invaded with a force of 190,000 soldiers – against the Honvédség's 135,000 – and decisively defeated Bem's Second Army in Transylvania, opening the path into the heart of Hungary. This way the Austrian-Russian coalition outnumbered Hungarian forces 3:1, which led to Hungary's surrender at Világos on 13 August 1849. Sándor Petőfi, the great Hungarian poet, went missing in action in the Battle of Segesvár, against invading Russian forces.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In April 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established. Franz Josef, the head of the ancient Habsburg dynasty, was recognized as both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Nevertheless, the issue of what form the Hungarian military would take remained a matter of serious contention between Hungarian patriots and Austrian leaders. As the impasse threatened the political union, Emperor Franz Josef ordered a council of generals in November of the same year. Ultimately, the leaders resolved on the following solution: in addition to the joint (k.u.k.) army, Hungary would have its own defence force, whose members would swear their oath to the King of Hungary (who was also Emperor of Austria) and the national constitution, use the Hungarian language of command, and display their own flags and insignia. (Austria would also form its own parallel national defence force, the "Landwehr".) As a result of these negotiations, on 5 December 1868, the Royal Hungarian Landwehr ("Magyar Kiralyi Honvédség", or Defence Force) was established.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The Honvédség was usually treated generously by the Diet in Budapest. By 1873 it already had over 2,800 officers and 158,000 men organized into eighty-six battalions and fifty-eight squadrons. In 1872, the Ludovika Academy officially began training cadets (and later staff officers). Honvédség units engaged in manoeuvres and were organized into seven divisions in seven military districts. While artillery was not allowed, the force did form batteries of Gatling guns in the 1870s.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In the midst of trouble between the imperial government and the parliament in 1906, the Honvédség was further expanded and finally received its own artillery units. In this form, the force approached the coming world war in most respects as a truly "national" Hungarian army.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Hungarian soldiers "fought with distinction" on every front contested by Austria-Hungary in the First World War. Honvédség units (along with the Austrian Landwehr) were considered fit for front line combat service and equal to those of the joint forces K.U.K. army. They saw combat especially on the Eastern Front and at the Battles of the Isonzo on the Italian Front. Out of the eight million men mobilized by Austria-Hungary, over one million died. Hungarians as a national group were second only to German Austrians in their share of this burden, experiencing twenty-eight war deaths for every thousand persons.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in late 1918, the Red Army of the Hungarian communist state (Hungarian Soviet Republic) conducted successful campaigns to protect the country's borders. However, in the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919 Hungary came under occupation by the Romanian, Serbian, American, and French troops, as after four years of extensive fighting, the country lacked both the necessary manpower and equipment to fend off foreign invaders.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In accordance with the Treaty of Bucharest, upon leaving, the Romanian army took substantial compensation for reparations. This included agricultural goods and industrial machinery as well as raw materials. The Trianon Treaty limited the Hungarian National Army to 35,000 men and forbade conscription. The army was forbidden to possess tanks, heavy armor, or an air force.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: On 9 August 1919, Admiral Miklós Horthy united various anti-communist military units into an 80,000-strong National Army ("Nemzeti Hadsereg"). On 1 January 1922, the National Army was once again redesignated the Royal Hungarian Army.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was preoccupied with the regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the Trianon peace treaty at Versailles in 1920. This required strong armed forces to defeat the neighbouring states and this was something Hungary could not afford. Instead, the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, made an alliance with Nazi Germany. In exchange for this alliance and via the First and Second Vienna Awards, Hungary received back parts of its lost territories from Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. Hungary was to pay dearly during and after World War II for these temporary gains.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: On 5 March 1938, Prime Minister Kálmán Darányi announced a rearmament program (the so-called "Győr Programme", named after the city where it was announced to the public). Starting 1 October, the armed forces established a five-year expansion plan with Huba I-III revised orders of battle. Conscription was introduced on a national basis in 1939. The peacetime strength of the Royal Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In March 1939, Hungary launched an invasion of the newly formed Slovak Republic. Both the Royal Hungarian Army and the Royal Hungarian Air Force fought in the brief Slovak-Hungarian War. This invasion was launched to reclaim a part of the Slovakian territory lost after World War I.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: On 1 March 1940, Hungary organized its ground forces into three field armies. The Royal Hungarian Army fielded the Hungarian First Army, the Hungarian Second Army, and the Hungarian Third Army. With the exception of the independent "Fast Moving Army Corps" ("Gyorshadtest"), all three Hungarian field armies were initially relegated to defensive and occupation duties within the regained Hungarian territories.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In November 1940, Hungary signed the Tripartite Pact and became a member of the Axis with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In April 1941, in order to regain territory and because of the German pressure, Hungary allowed the Wehrmacht to cross her territory in order to launch the invasion of Yugoslavia. The Hungarian foreign minister, Pál Teleki who wanted to maintain a pro-allied neutral stance for Hungary, could no longer keep the country out of the war, as the British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden had threatened to break diplomatic relations with Hungary if it did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory, and General Henrik Werth, chief of the Hungarian General Staff made a private arrangement - unsanctioned by the Hungarian government - with the German High Command for the transport of the German troops across Hungary. Pál Teleki, no longer being able to stop the unfolding events, committed suicide on April 3, 1941, and Hungary joined the war on April 11 after the proclamation of the Independent State of Croatia.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: After the controversial "Kassa attack", elements of the Royal Hungarian Army joined the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, one week later than the start of the operation. In spite of the arguments made that Hungary (unlike Romania) had no territorial claims in the Soviet Union, the fateful decision was made to join the war in the East. In the late summer of 1941, the Hungarian "Rapid Corps" ("Gyorshadtest"), alongside German and Romanian army groups, scored a huge success against the Soviets at the Battle of Uman. A little more than a year later and contrasting sharply with the success at Uman, was the near total devastation of the Hungarian Second Army on banks of the Don River in December 1942 during the Battle for Stalingrad.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During 1943, the Hungarian Second Army was re-built. In late 1944, as part of "Panzerarmee Fretter-Pico", it participated in the destruction of a Soviet mechanized group at the Battle of Debrecen. But this proved to be a Pyrrhic victory. Unable to re-build again, the Hungarian Second Army was disbanded towards the end of 1944.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: To keep Hungary as an ally, the Germans launched Operation Margarethe and occupied Hungary in March 1944. However, during the Warsaw Uprising, Hungarian troops refused to participate.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: On 15 October 1944, the Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and forced Horthy to abdicate. Pro-Nazi Ferenc Szálasi was made prime minister by the Germans.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: On 28 December 1944, a provisional government under the control of the Soviet Union was formed in liberated Debrecen with Béla Miklós as its prime minister. Miklós was the commander of the Hungarian First Army, but most of the First Army sided with the Germans and most of what remained of it was destroyed about 200 kilometres north of Budapest between 1 January and 16 February. The pro-Communist government formed by Miklós competed with the pro-Nazi government of Ferenc Szálasi. The Germans, Szálasi, and pro-German Hungarian forces loyal to Szálasi fought on. On 20 January 1945, representatives of the provisional government of Béla Miklós signed an armistice in Moscow. But forces loyal to Szálasi still continued to fight on.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The Red Army, with assistance from Romanian army units, completed the encirclement of Budapest on 29 December 1944 and the Siege of Budapest began. On 2 February 1945, the strength of the Royal Hungarian Army was 214,465 men, but about 50,000 of these had been formed into unarmed labor battalions. The siege of Budapest ended with the surrender of the city on 13 February. But, while the German forces in Hungary were generally in a state of defeat, the Germans had one more surprise for the Soviets.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In early March 1945, the Germans launched the Lake Balaton Offensive with support from the Hungarians. This offensive was almost over before it began. By 19 March 1945, Soviet troops had recaptured all the territory lost during a 13-day German offensive.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: After the failed offensive, the Germans in Hungary were defeated. Most of what remained of the Hungarian Third Army was destroyed about 50 kilometres west of Budapest between 16 March and 25 March 1945. Officially, Soviet operations in Hungary ended on 4 April 1945 when the last German troops were expelled.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Some pro-fascist Hungarians like Szálasi retreated with the Germans into Austria and Czechoslovakia. During the very last phase of the war, Fascist Hungarian forces fought in Vienna, Breslau, Küstrin, and along the Oder River.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: On 7 May 1945, General Alfred Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, signed the document of unconditional surrender for all German forces. Jodl signed this document during a ceremony in France. On 8 May, in accordance with the wishes of the Soviet Union, the ceremony was repeated in Germany by Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel. On 11 June, the Allies agreed to make 9 May 1945 the official "Victory in Europe" day. Szálasi and many other pro-fascist Hungarians were captured and ultimately returned to Hungary's provisional government for trial.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During the Socialist and the Warsaw Pact era (1947–1989), the Soviet Southern Group of Forces, 200,000 strong, was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regiments, air force and missile troops (with nuclear weapons). It was, by all means, a very capable force but which had little contact with the local population. Between 1949 and 1955 there was also a huge effort to build a big Hungarian army. All procedures, disciplines, and equipment were exact copies of the Soviet Armed Forces in methods and material, but the huge costs collapsed the economy by 1956.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: During the autumn 1956 revolution, the army was divided. When the opening demonstrations on 23 October 1956 were fired upon by ÁVH secret policemen, Hungarian troops sent to crush the demonstrators instead provided their arms to the latter or joined them outright. While most major military units in the capital were neutral during the fighting, thousands of rank-and-file soldiers went over to the Revolution or at least provided the revolutionaries with arms. Many significant military units went over to the uprising in full, such as the armored unit commanded by Colonel Pál Maléter which joined forces with the insurgents at the Battle of the Corvin Passage. However, there were 71 recorded clashes between the people and the army between 24 and 29 October in fifty localities; depending on the commander; these were typically either defending certain military targets from rebel attack or fighting the insurgents outright, depending on the commander. When the Soviets crushed the Revolution on 4 November, the Army put up sporadic and disorganized resistance; lacking orders, many of their divisions were simply overpowered by the invading Soviets.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: After the Revolution was crushed in Budapest, the Soviets took away most of the Hungarian People's Army's equipment, including dismantling the entire Hungarian Air Force, because a sizable percentage of the Army fought alongside the Hungarian revolutionaries. Three years later in 1959, the Soviets began helping rebuild the Hungarian People's Army and resupplying them with new arms and equipment as well as rebuilding the Hungarian Air Force. Satisfied that Hungary was stable and firmly committed once again to the Warsaw Pact, the Soviets offered the Hungarians a choice of withdrawal for all Soviet troops in the country. The new Hungarian leader, János Kádár, asked for all the 200,000 Soviet troops to stay, because it allowed the socialist Hungarian People's Republic to neglect its own draft-based armed forces, quickly leading to deterioration of the military. Large sums of money were saved that way and spent on feel-good socialist measures for the population, thus Hungary could become "the happiest barrack" in the Soviet Bloc. Limited modernization though, would happen from the mid 1970s onward to replace older stocks of military equipment with newer ones. Thus enabling the HPA, in a small way, to honor its Warsaw Pact commitments coupled with a mid-1980s organization which abolished divisions and replaced them with ground force brigades and a singular air force command.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: The HPA was divided into the Ground and Air Forces. Until 1985, the Ground Forces were organized into:


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Training for conscripts was poor and most of those drafted were actually used as a free labour force (esp. railway track construction and agricultural work) after just a few weeks of basic rifle training. Popular opinion grew very negative towards the Hungarian People's Army and most young men tried to avoid the draft with bogus medical excuses.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In 1997, Hungary spent about 123 billion HUF (560 million USD) on defence. Hungary became a member of NATO on 12 March 1999. Hungary provided airbases and support for NATO's air campaign against Serbia and has provided military units to serve in Kosovo as part of the NATO-led KFOR operation. Hungary has sent a 300 strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war. One soldier was killed in action due to a roadside bomb in Iraq. The parliament refused to extend the one year mandate of the logistics unit and all troops have returned from Iraq as of mid-January 2005. Hungarian troops were still in Afghanistan as of early 2005 as part of the International Security Assistance Force. There were reports that Hungary would most probably replace its old UAZ 4x4 vehicles with the modern Iveco LMV types, but it never happened. Hungarian forces deploy the Gepárd anti-materiel rifle, which is a heavy 12.7 mm portable gun. This equipment is also in use by the Turkish and Croatian armed forces, among other armies.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to lease 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft (the contract includes 2 dual-seater airplanes and 12 single-seaters as well as ground maintenance facilities, a simulator, and training for pilots and ground crews) for 210 billion HUF (about 800 million EUR). Five Gripens (3 single-seaters and 2 two-seaters) arrived in Kecskemét on 21 March 2006, expected to be transferred to the Hungarian Air Force on March 30.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In early 2015, Hungary and Sweden extended the lease-program for another 10 years with a total of 32,000 flight-hours (95% increase) for only a 45% increase in cost.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In 2017, PM Orbán confirmed that Hungary will meet its NATO obligations by increasing its defense spending to about 2 percent of GDP. The official government "Zrínyi 2026" program of upgrading military equipment is scheduled to last until 2026, but the timeline has been expanded until 2030-2032. New purchased and ordered equipment so far includes new CZ BREN 2 assault rifles (to be manufactured locally), helicopters, transport and trainer aircraft, tanks, armored vehicles, radars and surface-to-air missiles.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: Hungary ordered 20 H145M and 16 H225M in 2018. All H145M aircraft had been delivered by the end of 2021. H225M are expected to arrive between 2023 and 2024.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In late 2019, Hungary signed a contract for 44 Leopard 2 A7+ tanks and 24 PzH 2000 howitzers for €300 million to be delivered in 2021 to 2025. In 2020 Hungary and Rheinmetall Group have signed a contract to start manufacturing the Lynx infantry fighting vehicle family in Hungary. Estimated to start arriving around 2024-2025, the first batch of 200+ Lynx vehicles are expected to reach operational capability in the Hungarian Defence Forces by 2026-2027


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In 2020 the Hungarian airforce ordered two KC-390 cargo and tanker aircraft to be delivered in 2023 and 2024. This year Kongsberg and Raytheon were awarded a 410 million EUR contract by Hungary for NASAMS surface-to air missile systems. 11 ELM-2084 radars were also ordered in late 2020. The Mistral SAM system has been upgraded: new M3 missiles were purchased and both the launchers and the MCPs were modernized.


title: Hungarian Defence Forces

text: In 2021 Spike LR2 anti-tank missiles has been ordered, mainly for the Lynx IFVs. In August 2021 contract has been signed with SAAB to upgrade the Hungarian Gripen fleet to the MS20 Block 2 standard. This upgrade greatly increases both Gripen's combat and communication capabilities, as well as access to a wide range of weapons that can be integrated on Hungarian Air Force Gripen fighters. The cutting edge IRIS-T missile has been also ordered in 2021. Meteor and GBU-49 is planned to be purchased for the Gripen's arsenal. There is a plan to also set up a second fighter squadron, but it has not been confirmed.


title: GLAAD

text: GLAAD (), an acronym of Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, is an American non-governmental media monitoring organization originally founded as a protest against defamatory coverage of gay and lesbian demographics and their portrayals in the media and entertainment industries; it has since included bisexual and transgender people.


title: GLAAD

text: Formed in New York City in 1985 to protest against what it saw as the "New York Post"s defamatory and sensationalized AIDS coverage, GLAAD put pressure on media organizations to end what it saw as homophobic reporting. Initial meetings were held in the homes of several New York City activists as well as after-hours at the New York State Council on the Arts. The first reported meeting occurred on November 14, 1985. The founding group included film scholar Vito Russo; Gregory Kolovakos, then on the staff of the NYS Arts Council and who later became the first executive director; Darryl Yates Rist; Allen Barnett; and Jewelle Gomez, the organization's first treasurer.


title: GLAAD

text: In 1987, after a meeting with GLAAD, "The New York Times" changed its editorial policy to use the word "gay" instead of harsher terms referring to homosexuality. GLAAD advocated that the "Associated Press" and other television and print news sources follow. GLAAD's influence soon spread to Los Angeles, where organizers began working with the entertainment industry to change the way the gay and lesbian community were portrayed on screen.


title: GLAAD

text: "Entertainment Weekly" has named GLAAD as one of Hollywood's most powerful entities, and the "Los Angeles Times" described GLAAD as "possibly one of the most successful organizations lobbying the media for inclusion".


title: GLAAD

text: Within the first five years of its founding in New York as the "Gay and Lesbian Anti-Defamation League" (soon after changed to "Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation" after legal pressure by the Anti-Defamation League), GLAAD chapters had been established in Los Angeles and other cities, with the LA chapter becoming particularly influential due to its proximity to the California entertainment industry. GLAAD/NY and GLAAD/LA would eventually vote to merge in 1994, with other city chapters joining soon afterward; however, the chapters continue to exist, with the ceremonies of the GLAAD Media Awards being divided each year into three ceremonies held in New York City, Los Angeles and San Francisco.


title: GLAAD

text: Following the 2011 resignation of Jarrett Barrios from the GLAAD presidency, Mike Thompson served as interim president until the announcement of Herndon Graddick, previously GLAAD's Vice-President of Programs and Communications, to the presidency on April 15, 2012. Graddick is the younger son of Charles Graddick of Mobile, a circuit court judge and the former Attorney General of Alabama.


title: GLAAD

text: In 2013, Jennifer Finney Boylan was chosen as the first openly transgender co-chair of GLAAD's National Board of Directors.


title: GLAAD

text: On March 24, 2013, GLAAD announced that it had formally dropped the "Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation" from their name and would now be known only as GLAAD to reflect their work more accurately; the name change was a commitment to incorporate bisexual and transgender people in their efforts to support the LGBTQ+ community in its entirety.


title: GLAAD

text: Sarah Kate Ellis is the current president and CEO of GLAAD. Ellis took reign in 2014 and under her leadership GLAAD's revenue grew by 38%. In 2015, Ellis hired Nick Adams as director of the transgender media program.


title: GLAAD

text: The GLAAD Media Awards were established in 1989. Ceremonies are held annually in New York City, Los Angeles and San Francisco.


title: GLAAD

text: Established in 2002, GLAAD's Announcing Equality project has resulted in more than 1,000 newspapers including gay and lesbian announcements alongside other wedding listings.


title: GLAAD

text: In March 2012, GLAAD launched the Commentator Accountability Project, which seeks to index and document frequent contributors, guests and pundits who regularly express anti-LGBT bias and misinformation in their contributions to journalism outlets.


title: GLAAD

text: In August 2013, GLAAD launched its first annual Studio Responsibility Index, which indexes "the quantity, quality and diversity of images of LGBT people in films released by six major motion picture studios".


title: GLAAD

text: The GLAAD Media Reference Guide is a style guide of recommendations for writers, especially journalistic outlets, to reference in positive, inclusive depiction of LGBT people. It has been published since the 1990s (then known as the "GLAAD Media Guide to the Lesbian and Gay Community"), with the 10th edition, being the most recent, published in 2016.


title: GLAAD

text: The 2021 GLAAD Social Media Safety Index, based on an analysis of Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter and YouTube, assessed that social media was "effectively unsafe for LGBTQ users."


title: GLAAD

text: GLAAD has begun the Together Movement, which encourages all to join in support of those discriminated against including women, Muslims, immigrants and members of the LGBTQ+ community.


title: GLAAD

text: In 2010, GLAAD launched Spirit Day. Spirit Day is an annual national day of action to show LGBTQ youth that they are not alone.


title: GLAAD

text: In 2016, Spirit Day was the world's largest and most visible anti-bullying campaign. The campaign works to bring anti-bullying resources to classrooms all around the world by inspiring educators to take action against bullying through hosting events and rallies. The campaign also created a GLAAD's Spirit Day kit for use in classrooms, which is available in 6 languages.


title: GLAAD

text: On social media, people are encouraged to wear purple or go purple online in order to stand united against bullying. Large media companies such as NBC Universal and Viacom show support for Spirit Day on the airwaves, and change their on-air logo to purple for the day. They also enlist people who wear purple during the day's broadcast. The hashtag #Spirit Day has become a trending topic on Twitter and Facebook every year. On social media, people such as Oprah Winfrey, Ellen DeGeneres and President Barack Obama have shown their support for the campaign.


title: GLAAD

text: GLAAD has at times worked with companies and studios in a consultative role to help with the depiction of LGBT characters and themes in specific projects. In 2004, Fox provided GLAAD with an advance copy of their reality television special "Seriously, Dude, I'm Gay" for review. Upon review of the special, GLAAD condemned it as "an exercise in systematic humiliation." The special was shelved only hours before a scheduled meeting between GLAAD and Fox entertainment president Gail Berman to discuss the network's on-air depictions of gay men. Ray Giuliani, an executive producer of "Seriously, Dude, I'm Gay", largely attributed the special's cancellation to pressures that Fox faced from GLAAD. Following the cancellation of the special, Fox organized another meeting with GLAAD for discussion over how to improve their on-air representations of the LGBT community. Following the cancellation of "Seriously, Dude, I'm Gay" the executive producers of the TBS series "He's a Lady" consulted GLAAD for review of the transgender representation in their own program.


title: GLAAD

text: The crossover fighting game "Street Fighter X Tekken", developed by Japanese video game developer and publisher Capcom, was released in 2012. The game features Poison, who is a transgender woman, as a playable character. Capcom worked closely with GLAAD on the game's script to ensure they do not "alienate anybody" in regard to Poison's representation, and "anything that might be offensive has been very tailored to not be".


title: GLAAD

text: "Tell Me Why" is an episodic narrative adventure game developed by French studio Dontnod Entertainment and published by Xbox Game Studios in 2020. The game focuses on twin siblings Alyson and Tyler Ronan, who is a transgender man. "Tell Me Why" was the first Triple-A game to feature a transgender protagonist. GLAAD helped in creating Tyler's character, with the game's director Florent Guillaume described GLAAD as "invaluable" in developing Tyler's character and making him a "realistic hero". GLAAD's director of transgender representation Nick Adams served as consultant who, amongst other areas, helped ensure that Tyler would be played by a trans actor; August Black. Adams described authentic representations of trans people in media as a "powerful tool for acceptance and understanding".


title: GLAAD

text: The third season of "Young Justice" consulted GLAAD on the subject of representing minority characters and narratives.


title: Canon EOS

text: Canon EOS (Electro-Optical System) is an autofocus single-lens reflex camera (SLR) and mirrorless camera series produced by Canon Inc. Introduced in 1987 with the Canon EOS 650, all EOS cameras used 35 mm film until October 1996 when the EOS IX was released using the new and short-lived APS film. In 2000, the D30 was announced, as the first digital SLR designed and produced entirely by Canon. Since 2005, all newly announced EOS cameras have used digital image sensors rather than film. The EOS line is still in production as Canon's current digital SLR (DSLR) range, and, with the 2012 introduction of the Canon EOS M, Canon's mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC) system. In 2018 the system was further extended with the introduction of the EOS R camera, Canon's first full frame mirrorless interchangeable lens system.


title: Canon EOS

text: The development project was called "EOS" (Electro Optical System). EOS is also the name of the goddess of dawn in Greek mythology, which further signifies the design's generational stature.


title: Canon EOS

text: It competes primarily with the Nikon F series and its successors, as well as autofocus SLR systems from Olympus Corporation, Pentax, Sony/Minolta, and Panasonic/Leica.


title: Canon EOS

text: At the heart of the system is the EF lens mount, which replaced the previous FD lens mount, which mainly supported only manual-focus lenses. The EOS R full frame camera introduced a new lens mount to the system – the RF mount.


title: Canon EOS

text: The bayonet-style EF lens mount is at the centre of the EOS camera system. Breaking compatibility with the earlier FD mount, it was designed with no mechanical linkages between moving parts in the lens and in the camera. The aperture and focus are controlled via electrical contacts, with motors in the lens itself. This was similar in some ways to Canon's earlier attempt at AF with the T80. Other manufacturers including Contax (with its G series of interchangeable-lens 35 mm rangefinder cameras), Nikon's 1983 F3AF, and Olympus (with its Four Thirds System) have since embraced this type of direct drive system. It is a large lens mount compared to most of its competition, enabling the use of larger aperture lenses.


title: Canon EOS

text: The flash system in the EOS cameras has gone through a number of evolutions since its first implementation. The basic EOS flash system was actually developed not for the first EOS camera, but rather for the last high-end FD-mount manual-focus camera, the T90, launched in 1986. This was the first Canon camera with through-the-lens (TTL) flash metering, although other brands had been metering that way for some time. It also introduced the A-TTL (Advanced TTL) system for better flash exposure in program mode, using infrared preflashes to gauge subject distance.


title: Canon EOS

text: This system was carried over into the early EOS cameras wholesale. A-TTL largely fell out of favor, and was replaced by E-TTL (Evaluative TTL). This used a pre-flash for advanced metering, and used the autofocus system to judge where the main subject was for more accurate exposure. E-TTL II, which was an enhancement in the camera's firmware only, replaced E-TTL from 2004.


title: Canon EOS

text: Canon Speedlite-brand flashes have evolved alongside the cameras. They are capable of wired and wireless multi-flash setups, the latter using visible or infrared pulses to synchronise. Later models, including RT in their model name, can also communicate via radio links, where up to 16 units can make up a network. Canon also produces Speedlite accessories, including the OC-E3 Off-Camera Shoe Cord, which can be used to hand-hold the flash while allowing the camera to control it through the cord. The Off-Camera Shoe Cord is popular among portrait photographers who need to have more control over lighting than a camera mounted flash can offer.


title: Canon EOS

text: As of 2017, Canon has released no fewer than 70 EOS SLR and DSLR camera models, starting with the introduction of the EOS 650 in 1987. In the 1990s, Canon worked with Kodak to produce digital camera bodies, starting with the EOS DCS 3 in 1995. The first digital EOS SLR camera wholly designed and manufactured by Canon was the EOS D30, released in 2000.


title: Canon EOS

text: Canon also sold a manual-focus camera, the Canon EF-M, which used the same EF lens mount as the EOS cameras. It came with all the automatic and manual exposure functions but lacked autofocus. It came equipped with a split-screen/microprism focusing screen for precise manual focusing.


title: Canon EOS

text: Through the tracking of eyeball movements, EOS cameras equipped with eye-controlled focusing (ECF) (some identifiable by the suffix E) were able to select the desired autofocus point in the scene, based on where the user was looking in the viewfinder frame. ECF was especially useful in sports photography where the subject may shift its position in the frame rapidly.


title: Canon EOS

text: EOS cameras equipped with ECF were the EOS A2E (U.S. model names are shown; see the table below for equivalents in other countries), EOS Elan IIE, EOS IXe, EOS-3, EOS Elan 7E, and EOS Elan 7NE.


title: Canon EOS

text: Canon did not continue its use of eye-controlled focusing for its digital SLRs. The EOS Elan 7NE was the last EOS camera to have this function, until in 2021 Canon reintroduced eye-controlled focus with the EOS R3.


title: Canon EOS

text: Most prosumer and professional level EOS cameras feature a large quick control dial (QCD) on the camera back. The first consumer-level EOS camera with this feature was the EOS 760D/Rebel T6s, announced in February 2015. This feature allows easy adjustment of certain parameters using the thumb. The QCD is used for quick access to often-used functions that would otherwise require a more complicated procedure of button presses and dial clicks. Settings such as ISO button, Exposure Compensation button, or menus are all easily available through the QCD.


title: Canon EOS

text: Cameras equipped with the QCD can easily be operated with one hand (forefinger on the main dial, thumb on the QCD) without taking the eye off the viewfinder.


title: Canon EOS

text: A QCD is programmed to perform useful functions, which may include setting exposure compensation, setting of aperture in manual exposure mode, and scrolling of images and menus in digital EOS cameras.


title: Canon EOS

text: Currently, top-line EOS cameras have either 61 or 65 user-selectable autofocus (AF) points. Autofocus is a camera's ability to focus a lens automatically on an object by pressing down on the shutter button. Autofocus most often chooses the closest image in the field of view to focus on. The following EOS cameras feature such a system, with 61 points unless otherwise indicated:


title: Canon EOS

text: The release of the 5D Mark III gave Canon the lead once again in this category; previously, its top-line cameras had 45 AF points, which led the industry until Nikon released its D3 and D300 DSLRs with 51-point AF systems.


title: Canon EOS

text: A higher number of AF points increases the chances of a sharply focused photograph in situations where the subject travels across the frame at high speeds (e.g. sports, wildlife).


title: Canon EOS

text: Having so many AF points also helps relieve the photographer from having to use the 'lock focus and recompose' method of framing a photograph that can introduce focusing inaccuracy. The camera generally focuses on the closest object or on human faces, which may not be what the photographer wants, so EOS cameras equipped with a multi-point AF system still allow the photographer to manually select an AF point.


title: Canon EOS

text: The EOS-3, EOS-1v, all EOS-1D models prior to the EOS-1D X, EOS 80D, EOS 77D, and EOS 800D/Rebel T7i feature a 45-point AF system. Most Canon DSLRs introduced since late 2005, starting from the EOS 20D and the Rebel XTi (400D), feature a nine-point AF system in a diamond-shape formation. The EOS 5D, released in 2005, takes this 9-point AF system a step further by introducing six more 'invisible' AF points (i.e., not user selectable) in helping the camera acquire focus faster during subject tracking. There have been several exceptions to Canon's recent rule of a 9-point AF system. The EOS 1000D (Rebel XS) has the 7-point AF system of most older Canon DSLRs. The EOS 7D, released in 2009, has a 19-point AF layout, fitting essentially within the same diamond-shaped area of the frame as the nine-point layout. The EOS 70D, released in August 2013, inherited the 7D's 19-point layout, but with fewer AF control options. The 70D system was in turn handed down to the EOS 750D (Rebel T6i) and 760D (Rebel T6s), announced in February 2015. As mentioned above, the EOS 5D Mark III, EOS-1D X, EOS 5DS/5DS R, and EOS-1D X Mark II have 61-point AF layouts. The EOS 6D, released in October 2012, has an 11-point layout. The EOS 80D, announced in 2016, marked the return of 45-point AF systems to the Canon EOS line, as well as the first appearance of a 45-point system in a non-professional body. This system was brought downmarket in 2017 with its inclusion in the upper-entry-level EOS 77D and mid-entry-level EOS 800D/Rebel T7i.


title: Canon EOS

text: For the earlier generation of 45-point AF system, the central column of 1 or 2 sensors (7 in all up to EOS-1Ds Mk II, EOS-1D Mk II N) are cross-type sensors, which are sensitive to both vertical and horizontal lines to offer a high degree of accuracy. The EOS-1Ds Mk III, replaced by the EOS-1D X, has 19 cross-type sensors for higher accuracy, as well as placing the cross-type sensors to complement the Rule of Thirds. The other Canon professional SLR replaced by the EOS-1D X, the APS-H EOS-1D Mk IV, has 39 cross-type sensors, a major increase from the 19 of the Mk III. Of the 61 AF points of the EOS-1D X and 5D MkIII, 21 central points and 20 outer points are cross-type, and five central points are dual-cross-type (sensitive to diagonal lines in addition to horizontal and vertical). All 65 points of the 7D MkII are cross-type, but only the center point is dual-cross-type.


title: Canon EOS

text: Similarly, , all AF points on later generations of the X0D series (beginning with the 40D and continuing through the current 80D) are cross-type sensors for higher accuracy, and the center sensor is dual-cross-type for even greater accuracy and sensitivity. In June 2012, the EOS 650D (Rebel T4i) became the first consumer-level Canon to receive this AF system.


title: Canon EOS

text: Identical Canon models are sometimes marketed under different names in different parts of the world. For example, the "EOS Rebel 2000" known in the Americas is also known as "EOS Kiss III" in Japan, and "EOS 300" in other parts of the world.


title: Canon EOS

text: Prior to the introduction of the EOS D30 digital SLR, Kodak produced four digital SLRs also sold under the Canon brand. These cameras used a digital camera back with the image sensor and associated electronics designed and built by Kodak together with modified internals of the EOS-1N film SLR. Due to using the Canon EOS body, these four digital SLRs can accept EF lenses. The four cameras were:


title: Canon EOS

text: After termination of the agreement by Canon, Kodak cooperated with Sigmawho at that time had a Canon licenseto produce the Kodak DCS Pro SLR/c based on a SA9 SLR body in 2004, which was compatible with EF lenses.


title: Canon EOS

text: The following digital SLRs, starting from the D30, had bodies and sensors completely designed and manufactured by Canon (except for the Canon EOS-1D, which uses a Panasonic sourced CCD sensor).


title: Canon EOS

text: Canon digital SLRs are equipped with a CMOS sensor (with the exception of EOS-1D that uses a CCD sensor). Canon designs and manufactures their own CMOS sensors.


title: Tankette

text: A tankette is a tracked armoured fighting vehicle that resembles a small tank, roughly the size of a car. It is mainly intended for light infantry support and scouting. Colloquially it may also simply mean a small tank.


title: Tankette

text: Several countries built tankettes between the 1920s and 1940s, and some saw limited combat in the early phases of World War II. The vulnerability of their light armour, however, eventually led armies to abandon the concept with some exceptions such as the more modern German Wiesel (Weasel) series.


title: Tankette

text: Tankettes were made both in two- and three-man models. Some were so low that the occupant had to lie prone. Some models were not equipped with turrets (and together with the tracked mobility, this is often seen as defining the concept), or just a very simple turret that was traversed by hand or leg. They were significantly smaller than light tanks and did not have a tank gun; instead their main weapon tended to be one or two machine guns or, rarely, a 20 mm autocannon or grenade launcher.


title: Tankette

text: The genesis of the tankette concept was the armoured warfare of World War I. On the Western Front in the later stage of the war, Allied tanks could break through the enemy trench lines but the infantry (needed to take and hold the ground gained) following the tanks were easily stopped or delayed by small arms fire and artillery. The breakthrough tanks were then isolated and destroyed, and reinforcements plugged the hole in the trench line. The tankette was originally conceived in the early interwar period to solve this problem. The first designs were a sort of mobile, one-man machine gun nest protected against small arms fire and shell fragments. This idea was abandoned and the two man-model, mainly intended for reconnaissance, was produced instead. The moving up of infantry while protecting them was solved with the development of the armoured personnel carrier concept in the 1930s.