title: Jorge Ochoa

text: In 1976, Ochoa assumed leadership of what was basically an Ochoa family operation. Starting at least in 1978, his Miami contact was Rafael Cardona Salazar. Between 1981 and 1982, an alliance between the Ochoa family, Pablo Escobar, Carlos Lehder, and Rodríguez Gacha strengthened into what eventually became known as the Medellín Cartel. The traffickers cooperated in the manufacturing, distribution and the marketing of their cocaine. In 1981, the kidnapping of Ochoa's sister, Martha Nieves Ochoa Vasquez, by the Colombian guerrilla organization M-19 consolidated their alliance. The traffickers formed a group known as Muerte a Secuestradores, ("Death to Kidnappers") announcing the imminent execution of any guerrilla kidnappers. After being threatened with reprisals, M-19 released Martha Nieves unharmed several months later.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: John Jairo Velásquez ("Popeye"), one of the main paid killers of Pablo Escobar Gaviria, argued in an interview that Jorge Luis Ochoa Vázquez was actually the boss of Pablo Escobar Gaviria.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: On 30 April 1984, Colombian Minister of Justice Rodrigo Lara Bonilla, who had crusaded against the Medellín Cartel, was assassinated by a gang of motorcycle thugs. President Belisario Betancur who had previously opposed extradition of drug traffickers to the United States, announces "We will extradite Colombians." Carlos Lehder was the first to be put on the list. The crackdown forced Jorge Ochoa, Escobar and Rodriguez Gacha to flee to Panama for several months. While in Panama, Ochoa and Pablo Escobar met with former Colombian president Alfonso Lopez Michelsen and offered their fortunes to avoid extradition. President Belisario Betancur refused, and a few months later, Escobar was indicted for Lara Bonilla's murder while the Ochoa brothers and Rodriguez Gacha were named as material witnesses.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: On 17 July 1984, "The Washington Times" ran a story which detailed DEA informant Barry Seal's successful infiltration into the Medellín Cartel's operations in Panama. The story was leaked by Oliver North to show the Nicaraguan Sandinista involvement in the illegal drug trade. Ten days later, Carlos Lehder, Pablo Escobar, Jorge Ochoa and Rodriguez Gacha were indicted by a Miami federal grand jury based on evidence obtained by Seal (who refused to put his family in Witness Protection, resulting in his assassination on 19 February 1986, by gunmen hired by the cartel). On November 15, 1984, Jorge Ochoa was arrested by Spanish police in Madrid, on a U.S. warrant, and both the U.S. and Colombia applied for his extradition. Soon after, the Medellín Cartel publicly threatened to murder ten Colombian judges for every Colombian extradition.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: Ochoa was responsible for coordinating operations in the United States and Western Europe on behalf of the Medellín Cartel. He claimed he shipped an average of six metric tons of cocaine per month during the early 1980s (until his 1984 arrest). Ochoa had also invested in major properties at Repelon, Atlántico Department, and Acandi in Uruba, Chocó Department, from where drugs were shipped to the United States. He was also part owner of the ill-fated Banco Ganadero (Gandero Bank) where he was represented on the board of directors by Federico Molina. Molina was also his surrogate on the board of Fedegan, the Antioquia livestock federation, and the state-owned company Vecol.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: On November 18, 1986, a Miami grand jury accused Ochoa of conspiracy to import 1,452 pounds of cocaine through Nicaragua in cooperation with Federico Vaughan, an aide to Nicaragua's interior minister Tomás Borge.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: On July 14, 1986, a Spanish court decided to extradite Ochoa to stand trial in Colombia. Once in Colombia, on 17 August 1986, and despite extradition requests from the U.S., Ochoa vanished after receiving a suspended sentence on charges of falsifying documents for importing fighting bulls from Spain.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: On November 21, 1987, Jorge Ochoa was held in prison on the bull-smuggling charge for which he was extradited from Spain. Twenty-four hours later a gang of thugs arrived at the house of Juan Gómez Martínez, the editor of Medellín's daily newspaper "El Colombiano". They presented Martínez with a communique signed by "The Extraditables," which threatened execution of Colombian political leaders if Jorge Ochoa were extradited. On 30 December 1987, Ochoa was released from prison on a "habeas corpus" petition.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: In 1987, "Forbes" magazine listed Ochoa among the world's twenty richest men with an estimated worth near $3 billion. In early 1988, an unknown entity calling itself the "Anti-Mafia Command of Carlos Mauro Hoyos" claimed it was going after the ranking Medellín Cartel members headed by the Ochoas. Included in the list were José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha, Jario Mejia, Elkin Cano, Mara Ospina, Gustavo Gaviria, and the Cardenas brothers. In January 1988, the murder of Colombian Attorney General Carlos Mauro Hoyos was claimed by the Extraditables.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: During September 1990, Colombian President César Gaviria Trujillo offered drug traffickers reduced prison sentences to be served in Colombia, in order to entice them to surrender. Jorge Luis surrendered to the Colombian police during January 1991. In July 1996, Jorge Luis was released after serving a five-and-a-half year prison sentence for drug trafficking.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: Jorge Luís Ochoa Vasquez is portrayed by the Colombian actor Joavany Alvarez in the TV series "Escobar, el patrón del mal" as the character of Pedro Motoa.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: In TV Series "Tres Caínes" is portrayed by the Colombian actor Mauro Urquijo as the character of Eduardo Rocha.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: André Mattos portrayed Ochoa Vásquez in the 2015 Netflix crime drama series "Narcos". The hit show is a serialized take on drug kingpin Pablo Escobar (played by Brazilian actor Wagner Moura) and the Medellín Cartel.


title: Jorge Ochoa

text: Alejandro Edda portrayed Ochoa Vásquez in the 2017 biographical crime film " American Made", whose plot centers around former TWA pilot Barry Seal.


title: Adrienne Warren

text: Adrienne Warren (born May 6, 1987) is an American actress, singer and dancer. She made her Broadway debut in the 2012 musical "", and in 2016 received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical nomination for her performance in "Shuffle Along, or, the Making of the Musical Sensation of 1921 and All That Followed". She was also praised for her role as Tina Turner in the West End production of "Tina" in 2018, and for the same role in the Broadway production, for which she received the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical in 2020.


title: Adrienne Warren

text: Warren was born in Virginia. She is the daughter of two high school coaches. She began her performance career in church. She attended high school at the Governor’s School for the Arts. Warren graduated from Marymount Manhattan College in 2009. She performed with the groups The Dream Engine and the Trans-Siberian Orchestra. She was a vocalist for the non-profit Magic-The State Of The Art.


title: Adrienne Warren

text: Warren began her career performing in musicals "The Wiz" and "Dreamgirls" before making her Broadway debut in the musical "" in 2012. In 2016, she starred in "Shuffle Along, or, the Making of the Musical Sensation of 1921 and All That Followed", for which she received Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical nomination. Warren also appeared in a number of television series, including "Blue Bloods", "Orange Is the New Black", and "Black Box".


title: Adrienne Warren

text: In 2018, Warren was cast as Tina Turner in the West End production of "Tina". She received critical praise for her performance as Turner and a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical nomination. The following year, she performed in the Broadway production, winning the 2020 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical in 2021.


title: Adrienne Warren

text: In October 2020, it was announced that Warren was cast in her first television leading role in the ABC limited series "Women of the Movement" playing activist Mamie Till-Mobley, the mother of Emmett Till.


title: Adrienne Warren

text: In December 2020, Warren narrated the audiobook of Tina Turner's memoir "Happiness Becomes You", which was released by the Simon & Schuster imprint Atria Books.


title: Adrienne Warren

text: In September 2021, Warren was cast in the epic film "The Woman King" starring Viola Davis. Inspired by true events from the 18th and 19th centuries Kingdom of Dahomey in Africa, Warren plays a warrior.


title: Lil Bibby

text: Brandon George Dickinson (born July 18, 1994), better known by his stage name Lil Bibby, is an American rapper and record executive. Beginning his career in 2011, Bibby released his debut mixtape in 2013, titled "Free Crack". After signing with Kemosabe Records, he followed up the project with "Free Crack 2" (2014) and "Free Crack 3" (2015). In 2017, he eventually switched focus onto his own record label, Grade A Productions. Bibby would eventually sign fellow Chicago rapper and singer Juice Wrld and Australian rapper and singer the Kid Laroi to the label; both signed artists achieved success globally.


title: Lil Bibby

text: In 2013, Lil Bibby released his official mixtape, titled "Free Crack". He cited Drake and Jadakiss, as two of his favorite rappers. "Vice" stated that Bibby's first mixtape were cleared from its influences from both of these rappers. The mixtape features guest appearances from these newcomers Lil Herb and King L, while the production was handled by Hit-Boy, Young Chop and The Olympicks, among others. DJ Scream hosted this mixtape. The tape combines his distinctive gruff and imposing voice, along with a solid delivery and flow. The music videos were released for tracks such as "How We Move" featuring King L, "Change", "Water" and "Tired of Talkin'".


title: Lil Bibby

text: In December 2013, in an interview with "XXL", Bibby hinted that the next step for his career could be an EP. In 2014, it was also stated, that the rapper Drake was a huge fan of Bibby and that they'd spoken in 2013, before the release of Bibby's debut mixtape. Bibby said it pushed him onto improve his debut release, adding the tracks "Water" and "Whole Crew".


title: Lil Bibby

text: In January 2014, Bibby appeared on Sway's radio show Sway in the Morning. On the show he spoke about the success of his debut mixtape, and also dropped a live freestyle. During the same month, Bibby also featured on New York's radio station, Hot 97. During the same month, Bibby stated in his interview with "Billboard", that he was working on material for an EP, but was waiting on a couple of features. Bibby also appeared on the list of 2014's "XXL" Freshman Class. He was the last person selected to the list, due to Young Thug's last minute cancellation.


title: Lil Bibby

text: In July 2014, he made his appearance on the songs, collaborating with a fellow rapper and a Memphis-native Juicy J, and was featured on the remix to "Main Chick" performed by Kid Ink. After a few delays, Bibby's sophomore mixtape, "Free Crack 2," was released on August 29, 2014. "Free Crack 2", which was hosted by DJ Drama, includes guest appearances from Lil Herb, Wiz Khalifa, Juicy J, Kevin Gates, Jadakiss and Anthony Hamilton, among others. The mixtape has production from Juicy J, Honorable C.N.O.T.E., Sonny Digital and DJ Pain 1, among others. The mixtape was released for free digital download and rapidly accumulated over 120,000 downloads.


title: Lil Bibby

text: "Free Crack 2" was received with critical acclaim. XXL magazine awarded the mixtape an XL, praising the mixtape's authenticity, catchy hooks and production, while also commenting that the mixtape showcases Bibby's "growth as an artist." RedEye awarded the mixtape three stars out of four, commenting on the tape's maturity and versatility and praising the ability of the song 'Dead or in Prison' to let Bibby's "emotion and natural charisma do the heavy lifting." BET gave the mixtape a positive review, awarding it five stars while commenting on its "new level of depth and introspection, detailing the difficult balance of fame and authenticity and how that effects everyday life in some of America's urban war zones."


title: Lil Bibby

text: In 2015, Bibby released two singles "Ridah" and "Aww Man" for an upcoming album, supposedly the fourth installment in his Free Crack series. In late 2016, Bibby released "Thought It Was A Drought" and this was produced by DJ L Beats and Roberto Mario. After a long period with no music, in early 2018, Bibby began using the hashtag "Free Bibby" on social media, protesting his label's refusal to allow him to release the project.


title: Lil Bibby

text: Bibby and his brother G-Money decided to launch their own record label known as Grade A Productions. In an interview with XXL, Bibby discussed his transition from being a rapper to starting a record label:


title: Lil Bibby

text: In 2017, they discovered then upcoming American rapper Juice WRLD after hearing his song "Lucid Dreams". Under the label, Juice WRLD released his debut studio album "Goodbye and Good Riddance" on May 23, 2018, which was followed by 3 singles "All Girls Are The Same", "Lucid Dreams", and "Lean Wit Me". On March 8, 2019, he released his second studio album "Death Race for Love" which was followed by 2 singles "Robbery", and "Hear Me Calling". On December 8, 2019, Juice suffered from an overdose at an airport in Chicago which lead to his unexpected passing. On January 22, 2020, Grade A announced that posthumous projects from Juice will be released to honor his legacy. His first posthumous album "Legends Never Die" was released on July 10, 2020, which was followed by 3 singles "Righteous", "Tell Me U Luv Me" featuring Trippie Redd, and "Life's A Mess" featuring Halsey. Most recently his Second Post-Humous album Fighting Demons released December 10, 2021. Throughout 2020, other posthumous releases included "Smile" with The Weeknd, "Real Shit" with Benny Blanco, "Reminds Me Of You" by The Kid LAROI featuring Juice WRLD in 2020, and recently "Bad Boy" with Young Thug in 2021.


title: Lil Bibby

text: In 2019, Bibby later discovered upcoming Australian rapper and singer The Kid LAROI after hearing his song "Blessings" from his debut EP "14 With A Dream". In March, Bibby signed Laroi to Grade A. Under the label, Laroi released his debut mixtape "F*CK LOVE" on July 24 which was followed by 2 singles "GO" featuring Juice WRLD, which was a posthumous verse due to his sudden death in December 2019, and "TELL ME WHY". On November 6, Laroi released a deluxe edition of "F*ck Love" titled "F*ck Love (SAVAGE)" which was followed by 1 single "SO DONE".


title: Lil Bibby

text: Grade A Productions is a record label founded by Lil Bibby in 2017. According to Bibby, when opening the label, he stated during an XXL interview that: The label is home to well known artists such as Juice WRLD, and The Kid LAROI.


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: "D-Girl" is the 20th episode of the HBO original series "The Sopranos" and the seventh of the show's second season. It was written by Todd A. Kessler and directed by Allen Coulter, and originally aired on February 27, 2000.


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: Christopher and Adriana meet Christopher's cousin Greg and Greg's fiancée Amy. Amy works for Jon Favreau and they are filming in New York. She has been eager to meet Christopher and read his screenplay, saying that mob-themed stories are popular. She quickly becomes attracted to him. Adriana has kept a copy of the screenplay Christopher threw away and persuades him to pass it to Jon and Amy. Christopher and Adriana are invited to the film set, but he goes alone. He is absorbed by what he sees and makes a dialogue suggestion that Jon adopts.


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: Jon wants to learn about mob customs and speech from Chris. Chris comes as arranged to meet him at his hotel room but he is not available, so Chris calls on Amy instead. They talk, she begins to give advice about writing a screenplay, and they end up having sex. A few days later he sees her in the hotel lobby and they go to her room to have sex again, but afterward, she is overcome by guilt. Chris finds a screenplay by Jon and sees that Jon has stolen a mob anecdote that Chris told him in confidence. Enraged, Chris searches for him, but he has returned to California. In the following days, Amy does not reply to his messages. He finally tracks her down; she tells him that Hollywood has lost interest in mob films, and "It was wrong, with us." After a heated argument, she walks away.


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: A.J. takes his mother's car without permission and damages it. When his parents rebuke him he baffles them by stating that life is absurd, and he does not wish to be confirmed because 'God is dead'. Tony consults Pussy, who is A.J.'s godfather and confirmation sponsor; Pussy says that at that age "they get broody." Tony consults Dr. Melfi, who explains that A.J. has discovered existentialism. A.J. consults his grandmother, who tells him not to expect happiness; everyone dies alone; "It's all a big nothing."


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: Pussy is forced by the FBI to wear a wire at A.J.'s confirmation and the ensuing reception at the Soprano home. During the reception, Tony discovers A.J. and two friends smoking marijuana in the garage. Pussy goes up to A.J.'s room, where he is sulking, and gently tells him that his father is a good man; A.J. is young and should enjoy life. He hugs him and sends him back down to the party, but Pussy himself goes into the bathroom and sobs.


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: Adriana has inadvertently told Tony about Chris' screenplay-writing. Chris misses the confirmation ceremony and arrives late for the reception. Tony then tells him he has a choice: either follow his other interests (and never see him again), or give up his interests and completely commit himself to Tony. Chris goes out and thinks it over, then goes back inside to Tony.


title: D-Girl (The Sopranos)

text: The episode's title is a shortened title for "development girl", used mostly in the film and television industry; Chris calls Amy one.


title: Blue Crush

text: Blue Crush is a 2002 sports film directed by John Stockwell and based on Susan Orlean's 1998 "Outside" magazine article "Life's Swell". It stars Kate Bosworth, Michelle Rodriguez, Sanoe Lake and Mika Boorem. The film tells the story of three friends who have one passion: living the ultimate dream of surfing on Hawaii's famed North Shore.


title: Blue Crush

text: Anne Marie (Kate Bosworth) and her fourteen-year-old sister, Penny (Mika Boorem), along with good friends Eden (Michelle Rodriguez) and Lena (Sanoe Lake), live in a small house on the North Shore. They all have been helping raise Penny, since her mother moved to Las Vegas with her boyfriend.


title: Blue Crush

text: While Penny is at school, Anne Marie, Eden, and Lena work as maids in a super-luxury resort hotel, but more important than that, they are surfers. Anne Marie rises every morning before dawn to train for a possible surfing comeback. As a child, she had been a rising star in women's surfing, until she suffered a near-fatal wipeout. This has temporarily halted her progress; now when she is in really big powerful surf, she has deep-seated fears of dying. Her friends, especially Eden, are encouraging her to try once again to become a professional surfer.


title: Blue Crush

text: Anne Marie is invited to join the surfing competition at the famed North Shore surf spot, the very challenging Banzai Pipeline. If she can do well enough to gain the attention of a sponsor, it would lift her and her friends out of the near-poverty in which they live. As the Pipeline competition gets closer, Anne Marie struggles to keep her young sister Penny from running wild and tries to deal with her own personal issues.


title: Blue Crush

text: Anne Marie meets Matt Tollman (Matthew Davis), a National Football League quarterback who is in Hawaii for the Pro Bowl (it is hinted that he plays for the Minnesota Vikings). Matt is instantly attracted to the surfer. After a few encounters, Matt says he wants to learn to surf, and Anne Marie agrees to teach him, and several of his rowdy teammates, to surf for $150 per hour, with Lena, Eden and Penny acting as coaches. When Anne Marie goes to the hotel room to get the money, she sees Matt, but a call comes in. Anne Marie asks if it is Matt's wife, but he explains it is his niece. Later, they sleep together.


title: Blue Crush

text: Anne Marie's acceptance of an outsider as her boyfriend causes friction between her and some of the young male surfers on the North Shore. Eden points out to Anne Marie that her current interest in Matt has weakened her commitment to training for the Pipeline contest. Anne Marie overhears very demeaning comments about herself from some of the other football players' wives and girlfriends, who are staying at the hotel.


title: Blue Crush

text: Anne Marie confronts Matt about their situation. She soon resolves to step up her game, as she fully commits herself to the Pipeline Masters. On the day of Pipeline, Anne Marie wipes out during her first heat, but she advances to the next heat after narrowly beating pro surfer Kate Skarratt. She is shaken, but Matt tells her how he failed in his first game as an NFL quarterback, and this helps her get control of her wavering confidence.


title: Blue Crush

text: Determined, although still apprehensive, Anne Marie returns to the water. Competing in the same heat is Keala Kennelly, one of the first professional female surfers. While Keala surfs the first few sets of waves well, Anne Marie is still reluctant to try one, visions of her near-drowning incident holding her back. Keala finishes her turn, then paddles back out to take Anne Marie under her wing. Keala encourages her to ride the best wave of the day, and Anne Marie rides it perfectly, managing to score a perfect ten. Although Anne Marie cannot advance to the next heat, she has regained her lost confidence and attracted the attention of sponsors, one of whom immediately offers to have her join the Billabong women's surf team.


title: Blue Crush

text: Rotten Tomatoes rated 61% of reviews from 142 critics as positive, with an average rating of 5.81/10. The site's consensus reads, "The surfing sequences are exhilarating, but the plot is pretty forgettable and trite." Metacritic gave the movie a score of 61 based on 33 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". On their weekly film recap show, Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film 3/4 stars.


title: Blue Crush

text: The film opened on 3,002 screens in the United States on August 18, 2002. It grossed $14.2 million and placed third on the weekend. It went on to gross $40.4 million in the United States, and a total of $51.8 million worldwide. The film's estimated budget was $25 million. "Blue Crush" was the first film to use Hawaii's Act 221, a progressive local tax incentive that called for a 100 percent state tax credit for high-tech investments meeting the requirements for qualified high-tech business, while also allowing local investors to receive tax credits for investments in film or television productions. Universal Studios used the legislation for the "Blue Crush" production, receiving approximately $16 million in a deal with local investors who, in exchange, received the film's high-tech tax credits. The agreement also involved marketing rights for the Hawaii Visitors and Convention Bureau whereby the studio would cross-promote the film and the State of Hawaii. Entertainment executive April Masini, who helped produce "Baywatch: Hawaii", "Pacific Blue", and the Miss Universe Pageant, brought the tax incentives to the attention of Universal Studios, and along with producer Adam Fields advised the state in its negotiation.


title: Dekulakization

text: Dekulakization (, "raskulachivanie"; , "rozkurkulennia") was the Soviet campaign of political repressions, including arrests, deportations, or executions of millions of kulaks (prosperous peasants) and their families. Redistribution of farmland started in 1917 and lasted until 1933, but was most active in the 1929–1932 period of the first five-year plan. To facilitate the expropriations of farmland, the Soviet government portrayed kulaks as class enemies of the Soviet Union.


title: Dekulakization

text: More than 1.8 million peasants were deported in 1930–1931. The campaign had the stated purpose of fighting counter-revolution and of building socialism in the countryside. This policy, carried out simultaneously with collectivization in the Soviet Union, effectively brought all agriculture and all the labourers in Soviet Russia under state control.


title: Dekulakization

text: Hunger, disease, and mass executions during dekulakization led to approximately 390,000 or 530,000–600,000 deaths from 1929 to 1933. The results soon became known outside the Soviet Union.


title: Dekulakization

text: In November 1917, at a meeting of delegates of the committees of poor peasants, Vladimir Lenin announced a new policy to eliminate what were believed to be wealthy Soviet peasants, known as kulaks: "If the kulaks remain untouched, if we don't defeat the freeloaders, the czar and the capitalist will inevitably return." In July 1918, Committees of the Poor were created to represent poor peasants, which played an important role in the actions against the kulaks, and led the process of redistribution of confiscated lands and inventory, food surpluses from the kulaks. This launched the beginning of a great crusade against grain speculators and kulaks. Before being dismissed in December 1918, the Committees of the Poor had confiscated 50 million hectares of kulak land.


title: Dekulakization

text: Vladimir Lenin's Hanging Order, commanding hangings in response to a kulak revolt, was dated 11 August 1918.


title: Dekulakization

text: Joseph Stalin announced the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class" on 27 December 1929. Stalin had said: "Now we have the opportunity to carry out a resolute offensive against the kulaks, break their resistance, eliminate them as a class and replace their production with the production of kolkhozes and sovkhozes." The Politburo of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) formalized the decision in a resolution titled "On measures for the elimination of kulak households in districts of comprehensive collectivization" on 30 January 1930. All kulaks were assigned to one of three categories:


title: Dekulakization

text: Those kulaks that were sent to Siberia and other unpopulated areas performed hard labor working in camps that would produce lumber, gold, coal and many other resources that the Soviet Union needed for its rapid industrialization plans. In fact, a high ranking member of the OGPU (the secret police) shared his vision for a new penal system that would establish villages in the northern Soviet Union that could specialize in extracting natural resources and help Stalin's industrialization.


title: Dekulakization

text: An OGPU secret-police functionary, Yefim Yevdokimov (1891–1939), played a major role in organizing and supervising the round-up of peasants and the mass executions.


title: Dekulakization

text: In February 1928, the "Pravda" newspaper published for the first time materials that claimed to expose the kulaks; they described widespread domination by the rich peasantry in the countryside and invasion by kulaks of Communist party cells. Expropriation of grain stocks from kulaks and middle-class peasants was called a "temporary emergency measure"; temporary emergency measures turned into a policy of "eliminating the kulaks as a class" by the 1930s. Sociologist Michael Mann described the Soviet attempt to collectivize and liquidate perceived class enemies as fitting his proposed category of classicide.


title: Dekulakization

text: The party's appeal to the policy of eliminating the kulaks as a class had been formulated by Stalin, who stated: "In order to oust the kulaks as a class, the resistance of this class must be smashed in open battle and it must be deprived of the productive sources of its existence and development (free use of land, instruments of production, land-renting, right to hire labour, etc.). That is a turn towards the policy of eliminating the kulaks as a class. Without it, talk about ousting the kulaks as a class is empty prattle, acceptable and profitable only to the Right deviators."


title: Dekulakization

text: In 1928, the Right Opposition of the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was still trying to support the prosperous peasantry and soften the struggle against the kulaks. In particular, Alexei Rykov, criticizing the policy of dekulakization and "methods of war communism", declared that an attack on the kulaks should be carried out but not by methods of so-called dekulakization. He argued against taking action against individual farming in the village, the productivity of which was two times lower than in European countries. He believed that the most important task of the party was the development of the individual farming of peasants with the help of the government.


title: Dekulakization

text: The government increasingly noticed an open and resolute protest among the poor against the well-to-do middle peasants. The growing discontent of the poor peasants was reinforced by the famine in the countryside. The Bolsheviks preferred to blame the "rural counterrevolution" of the kulaks, intending to aggravate the attitude of the people towards the party: "We must repulse the kulak ideology coming in the letters from the village. The main advantage of the kulak is bread embarrassments." Red Army peasants sent letters supporting anti-kulak ideology: "The kulaks are the furious enemies of socialism. We must destroy them, don't take them to the kolkhoz, you must take away their property, their inventory." The letter of the Red Army soldier of the 28th Artillery Regiment became widely known: "The last bread is taken away, the Red Army family is not considered. Although you are my dad, I do not believe you. I'm glad that you had a good lesson. Sell bread, carry surplus – this is my last word."


title: Dekulakization

text: The "liquidation of kulaks as a class" was the name of a Soviet policy enforced in 1930–1931 for forced, uncompensated alienation of property (expropriation) from portions of the peasantry and isolation of victims from such actions by way of their forceful deportation from their place of residence. The official goal of kulak liquidation came without precise instructions, and encouraged local leaders to take radical action, which resulted in physical elimination. The campaign to liquidate the kulaks as a class constituted the main part of Stalin's social engineering policies in the early 1930s.


title: PIAT

text: The Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank (PIAT) Mk I was a British man-portable anti-tank weapon developed during the Second World War. The PIAT was designed in 1942 in response to the British Army's need for a more effective infantry anti-tank weapon and entered service in 1943.


title: PIAT

text: The PIAT was based on the spigot mortar system, and projected (launched) a 2.5 pound (1.1 kg) shaped charge bomb using a cartridge in the tail of the projectile. It possessed an effective range of approximately in a direct fire anti-tank role, and in an indirect fire role. The PIAT had several advantages over other infantry anti-tank weapons of the period: it had greatly increased penetration power over the previous anti-tank rifles, it had no back-blast which might reveal the position of the user or accidentally injure friendly soldiers around the user, and it was simple in construction. However, the device also had some disadvantages: powerful recoil, a difficulty in cocking the weapon, and early problems with ammunition reliability.


title: PIAT

text: The PIAT was first used during the Tunisia Campaign in 1943, and remained in use with British and other Commonwealth forces until the early 1950s. PIATs were supplied to or obtained by other nations and forces, including the Soviet Union (through Lend Lease), the French resistance, the Polish Underground, and the Israeli Haganah (which used PIATs during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War). Six members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces received Victoria Crosses for their use of the PIAT in combat.


title: PIAT

text: At the beginning of the Second World War, the British Army possessed two primary anti-tank weapons for its infantry: the Boys anti-tank rifle and the No. 68 AT Rifle Grenade. However, neither of these was particularly effective as an anti-tank weapon. The No. 68 anti-tank grenade was designed to be fired from a discharger fitted onto the muzzle of an infantryman's rifle, but this meant that the grenade was too light to deal significant damage, resulting in it rarely being used in action. The Boys was also inadequate in the anti-tank role. It was heavy, which meant that it was difficult for infantry to handle effectively, and was outdated; by 1940 it was effective only at short ranges, and then only against armoured cars and light tanks. In November 1941 during Operation Crusader, part of the North African Campaign, staff officers of the British Eighth Army were unable to find even a single instance of a Boys knocking out a German tank.


title: PIAT

text: Due to these limits, a new infantry anti-tank weapon was required, and this ultimately came in the form of the Projector, Infantry, Anti-Tank, commonly abbreviated to PIAT. The origins of the PIAT can be traced back as far as 1888, when an American engineer by the name of Charles Edward Munroe was experimenting with guncotton; he discovered that the explosive would yield a great deal more damage if there were a recess in it facing the target. This phenomenon is known as the 'Munroe effect'. The German scientist Egon Neumann found that lining the recess with metal enhanced the damage dealt even more. By the 1930s Henry Mohaupt, a Swiss engineer, had developed this technology even further and created shaped charge ammunition. This consisted of a recessed metal cone placed into an explosive warhead; when the warhead hit its target, the explosive detonated and turned the cone into an extremely high-speed spike. The speed of the spike, and the immense pressure it caused on impact allowed it to create a small hole in armour plating and send a large pressure wave and large amounts of fragments into the interior of the target. It was this technology that was used in the No. 68 anti-tank grenade.


title: PIAT

text: Although the technology existed, it remained for British designers to develop a system that could deliver shaped charge ammunition in a larger size and with a greater range than that possessed by the No. 68. At the same time that Mohaupt was developing shaped charge ammunition, Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker of the Royal Artillery was investigating the possibility of developing a lightweight platoon mortar. However, rather than using the conventional system of firing the mortar shell from a barrel fixed to a baseplate, Blacker wanted to use the spigot mortar system. Instead of a barrel, there was a steel rod known as a 'spigot' fixed to a baseplate, and the bomb itself had a propellant charge inside its tail. When the mortar was to be fired, the bomb was pushed down onto the spigot, which exploded the propellant charge and blew the bomb into the air. By effectively putting the barrel on the inside of the weapon, the barrel diameter was no longer a limitation on the warhead size. Blacker eventually designed a lightweight mortar that he named the 'Arbalest' and submitted it to the War Office, but it was turned down in favour of a Spanish design. Undeterred, however, Blacker continued with his experiments and decided to try to invent a hand-held anti-tank weapon based on the spigot design, but found that the spigot could not generate sufficient velocity needed to penetrate armour. But he did not abandon the design, and eventually came up with the Blacker Bombard, a swivelling spigot-style system that could launch a bomb approximately . Although the bombs it fired could not actually penetrate armour, they could still severely damage tanks, and in 1940 a large number of Blacker Bombards were issued to the Home Guard as anti-tank weapons.


title: PIAT

text: When Blacker became aware of the existence of shaped charge ammunition, he realized that it was exactly the kind of ammunition he was looking for to develop a hand-held anti-tank weapon, as it depended upon the energy contained within itself, and not the sheer velocity at which it was fired. Blacker then developed a shaped charge bomb with a propellant charge in its tail, which fitted into a shoulder-fired launcher that consisted of a metal casing containing a large spring and a spigot; the bomb was placed into a trough at the front of the casing, and when the trigger was pulled the spigot rammed into the tail of the bomb and fired it out of the casing and up to approximately away. Blacker called the weapon the 'Baby Bombard', and presented it to the War Office in 1941. However, when the weapon was tested it proved to have a host of problems; a War Office report of June 1941 stated that the casing was flimsy and the spigot itself did not always fire when the trigger was pulled, and none of the bombs provided exploded upon contact with the target.


title: PIAT

text: At the time that he developed the Baby Bombard and sent it off the War Office, Blacker was working for a government department known as MD1, which was given the task of developing and delivering weapons for use by guerrilla and resistance groups in Occupied Europe. Shortly after the trial of the Baby Bombard, Blacker was posted to other duties, and left the anti-tank weapon in the hands of a colleague in the department, Major Millis Jefferis.


title: PIAT

text: Jefferis took the prototype Baby Bombard apart on the floor of his office in MD1 and rebuilt it, and then combined it with a shaped charge mortar bomb to create what he called the 'Jefferis Shoulder Gun'. Jefferis then had a small number of prototype armour-piercing high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds made, and took the weapon to be tested at the Small Arms School at Bisley. A Warrant Officer took the Shoulder Gun down to a firing range, aimed it at an armoured target, and pulled the trigger; the Shoulder Gun pierced a hole in the target, but unfortunately also wounded the Warrant Officer when a piece of metal from the exploding round flew back and hit him. Jefferis himself then took the place of the Warrant Officer and fired off several more rounds, all of which pierced the armoured target but without wounding him. Impressed with the weapon, the Ordnance Board of the Small Arms School had the faults with the ammunition corrected, renamed the Shoulder Gun as the Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank, and ordered that it be issued to infantry units as a hand-held anti-tank weapon. Production of the PIAT began at the end of August 1942.


title: PIAT

text: There was disagreement over the name to be given to the new weapon. A press report in 1944 gave credit for both the PIAT and the Blacker Bombard to Jefferis. Blacker took exception to this and suggested to Jefferis that they should divide any award equally after his expenses had been deducted. The Ministry of Supply had already paid Blacker £50,000 for his expenses in relation to the Bombard and PIAT. Churchill himself got involved in the argument; writing to the Secretary of State for war in January 1943 he asked "Why should the name "Jefferis shoulder gun" be changed to PIAT? Nobody objected to the Boys rifle, although that had a rather odd ring." Churchill supported Jefferis claims, but he did not get his way. For his part Blacker received £25,000 from the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors.


title: PIAT

text: The PIAT was long and weighed , with an effective direct fire range of approximately and a maximum indirect fire range of . It could be carried and operated by one man, but was usually assigned to a two-man team, the second man acting as an ammunition carrier and loader. The body of the PIAT launcher was a tube constructed out of thin sheets of steel, containing the spigot mechanism, trigger mechanism and firing spring. At the front of the launcher was a small trough in which the bomb was placed, and the movable spigot ran along the axis of the launcher and into the trough. Padding for the user's shoulder was fitted to the other end of the launcher, and rudimentary aperture sights were fitted on top for aiming; the bombs launched by the PIAT possessed hollow tubular tails, into which a small propellant cartridge was inserted, and shaped charge warheads.


title: PIAT

text: Conventional spigot mortar designs have a fixed spigot rod, for example the Blacker Bombard. The moving spigot rod in the PIAT design was unusual, and served to help reduce recoil sufficiently to make it a viable shoulder fired weapon.


title: PIAT

text: The PIAT was a little lighter (15kg vs 16kg) and smaller (0.99m long vs 1.57m) than its predecessor, the Boys anti-tank rifle, although it was heavier than the contemporary Bazooka (18 lbs/8.2 kg).


title: PIAT

text: To prepare the weapon for firing the spigot mechanism, which was operated by a large spring, had to be cocked, and to do this was a difficult and awkward process. The user had to first place the PIAT on its butt, then place two feet on the shoulder padding and turn the weapon to unlock the body and simultaneously lock the spigot rod to the butt; the user would then have to bend over and pull the body of the weapon upwards, thereby pulling the spring back until it attached to the trigger and cocking the weapon. Once this was achieved, the body was then lowered and turned to reattach it to the rest of the weapon, and the PIAT could then be fired. Users of a small stature often found the cocking sequence challenging, as they did not have the sufficient height required to pull the body up far enough to cock the weapon; it was also difficult to do when lying in a prone position, as was often the case when using the weapon in action.


title: PIAT

text: Note, however, that troops were trained to cock the PIAT before expected use, and "in action the projector will always be carried cocked" (but unloaded). Unless a stoppage occurred, it would not normally be necessary to manually re-cock the weapon in action.


title: PIAT

text: When the trigger was pulled, the spring pushed the spigot rod (which has a fixed firing pin on the end) forwards into the bomb, which aligned the bomb, ignited the propellant cartridge in the bomb and launched it along the rod and into the air. The recoil caused by the detonation of the propellant blew the spigot rod backwards onto the spring; this reduced the shock of recoil and automatically cocked the weapon for subsequent shots, eliminating the need to manually re-cock.


title: PIAT

text: Tactical training emphasized that it was best used with surprise and concealment on the side of the PIAT team, and where possible enemy armoured vehicles should be engaged from the flank or rear. Due to the short engagement distances and the power of the bomb, the crew could be in the bomb blast zone so hard cover was desirable; on open training grounds this might be a slit trench. The PIAT was often also used in combat to knock out enemy positions located in houses and bunkers. It was possible to use the PIAT as a crude mortar by placing the shoulder pad of the weapon on the ground and supporting it.


title: PIAT

text: Despite the difficulties in cocking and firing the weapon, it did have several advantages. The Spigot mortar design allowed a large calibre powerful shaped charge bomb giving greatly increased penetration power over the previous anti-tank rifles, allowing it to remain effective for the rest of the war; its construction was relatively simple and robust without a conventional barrel; there was no back-blast (unlike the contemporary American bazooka) that might endanger friendly troops and give the user's position away, this also meant that the PIAT could be used in confined spaces as in urban warfare; compared to the previous anti-tank rifles the muzzle blast was minimal, also a potential concealment issue. However, the weapon did have drawbacks. It was very heavy and bulky, which meant that it was often unpopular with infantry required to carry it. There were also problems with early ammunition reliability and accuracy. Although the PIAT was theoretically able to penetrate approximately of armour, field experience during the Allied invasion of Sicily, which was substantiated by trials conducted during 1944, demonstrated that this capability was often nullified by problems of accuracy and round reliability. During these trials, a skilled user was unable to hit a target more than 60% of the time at , and faulty fuses meant that only 75% of the bombs fired detonated on-target.


title: PIAT

text: The PIATs' ammunition used the shaped charge principle, which, if the often unreliable early round design delivered it correctly to the target, allowed the warhead to penetrate almost all enemy armour types at close range.


title: PIAT

text: Rounds were supplied in three-round ammunition cases with the propellant cartridge fitted and the fuses separate.


title: PIAT

text: Getting the bomb to detonate reliably against angled targets was troublesome and was addressed with revised fusing. See also the bazooka, which had similar early problems.


title: PIAT

text: The 1943 manual simply describes the service bomb as "H.E." or "HE/AT" and does not mention shaped charge as such. It notes that the bomb has "Excellent penetration. The bomb can penetrate the armour of the latest known types of enemy A.F.Vs. and a considerable thickness of reinforced concrete". It also notes that it may be used "as a house-breaker".


title: PIAT

text: It entered service in mid-1943, and was first used in action during the Tunisia Campaign. The 1944 war establishment for a British platoon, which contained 36 men, had a single PIAT attached to the platoon headquarters, alongside a mortar detachment. Three PIATs were issued to every company at the headquarters level for issuing at the CO discretion – allowing one weapon for each platoon. British Army and Royal Marines commandos were also issued with PIATs and used them in action.


title: PIAT

text: In Australian Army service, the PIAT was also known as "Projector Infantry Tank Attack" (PITA). From 1943, one PIAT team was allocated to each infantry platoon in a jungle division – the tropical light infantry formation that was the standard front-line Australian division in the South West Pacific theatre. It was used against Japanese tanks, other vehicles and fortifications during the Borneo campaign of 1945.


title: PIAT

text: A contemporary (1944–45) Canadian Army survey questioned 161 army officers, who had recently left combat, about the effectiveness of 31 different infantry weapons. In that survey the PIAT was ranked the number one most "outstandingly effective" weapon, followed by the Bren gun in second place.


title: PIAT

text: An analysis by British staff officers of the initial period of the Normandy campaign found that 7% of all German tanks destroyed by British forces were knocked out by PIATs, compared to 6% by rockets fired by aircraft. However, they also found that once German tanks had been fitted with armoured skirts that detonated shaped charge ammunition before it could penetrate the tank's armour, the weapon became much less effective.


title: PIAT

text: As part of the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement, by 31 March 1946 the Soviet Union had been supplied with 1,000 PIATs and 100,000 rounds of ammunition. The PIAT was also used by resistance groups in Occupied Europe. During the Warsaw Uprising, it was one of many weapons that Polish Underground resistance fighters used against German forces. In occupied France, the French resistance used the PIAT in the absence of mortars or artillery.


title: PIAT

text: Six Victoria Crosses were awarded to members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces for actions using the PIAT:


title: PIAT

text: The PIAT remained in service until the early 1950s, when it was replaced initially by the ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade and then the American M20 "Super Bazooka". The Australian Army briefly used PIATs at the start of the Korean War alongside bazookas, but quickly replaced both weapons with M20 "Super Bazookas".


title: PIAT

text: The Haganah and the emerging Israel Defence Force (IDF) used PIATs against Arab armour during the 1947–1949 Palestine war.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: Mayberry R.F.D. (abbreviation for Rural Free Delivery) is an American television series produced as a spin-off continuation of "The Andy Griffith Show". When star Andy Griffith decided to leave his series, most of the supporting characters returned for the retitled program, which ran for three seasons (78 episodes) on the CBS Television Network from 1968 to 1971.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: During the eighth and final season of "The Andy Griffith Show", widower farmer Sam Jones (Ken Berry) and his young son Mike (Buddy Foster) are introduced and gradually become the show's focus. Sheriff Andy Taylor takes a back seat in the storylines, establishing the new premise. Sheriff Taylor and newlywed wife Helen made guest appearances on "Mayberry R.F.D." until late 1969 before they relocated with Opie. "Mayberry R.F.D." was popular throughout its entire run, but was canceled after its third season in CBS's "rural purge" of 1971.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: Father and son stories involving Sam and Mike Jones are reminiscent of the episodes that starred Andy Griffith. Both characters are introduced in the last season of "The Andy Griffith Show" ("TAGS"), beginning with Sam's election as head of the town council. Most of the town folk from "TAGS" continued their roles. Loyal Mayberry citizens Goober Pyle (George Lindsey), Clara Edwards (Hope Summers), Emmett Clark (Paul Hartman) and Howard Sprague (Jack Dodson) are seen regularly.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: Sheriff Andy Taylor and his sweetheart, Helen Crump (Aneta Corsaut), marry in the new title's first episode. Both Andy and Helen make additional appearances during the first season (mostly Andy, who remains Sheriff of Mayberry in the early appearances.) Griffith and Coursaut leave the series for good in late 1969 with a move to Charlotte, North Carolina, as the explanation. Aunt Bee (Frances Bavier) becomes Sam's housekeeper but leaves after the second season to be replaced by Sam's cousin, Alice Cooper (Alice Ghostley). Don Knotts as Barney Fife and Ronny Howard as Opie Taylor both appear in the first episode, with Barney serving as Andy's best man for the wedding. Actress Arlene Golonka (who played Howard Sprague's sweetheart Millie Hutchins/Swanson in the Griffith show) becomes Sam's love interest in the retitled seasons. A recurring character named Ralph (Charles Lampkin) lives with a teen daughter and pre-teen son next to the Jones farm. Mary Lansing appeared occasionally as Emmett's wife, Martha. As with its predecessor, Mayberry R.F.D. continued under the sponsorship of General Foods and its products.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: An NBC reunion movie, "Return to Mayberry", was produced in 1986 and featured many original performers from "TAGS". Ken Berry, Buddy Foster and Arlene Golonka don't appear in the movie, nor do "TAGS" regulars Frances Bavier, Elinor Donahue, and Jack Burns. Nevertheless, "Return" does share continuity with the "R.F.D." storyline, by maintaining that Andy and Helen are married. However, Andy and Helen's son, Andy Jr. is never mentioned.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: On February 27, 2018, Warner Bros. re-released season 1 on a manufacture-on-demand (MOD) DVD via their Warner Archive Collection.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: The final episode of "The Andy Griffith Show" was titled "Mayberry RFD", which added an Italian-American family to the Sam Jones homestead. The producers chose to forgo a big overhaul and instead stuck with the winning premise of a widower, his son and the matronly Aunt Bee. Therefore, the series was much the same as "The Andy Griffith Show", without Andy Taylor and son Opie.


title: Mayberry R.F.D.

text: "Mayberry R.F.D." was consistently in the top ten in the Nielsen ratings the first two years of its run, but dropped to number 15 during its third and final season. That year CBS, seeking a more urban image, canceled all its rural-themed shows including "Green Acres", "Hee Haw" and "The Beverly Hillbillies" in what became known as the "rural purge".


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 7)

text: The seventh and final season of the American comedy-drama television series "Orange Is the New Black" premiered on Netflix on July 26, 2019, at 12:00 am PDT in multiple countries. It consists of thirteen episodes, each between 55 and 89 minutes. The series is based on Piper Kerman's memoir, "" (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum-security federal prison. The series was created and adapted for television by Jenji Kohan.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 7)

text: The season chronicles Piper's life after being released contrasted against the experiences of other prisoners, some of whom now reside in immigration detention centers.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 7)

text: Another ending was considered for the show with Piper telling her story to Jenji Kohan, who would make it into a TV series. When Jenji told it to her son, he told her that the show and fans deserved better than that.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 7)

text: In February 2016, Netflix gave the series a three-season renewal, which included its seventh season. In October 2018, it was confirmed that the seventh season would be its last. For the seventh season, Alysia Reiner was upgraded to series regular.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 7)

text: On Metacritic, season 7 has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 10 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim." On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 97% rating with an average score of 7.69/10, based on 32 reviews. The site's consensus reads: "Carried by its exceptional ensemble, "Orange Is the New Black"s final season gets straight to the point, tackling hard-hitting issues with the same dramatic depth and gallows humor that made the show so ground-breaking to begin with".


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 7)

text: For the 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, Laverne Cox received a nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial photography (or airborne imagery) is the taking of photographs from an aircraft or other airborne platforms. When taking motion pictures, it is also known as aerial videography.


title: Aerial photography

text: Platforms for aerial photography include fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or "drones"), balloons, blimps and dirigibles, rockets, pigeons, kites, or using action cameras while skydiving or wingsuiting. Handheld cameras may be manually operated by the photographer, while mounted cameras are usually remotely operated or triggered automatically.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial photography typically refers specifically to bird's-eye view images that focus on landscapes and surface objects, and should not be confused with air-to-air photography, where one or more aircraft are used as chase planes that "chase" and photograph other aircraft in flight. Elevated photography can also produce bird's-eye images closely resembling aerial photography (despite not actually being aerial shots) when telephotoing from a high vantage structures, suspended on cables (e.g. Skycam) or on top of very tall poles that are either handheld (e.g. monopods and selfie sticks), fixed firmly to ground (e.g. surveillance cameras and crane shots) or mounted above vehicles.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial photography was first practiced by the French photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, known as "Nadar", in 1858 over Paris, France. However, the photographs he produced no longer exist and therefore the earliest surviving aerial photograph is titled 'Boston, as the Eagle and the Wild Goose See It.' Taken by James Wallace Black and Samuel Archer King on October 13, 1860, it depicts Boston from a height of 630m.


title: Aerial photography

text: Kite aerial photography was pioneered by British meteorologist E.D. Archibald in 1882. He used an explosive charge on a timer to take photographs from the air. The same year, Cecil Shadbolt devised a method of taking photographs from the basket of a gas balloon, including shots looking vertically downwards. One of his images, taken from over Stamford Hill, is the earliest extant aerial photograph taken in the British Isles. A print of the same image, "An Instantaneous Map Photograph taken from the Car of a Balloon, 2,000 feet high", was shown at the 1882 Photographic Society exhibition.


title: Aerial photography

text: Frenchman Arthur Batut began using kites for photography in 1888, and wrote a book on his methods in 1890. Samuel Franklin Cody developed his advanced 'Man-lifter War Kite' and succeeded in interesting the British War Office with its capabilities.


title: Aerial photography

text: In 1908, Albert Samama Chikly filmed the first ever aerial views using a balloon between Hammam-Lif and Grombalia.


title: Aerial photography

text: The first use of a motion picture camera mounted to a heavier-than-air aircraft took place on April 24, 1909, over Rome in the 3:28 silent film short, "Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine".


title: Aerial photography

text: The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the war, as reconnaissance aircraft were equipped with cameras to record enemy movements and defenses. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, with reconnaissance being accomplished with map sketching from the air.


title: Aerial photography

text: Germany adopted the first aerial camera, a Görz, in 1913. The French began the war with several squadrons of Blériot observation aircraft equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time.


title: Aerial photography

text: Frederick Charles Victor Laws started aerial photography experiments in 1912 with No.1 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps (later No. 1 Squadron RAF), taking photographs from the British dirigible "Beta". He discovered that vertical photos taken with a 60% overlap could be used to create a stereoscopic effect when viewed in a stereoscope, thus creating a perception of depth that could aid in cartography and in intelligence derived from aerial images. The Royal Flying Corps recon pilots began to use cameras for recording their observations in 1914 and by the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, the entire system of German trenches was being photographed. In 1916 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making.


title: Aerial photography

text: The first purpose-built and practical aerial camera was invented by Captain John Moore-Brabazon in 1915 with the help of the Thornton-Pickard company, greatly enhancing the efficiency of aerial photography. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. Moore-Brabazon also pioneered the incorporation of stereoscopic techniques into aerial photography, allowing the height of objects on the landscape to be discerned by comparing photographs taken at different angles.


title: Aerial photography

text: By the end of the war, aerial cameras had dramatically increased in size and focal power and were used increasingly frequently as they proved their pivotal military worth; by 1918 both sides were photographing the entire front twice a day and had taken over half a million photos since the beginning of the conflict. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No. 1 Squadron AFC to photograph a area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front. This was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Lieutenants Leonard Taplin, Allan Runciman Brown, H. L. Fraser, Edward Patrick Kenny, and L. W. Rogers photographed a block of land stretching from the Turkish front lines deep into their rear areas. Beginning 5 January, they flew with a fighter escort to ward off enemy fighters. Using Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12 and Martinsyde airplanes, they not only overcame enemy air attacks, but also had to contend with winds, antiaircraft fire, and malfunctioning equipment to complete their task.


title: Aerial photography

text: The first commercial aerial photography company in the UK was Aerofilms Ltd, founded by World War I veterans Francis Wills and Claude Graham White in 1919. The company soon expanded into a business with major contracts in Africa and Asia as well as in the UK. Operations began from the Stag Lane Aerodrome at Edgware, using the aircraft of the London Flying School. Subsequently, the Aircraft Manufacturing Company (later the De Havilland Aircraft Company), hired an Airco DH.9 along with pilot entrepreneur Alan Cobham.


title: Aerial photography

text: From 1921, Aerofilms carried out vertical photography for survey and mapping purposes. During the 1930s, the company pioneered the science of photogrammetry (mapping from aerial photographs), with the Ordnance Survey amongst the company's clients. In 1920, the Australian Milton Kent started using a half-plate oblique aero camera purchased from Carl Zeiss AG in his aerial photographic business.


title: Aerial photography

text: Another successful pioneer of the commercial use of aerial photography was the American Sherman Fairchild who started his own aircraft firm Fairchild Aircraft to develop and build specialized aircraft for high altitude aerial survey missions. One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with a ten-inch lens and took photos from 23,000 feet. Each photo covered two hundred and twenty-five square miles. One of its first government contracts was an aerial survey of New Mexico to study soil erosion. A year later, Fairchild introduced a better high altitude camera with nine-lens in one unit that could take a photo of 600 square miles with each exposure from 30,000 feet.


title: Aerial photography

text: In 1939 Sidney Cotton and Flying Officer Maurice Longbottom of the RAF were among the first to suggest that airborne reconnaissance may be a task better suited to fast, small aircraft which would use their speed and high service ceiling to avoid detection and interception. Although this seems obvious now, with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking.


title: Aerial photography

text: They proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and cameras. This led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants. Spitfires proved to be extremely successful in their reconnaissance role and there were many variants built specifically for that purpose. They served initially with what later became No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU). In 1928, the RAF developed an electric heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing. Based at RAF Medmenham, the collection and interpretation of such photographs became a considerable enterprise.


title: Aerial photography

text: Cotton's aerial photographs were far ahead of their time. Together with other members of the 1 PRU, he pioneered the techniques of high-altitude, high-speed stereoscopic photography that were instrumental in revealing the locations of many crucial military and intelligence targets. According to R.V. Jones, photographs were used to establish the size and the characteristic launching mechanisms for both the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket. Cotton also worked on ideas such as a prototype specialist reconnaissance aircraft and further refinements of photographic equipment. At the peak, the British flew over 100 reconnaissance flights a day, yielding 50,000 images per day to interpret. Similar efforts were taken by other countries.


title: Aerial photography

text: Vertical aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys, which are often the basis for topographic maps), land-use planning, aerial archaeology. Oblique aerial photography is used for movie production, environmental studies, power line inspection, surveillance, construction progress, commercial advertising, conveyancing, and artistic projects. An example of how aerial photography is used in the field of archaeology is the mapping project done at the site Angkor Borei in Cambodia from 1995–1996. Using aerial photography, archaeologists were able to identify archaeological features, including 112 water features (reservoirs, artificially constructed pools and natural ponds) within the walled site of Angkor Borei. In the United States, aerial photographs are used in many Phase I Environmental Site Assessments for property analysis.


title: Aerial photography

text: In the United States, except when necessary for take-off and landing, full-sized manned aircraft are prohibited from flying at altitudes under 1000 feet over congested areas and not closer than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle or structure over non-congested areas. Certain exceptions are allowed for helicopters, powered parachutes and weight-shift-control aircraft.


title: Aerial photography

text: Advances in radio controlled models have made it possible for model aircraft to conduct low-altitude aerial photography. This had benefited real-estate advertising, where commercial and residential properties are the photographic subject. In 2014 the US Federal Aviation Administration banned the use of drones for photographs in real estate advertisements. The ban has been lifted and commercial aerial photography using drones of UAS is regulated under the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018. Commercial pilots have to complete the requirements for a Part 107 license, while amateur and non-commercial use is restricted by the FAA.


title: Aerial photography

text: Small scale model aircraft offer increased photographic access to these previously restricted areas. Miniature vehicles do not replace full-size aircraft, as full-size aircraft are capable of longer flight times, higher altitudes, and greater equipment payloads. They are, however, useful in any situation in which a full-scale aircraft would be dangerous to operate. Examples would include the inspection of transformers atop power transmission lines and slow, low-level flight over agricultural fields, both of which can be accomplished by a large-scale radio-controlled helicopter. Professional-grade, gyroscopically stabilized camera platforms are available for use under such a model; a large model helicopter with a 26cc gasoline engine can hoist a payload of approximately seven kilograms (15 lbs). In addition to gyroscopically stabilized footage, the use of RC copters as reliable aerial photography tools increased with the integration of FPV (first-person-view) technology. Many radio-controlled aircraft are now capable of utilizing Wi-Fi to stream live video from the aircraft's camera back to the pilot's or pilot in command's (PIC) ground station.


title: Aerial photography

text: In Australia, Civil Aviation Safety Regulation Part 101 (CASR Part 101) allows for commercial use of unmanned and remotely piloted aircraft. Under these regulations, unmanned remotely piloted aircraft for commercial are referred to as Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), whereas radio-controlled aircraft for recreational purposes are referred to as model aircraft. Under CASR Part 101, businesses/persons operating remotely piloted aircraft commercially are required to hold an operator certificate, just like manned aircraft operators. Pilots of remotely piloted aircraft operating commercially are also required to be licensed by the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA). Whilst a small RPAS and model aircraft may actually be identical, unlike model aircraft, a RPAS may enter controlled airspace with approval, and operate in close proximity to an aerodrome.


title: Aerial photography

text: Due to a number of illegal operators in Australia making false claims of being approved, CASA maintains and publishes a list of approved remote operator's certificate (ReOC) holders. However, CASA has modified the regulations and from September 29, 2016 drones under may be operated for commercial purposes.


title: Aerial photography

text: 2006 FAA regulations grounding all commercial RC model flights have been upgraded to require formal FAA certification before permission is granted to fly at any altitude in the US.


title: Aerial photography

text: June 25, 2014, The FAA, in ruling 14 CFR Part 91 [Docket No. FAA–2014–0396] "Interpretation of the Special Rule for Model Aircraft", banned the commercial use of unmanned aircraft over U.S. airspace. On September 26, 2014, the FAA began granting the right to use drones in aerial filmmaking. Operators are required to be licensed pilots and must keep the drone in view at all times. Drones cannot be used to film in areas where people might be put at risk.


title: Aerial photography

text: The FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 established, in Section 336, a special rule for model aircraft. In Section 336, Congress confirmed the FAA's long-standing position that model aircraft are aircraft. Under the terms of the Act, a model aircraft is defined as "an unmanned aircraft" that is "(1) capable of sustained flight in the atmosphere; (2) flown within visual line of sight of the person operating the aircraft; and (3) flown for hobby or recreational purposes."


title: Aerial photography

text: Because anything capable of being viewed from a public space is considered outside the realm of privacy in the United States, aerial photography may legally document features and occurrences on private property.


title: Aerial photography

text: The FAA can pursue enforcement action against persons operating model aircraft who endanger the safety of the national airspace system. Public Law 112–95, section 336(b).


title: Aerial photography

text: June 21, 2016, the FAA released its summary of small unmanned aircraft rules (Part 107). The rules established guidelines for small UAS operators including operating only during the daytime, a . ceiling and pilots must keep the UAS in visual range.


title: Aerial photography

text: April 7, 2017, the FAA announced special security instructions under 14 CFR § 99.7. Effective April 14, 2017, all UAS flights within 400 feet of the lateral boundaries of U.S. military installations are prohibited unless a special permit is secured from the base and/or the FAA.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial Photography on Light aircraft under . Basic Rules for non commercial flying Of a SUA (Small Unmanned Aircraft).


title: Aerial photography

text: 1. A person must not cause or permit any article or animal (whether or not attached to a parachute) to be dropped from a small unmanned aircraft so as to endanger persons or property.


title: Aerial photography

text: 2. The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft may only fly the aircraft if reasonably satisfied that the flight can safely be made.


title: Aerial photography

text: 3. The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft must maintain direct, unaided visual contact with the aircraft sufficient to monitor its flight path in relation to other aircraft, persons, vehicles, vessels and structures for the purpose of avoiding collisions. ()


title: Aerial photography

text: 4. The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft which has a mass of more than excluding its fuel but including any articles or equipment installed in or attached to the aircraft at the commencement of its flight, must not fly the aircraft:


title: Aerial photography

text: 4.1 In Class A, C, D or E airspace unless the permission of the appropriate air traffic control unit has been obtained;


title: Aerial photography

text: 4.2 Within an aerodrome traffic zone during the notified hours of watch of the air traffic control unit (if any) at that aerodrome unless the permission of any such air traffic control unit has been obtained;


title: Aerial photography

text: 5. The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft must not fly the aircraft for the purposes of commercial operations except in accordance with a permission granted by the CAA.


title: Aerial photography

text: 3. Within of any vessel, vehicle or structure which is not under the control of the person in charge of the aircraft.


title: Aerial photography

text: 4. Within 50 m of any person, during take-off or landing, a small unmanned surveillance aircraft must not be flown within of any person. This does not apply to the person in charge of the small unmanned surveillance aircraft or a person under the control of the person in charge of the aircraft.


title: Aerial photography

text: Model aircraft with a mass of more than 20 kg are termed ‘Large Model Aircraft’ – within the UK, large model aircraft may only be flown in accordance with an exemption from the ANO, which must be issued by the CAA.


title: Aerial photography

text: Photographs taken at an angle are called "oblique photographs". If they are taken from a low angle relative to the earth's surface, they are called "low oblique" and photographs taken from a high angle are called "high" or "steep oblique".


title: Aerial photography

text: Vertical photographs are taken straight down. They are mainly used in photogrammetry and image interpretation. Pictures that will be used in photogrammetry are traditionally taken with special large format cameras with calibrated and documented geometric properties.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial photographs are often combined. Depending on their purpose it can be done in several ways, of which a few are listed below.


title: Aerial photography

text: Vertical photographs are often used to create orthophotos, alternatively known as orthophotomaps, photographs which have been geometrically "corrected" so as to be usable as a map. In other words, an orthophoto is a simulation of a photograph taken from an infinite distance, looking straight down to nadir. Perspective must obviously be removed, but variations in terrain should also be corrected for. Multiple geometric transformations are applied to the image, depending on the perspective and terrain corrections required on a particular part of the image.


title: Aerial photography

text: Orthophotos are commonly used in geographic information systems, such as are used by mapping agencies (e.g. Ordnance Survey) to create maps. Once the images have been aligned, or "registered", with known real-world coordinates, they can be widely deployed.


title: Aerial photography

text: Large sets of orthophotos, typically derived from multiple sources and divided into "tiles" (each typically 256 x 256 pixels in size), are widely used in online map systems such as Google Maps. OpenStreetMap offers the use of similar orthophotos for deriving new map data. Google Earth overlays orthophotos or satellite imagery onto a digital elevation model to simulate 3D landscapes.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial photography may be labeled as either "leaf-off" or on "leaf-on" to indicate whether deciduous foliage is in the photograph. Leaf-off photographs show less foliage or no foliage at all, and are used to see the ground and things on the ground more closely. Leaf-on photographs are used to measure crop health and yield. For forestry purposes, some species of trees are easier to distinguish from other kinds of trees with leaf-off photography, while other species are easier to distinguish with leaf-on photography.


title: Aerial photography

text: With advancements in video technology, aerial video is becoming more popular. Orthogonal video is shot from aircraft mapping pipelines, crop fields, and other points of interest. Using GPS, video may be embedded with meta data and later synced with a video mapping program.


title: Aerial photography

text: This "Spatial Multimedia" is the timely union of digital media including still photography, motion video, stereo, panoramic imagery sets, immersive media constructs, audio, and other data with location and date-time information from the GPS and other location designs.


title: Aerial photography

text: Aerial videos are emerging Spatial Multimedia which can be used for scene understanding and object tracking. The input video is captured by low flying aerial platforms and typically consists of strong parallax from non-ground-plane structures. The integration of digital video, global positioning systems (GPS) and automated image processing will improve the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of data collection and reduction. Several different aerial platforms are under investigation for the data collection.


title: Aerial photography

text: In film production, it is common to use a unmanned aerial vehicle with a mounted cine camera. For example the AERIGON cinema drone is used for low aerial shots in big blockbuster movies.


title: Vivien Lyra Blair

text: Vivien Lyra Blair (born ) is an American child actress who rose to prominence after appearing in the film "Bird Box" (2018). She garnered further recognition for her appearances in video game "Telling Lies" (2019) and superhero film "We Can Be Heroes" (2020). In 2022, she portrayed Leia Organa in the Disney+ series "Obi-Wan Kenobi", for which she received praise.


title: Vivien Lyra Blair

text: Vivien Lyra Blair was born in 2012 or 2013. Blair has been vegetarian since she was born. She has practiced Taekwondo since the age of five. In 2019, at six years old, Blair became the youngest spokesperson for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals.


title: Vivien Lyra Blair

text: Blair's first onscreen role was in the 2017 film "Band Aid", and she subsequently appeared in the television miniseries "Waco" in 2018. She rose to prominence at the age of five after portraying Girl in "Bird Box" (2018), which follows a woman who blindfolds herself and her two children to protect them from entities that cause people to die once they have been seen. Blair spent the majority of the film blindfolded. Filmmaker Barry Jenkins described her as "incredible" and said she "[s]teals every scene". Despite its mixed critical reception, "Bird Box" became Netflix's most-watched film until 2021. In 2019, Blair made her first video-game appearance in "Telling Lies". "The Guardian" considered her "[a]n unexpected joy ... with adorable confidence". Blair also starred as Guppy in superhero film "We Can Be Heroes" (2020), the sequel to "The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D" (2005). She undertook all her own stunts. While the film itself received mixed reviews, "The Daily Telegraph" praised Blair's performance as "very funny" and "just absurd ... the effects team simply aren't needed when she's doing her thing".


title: Vivien Lyra Blair

text: In 2022, Blair portrayed Leia Organa in the "Star Wars" streaming show "Obi-Wan Kenobi", which was released on Disney+. The character was previously portrayed by Carrie Fisher in the franchise's original film trilogy. Of Blair's casting, series writer Joby Harold stated the team needed an actor who would embody a young Fisher's voice and spirit: "[we need] [s]omebody who feels spirited. They don't feel precocious. They don't feel like they are speaking as an adult writing for a kid, but you feel the spirit of what Carrie Fisher built." Harold found Blair to be "an amazing little actor" who miraculously captured that spirit, particularly in her scenes with co-star Ewan McGregor. Her performance received unanimous acclaim, with praise for her portrayal of the character's strength, wit, and intelligence; "Variety" said she "handles her precocious lines with aplomb", and "The Daily Telegraph" argued she had "the perfect mix of vim and innocence". Nick Schager of "The Daily Beast" thought Blair's line deliveries were "not ... consistently great" but considered her adequate for the role. For her performance, Blair received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Streaming Television Series. She played Emily Gradstone in the film drama "Dear Zoe", which is based on the eponymous young-adult novel by Philip Beard. It was released on November 4, 2022, to mixed reviews. She is also set to appear in "The Boogeyman" (2023), an adaptation of Stephen King's eponymous short story.


title: Cardioversion

text: Cardioversion is a medical procedure by which an abnormally fast heart rate (tachycardia) or other cardiac arrhythmia is converted to a normal rhythm using electricity or drugs. Synchronized electrical cardioversion uses a therapeutic dose of electric current to the heart at a specific moment in the cardiac cycle, restoring the activity of the electrical conduction system of the heart. (Defibrillation uses a therapeutic dose of electric current to the heart at a random moment in the cardiac cycle, and is the most effective resuscitation measure for cardiac arrest associated with ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia.) Pharmacologic cardioversion, also called chemical cardioversion, uses antiarrhythmia medication instead of an electrical shock.


title: Cardioversion

text: To perform synchronized electrical cardioversion, two electrode pads are used (or, alternatively, the traditional hand-held "paddles"), each comprising a metallic plate which is faced with a saline based conductive gel. The pads are placed on the chest of the patient, or one is placed on the chest and one on the back. These are connected by cables to a machine which has the combined functions of an ECG display screen and the electrical function of a defibrillator. A synchronizing function (either manually operated or automatic) allows the cardioverter to deliver a reversion shock, by way of the pads, of a selected amount of electric current over a predefined number of milliseconds at the optimal moment in the cardiac cycle which corresponds to the R wave of the QRS complex on the ECG. Timing the shock to the R wave prevents the delivery of the shock during the vulnerable period (or relative refractory period) of the cardiac cycle, which could induce ventricular fibrillation. If the patient is conscious, various drugs are often used to help sedate the patient and make the procedure more tolerable. However, if the patient is hemodynamically unstable or unconscious, the shock is given immediately upon confirmation of the arrhythmia. When synchronized electrical cardioversion is performed as an elective procedure, the shocks can be performed in conjunction with drug therapy until sinus rhythm is attained. After the procedure, the patient is monitored to ensure stability of the sinus rhythm.


title: Cardioversion

text: Synchronized electrical cardioversion is used to treat hemodynamically unstable supraventricular (or narrow complex) tachycardias, including atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. It is also used in the emergent treatment of wide complex tachycardias, including ventricular tachycardia, when a pulse is present. Pulseless ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation are treated with unsynchronized shocks referred to as defibrillation. Electrical therapy is inappropriate for sinus tachycardia, which should always be a part of the differential diagnosis.


title: Cardioversion

text: Various antiarrhythmic agents can be used to return the heart to normal sinus rhythm. Pharmacological cardioversion is an especially good option in patients with atrial fibrillation of recent onset. Drugs that are effective at maintaining normal rhythm after electric cardioversion can also be used for pharmacological cardioversion. Drugs like amiodarone, diltiazem, verapamil and metoprolol are frequently given before electrical cardioversion to decrease the heart rate, stabilize the patient and increase the chance that cardioversion is successful. There are various classes of agents that are most effective for pharmacological cardioversion.


title: Cardioversion

text: Class I agents are sodium (Na) channel blockers (which slow conduction by blocking the Na+ channel) and are divided into 3 subclasses a, b and c. Class Ia slows phase 0 depolarization in the ventricles and increases the absolute refractory period. Procainamide, quinidine and disopyramide are Class Ia agents. Class 1b drugs lengthen phase 3 repolarization. They include lidocaine, mexiletine and phenytoin. Class Ic greatly slow phase 0 depolarization in the ventricles (however unlike 1a have no effect on the refractory period). Flecainide, moricizine and propafenone are Class Ic agents.


title: Cardioversion

text: Class II agents are beta blockers which inhibit SA and AV node depolarization and slow heart rate. They also decrease cardiac oxygen demand and can prevent cardiac remodeling. Not all beta blockers are the same; some are cardio selective (affecting only beta 1 receptors) while others are non-selective (affecting beta 1 and 2 receptors). Beta blockers that target the beta-1 receptor are called cardio selective because beta-1 is responsible for increasing heart rate; hence a beta blocker will slow the heart rate.


title: Cardioversion

text: Class III agents (prolong repolarization by blocking outward K+ current): amiodarone and sotalol are effective class III agents. Ibutilide is another Class III agent but has a different mechanism of action (acts to promote influx of sodium through slow-sodium channels). It has been shown to be effective in acute cardioversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter.


title: Cardioversion

text: Class IV drugs are calcium (Ca) channel blockers. They work by inhibiting the action potential of the SA and AV nodes.


title: Cardioversion

text: If the patient is stable, adenosine may be used for restoration of sinus rhythm in patients with macro-reentrant supraventricular tachycardias. It causes a short-lived cessation of conduction through the atrio-ventricular node breaking the circus movement through the node and the macro-reentrant pathway restoring sinus rhythm.


title: Cardioversion

text: Cardioversion for restoration of sinus rhythm from an atrial rhythm is largely a scheduled procedure. In addition to cardiology, anesthesiology is also usually involved to ensure comfort of the patient for the duration of the shock therapy. The presence of registered nurses, physician associates, or other medical personnel may also be helpful during the procedure.


title: Cardioversion

text: Before starting the procedure, the patient's chest and back will be prepped for electrode placement. The skin should be free of any oily substances (e.g., lotions) and hair which may otherwise interfere with adhesion of the pads. Once this is complete, the medical team will adhere the pads to the patient using a rolling motion to ensure the absence of air pockets. "(see details on pad placement below)". The anesthesiology team will then administer a general anesthetic (e.g., Propofol) in order to ensure patient comfort and amnesia during the procedure. Opioid analgesics (e.g., Fentanyl) may be combined with Propofol, although anesthesiology must weight the benefits against adverse effects including apnea. Bite blocks and extremity restraints are then utilized to prevent self-injury during cardioversion. Once these medications are administered, the glabellar reflex or eyelash reflex may be used to determine the patient's level of consciousness.


title: Cardioversion

text: The pads are connected to a machine that can interpret the patient's cardiac rate and rhythm and deliver a shock at the appropriate time. The machine should synchronize ('sync') with the R wave of the rhythm strip. Although uncommon, sometimes the machine will unintentionally sync to high amplitude T waves, so it is important to ensure that the machine is synced appropriately to R waves. Interpretation of the patient's rhythm is imperative when using cardioversion to restore sinus rhythm from less emergent arrhythmias where a pulse is present (e.g., atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation). However, if a patient is confirmed to be in pulseless ventricular tachycardia "v-tach" or ventricular fibrillation "v-fib", then a shock is delivered immediately upon connection of the pads. In this application, electrical cardioversion is more properly termed defibrillation.


title: Cardioversion

text: Once the machine is synced with the patient's cardiac rhythm, the machine must be charged. To determine the amount of charge (measured in joules "J") the patient requires, many factors are considered. As a general rule of thumb, recent-onset atrial arrhythmias require less energy compared to persistent atrial arrhythmias. If the cardiologist suspects that the patient may be less respondent to cardioversion, a higher energy may be utilized. Once the machine is synced and charged, a shock can be delivered to the patient.


title: Cardioversion

text: Following electrical cardioversion, the cardiologist will determine if sinus rhythm has been restored. To confirm sinus rhythm, a distinct P wave should be seen preceding each QRS complex. Additionally, each R-R interval should be evenly spaced. If sinus rhythm is restored, the pads may be disconnected, and any other medical equipment is removed from the patients (e.g., bite blocks, restraints, etc.). The patient will regain consciousness soon thereafter (the effects of Propofol generally last for only 3-8 minutes). However, if the arrhythmia is persistent, the machine may be re-charged to a higher energy level, and the cardioversion attempt may be repeated. It is recommended to wait 60 seconds between subsequent cardioversion attempts, but this amount of time may be adjusted based on the patient and/or provider.


title: Cardioversion

text: Pad placement for electrical cardioversion a cardiac arrhythmia may be either anterior-posterior or anterior-lateral. In an anterior-posterior setup one pad is placed on the chest and the other pad pad is placed on the back. In an anterior-lateral setup, one pad is placed on the chest and the other pad is placed along the left midaxillary line. Choosing the right pad placement can be an important aspect when measuring the success of electrical cardioversion. For example, the anterior-posterior pad positioning is commonly used when attempting to restore an atrial arrhythmia as the vector between the pads predominately runs through the atria. The anterior-lateral pad positioning may be used when attempting to restore pulseless ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation as there may not be enough time or strength to apply an electrode the patient's back.


title: Cardioversion

text: The anterior pad should be placed inferior to the right clavicle while also being vertically centered over at the level of the right 4th intercostal space. The posterior pad should be placed just lateral to the left side of the spine and vertically centered at the level of T7. The inferior angle of the scapula can be used as a reference for the level of T7.


title: Cardioversion

text: The anterior pad should be placed inferior to the right clavicle while also being vertically centered over at the level of the right 4th intercostal space. The lateral pad should be placed along the left midaxillary line at the level of the left 5th intercostal space. The left nipple can be used as a reference for the level of the left 4th intercostal space. From here, the midaxillary 5th intercostal space is identified by moving inferiorly one intercostal space and laterally towards the midaxillary line.


title: Mercari

text: Mercari, Inc. () is a Japanese e-commerce company founded in 2013, with offices in the United States. Their main product, the Mercari marketplace app, was first launched in Japan in July 2013, and has since grown to become Japan's largest community-powered marketplace with over JPY 10 billion in transactions carried out on the platform each month. Among those Japanese users utilizing one of the country's many community marketplace apps, 94% were found to be using Mercari.


title: Mercari

text: Mercari expanded to the United States in 2014 and the United Kingdom in 2016. The Mercari app has been downloaded over 100 million times worldwide () and the company is the first in Japan to reach unicorn status.


title: Mercari

text: Kouzoh, Inc. (currently Mercari, Inc.) was founded by Shintaro Yamada, a Japanese serial entrepreneur in February 2013, and the Mercari app was launched for iOS and Android devices in July of that same year. Within a year of its release, Mercari had accumulated over one million individual listings on its platform.


title: Mercari

text: The USD 75 million raised in Mercari's Series D round was set aside by the company for the purpose of further expansion in the US and UK, according to Chief Financial Officer Kei Nagasawa in a March 2016 interview.


title: Mercari

text: In 2014, the company opened an office in San Francisco in preparation for the launch of its app in the United States, which took place in September of that same year. In the six years since its initial launch in the US, the Mercari app has been downloaded over 40 million times and has risen as high as number 3 on the US App Store rankings. There are currently around 100 employees located between Mercari's Palo Alto and Portland offices.


title: Mercari

text: It was announced In June 2017 that John Lagerling had joined Mercari from Facebook's management team and would be assuming the title of Chief Business Officer. He has also since been named the US CEO of Mercari, Inc.


title: Mercari

text: In January 2016, Mercari opened their first European office in London. In December 2018, Mercari announced it will dissolve the European branch as a "temporary retreat".


title: Mercari

text: Mercari's main product is the Mercari marketplace app, which allows users to buy and sell items quickly from their smartphones. In Japan, the app is known for its ease of use and unique shipping system, which allows users to ship items anonymously from local convenience stores through agreements with Yamato Transport and Japan Post. In the United States, Mercari collaborates with USPS, UPS and FedEx to let users print shipping labels, in addition to allowing sellers to use a separately purchased label for larger items.


title: Mercari

text: Mercari shares its Tokyo offices with its wholly owned subsidiary Souzoh, Inc., which operates several other consumer-to-consumer (C2C) applications in Japan.


title: Church of Christ, Scientist

text: The Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 in Boston, Massachusetts, by Mary Baker Eddy, author of "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures," and founder of Christian Science. The church was founded "to commemorate the word and works of Christ Jesus" and "reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing". Sunday services are held throughout the year and weekly testimony meetings are held on Wednesday evenings, where following brief readings from the Bible and the Christian Science textbook, those in attendance are invited to give testimonies of healing brought about through Christian Science prayer.


title: Church of Christ, Scientist

text: In the early decades of the 20th century, Christian Science churches sprang up in communities around the world, though in the last several decades of that century, there was a marked decline in membership, except in Africa, where there has been growth. Headquartered in Boston, the church does not officially report membership, and estimates as to worldwide membership range between under 100,000 to about 400,000.


title: Church of Christ, Scientist

text: The church was incorporated by Mary Baker Eddy in 1879 following a claimed personal healing in 1866, which she said resulted from reading the Bible. The Bible and Eddy's textbook on Christian healing, "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures", are together the church's key doctrinal sources and have been ordained as the church's "dual impersonal pastor".


title: Church of Christ, Scientist

text: The First Church of Christ, Scientist, is widely known for its publications, especially "The Christian Science Monitor", a weekly newspaper published internationally in print and online. The seal of Christian Science is a cross and crown with the words, "Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out demons", and is a registered trademark of the church.


title: Church of Christ, Scientist

text: Christian Scientists believe that prayer is effective for healing diseases. The Church has collected over 50,000 testimonies of incidents that it considers healing through Christian Science treatment alone. While most of these testimonies represent ailments neither diagnosed nor treated by medical professionals, the Church requires three other people to vouch for any testimony published in any of its official organs, including the "Christian Science Journal", "Christian Science Sentinel", and "Herald of Christian Science"; verifiers say that they witnessed the healing or know the testifier well enough to vouch for them.


title: Church of Christ, Scientist

text: Christian Scientists may take an intensive two-week "Primary" class from an authorized Christian Science teacher. Those who wish to become "Journal-listed" (accredited) practitioners, devoting themselves full-time to the practice of healing, must first have Primary class instruction. When they have what the church regards as a record of healing, they may submit their names for publication in the directory of practitioners and teachers in the "Christian Science Journal". A practitioner who has been listed for at least three years may apply for "Normal" class instruction, given once every three years. Those who receive a certificate are authorized to teach. Both Primary and Normal classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy. The Primary class focuses on the chapter "Recapitulation" in "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures". This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and contains the "Scientific Statement of Being". The "Normal" class focuses on the platform of Christian Science, contained on pages 330-340 of "Science and Health."