title: Radeon RX 5000 series

text: The Radeon RX 5000 series is a series of graphics processors developed by AMD, based on their RDNA architecture. The series is targeting the mainstream mid to high-end segment and is the successor to the Radeon RX Vega series. The launch occurred on July 7, 2019. It is manufactured using TSMC's 7 nm FinFET semiconductor fabrication process.


title: Radeon RX 5000 series

text: The Navi GPUs are the first AMD GPUs to use the new RDNA architecture, whose compute units have been redesigned to improve efficiency and instructions per clock (IPC). It features a multi-level cache hierarchy, which offers higher performance, lower latency, and less power consumption compared to the previous series. Navi also features an updated memory controller with GDDR6 support.


title: Radeon RX 5000 series

text: The encoding stack has changed from using Unified Video Decoder and Video Coding Engine, to using Video Core Next. VCN was previously used in the GCN 5th generation (Vega) implementation in Raven Ridge, though not utilized in other Vega product lines.


title: Radeon RX 5000 series

text: Comparison of non-reference Radeon RX 5700 XT model video cards, from the AMD Radeon RX 5000 series.The dimensions of modern graphics cards frequently exceeds the dimensions specified in the PCIe standard. Particularly, no card model fits in the specified height limit of 107 mm.


title: 2001 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The 2001 UEFA Champions League Final was a football match that took place at San Siro in Milan, Italy, on 23 May 2001, to decide the winner of the 2000–01 UEFA Champions League. The match pitted German side Bayern Munich against Spanish side Valencia. The match finished in a 1–1 draw, but Bayern clinched their fourth title by winning 5–4 on penalties. This was also their first European Cup title in a quarter-century, also representing Valencia's second consecutive final defeat (2000 and 2001). As all the goals in the match were scored from penalties, with also Bayern Munich missing a penalty in normal time and a penalty shoot-out was required to decide the winner, this UEFA Champions League match became an "all-penalty" final. The 2001 final was a meeting of the two previous seasons' losing finalists – Bayern Munich lost to Manchester United in 1999 and Valencia lost to Real Madrid in 2000.


title: 2001 UEFA Champions League Final

text: This was the sixth European Cup final to be decided on penalties, and the second under the Champions League format. This was Ottmar Hitzfeld's second Champions League title after he won it with Borussia Dortmund in 1997, making him the second coach in European Cup history, after Ernst Happel, to win the competition with two clubs. Meanwhile, it was Héctor Cúper's third consecutive European final defeat; he lost the 1999 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final with Mallorca, before losing the 2000 Champions League final with Valencia.


title: 2001 UEFA Champions League Final

text: "In the following table, finals until 1992 were in the European Cup era, since 1993 were in the UEFA Champions League era."


title: 2001 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Valencia opened the score early on with a Gaizka Mendieta penalty in the third minute after a prostrate Patrik Andersson was deemed to have handled the ball in the penalty area. Only a few minutes later, Bayern Munich were awarded a penalty after Jocelyn Angloma fouled Stefan Effenberg in the penalty box, but Santiago Cañizares saved Mehmet Scholl's kick with his legs. Bayern were awarded another penalty early in the second half, this time after Amedeo Carboni handled the ball while competing for a header with Carsten Jancker. This time, Stefan Effenberg took the penalty kick and sent Cañizares the wrong way to level the scores at 1–1. The scores remained level for the remainder of normal time and throughout the 30 minutes of extra time, so the match went to penalties.


title: 2001 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Again, Valencia took the lead early on as Paulo Sérgio put the first kick of the shoot-out over the bar before Mendieta sent Oliver Kahn the wrong way. Hasan Salihamidžić, John Carew and Alexander Zickler then traded penalty goals before Kahn saved Zlatko Zahovič's kick to tie the scores at 2–2 after three kicks each. The next kick from Patrik Andersson was also saved by Cañizares, and then Kahn stretched out a hand to tip Amedeo Carboni's shot onto the crossbar. Both Rubén Baraja and Stefan Effenberg then scored to take the shoot-out to sudden death. Bixente Lizarazu and Kily González both scored their clubs' sixth kicks of the penalty shoot-out, and then Thomas Linke scored for Bayern to set Mauricio Pellegrino up for the game-deciding kick. Kahn guessed the right direction and saved Pellegrino's kick, winning the cup for Bayern Munich.


title: 2001 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Kahn also won the UEFA Fair Play Award for consoling his heartbroken rival, Valencia's Santiago Cañizares after the penalty shoot-out.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: Diona Reasonover (born January 6, 1992) is an American actress. She starred as Charmaine Eskowitz in the television show "Clipped". She portrays Kasie Hines in the crime drama series "NCIS".


title: Diona Reasonover

text: Born and raised in Detroit, Michigan, Reasonover attended Renaissance High School. While in high school, she was a member of Mosaic Youth Theatre, a group of over 100 teenagers who performed in Detroit and internationally.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: Reasonover attended Oberlin College and graduated with a bachelor's degree in theater and dance. She also earned a Master of Fine Arts in acting from the California Institute of the Arts. She worked as a barista while in school.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: In 2010, Reasonover starred in "HYPERBOLE: origins" at [Inside] the Ford as a part of the Los Angeles-based art collective Rogue Artists Ensemble.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: Reasonover acted in Lydia R. Diamond's play "Stick Fly" with Mo'olelo Performing Arts at San Diego's 10th Avenue Theatre in 2011. Reasonover played Cheryl, the daughter of a family's maid whose life has been dramatically changed by an all-expense-paid prep school education. Calling her performance "superb", a theater reviewer for the "North County Times" said she was "brainy, proud, and easily wounded, and she offers much of the show's comic relief". A reviewer for the "San Diego Examiner" called Reasonover "a formidable force to be reckoned with". A reviewer for "The San Diego Union-Tribune" called her performance "quietly fiery". Reasonover received an award at the Tenth Annual Craig Noel Awards for Theatrical Excellence.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: At Upright Citizens Brigade, Reasonover is a member of improvisation group Ham Radio, which performs around Los Angeles. She is also a member of the long-form improvisation group Essence.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: Reasonover starred as Charmaine Eskowitz in the television series "Clipped". She patterned the character on her sister Elisa.


title: Diona Reasonover

text: Reasonover appeared as Kasie Hines in three episodes of the CBS crime drama "NCIS" in a recurring role for Season 15. She was upped to a series regular for Season 16 following the departure of Pauley Perrette.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Brett Michael Gardner (born August 24, 1983) is an American professional baseball outfielder who is a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Yankees.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner was a walk-on for the College of Charleston's baseball team. Selected by the Yankees in the third round of the 2005 MLB draft, Gardner made his MLB debut with the Yankees in 2008 and was part of the Yankees' 2009 World Series championship team. Gardner led the American League in stolen bases in 2011 and in triples in 2013. He was named an All-Star in 2015 and won a Gold Glove Award in 2016. Gardner has also won three Fielding Bible Awards.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner attended Holly Hill Academy in Holly Hill, South Carolina, where he played for the school's baseball team. He also played American Legion Baseball for St. George Post 105.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner attended walk-on tryouts for the baseball team at the College of Charleston in 2001. Gardner made the team and became a three-year starter for the College of Charleston Cougars. Gardner had a .397 batting average in 2004, his junior year, but he was not selected in the 2004 MLB draft. In 2005, his senior year, he batted .447, tied for the most hits in college baseball with 122, established a Cougars record with 85 runs scored, and led the Southern Conference with 38 stolen bases.


title: Brett Gardner

text: After his senior year in college, the New York Yankees selected Gardner in the third round, with the 109th overall selection, of the 2005 Major League Baseball draft. Gardner received a $210,000 signing bonus.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner finished the 2005 season in the New York–Penn League season ranking 268th in at bats (with 282), 54th in runs (62), and 78th in stolen bases (19). He was a Florida State League All Star in 2006, batting .323 in 63 games with 22 runs batted in (RBIs) with the Tampa Yankees. During this campaign he was third in the Florida State League in batting average and led the league in stolen bases with 30. Gardner was also second in the league in walks with 47.


title: Brett Gardner

text: In 2007, he played 54 games for the Double-A Trenton Thunder, though he missed time with a broken bone in his hand. In 203 at bats, he stole 18 bases (tied for fifth in the league; while being caught four times), hit five triples, and batted .300 with a .392 on-base percentage (OBP), before being promoted to the Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees. There, in 45 games, he batted .260 with a .343 OBP, and stole 21 bases while being caught only three times.


title: Brett Gardner

text: In fall 2007, he played in 26 games in the Arizona Fall League, leading it in runs (27) and stolen bases (16), while being caught stealing only once. He batted .343 (fifth in the league) with a .433 OBP (third) and was third in the league in walks with 17. In 2007, he was the 12th-best prospect in the Yankees minor league system according to "Baseball America".


title: Brett Gardner

text: Playing for Scranton/Wilkes-Barre in 2008, in 94 games Gardner was second in the International League with a .414 on-base percentage, 70 walks, 11 triples, and was sixth in the IL with 37 stolen bases, while being caught only nine times.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Through 2008 in the minor leagues, he had a .291 batting average and a .389 OBP. He had stolen 153 bases, being caught only 31 times (an 83% success rate).


title: Brett Gardner

text: On June 30, 2008, Gardner was called up and made his major league debut, batting last and going 0-for-3 and grounding into a triple play. On July 2, he earned both his first pop out and first hit by pitch, off fellow rookie Texas Rangers relief pitcher Warner Madrigal in the seventh inning. On July 26, 2008, Gardner was optioned back to AAA after the acquisition of Xavier Nady in order to continue to receive playing time. The Yankees again recalled Gardner in 25 days.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On September 21, 2008, Gardner scored the final run of Major League Baseball in Yankee Stadium history as a pinch runner for Jason Giambi, scoring on a sacrifice fly by Robinson Canó in the seventh inning of an eventual 7–3 win for the Yankees over the Baltimore Orioles. Gardner finished his rookie season playing in 42 games, batting .228 with 16 RBI and 13 stolen bases.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner was named the Yankees' starting center fielder for Opening Day of the 2009 season on March 29, beating out Melky Cabrera for the position, although Cabrera would eventually replace Gardner as the starting center fielder. Gardner played 108 games during the 2009 season, batting .270 with three home runs, 23 RBI, and 26 stolen bases. Gardner was also part of the Yankees' postseason run, appearing in all but one of the Yankees postseason games and starting the final two games of the World Series, as the team won the Series for the first time since 2000 by beating the Philadelphia Phillies.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner began the 2010 season as the Yankees' starting left fielder, taking over after Johnny Damon left in free agency, he finished the season with a .277 batting average and 47 stolen bases in 150 games, and had the highest number of pitches per plate appearance in the major leagues (4.61). He also won the 2010 Fielding Bible Award as the best defensive left fielder in MLB.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On December 7, 2010, Gardner underwent surgery to get rid of inflamed tissue in his wrist, with Yankees general manager Brian Cashman stating that he would be back in time for spring training.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner started the 2011 season hitting leadoff for the Yankees. He struggled in that role and was demoted to the bottom third of the order. However, after Jeter was put on the disabled list for a calf injury, Gardner was returned to the top of the order, alternating with Nick Swisher. After Jeter's return and Alex Rodriguez's stint on the DL for knee surgery, Gardner and Jeter periodically shared the top of the order, with Gardner at lead-off and Jeter batting second.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner finished the 2011 season tied for first in the American League in stolen bases with Coco Crisp, each having 49. Gardner won his second consecutive Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding left fielder in the MLB. Gardner played in 159 games, batting .259 with seven home runs and 36 RBI.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner and the Yankees agreed on a $2.8 million contract for the 2012 season, avoiding arbitration. Gardner experienced an elbow injury in 2012 and was expected to return in August. On July 16, Gardner suffered a setback and his chances of missing the entire season increased. On July 24, Gardner underwent right elbow surgery, performed by Christopher S. Ahmad, to remove a bone spur and inflamed tissue. He was reactivated on September 25 after Steve Pearce and Justin Thomas were designated for assignment. Gardner played in 16 games during 2012, batting .323 with two stolen bases and three RBI.


title: Brett Gardner

text: With Curtis Granderson having suffered a fractured right forearm during a spring training game, Gardner was moved to center field for the 2013 season. For the week of June 2–9, Gardner was named the AL Player of the Week.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On August 11, 2013, Gardner hit his first career walk-off home run with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning off of Detroit Tigers reliever José Veras. The home run sealed a 5–4 victory for the Yankees, and helped give support to a struggling Mariano Rivera, who blew three consecutive save opportunities for the only time in his career. In the same series against Detroit two days earlier, Gardner made his first bailout of Rivera's pitching mishap by hitting a walk-off single past a diving Miguel Cabrera to give the Yankees a 4–3 win. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, Gardner became the first Yankee since Claudell Washington in 1988 to have two walk-off hits in a span of three or fewer games. In 2013, Gardner played 145 games batting .273 with eight home runs, 33 doubles, an American League leading 10 triples, 52 RBI, and 24 stolen bases.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On February 23, 2014, the Yankees and Gardner agreed to a four-year, $52 million extension to begin in 2015. On April 23, 2014, Gardner made his first career start at right field. On July 28, 2014, Gardner recorded his first career multi-homer game where he hit two home runs off of Texas Rangers pitcher Yu Darvish. He was named AL Player of the Week on August 4. On September 21, Gardner recorded the 15,000th home run of the Yankees franchise off the Blue Jays' Drew Hutchison. Gardner struggled in September due to an injury, finishing 12-for-72 (.167), dampening his strong 2014 offensive season. Gardner changed his approach to hitting, relying less on his declining speed and altering his swing to develop more power. For the 2014 season, Gardner played in 148 games, batting .256 with a career-high 17 home runs, 58 RBI, and 21 stolen bases, and had the highest number of pitches per plate appearance in the major leagues (4.44).


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner was the Yankees' nominee for the Hank Aaron Award for the 2014 season. After the 2014 season, Gardner underwent surgery in his right arm to correct a rectus abdominis muscle injury that affected him in July and September.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner was named AL Player of the Week for the week ending June 28, 2015. He was one of the five candidates chosen for the All-Star Final Vote for the 2015 MLB All-Star Game, but was later removed from the ballot after being chosen to replace the injured Alex Gordon on the All-Star team. Gardner's hot first half would not last the whole season; after batting .302 up to the All-Star break, he struggled for the rest of the year, hitting .206 in the second half of the season. After going 0–4 with three strikeouts in the Yankees' 3–0 loss to the Houston Astros in the 2015 AL Wild Card Game, Gardner received a loud roar of boos from fans at Yankee Stadium.


title: Brett Gardner

text: In 2015, Gardner continued his hitting approach from the prior season, batting .259 with 16 home runs, 66 RBI, and 20 stolen bases.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner was moved into the Yankees' leadoff spot midseason after traditionally hitting behind Jacoby Ellsbury during Ellsbury's tenure as a Yankee. On April 23, Gardner hit a walk-off home run against the Tampa Bay Rays. Gardner's on-base percentage in 2016 was .351, his highest in a full season since 2010, and his 70 walks were his most since that same season. However, his .713 OPS was tied with 2011 for his lowest career mark in a full season. For the 2016 season, Gardner hit .261 with seven home runs, 41 RBI, and 16 stolen bases. His home run and RBI count were the lowest in a full season since 2011, while he recorded the lowest stolen base count of his career in a full season. He won the Gold Glove Award for American League left fielders.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On April 12, 2017, Gardner collided with Rickie Weeks of the Tampa Bay Rays at first base, and both players left the game. Gardner did not sustain a serious injury and came away only with a bruised jaw and strained neck. The Yankees listed him as day-to-day. On April 29, Gardner hit two home runs in a 12–4 win over the Baltimore Orioles. On May 2, Gardner had another two home run game in an 11–5 win over the Toronto Blue Jays. On May 5, with the Yankees down to their final strike, Gardner hit a go-ahead three-run home run off of Hector Rondon, which proved to be the game winner as the Yankees won 3-2 over the Chicago Cubs. On June 1, Gardner collected the 1,000th hit of his career off Marco Estrada of the Toronto Blue Jays. On June 30, Gardner went 3-for-5 with a grand slam and 6 RBIs, tying his career high, while falling a triple short of the cycle. On July 27, Gardner hit his 18th home run of the season, a walk-off against the Tampa Bay Rays, setting a new career high for single-season home runs. The next day, Gardner started the game with a leadoff home run. Gardner hit a walk-off single on July 29 with the bases loaded in the bottom of the ninth. Gardner hit 21 home runs, recording 23 steals and a .264 average as the Yankees made the playoffs and finished one game shy of the World Series. Gardner had a productive postseason, batting .286 with 2 RBI in the American League Division Series versus the Cleveland Indians. He was listed as a Gold Glove finalist, but ultimately lost to Alex Gordon of the Kansas City Royals.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner entered the 2018 season as a member of a crowded outfield. However, due to injuries to Jacoby Ellsbury, (who missed the entire 2018 season with various ailments), Clint Frazier, who suffered a concussion in spring training that sidelined him for most of the season, and Aaron Judge (who missed two months with a wrist injury), Gardner saw more playing time than originally expected, appearing in 140 games. He finished the season batting .236 (his worst average since 2008), with 12 home runs and 45 RBI. On October 31, 2018, the Yankees announced they had declined his $12.5 million option for 2019, and instead re-signed him to a one-year, $7.5 million contract for the 2019 season.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On April 17, 2019, Gardner hit his 100th career home run—a grand slam off Ryan Brasier—to give the Yankees a go-ahead 5–3 lead over the Boston Red Sox in what would be the game-deciding hit. He became one of two players in Yankees history (alongside Derek Jeter) to hit at least 100 home runs and steal at least 250 bases. On July 26, the Yankees placed Gardner on the 10-day injured list (retroactive to July 22) for left knee inflammation stemming from an injury he had suffered the previous week, putting him on the injured list for only the third time in his major league career. He was recalled from the injured list on August 2.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner hit .251 with a career-high 28 home runs and 74 RBIs in 2019. He finished third in Gold Glove voting


title: Brett Gardner

text: After the 2019 season, Gardner became a free agent. The Yankees re-signed Gardner to a one-year contract with an option for the 2021 season.


title: Brett Gardner

text: In the shortened 2020 season, Gardner, again in a fourth-outfielder role, played in 49 games, hitting .223 with five home runs and 15 RBI. On October 29, 2020, the Yankees declined their 2021 $10 million option on Gardner, making him a free agent.


title: Brett Gardner

text: On February 23, 2021, Gardner signed a one-year, $4 million contract with the Yankees, which included an option for 2022. On April 3, during a game against the Toronto Blue Jays, playing left field, Gardner became the 14th Yankees position player to play 14 or more consecutive seasons with the Yankees. Despite once again starting the season as a projected fourth outfielder, due to injuries to Aaron Hicks, Gardner played in 140 games and hit .222 with 10 home runs and 39 RBI. On November 4, the option for 2022 was not exercised, making Gardner a free agent. He was the final member of the 2009 World Series team remaining on the team.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner was not signed by any team prior to the start of the 2022 season. In October 2022 a New Jersey paper reported that he had received a $6M offer from the Toronto Blue Jays but preferred to have returned to the Yankees.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Gardner's main strength is his speed. He is best known for stealing bases and being very disciplined at the plate. In 2010 and 2014, Gardner saw more pitches per at-bat than any other player in the American League.


title: Brett Gardner

text: Brett and his wife, Jessica, have two sons together. In the offseason, the Gardners reside in Holly Hill, South Carolina.


title: Brett Gardner

text: His father, Jerry Gardner, who played in the minors for the Phillies, owns a farm in Holly Hill. Brett was raised on the farm by Jerry and his mother, Faye, with his older brother, Glen.


title: Anattā

text: In Buddhism, the term anattā (Pali: अनत्ता) or anātman (Sanskrit: अनात्मन्) refers to the doctrine of "non-self" – that no unchanging, permanent self or essence can be found in any phenomenon. While often interpreted as a doctrine denying the existence of a self, "anatman" is more accurately described as a strategy to attain non-attachment by recognizing everything as impermanent, while staying silent on the ultimate existence of an unchanging essence. In contrast, Hinduism asserts the existence of "Atman" as pure awareness or witness-consciousness, "reify[ing] consciousness as an eternal self."


title: Anattā

text: "Anattā" is a composite Pali word consisting of "an" (not, without) and "attā" (self-existent essence). The term refers to the central Buddhist concept that there is no phenomenon that has "self" or essence. It is one of the three characteristics of all existence, together with "dukkha" (suffering, dissatisfaction) and "anicca" (impermanence).


title: Anattā

text: "Anattā" is synonymous with "Anātman" (an + ātman) in Sanskrit Buddhist texts. In some Pali texts, "ātman" of Vedic texts is also referred to with the term "Attan", with the sense of soul. An alternate use of "Attan" or "Atta" is "self, oneself, essence of a person", driven by the Vedic era Brahmanical belief that atman is the permanent, unchangeable essence of a living being, or the true self.


title: Anattā

text: In Buddhism-related English literature, "Anattā" is rendered as "not-Self", but this translation expresses an incomplete meaning, states Peter Harvey; a more complete rendering is "non-Self" because from its earliest days, "Anattā" doctrine denies that there is anything called a 'Self' in any person or anything else, and that a belief in 'Self' is a source of "Dukkha" (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness). Buddhist scholar Richard Gombrich, however, argues that "anattā" is often mistranslated as meaning "not having a self or essence", but actually means ""is" not "ātman"" instead of "does not "have ātman"." It is also incorrect to translate "Anattā" simply as "ego-less", according to Peter Harvey, because the Indian concept of "ātman" and "attā" is different from the Freudian concept of ego.


title: Anattā

text: The concept of "Anattā" appears in numerous Sutras of the ancient Buddhist Nikāya texts (Pali canon). It appears, for example, as a noun in "Samyutta Nikaya" III.141, IV.49, V.345, in Sutta II.37 of "Anguttara Nikaya", II.37–45 and II.80 of "Patisambhidamagga", III.406 of "Dhammapada". It also appears as an adjective, for example, in "Samyutta Nikaya" III.114, III.133, IV.28 and IV.130–166, in Sutta III.66 and V.86 of "Vinaya". It is also found in the "Dhammapada".


title: Anattā

text: The ancient Buddhist texts discuss "Attā" or "Attan" (self), sometimes with alternate terms such as "Atuman", "Tuma", "Puggala", "Jiva", "Satta", "Pana" and "Nama-rupa", thereby providing the context for the Buddhist "Anattā" doctrine. Examples of such "Attā" contextual discussions are found in "Digha Nikaya" I.186–187, "Samyutta Nikaya" III.179 and IV.54, "Vinaya" I.14, "Majjhima Nikaya" I.138, III.19, and III.265–271 and "Anguttara Nikaya" I.284. According to Steven Collins, the inquiry of "anattā" and "denial of self" in the canonical Buddhist texts is "insisted on only in certain theoretical contexts", while they use the terms "atta, purisa, puggala" quite naturally and freely in various contexts. The elaboration of the "anattā" doctrine, along with identification of the words such as "puggala" as "permanent subject or soul" appears in later Buddhist literature.


title: Anattā

text: According to Collins, the Suttas present the doctrine in three forms. First, they apply the "no-self, no-identity" investigation to all phenomena as well as any and all objects, yielding the idea that "all things are not-self" ("sabbe dhamma anattā"). Second, states Collins, the Suttas apply the doctrine to deny self of any person, treating conceit to be evident in any assertion of "this is mine, this I am, this is myself" ("etam mamam eso 'ham asmi, eso me atta ti"). Third, the Theravada texts apply the doctrine as a nominal reference, to identify examples of "self" and "not-self", respectively the Wrong view and the Right view; this third case of nominative usage is properly translated as "self" (as an identity) and is unrelated to "soul", states Collins. The first two usages incorporate the idea of soul.


title: Anattā

text: Buddhist scholars Richard Gombrich and Alexander Wynne argue that the Buddha's descriptions of non-self in early Buddhist texts do not deny that there is a self. Wynne and Gombrich both argue that the Buddha's statements on "anattā" were originally a "not-self" teaching that developed into a "no-self" teaching in later Buddhist thought. According to Wynne, early Buddhist texts such as the "Anattālakkhana Sutta" do not deny that there is a self, stating that the five aggregates that are described as not self are not descriptions of a human being but descriptions of the human experience. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, it is possible that "original Buddhism did not deny the existence of the soul", even though a firm Buddhist tradition has maintained that the Buddha avoided talking about the soul or even denied its existence.


title: Anattā

text: Tibetologist André Migot states that original Buddhism may not have taught a complete absence of self, pointing to evidence presented by Buddhist and Pali scholars Jean Przyluski and Caroline Rhys Davids that early Buddhism generally believed in a self, making Buddhist schools that admit an existence of a "self" not heretical, but conservative, adhering to ancient beliefs. While there may be ambivalence on the existence or non-existence of self in early Buddhist literature, Bronkhorst suggests that these texts clearly indicate that the Buddhist path of liberation consists not in seeking Atman-like self-knowledge, but in turning away from what might erroneously be regarded as the self. This is a reverse position to the Vedic traditions which recognized the knowledge of the self as "the principal means to achieving liberation."


title: Anattā

text: According to Harvey, the contextual use of "Attā" in Nikāyas is two sided. In one, it directly denies that anything can be found called a self or soul in a human being that is a permanent essence of a human being, a theme found in Brahmanical (Ancient Hindu) traditions. In another, states Peter Harvey, such as at "Samyutta Nikaya" IV.286, the Sutta considers the materialistic concept in pre-Buddhist Vedic times of "no afterlife, complete annihilation" at death to be a denial of Self, but still "tied up with belief in a Self". "Self exists" is a false premise, assert the early Buddhist texts. However, adds Peter Harvey, these texts do not admit the premise "Self does not exist" either because the wording presumes the concept of "Self" prior to denying it; instead, the early Buddhist texts use the concept of "Anattā" as the implicit premise.


title: Anattā

text: According to Peter Harvey, while the "Suttas" criticize notions of an eternal, unchanging Self as baseless, they see an enlightened being as one whose empirical self is highly developed. This is paradoxical, states Harvey, in that "the Self-like "nibbana" state" is a mature self that knows "everything as Selfless". The "empirical self" is the "citta" (mind/heart, mindset, emotional nature), and the development of self in the Suttas is the development of this "citta".


title: Anattā

text: One with "great self", state the early Buddhist "Suttas", has a mind which is neither at the mercy of outside stimuli nor its own moods, neither scattered nor diffused, but imbued with self-control, and self-contained towards the single goal of "nibbana" and a 'Self-like' state. This "great self" is not yet an "Arahat", because he still does small evil action which leads to karmic fruition, but he has enough virtue that he does not experience this fruition in hell.


title: Anattā

text: An "Arahat", states Harvey, has a fully enlightened state of empirical self, one that lacks the "sense of both 'I am' and 'this I am'", which are illusions that the "Arahat" has transcended. The Buddhist thought and salvation theory emphasizes a development of self towards a Selfless state not only with respect to oneself, but recognizing the lack of relational essence and Self in others, wherein states Martijn van Zomeren, "self is an illusion".


title: Anattā

text: The Buddha emphasized both karma and "anattā" doctrines. The Buddha criticized the doctrine that posited an unchanging essence as a subject as the basis of rebirth and karmic moral responsibility, which he called "atthikavāda". He also criticized the materialistic doctrine that denied the existence of both soul and rebirth, and thereby denied karmic moral responsibility, which he calls "natthikavāda". Instead, the Buddha asserted that there is no essence, but there is rebirth for which karmic moral responsibility is a must. In the Buddha's framework of karma, right view and right actions are necessary for liberation.


title: Anattā

text: Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism all assert a belief in rebirth, and emphasize moral responsibility in a way different from pre-Buddhist materialistic schools of Indian philosophies. The materialistic schools of Indian philosophies, such as Charvaka, are called annihilationist schools because they posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and death is that state where a living being is completely annihilated, dissolved.


title: Anattā

text: Buddha criticized the materialistic annihilationism view that denied rebirth and karma, states Damien Keown. Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because they encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism. Anattā does not mean there is no afterlife, no rebirth or no fruition of karma, and Buddhism contrasts itself to annihilationist schools. Buddhism also contrasts itself to other Indian religions that champion moral responsibility but posit eternalism with their premise that within each human being there is an essence or eternal soul, and this soul is part of the nature of a living being, existence and metaphysical reality.


title: Anattā

text: Theravada Buddhism scholars, states Oliver Leaman, consider the "Anattā" doctrine as one of the main theses of Buddhism. The Buddhist denial of an unchanging, permanent self is what distinguishes Buddhism from major religions of the world such as Christianity and Hinduism, giving it uniqueness, asserts the Theravada tradition. With the doctrine of "Anattā", stands or falls the entire Buddhist structure, asserts Nyanatiloka Mahathera.


title: Anattā

text: According to Collins, "insight into the teaching of "anattā" is held to have two major loci in the intellectual and spiritual education of an individual" as s/he progresses along the Path. The first part of this insight is to avoid "sakkayaditthi" (Personality Belief), that is converting the "sense of I which is gained from introspection and the fact of physical individuality" into a theoretical belief in a self. "A belief in a (really) existing body" is considered a false belief and a part of the Ten Fetters that must be gradually lost. The second loci is the psychological realization of "anattā", or loss of "pride or conceit". This, states Collins, is explained as the conceit of "asmimana" or "I am"; (...) what this "conceit" refers to is the fact that for the unenlightened man, all experience and action must necessarily appear phenomenologically as happening to or originating from an "I". When a Buddhist gets more enlightened, this happening to or originating in an "I" or sakkdyaditthi is less. The final attainment of enlightenment is the disappearance of this automatic but illusory "I".


title: Anattā

text: The Theravada tradition has long considered the understanding and application of the "Anattā" doctrine to be a complex teaching, whose "personal, introjected application has always been thought to be possible only for the specialist, the practising monk". The tradition, states Collins, has "insisted fiercely on "anattā" as a doctrinal position", while in practice it may not play much of a role in the daily religious life of most Buddhists. The Theravada doctrine of "Anattā", or not-self not-soul, inspire meditative practices for monks, states Donald Swearer, but for the lay Theravada Buddhists in Southeast Asia, the doctrines of "kamma", rebirth and "punna" (merit) inspire a wide range of ritual practices and ethical behavior.


title: Anattā

text: The "Anattā" doctrine is key to the concept of Nibbana in the Theravada tradition. The liberated nirvana state, states Collins, is the state of "Anattā", a state that is neither universally applicable nor can be explained, but can be realized.


title: Anattā

text: The dispute about "self" and "not-self" doctrines has continued throughout the history of Buddhism. In Thai Buddhism, for example, states Paul Williams, some modern era Buddhist scholars have claimed that "Nirvana is indeed the true self", while other Thai Buddhists disagree. For instance, the Dhammakaya tradition in Thailand teaches that it is erroneous to subsume nirvana under the rubric of "anattā" (non-self); instead, nirvana is taught to be the "true self" or "dhammakaya". The Dhammakaya tradition teaching that nirvana is atta, or true self, was criticized as heretical in Buddhism in 1994 by Ven. Payutto, a well-known scholar monk, who stated that 'Buddha taught Nibbana as being non-self". The abbot of one major temple in the Dhammakaya tradition, Luang Por Sermchai of Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram, argues that it tends to be scholars who hold the view of absolute non-self, rather than Buddhist meditation practitioners. He points to the experiences of prominent forest hermit monks such as Luang Pu Sodh and Ajahn Mun to support the notion of a "true self". Similar interpretations on the "true self" were put forth earlier by the 12th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand in 1939. According to Williams, the Supreme Patriarch's interpretation echoes the "tathāgatagarbha" sutras.


title: Anattā

text: Several notable teachers of the Thai Forest Tradition have also described ideas in contrast to absolute non-self. Ajahn Maha Bua, a well known meditation master, described the citta (mind) as being an indestructible reality that does not fall under "anattā." He has stated that not-self is merely a perception that is used to pry one away from infatuation with the concept of a self, and that once this infatuation is gone the idea of not-self must be dropped as well. American monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu of the Thai Forest Tradition describes the Buddha's statements on non-self as a path to awakening rather than a universal truth. Bhikkhu Bodhi authored a rejoinder to Thanissaro, agreeing that "anattā" is a strategy for awakening but stating that "The reason the teaching of "anattā" can serve as a strategy of liberation is precisely because it serves to rectify a misconception about the nature of being, hence an ontological error." Thanissaro Bhikkhu states that the Buddha intentionally set aside the question of whether or not there is a self as a useless question, and goes on to call the phrase "there is no self" the "granddaddy of fake Buddhist quotes". He adds that clinging to the idea that there is no self at all would actually "prevent" enlightenment. Thanissaro Bhikkhu points to the Ananda Sutta (SN 44.10), where the Buddha stays silent when asked whether there is a 'self' or not, as a major cause of the dispute.


title: Anattā

text: "Anātman" is one of the main bedrock doctrines of Buddhism, and its discussion is found in the later texts of all Buddhist traditions.


title: Anattā

text: There are many different views of "anātman" (; Japanese: 無我 "muga"; Korean: 무아 "mu-a") within various Mahayana schools.


title: Anattā

text: The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion of "emptiness" ("śūnyatā") to "anātman" and nirvana. They do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: first, in the common sense of a monk's meditative state of emptiness; second, with the main sense of "anātman" or 'everything in the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense of "Nirvana" or realization of emptiness and thus an end to rebirth cycles of suffering. The "anātman" doctrine is another aspect of "śūnyatā", its realization is the nature of the "nirvana" state and to an end to rebirths.


title: Anattā

text: The Buddhist philosopher Nāgārjuna (~200 CE), the founder of Madhyamaka (middle way) school of Mahayana Buddhism, analyzed dharma first as factors of experience. David Kalupahana states that Nāgārjuna analyzed how these experiences relate to "bondage and freedom, action and consequence", and thereafter analyzed the notion of personal self ("ātman").


title: Anattā

text: Nāgārjuna extensively wrote about rejecting the metaphysical entity called "ātman" (self, soul), asserting in chapter 18 of his "Mūlamadhyamakakārikā" that there is no such substantial entity and that "Buddha taught the doctrine of no-self".


title: Anattā

text: Nāgārjuna asserted that the notion of a self is associated with the notion of one's own identity and corollary ideas of pride, selfishness and a sense of psychophysical personality. This is all false, and leads to bondage in his Madhyamaka thought. There can be no pride nor possessiveness, in someone who accepts "anātman" and denies "self" which is the sense of personal identity of oneself, others or anything, states Nāgārjuna. Further, all obsessions are avoided when a person accepts emptiness ("śūnyatā"). Nāgārjuna denied there is anything called a self-nature as well as other-nature, emphasizing true knowledge to be comprehending emptiness. Anyone who has not dissociated from their belief in personality in themselves or others, through the concept of self, is in a state of "avidya" (ignorance) and caught in the cycle of rebirths and redeaths.


title: Anattā

text: The texts attributed to the 5th-century Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu of the Yogācāra school similarly discuss "anātman" as a fundamental premise of the Buddha. The Vasubandhu interpretations of no-self thesis were challenged by the 7th-century Buddhist scholar Candrakīrti, who then offered his own theories on its importance.


title: Anattā

text: Some 1st-millennium CE Buddhist texts suggest concepts that have been controversial because they imply a "self-like" concept. In particular are the "tathāgatagarbha sūtras", where the title itself means a "garbha" (womb, matrix, seed) containing "Tathāgata" (Buddha). These Sutras suggest, states Paul Williams, that "all sentient beings contain a Tathagata" as their "essence, core or essential inner nature". The "tathāgatagarbha" doctrine, at its earliest probably appeared about the later part of the 3rd century CE, and is verifiable in Chinese translations of 1st millennium CE. Most scholars consider the "tathāgatagarbha" doctrine of an "essential nature" in every living being is equivalent to "self", and it contradicts the "anātman" doctrines in a vast majority of Buddhist texts, leading scholars to posit that the "tathāgatagarbha" sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.


title: Anattā

text: The "Mahayana" "Mahaparinirvana Sutra" explicitly asserts that the Buddha used the term "self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics. The "Ratnagotravibhāga" (also known as "Uttaratantra"), another text composed in the first half of 1st millennium CE and translated into Chinese in 511 CE, points out that the teaching of the "tathāgatagarbha" doctrine is intended to win sentient beings over to abandoning "self-love" ("atma-sneha") – considered to be one of the defects by Buddhism. The 6th-century Chinese "tathāgatagarbha" translation states that "Buddha has "shiwo" (true self) which is beyond being and nonbeing". However, the "Ratnagotravibhāga" asserts that the "self" implied in "tathāgatagarbha" doctrine is actually "not-self".


title: Anattā

text: According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in these sutras does not represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language and expression of śūnyatā "emptiness" and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. Other scholars do in fact detect leanings towards monism in these "tathagatagarbha" references. Michael Zimmermann sees the notion of an unperishing and eternal self in the Tathagatagarbha Sutra. Zimmermann also avers that "the existence of an eternal, imperishable self, that is, buddhahood, is definitely the basic point of the Tathāgatagarbha Sutra". He further indicates that there is no evident interest found in this sutra in the idea of Emptiness ("sunyata"). Williams states that the "self" in "tathāgatagarbha" sutras is actually "non-self", and neither identical nor comparable to the Hindu concepts of "brahman" and self.


title: Anattā

text: The "anātman" doctrine is extensively discussed in and partly inspires the ritual practices of the Vajrayāna tradition. The Tibetan terms such as "bdag med" refer to "without a self, insubstantial, anātman". These discussions, states Jeffrey Hopkins, assert the "non-existence of a permanent, unitary and independent self", and attribute these ideas to the Buddha.


title: Anattā

text: The ritual practices in Vajrayāna Buddhism employs the concept of deities, to end self-grasping, and to manifest as a purified, enlightened deity as part of the Vajrayāna path to liberation from rebirths. One such deity is goddess Nairatmya (literally, non-soul, non-self). She symbolizes, states Miranda Shaw, that "self is an illusion" and "all beings and phenomenal appearances lack an abiding self or essence" in Vajrayāna Buddhism.


title: Anattā

text: The Buddhist concept of "anattā" or "anātman" is one of the fundamental differences between mainstream Buddhism and mainstream Hinduism, with the latter asserting that "ātman" ("self") exists.


title: Anattā

text: In Hinduism, "Atman" refers to the essence of human beings, the observing pure awareness or witness-consciousness. It is unaffected by ego, distinct from the individual being ("jivanatman") embedded in material reality, and characterized by "Ahamkara" ('I-making'), mind ("citta", "manas"), and all the defiling "kleshas" (impurities). Embodied personality changes over time, while "Atman" doesn't.


title: Anattā

text: According to Jayatilleke, the Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed "Atman", but nevertheless assumes its existence, and Advaitins "reify consciousness as an eternal self." In contrast, the Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence" states Jayatilleke. According to Harvey, in Buddhism the negation of temporal existents is applied even more rigorous than in the Upanishads:


title: Anattā

text: Both Buddhism and Hinduism distinguish ego-related "I am, this is mine", from their respective abstract doctrines of ""Anattā"" and ""Atman"". This, states Peter Harvey, may have been an influence of Buddhism on Hinduism.


title: Anattā

text: The term "niratman" appears in the "Maitrayaniya Upanishad" of Hinduism, such as in verses 6.20, 6.21 and 7.4. "Niratman" literally means "selfless". The "niratman" concept has been interpreted to be analogous to "anatman" of Buddhism. The ontological teachings, however, are different. In the Upanishad, states Thomas Wood, numerous positive and negative descriptions of various states – such as "niratman" and "sarvasyatman" (the self of all) – are used in "Maitrayaniya Upanishad" to explain the nondual concept of the "highest Self". According to Ramatirtha, states Paul Deussen, the "niratman" state discussion is referring to stopping the recognition of oneself as an individual soul, and reaching the awareness of universal soul or the metaphysical Brahman.


title: Anattā

text: The Greek philosopher Pyrrho traveled to India as part of Alexander the Great's entourage where he was influenced by the Indian gymnosophists, which inspired him to create the philosophy of Pyrrhonism. Philologist Christopher Beckwith has demonstrated that Pyrrho based his philosophy on his translation of the three marks of existence into Greek, and that "adiaphora" (not logically differentiable, not clearly definable, negating Aristotle's use of "diaphora") reflects Pyrrho's understanding of the Buddhist concept of "anattā".


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; ) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Co-founded by Albert Einstein and Dr. Chaim Weizmann in July 1918, the public university officially opened in April 1925. It is the second-oldest Israeli university, having been founded 30 years before the establishment of the State of Israel. The HUJI has three campuses in Jerusalem and one in Rehovot. The world's largest library for Jewish studies—the National Library of Israel—is located on its Edmond J. Safra campus in the Givat Ram neighbourhood of Jerusalem.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The university has five affiliated teaching hospitals (including the Hadassah Medical Center), seven faculties, more than 100 research centers, and 315 academic departments. , one-third of all the doctoral candidates in Israel were studying at the HUJI.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: Among its first few board of governors were Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Martin Buber, and Chaim Weizmann. Four of Israel's prime ministers are alumni of the university. , 15 Nobel Prize winners (8 alumni and teachers), two Fields Medalists (one alumnus), and three Turing Award winners have been affiliated with the HUJI.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: One of the visions of the Zionist movement was the establishment of a Jewish university in the Land of Israel. Founding a university was proposed as far back as 1884 in the Kattowitz (Katowice) conference of the Hovevei Zion society, and by Hermann Schapira at the First Zionist Congress of 1897.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The cornerstone for the university was laid on July 24, 1918. Seven years later, on April 1, 1925, the Hebrew University campus on Mount Scopus was opened at a gala ceremony attended by the leaders of the Jewish world, distinguished scholars and public figures, and British dignitaries, including the Earl of Balfour, Viscount Allenby, Winston Churchill and Sir Herbert Samuel. The university's first chancellor was Judah Magnes, who led the school as chancellor from 1924 to 1935. In 1935 to 1948 he led the school as president.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: One of the most controversial issues during the conceptualization of the university regarded its future official language. Whereas one side, the so-called “Germanists”, proposed a combination of German and Arabic for all non-Jewish subjects, the other side opted for the general use of Hebrew. The former party was afraid the very recent Modern Hebrew might not yet allow high-level academic discussions since it still suffered from a lack of specific technical terms in non-religious contexts. Although this concern can not simply be dismissed as unreasonable, the representatives of this position underestimated the symbolic significance of Hebrew for many Jews, not least of all for those outside the academia. Therefore, they were not able to prevail in the discussion and had to give in to the decision that the new university would be an explicitly Hebrew one. The question, what would define the specific Hebrew character of the university did not only regard the choice of an official language but also organizational aspects, as for example the establishment of departments and the definition of their respective research areas, and the outline of its overall academic profile. Therefore, in 1919, Shmaryahu Levin inquired a number of prominent Jewish European scholars about their opinions on the subject. One of the respondents was Ignaz Goldziher whose proposals were at least partly implemented: oriental languages, Jewish literature, and archaeology were among the first subjects studied at the university.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: By 1947, the university had become a large research and teaching institution. Sir Leon Simon was Acting President from 1948 to 1949, and he was succeeded as president by Professor Selig Brodetsky, who served from 1949 to 1952. Plans for a medical school were approved in May 1949, and in November 1949, a faculty of law was inaugurated. In 1952, it was announced that the agricultural institute founded by the university in 1940 would become a full-fledged faculty.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, attacks were carried out against convoys moving between the Israeli-controlled section of Jerusalem and the university. The leader of the Arab forces in Jerusalem, Abdul Kader Husseini, threatened military action against the university Hadassah Hospital "if the Jews continued to use them as bases for attacks." After the April 1948 Hadassah medical convoy massacre, in which 79 Jews, including doctors and nurses, were killed, the Mount Scopus campus was cut off from Jerusalem. British soldier Jack Churchill coordinated the evacuation of 700 Jewish doctors, students and patients from the hospital.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: When the Jordanian government denied Israeli access to Mount Scopus, a new campus was built at Givat Ram in western Jerusalem and completed in 1958. In the interim, classes were held in 40 different buildings around the city. Benjamin Mazar was President of the university from 1953 to 1961, Giulio Racah was Acting President from 1961 to 1962, and Eliahu Eilat was president from 1962 to 1968.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Terra Santa building in Rehavia, rented from the Franciscan Custodians of the Latin Holy Places, was also used for this purpose. A few years later, together with the Hadassah Medical Organization, a medical science campus was built in the south-west Jerusalem neighborhood of Ein Kerem.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: By the beginning of 1967, the students numbered 12,500, spread among the two campuses in Jerusalem and the agricultural faculty in Rehovot. After the unification of Jerusalem, following the Six-Day War of June 1967, the university was able to return to Mount Scopus, which was rebuilt. According to ARIJ, Israel confiscated 568 Dunams of land from the Palestinian village of Isawiya for the Hebrew University in 1968. In 1981 the construction work was completed, and Mount Scopus again became the main campus of the university. Avraham Harman was President of the university from 1968 to 1983, Don Patinkin from 1983 to 1986, Amnon Pazy from 1986 to 1990, Yoram Ben-Porat from 1990 to 1992, Hanoch Gutfreund from 1992 to 1997, and Menachem Magidor from 1997 to 2009.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: On July 31, 2002, a member of a terrorist cell detonated a bomb during lunch hour at the university's "Frank Sinatra" cafeteria when it was crowded with staff and students. Nine people—five Israelis, three Americans, and one dual French-American citizen—were murdered and more than 70 wounded. World leaders, including Kofi Annan, President George W. Bush, and the President of the European Union issued statements of condemnation.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: Menachem Ben-Sasson was President of the university from 2009 to 2017, succeeded by Asher Cohen in 2017.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: In 2017 the Hebrew University of Jerusalem launched a marijuana research center, intended to "conduct and coordinate research on cannabis and its biological effects with an eye toward commercial applications."


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: Mount Scopus (Hebrew: Har HaTzofim הר הצופים), in the north-eastern part of Jerusalem, is home to the main campus, which contains the Faculties of Humanities, Social Sciences, Law, Jerusalem School of Business Administration, Baerwald School of Social Work, Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Rothberg International School, and the Mandel Institute of Jewish Studies.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Rothberg International School features secular studies and Jewish/Israeli studies. Included for foreign students is also a mandatory Ulpan program for Hebrew language study which includes a mandatory course in Israeli culture and customs. All Rothberg Ulpan classes are taught by Israeli natives. However, many other classes at the Rothberg School are taught by Jewish immigrants to Israel.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The land on Mt. Scopus was purchased before World War I from Sir John Gray-Hill, along with the Gray-Hill mansion. The master plan for the university was designed by Patrick Geddes and his son-in-law, Frank Mears in December 1919. Only two buildings of this original scheme were built: the David Wolffsohn University and National Library, and the Mathematics Institute, with the Physics Institute probably being built to the designs of their Jerusalem-based partner, Benjamin Chaikin.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: Housing for students at Hebrew University who live on Mount Scopus is located at the three dormitories located near the university. These are the Maiersdorf (מאירסדורף) dormitories, the Bronfman (ברונפמן) dormitories, and the Kfar HaStudentim (כפר הסטודנטים, Student Village).


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Givat Ram campus (recently renamed after Edmond Safra) is the home of the Faculty of Science including the Einstein Institute of Mathematics; the Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences; the Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, the Center for the Study of Rationality, as well as the National Library of Israel, (JNUL).


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Faculties of Medicine and Dental Medicine and the Institute For Medical Research, Israel-Canada (IMRIC) are located at the south-western Jerusalem Ein Kerem campus alongside the Hadassah-University Medical Center.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment and the Koret School of Veterinary Medicine are located in the city of Rehovot in the coastal plain. The Faculty was established in 1942 and the School of Veterinary Medicine opened in 1985. These are the only institutions of higher learning in Israel that offer both teaching and research programs in their respective fields. The Faculty is a member of the Euroleague for Life Sciences.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Hebrew University libraries and their web catalogs can be accessed through the HUJI Library Authority portal.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Jewish National and University Library is the central and largest library of the Hebrew University and one of the most impressive book and manuscript collections in the world. It is also the oldest section of the university. Founded in 1892 as a world center for the preservation of books relating to Jewish thought and culture, it assumed the additional functions of a general university library in 1920. Its collections of Hebraica and Judaica are the largest in the world. It houses all materials published in Israel, and attempts to acquire all materials published in the world related to the country. It possesses over five million books and thousands of items in special sections, many of which are unique. Among these are the Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew manuscripts department, Eran Laor map collection, Edelstein science collection, Gershom Scholem collection, and a collection of Maimonides' manuscripts and early writings.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: In his will, Albert Einstein left the Hebrew University his personal papers and the copyright to them. The Albert Einstein Archives contain some 55,000 items. In March, 2012 the university announced that it had digitized the entire archive, and was planning to make it more accessible online. Included in the collection are his personal notes, love letters to various women, including the woman who would become his second wife, Elsa.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: In addition to the National Library, the Hebrew University operates subject-based libraries on its campuses, among them the Avraham Harman Science Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Mathematics and Computer Science Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Earth Sciences Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Muriel and Philip I. Berman National Medical Library, Ein Kerem; Central Library of Agricultural Science, Rehovot; Bloomfield Library for the Humanities and Social Sciences, Mt. Scopus; Bernard G. Segal Law Library Center, Mt. Scopus; Emery and Claire Yass Library of the Institute of Archaeology, Mt. Scopus; Moses Leavitt Library of Social Work, Mt. Scopus; Zalman Aranne Central Education Library, Mt. Scopus; Library of the Rothberg School for International Students, Mt. Scopus; Roberta and Stanley Bogen Library of the Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Mt. Scopus; and the Steven Spielberg Jewish Film Archive.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the Hebrew University is the top university in Israel, overall between 101st and 150th best university in the world, between 301st and 400th in physics, between 201st and 300th in computer science, and between 51st and 75th in business/economics.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: In 2021, Shanghai Ranking and the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Hebrew University 1st in Israel in its "World University Rankings" (90th according to Shanghai Ranking and 64th in the world according to the Center for World University Rankings).


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The Hebrew University consistently ranks as Israel's best university in mathematics, and among the best worldwide. It was ranked as the 11th best institution in mathematics worldwide in 2017, 19th best in 2018, 21st best in 2019, and 25th best in 2020.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The university has an international Society of Friends organizations covering more than 25 countries. Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (CFHU), founded in 1944 by Canadian philanthropist Allan Bronfman, promotes awareness, leadership and financial support for The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. CFHU facilitates academic and research partnerships between Canada and Israel as well as establishing scholarships, supporting research, cultivating student and faculty exchanges and recruiting Canadian students to attend the Rothberg International School. CFHU has chapters in Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: The American Friends of the Hebrew University (AFHU) is a not-for-profit 501(c)3 organization that provides programs, events and fundraising activities in support of the university. It was founded by the American philanthropist, Felix M. Warburg in 1925. Supported by its founder, Stephen Floersheimer, and headed by Eran Razin, "Floersheimer Studies" is a singular program, publishing studies in the field of society, governance and space in Israel. It was established in 2007 replacing the "Floersheimer Institute for Policy Studies" of 1991.


title: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: Yissum Research Development Company is the university's technology transfer company, founded in 1964. Yissum owns all the intellectual property of the researchers and employees of the Hebrew University. Since its formation Yissum has founded more than 80 spin-off companies such as: Mobileye, BriefCam, HumanEyes, OrCam, ExLibris, BioCancell, NewStem and many more. Yissum is led by Yaacov Michlin and other leaders in the business industry such as: Tamir Huberman, Dov Reichman, Shoshi Keinan, Ariela Markel and Michal Levy. Yissum is also a member of ITTN (Israel Technology Transfer Organization).


title: Chablis wine

text: The Chablis () region is the northernmost wine district of the Burgundy region in France. The cool climate of this region produces wines with more acidity and flavors less fruity than Chardonnay wines grown in warmer climates. These wines often have a "flinty" note, sometimes described as ""goût de pierre à fusil"" ("tasting of gunflint"), and sometimes as "steely". The Chablis Appellation d'origine contrôlée is required to use Chardonnay grapes solely.


title: Chablis wine

text: The grapevines around the town of Chablis make a dry white wine renowned for the purity of its aroma and taste. In comparison with the white wines from the rest of Burgundy, Chablis wine has typically much less influence of oak. Most basic Chablis is unoaked, and vinified in stainless steel tanks.


title: Chablis wine

text: The amount of barrel maturation, if any, is a stylistic choice which varies widely among Chablis producers. Many Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines receive some maturation in oak barrels, but typically the time in barrel and the proportion of new barrels is much smaller than for white wines of Côte de Beaune.


title: Chablis wine

text: Chablis lies about east of Auxerre in the Yonne department, situated roughly halfway between the Côte d'Or and Paris. Of France's wine-growing areas, only Champagne, Lorraine and Alsace have a more northerly location. Chablis is closer to the southern Aube district of Champagne than the rest of Burgundy.


title: Chablis wine

text: The region comprises across 25 communes located along the Serein river. The soil is Kimmeridge Clay with outcrops of the same chalk layer that extends from Sancerre up to the White Cliffs of Dover, giving a name to the paleontologists' Cretaceous period. The Grands Crus, the best vineyards in the area, all lie on a single, small slope, facing southwest and located just north of the town of Chablis.


title: Chablis wine

text: During the Middle Ages the Catholic Church, particularly Cistercian monks, became a major influence in establishing the economic and commercial interest of viticulture for the region. Pontigny Abbey was founded in 1114, and the monks planted vines along the Serein. Anséric de Montréal gave a vineyard at Chablis to the Abbey in 1186. In 1245 the chronicler Salimbene di Adam described a Chablis wine. Chardonnay is believed to have first been planted in Chablis by the Cistercians of Pontigny Abbey in the 12th century, and from there spread south to the rest of the Burgundy region.


title: Chablis wine

text: The Chablis area became part of the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century. There are records in the mid-15th century of Chablis wine being shipped to Flanders and Picardy. But in February 1568 the town was besieged by the Huguenots, who burned part of it.


title: Chablis wine

text: The Seine river, easily accessible via the nearby Yonne river, gave the Chablis wine producers a near monopoly on the lucrative Parisian market. In the 17th century, the English discovered the wine and began importing large volumes. By the 19th century there were nearly of vines planted in Chablis with vineyards stretching from the town of Chablis to Joigny and Sens along the Yonne. Some Champagne producers used Chablis as a basis for a sparkling "cuvée".


title: Chablis wine

text: With the French Revolution, the monastic vineyards became "biens nationaux", and were auctioned off. The new owners were mostly local, and the political upheaval saw small farmers involved as part-time "vignerons". The English market continued to prosper. The 19th-century Russian novel "Anna Karenina" by Leo Tolstoy mentions "classic Chablis" as a commonplace choice of wine.


title: Chablis wine

text: The end of the 19th century was a difficult time for the Chablis growers. Firstly, with new railway systems linking all parts of the country with Paris, there was inexpensive wine from regions in the Midi that undercut Chablis. The vineyards were affected by oidium from 1886, and then phylloxera from 1887. Effective replacement of vinestocks to counter phylloxera took some 15 years. Many Chablis producers gave up winemaking, the acreage in the region steadily declining throughout much of the early 20th century. By the 1950s there were only of vines planted in Chablis.


title: Chablis wine

text: The 20th century did bring about a renewed commitment to quality production and ushered in technological advances that would allow viticulture to be more profitable and reliable in this cool northern climate. In 1938, the "Institut National des Appellations d'Origine" created the "Appellation d'origine contrôlée" (AOC) region for Chablis that mandated the grape variety (Chardonnay) and acceptable winemaking and viticultural practices within delineated boundaries. One of the objectives of the AOC establishment was to protect the name "Chablis", which by this time was already being inappropriately used to refer to just about any white wine made from any number of white grape varieties all across the world. In the early 1960s, technological advances in vineyard frost protection minimized some of the risk and financial cost associated with variable vintages and climate of Chablis. The worldwide "Chardonnay-boom" of the mid-late 20th century, opened up prosperous worldwide markets to Chablis and vineyard plantings saw a period of steady increase. By 2004, vineyard plantings in Chablis reached a little over .


title: Chablis wine

text: Located in northeast France, the Chablis region is considered the northernmost extension of the Burgundy wine region but it is separated from the Côte d'Or by the Morvan hills, with the main Burgundian winemaking town of Beaune located more than away. This makes the region of Chablis relatively isolated from other winemaking regions with the southern vineyards of the Champagne in the Aube department being the closest winemaking neighbor.


title: Chablis wine

text: The Chablis wine region has much in common with Champagne province, when it comes to climate. It has a semi-continental climate without maritime influence. The peak summer growing season can be hot; and wintertime can be long, cold and harsh, with frosty conditions lasting to early May. Years that experience too much rain and low temperature tend to produce wines excessively high in acidity and fruit that is too lean to support it. Vintages that are exceedingly warm tend to produce fat, flabby wines that are too low in acidity. Frost can be countered by heaters, and aspersion by sprinklers to form an ice layer. The exceptionally poor 1972 Chablis suffered frost at vintage time.


title: Chablis wine

text: The region of Chablis lies on the eastern edge of the Paris Basin. The region's oldest soil dates back to the Upper Jurassic age, over 180 million years ago and includes a vineyard soil type that is calcareous, and known as Kimmeridge Clay. All of the Chablis Grand Cru and Premier Cru vineyards are planted on this primarily Kimmeridgean soil, which imparts a distinctively mineral, flinty note to the wines. Other areas, particularly most of the Petit Chablis vineyards, are planted on slightly younger Portlandian soil, still of similar structure. The chalk landscape resembles some areas of Champagne and Sancerre.


title: Chablis wine

text: A serious viticultural concern for Chablis vineyard owners is frost protection. During the bud break period of a grapevine's annual cycle, the Chablis region is vulnerable to springtime frost, from March to early May, which can compromise the crop yield. Formerly, the financial risk involved saw many producers turn to polyculture agriculture, pulling up vineyards to plant alternative crops. The 1957 vintage was hit particularly hard by frost damage: the regional authorities reported that only 11 cases (132 bottles) of wine were produced.


title: Chablis wine

text: In the 1960s, technological advances in frost protection introduced preventive measures, such as smudge pots and aspersion irrigation to the region. Smudge pots work by providing direct heat to the vines while aspersion involves spraying the vines with water as soon as temperatures hit and maintaining persistent coverage. The water freezes on the vine, shielding it with a protective layer of ice that functions igloo-style, retaining heat within the vine. While cost is a factor in using smudge pots, there is a risk to the aspersion method if the constant sprinkling of water is interrupted of causing worse damage to the vine. There is no such protection against hail, which in 2016 caused serious difficulties for some Chablis vignerons.


title: Chablis wine

text: At harvest time, AOC regulations stipulate grapes for Grand Cru vineyard must be picked with a potential alcohol level of at least 11 percent, at least 10.5 percent for Premiers Crus and 9.5 percent for AOC Chablis vineyards. Yields in Grands Crus must be limited to 45 hectoliters per hectare (3.3 tons per acre) with a 20% allowance for increased yields. There is no official regulation on the use of mechanical harvesting, but most Grand Cru producers prefer hand picking because human pickers tend to be more delicate with the grapes and can distinguish better between ripe and unripe bunches. Over the rest of the Chablis region, mechanical harvesting was used by around 80% of the vineyards at the turn of the 21st century. The traditional style of vine training in Chablis is to have the vine trained low to the ground for warmth with four cordons stretching out sideways from the trunk.


title: Chablis wine

text: The 20th century saw many advances in winemaking technology and practices—particularly the introduction of temperature-controlled fermentation and controlled inducing of malolactic fermentation. One winemaking issue that is still contested in the region is the use of oak. Historically Chablis was aged in old wooden "feuillette" barrels that were essentially neutral: they did not impart the characteristic oak flavors (vanilla, cinnamon, toast, coconut, etc.) that are today associated with ageing a wine in barrels. Hygiene was difficult to control with these older barrels, and they could develop faults in the wine, including discoloration. These old barrels fell out of favor, replaced by stainless steel fermentation tanks which also controlled temperatures.


title: Chablis wine

text: The use of oak became controversial in the Chablis when some winemakers in the late 20th century went back to wooden barrels in winemaking, using oak barrels. So-called "traditionalist" winemakers dismissed the usage of oak as counter to the "Chablis style" or "terroir", while "modernist" winemakers embrace its use though not to the extent of a "New World" Chardonnay. The amount of char in oak barrels used in Chablis is often low, which limits the "toastiness" that is perceived in the wine.


title: Chablis wine

text: Rarely will a producer use oak for both fermentation and maturation. Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines are most likely to see oak: proponents believe that they have necessary structure and enough extract to avoid being overwhelmed by oak influence. While there are style differences among producers, rarely is basic AOC Chablis or Petit Chablis oaked.


title: Chablis wine

text: While chaptalization was widely practiced for most of the 20th century, there has been a trend of riper vintages in recent years, producing grapes with higher sugar levels that have diminished the need to chaptalize.


title: Chablis wine

text: The main Chablis Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée was designated on January 13, 1938, but the junior appellation of Petit Chablis was not designated until January 5, 1944. All the vineyards in Chablis are covered by four appellations with different levels of classification, reflecting all-important differences in soil and slope in this northerly region. At the top of the classification are the seven Grand Cru vineyards, which are all located on a single hillside near the town of Chablis. Second in quality are the Premier Cru vineyards, which numbered 40 at the turn of the 21st century, covering an area of . Next is the generic AOC Chablis which, at , is the largest appellation by far in the region and the one exhibits the most variability between producers and vintages. At the lowest end of the classification is "Petit Chablis" which includes the outlying land. As of 2004, of a permitted in the Petit Chablis appellation was planted.


title: Chablis wine

text: Soil and slope plays a major role in delineating the quality differences. Many of the Premier Crus, and all the Grand Crus vineyards, are planted along the valley of the Serein river as it flows into the Yonne. The Grand Crus and some of the most highly rated Premiers Crus (Mont de Milieu, Montée de Tonnerre, Fourchaume) are located on southwest facing slopes; these receive the maximum amount of sun exposure. The rest of the Premiers Crus are on southeast facing slopes.


title: Chablis wine

text: There are seven officially delineated Grand Cru "climats", covering an area of , all located on one southwest facing hill overlooking the town of Chablis at elevations between . One vineyard there, La Moutonne, between the Grand Cru vineyards of Les Preuses and Vaudésir, is often considered an "unofficial" Grand Cru. The "Bureau Interprofessionnel des Vins de Bourgogne" (BIVB) does recognize La Moutonne, but the seven Grand Cru vineyards officially recognized by the INAO are (from northwest to southeast): Bougros, Les Preuses, Vaudésir, Grenouilles, Valmur, Les Clos and Blanchot. Together, the Grand Cru vineyards account for around 3% of Chablis annual yearly production.


title: Chablis wine

text: While the producer can have a marked influence, each of the Grand Cru vineyards is noted for its particular "terroir" characteristic. Tom Stevenson notes that Blanchot produces the most delicate wine with floral aromas; Bougros is the least expressive but still has vibrant fruit flavors; Les Clos tends to produce the most complex wines with pronounced minerality; Grenouilles produces very aromatic wines with racy, elegance; the Les Preuses vineyard receives the most sun among the Grand Crus and tends to produce the most full bodied wines; Valmur is noted for its smooth texture and aromatic bouquet; Vaudésir tends to produce wines with intense flavors and spicy notes. Of all the Grand Cru vineyards, Les Clos is the largest in the area at . Hugh Johnson describes the wines from this Grand Cru as having the best ageing potential among Chablis and developing Sauternes-like aromas after some bottle age.


title: Chablis wine

text: The Union des Grands Crus de Chablis (UGCC) was launched in March 2000, as a syndicate restricted to Grand Cru proprietors, with mission "to defend and promote the quality of Chablis Grand Cru wines". Members are bound to abide by a charter which covers wine making and sales. Grand Cru makers must submit their wines to a tasting committee of other Union members to ensure they meet the required quality. These tastings are conducted blind.


title: Chablis wine

text: At the turn of the 21st century, there were 40 Premier Cru vineyards. The names of many of these vineyards do not appear on wine labels. The INAO permits the use of "umbrella names": smaller, lesser known vineyards are allowed to use the name of a nearby more famous Premier Cru vineyard. Some of the "umbrella" vineyards are Mont de Milieu, Montée de Tonnerre, Fourchaume, Vaillons, Montmains, Beauroy, Vaudevey, Vaucoupin, Vosgros, Les Fourneaux, Côte de Jouan and Les Beauregards. In general, Premier Cru wines have at least half a degree less alcohol by volume and tend to have less aromatics and intensity in flavors.


title: Chablis wine

text: All Chablis is made 100% from the Chardonnay grape. Some wine experts, such as Jancis Robinson, believe that the wine from Chablis is one of the "purest" expressions of the varietal character of Chardonnay, because of the simple style of winemaking favored in this region. Chablis winemakers want to emphasize the "terroir" of the calcareous soil and cooler climate that help maintain high acidity. Chablis wines are characterized by their greenish-yellow color and clarity. The racy, green apple-like acidity is a trademark of the wines and can be noticeable in the bouquet. The acidity can mellow with age and Chablis are some of the longest living examples of Chardonnay. The wines often have a "flinty" note, sometimes described as ""goût de pierre à fusil"" (gunflint) and sometimes as "steely". Some examples of Chablis can have an earthy "wet stone" flavor that intensifies as it ages, before mellowing into delicate honeyed notes. Like most white Burgundies, Chablis can benefit from some bottle age. While producers' styles and vintage can play an influential role, Grand Cru Chablis can generally age for well over 15 years while many Premiers Crus will age well for at least 10 years.


title: Chablis wine

text: Secondary grape varieties grown locally are permitted in the generic Bourgogne AOC wine. These include Aligoté, César, Gamay, Melon de Bourgogne, Pinot noir, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris (known locally as Pinot Beurot), Sauvignon blanc, Sacy, and Tressot.


title: Chablis wine

text: For most of the 20th century, Chablis wine was produced more for the export than the domestic French market, which tended to favor the Côte d'Or Chardonnays. "Négociants" are not as influential in the Chablis wine industry as in other areas of Burgundy. Trends towards estate bottling and co-operatives have shifted the economics towards the individual growers and producer. The La Chablisienne co-operative makes nearly a third of all wine produced in Chablis today.


title: Chablis wine

text: In recent years, Chablis producers have fought hard to protect the Chablis designation, using legal means to make foreign countries respect it. Despite a long association with Chardonnay, the wines of Chablis can be overshadowed by the New World expression of the varietal, and by other Burgundian Chardonnays such as Montrachet, Corton-Charlemagne and Meursault. The wide semi-generic use of the word "Chablis" outside of France is still seen in describing almost any white wine, regardless of where it was made and from what grapes.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Richard Nikolaus Eijiro, Count of Coudenhove-Kalergi (16 November 1894 – 27 July 1972) was an Austrian-Japanese politician, philosopher and Count of Coudenhove-Kalergi. A pioneer of European integration, he served as the founding president of the Paneuropean Union for 49 years. His parents were Heinrich von Coudenhove-Kalergi, an Austro-Hungarian diplomat, and Mitsuko Aoyama, the daughter of an oil merchant, antiques-dealer and major landowner in Tokyo. His childhood name in Japan was Aoyama Eijiro. He became a Czechoslovak citizen in 1919 and then took French nationality from 1939 until his death.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: His first book, "Pan-Europa", was published in 1923 and contained a membership form for the Pan-Europa movement, which held its first Congress in 1926 in Vienna. In 1927, Aristide Briand was elected honorary president of the Pan-Europa movement. Public figures who attended Pan-Europa congresses included Albert Einstein, Thomas Mann and Sigmund Freud.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi was the first recipient of the Charlemagne Prize in 1950. The 1972–1973 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honour. Coudenhove-Kalergi proposed Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" as the music for the European Anthem. He also proposed a Europe Day, a European postage stamp, and many artifacts for the movement (e.g. badges and pennants).


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi was the second son of Heinrich von Coudenhove-Kalergi (1859–1906), an Austro-Hungarian count and diplomat. His mother was Mitsuko Aoyama (1874–1941). His father, who spoke sixteen languages and embraced travel as the only means of prolonging life yet died in his forties, had prematurely abandoned a career in the Austrian diplomatic service that took him to Athens, Constantinople, Rio de Janeiro and Tokyo, to devote himself to study and writing.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi's parents met when his mother helped the Austro-Hungarian diplomat after he fell off a horse while riding in Japan. In commenting on their union, Whittaker Chambers described the future originator of Pan-Europe as "practically a Pan-European organization himself." He elaborated: "The Coudenhoves were a wealthy Flemish family that fled to Austria during the French Revolution. The Kalergis were a wealthy Greek family from Crete. The line has been further crossed with Poles, Norwegians, Balts, French and Germans, but since the families were selective as well as cosmopolitan, the hybridization has been consistently successful." The Kalergis family roots claim their descent from Byzantine royalty via Venetian aristocracy, connecting with the Phokas imperial dynasty. In 1300, Coudenhove-Kalergi's ancestor Alexios Phokas-Kalergis signed the treaty that made Crete a dominion of Venice.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: During his childhood, Coudenhove-Kalergi's mother had read aloud to him "Momotarō" and other Japanese fairy tales.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi spent his adolescence on Bohemian family estates in Ronsperg, known today as Poběžovice. His father personally taught his two sons Russian and Hungarian and toughened them both physically and morally. He took them on long walks in all weather, made them sleep on straw mattresses and take cold showers, and taught them to shoot and fence so well that no one would ever dare challenge them. He also took them to mass every Sunday. On every Good Friday, as the liturgy came to the exhortation "oremus et pro perfidis Judaeis" ("Let us also pray for the perfidious Jews"), the old count allegedly rose and walked out of the church in a protest against this supposed expression of antisemitism.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi studied at the Augustiner-Gymnasium in Brixen before attending the Theresianische Akademie in Vienna from 1908 until 1913. He obtained his doctorate in philosophy with a thesis on "Die Objectivität als Grundprinzip der Moral" (Objectivity as the Fundamental Principle of Morals) in 1917 from the University of Vienna.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: During his student years, Coudenhove-Kalergi married the famous Jewish Viennese actress Ida Roland in April 1915. His marriage to a divorcée thirteen years his senior, and a commoner, caused a temporary split with his family. His mother Mitsuko did not accept Ida, considering her a "beggar living on the riverbank," a traditional Japanese point of view against actors and performers. His mother, as head of the family, banned him from the family temporarily, but relented when Coudenhove-Kalergi became renowned for his pan-European concept.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Aristocratic in his origins and elitist in his ideas, Coudenhove-Kalergi identified and collaborated with such politicians as Engelbert Dollfuss, Kurt Schuschnigg, Otto von Habsburg, Winston Churchill, and Charles de Gaulle. His ideal political constituent was a gentleman who must respect and protect ladies, a person adhering to honesty, fair play, courtesy, and rational discourse. He strove to replace the nationalist German ideal of racial community with the goal of an ethnically heterogeneous European nation based on a commonality of culture, a nation whose geniuses were the "great Europeans" such as abbé de Saint-Pierre, Kant, Napoleon, Giuseppe Mazzini, Victor Hugo, and Friedrich Nietzsche.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi is recognized as the founder of the first popular movement for a united Europe. His intellectual influences ranged from Immanuel Kant, Rudolf Kjellén and Oswald Spengler to Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche. In politics, he was an enthusiastic supporter of "fourteen points" made by Woodrow Wilson on 8 January 1918 and pacifist initiatives of Kurt Hiller. In December 1921, he joined the Masonic lodge "Humanitas" in Vienna. In 1922, he co-founded the Pan-European Union (PEU) with Archduke Otto von Habsburg, as "the only way of guarding against an eventual world hegemony by Russia." In 1923, he published a manifesto entitled "Pan-Europa", each copy containing a membership form which invited the reader to become a member of the Pan-Europa movement. He favored social democracy as an improvement on "the feudal aristocracy of the sword" but his ambition was to create a conservative society that superseded democracy with "the social aristocracy of the spirit." European freemason lodges supported his movement, including the lodge Humanitas. "Pan-Europa" was translated into the languages of European countries (excluding Italian, which edition was not published at that time), the constructed language Occidental and a multitude of other languages, except for Russian.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: In April 1924, Coudenhove-Kalergi founded the journal "Paneuropa" (1924–1938) of which he was editor and principal author. The next year he started publishing his main work, the "Kampf um Paneuropa " (The fight for Paneuropa, 1925–1928, three volumes). In 1926, the first Congress of the Pan-European Union was held in Vienna and the 2,000 delegates elected Coudenhove-Kalergi as president of the Central Council, a position he held until his death in 1972.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: His original vision was for a world divided into only five states: a United States of Europe that would link continental countries with French and Italian possessions in Africa; a Pan-American Union encompassing North and South Americas; the British Commonwealth circling the globe; the USSR spanning Eurasia; and a Pan-Asian Union whereby Japan and China would control most of the Pacific. To him, the only hope for a Europe devastated by war was to federate along lines that the Hungarian-born Romanian Aurel Popovici and others had proposed for the dissolved multinational Empire of Austria-Hungary. According to Coudenhove-Kalergi, Pan-Europe would encompass and extend a more flexible and more competitive Austria-Hungary, with English serving as the world language, spoken by everyone in addition to their native tongue. He believed that individualism and socialism would learn to cooperate instead of compete, and urged that capitalism and communism cross-fertilise each other just as the Protestant Reformation had spurred the Catholic Church to regenerate itself.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi attempted to enlist prominent European politicians in his pan-European cause. He offered the presidency of the Austrian branch of the Pan-European Union to Ignaz Seipel, who accepted the offer unhesitatingly and rewarded his beneficiary with an office in the old Imperial palace in Vienna. Coudenhove-Kalergi had less success with Tomáš Masaryk, who referred him to his uncooperative Prime Minister Edvard Beneš. However, the idea of pan-Europe elicited support from politicians as diverse as the Italian anti-Fascist politician Carlo Sforza and the German President of the Reichsbank under Hitler, Hjalmar Schacht. Although Coudenhove-Kalergi found himself unable to sway Benito Mussolini, his ideas influenced Aristide Briand through his speech in favour of a European Union in the League of Nations on 8 September 1929, as well as his famous 1930 "Memorandum on the Organisation of a Regime of European Federal Union."


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi proposed Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" as the Anthem of Europe in 1929, which he later proposed in 1955 as Anthem for the European Union. In 1930, he proposed a Europe Day in May and in 1932 he proposed to celebrate every 17 May, the anniversary of Aristide Briand's "Memorandum" being published in 1930. However, his Pan-Europeanism earned vivid loathing from Adolf Hitler, who excoriated its pacifism and mechanical economism and belittled its founder as "a bastard." Hitler's view of Coudenhove-Kalergi was that the "rootless, cosmopolitan, and elitist half-breed" was going to repeat the historical mistakes of Coudenhove ancestors who had served the House of Habsburg. In 1928, Hitler wrote about his political opponent in his "Zweites Buch", describing him as "".


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Hitler did not share the ideas of his Austrian compatriot. He argued in his 1928 "Secret Book" that they are unfit for the future defense of Europe against America. As America fills its North American lebensraum, "the natural activist urge that is peculiar to young nations will turn outward." But then "a pacifist-democratic Pan-European hodgepodge state" would not be able to oppose the United States, as it is "according to the conception of that commonplace bastard, Coudenhove-Kalergi..." Nazi criticism and propaganda against Coudenhove-Kalergi, and his European worldview, would decades later form the basis of the racist Kalergi plan conspiracy theory.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Nazis considered the Pan-European Union to be under the control of Freemasonry. In 1938, a Nazi propaganda book was released in German. It revealed Coudenhove-Kalergi's membership of Freemasonry, the organization suppressed by Nazis. On the other hand, his name was not to be found in Masonic directories "10,000 Famous Freemasons" published in 1957–1960 by the United States' freemasons. He had already left the Viennese Masonic Lodge in 1926 to avoid the criticism that had occurred at that time against the relationship between the Pan-European movement and Freemasonry. He wrote about his Masonic membership in "Ein Leben für Europa" (A Life for Europe) published in 1966. In fact, its Nazi propaganda book also described his action in 1924–1925 only. However, this propaganda also stated that "The Grand Lodge of Wien went enthusiastically to work for the Pan European Union in a call to all Masonic chief authorities. Even the Masonic newspaper The Beacon enthused about the thoughts of the higher degree Freemason Coudenhove-Kalergi, and stated in March 1925:


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: "Freemasonry, especially Austrian Freemasonry, may be eminently satisfied to have Coudenhove-Kalergi among its members. Austrian Freemasonry can rightly report that Brother Coudenhove-Kalergi fights for his Pan European beliefs: political honesty, social insight, the struggle against lies, striving for the recognition and cooperation of all those of good will. In this higher sense, Brother Coudenhove-Kalergi's program is a Masonic work of the highest order, and to be able to work on it together is a lofty task for all brother Masons.""


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: After the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938, Coudenhove-Kalergi fled to Czechoslovakia, and thence to France. As France fell to Germany in 1940, he escaped to the United States by way of Switzerland and Portugal. When he passed a few days after the successful escape to the United States, he listened to the radio announcing the possibility that he had died. During World War II, he continued his call for the unification of Europe along the Paris-London axis. His wartime politics and adventures served as the real life basis for fictional Resistance hero Victor Laszlo, the Paul Henreid character in "Casablanca".


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: Coudenhove-Kalergi published his work "Crusade for Paneurope" in 1944. His appeal for the unification of Europe enjoyed some support from Winston Churchill, Allen Dulles, and "Wild Bill" Donovan. After the announcement of the Atlantic Charter on 14 August 1941, he composed a memorandum entitled "Austria's Independence in the light of the Atlantic Charter" and sent it to Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. In his position statement, Coudenhove-Kalergi took up the goals of the charter and recommended himself as head of government in exile. Both Churchill and Roosevelt distanced themselves from this document. From 1942 until his return to France in 1945, he taught at the New York University, which appointed him professor of history in 1944. At the same university Professor Ludwig von Mises studied currency problems for Coudenhove-Kalergi's movement.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: On 22 July 1943, Nazis deprived him of his Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Vienna, with the racist argument, that as a "Jew" he was not considered dignified an academic degree of a German university (""eines akademischen Grades einer deutschen Hochschule unwürdig"") – even though he was not Jewish nor was his family Jewish. His doctorate degree was only regranted on 15 May 1955 – a very long time after the end of Nazism.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: The end of the World War II inaugurated a revival of pan-European hopes. In the winter of 1945, Harry S. Truman read an article in the December issue of "Collier's magazine" that Coudenhove-Kalergi posted about the integration of Europe. His article impressed Truman, and it was adopted to the United States' official policy. Winston Churchill's celebrated speech of 19 September 1946 to the Academic Youth in Zurich commended "the exertions of the Pan-European Union which owes so much to Count Coudenhove-Kalergi and which commanded the services of the famous French patriot and statesman Aristide Briand." In November 1946 and the spring of 1947, Coudenhove-Kalergi circulated an enquiry addressed to members of European parliaments. This enquiry resulted in the founding of the European Parliamentary Union (EPU), a nominally private organization that held its preliminary conference on 4–5 July at Gstaad, Switzerland, and followed it with its first full conference from 8 to 12 September. Speaking at the first EPU conference, Coudenhove-Kalergi argued that the constitution of a wide market with a stable currency was the vehicle for Europe to reconstruct its potential and take the place it deserves within the concert of Nations. On less guarded occasions he was heard to advocate a revival of Charlemagne's empire. In 1950 he received the first annual "Karlspreis" (Charlemagne Award), given by the German city of Aachen to people who contributed to the European idea and European peace. In Japan, a politician Ichirō Hatoyama was influenced by Coudenhove-Kalergi's fraternity in his book "The Totalitarian State Against Man". It was translated into Japanese by Hatoyama and published in 1952. Coudenhove-Kalergi was appointed the honorary chairman of the fraternal youth association that Hatoyama, with the influence of his book, had established in 1953.


title: Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi

text: In 1955, he proposed the Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" as the music for the European Anthem, a suggestion that the Council of Europe took up 16 years later.