title: District heating

text: The EU has actively incorporated cogeneration into its energy policy via the CHP Directive. In September 2008 at a hearing of the European Parliament's Urban Lodgment Intergroup, Energy Commissioner Andris Piebalgs is quoted as saying, "security of supply really starts with energy efficiency." Energy efficiency and cogeneration are recognized in the opening paragraphs of the European Union's Cogeneration Directive 2004/08/EC. This directive intends to support cogeneration and establish a method for calculating cogeneration abilities per country. The development of cogeneration has been very uneven over the years and has been dominated throughout the last decades by national circumstances.


title: District heating

text: As a whole, the European Union currently generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration, saving Europe an estimated 35 Mtoe per annum. However, there are large differences between the member states, with energy savings ranging from 2% to 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world's most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.


title: District heating

text: Other European countries are also making great efforts to increase their efficiency. Germany reports that over 50% of the country's total electricity demand could be provided through cogeneration. Germany set a target to double its electricity cogeneration from 12.5% of the country's electricity to 25% by 2020 and has passed supporting legislation accordingly in "Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology", (BMWi), Germany, August 2007. The UK is also actively supporting district heating. In the light of UK's goal to achieve an 80% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, the government had set a target to source at least 15% of government electricity from CHP by 2010. Other UK measures to encourage CHP growth are financial incentives, grant support, a greater regulatory framework, and government leadership and partnership.


title: District heating

text: According to the IEA 2008 modelling of cogeneration expansion for the G8 countries, expansion of cogeneration in France, Germany, Italy and the UK alone would effectively double the existing primary fuel savings by 2030. This would increase Europe's savings from today's 155 TWh to 465 TWh in 2030. It would also result in a 16% to 29% increase in each country's total cogenerated electricity by 2030.


title: District heating

text: Governments are being assisted in their CHP endeavors by organizations like COGEN Europe who serve as an information hub for the most recent updates within Europe's energy policy. COGEN is Europe's umbrella organization representing the interests of the cogeneration industry, users of the technology and promoting its benefits in the EU and the wider Europe. The association is backed by the key players in the industry including gas and electricity companies, ESCOs, equipment suppliers, consultancies, national promotion organisations, financial and other service companies.


title: District heating

text: The largest district heating system in Austria is in Vienna (Fernwärme Wien) – with many smaller systems distributed over the whole country.


title: District heating

text: District heating in Vienna is run by Wien Energie. In the business year of 2004/2005 a total of 5,163 GWh was sold, 1,602 GWh to 251,224 private apartments and houses and 3,561 GWh to 5211 major customers. The three large municipal waste incinerators provide 22% of the total in producing 116 GWh electric power and 1,220 GWh heat. Waste heat from municipal power plants and large industrial plants account for 72% of the total. The remaining 6% is produced by peak heating boilers from fossil fuel. A biomass-fired power plant has produced heat since 2006.


title: District heating

text: In the rest of Austria the newer district heating plants are constructed as biomass plants or as CHP-biomass plants like the biomass district heating of Mödling or the biomass district heating of Baden.


title: District heating

text: Most of the older fossil-fired district heating systems have a district heating accumulator, so that it is possible to produce the thermal district heating power only at that time where the electric power price is high.


title: District heating

text: Belgium has district heating in multiple cities. The largest system is in the Flemish city Ghent, the piping network of this power plant is 22 km long. The system dates back to 1958.


title: District heating

text: Bulgaria has district heating in around a dozen towns and cities. The largest system is in the capital Sofia, where there are four power plants (two CHPs and two boiler stations) providing heat to the majority of the city. The system dates back to 1949.


title: District heating

text: The largest district heating system in the Czech Republic is in Prague owned and operated by Pražská teplárenská, serving 265,000 households and selling c. 13 PJ of heat annually. Most of the heat is actually produced as waste heat in 30 km distant thermal power station in Mělník. There are many smaller central heating systems spread around the country including waste heat usage, municipal solid waste incineration and .


title: District heating

text: In Denmark district heating covers more than 64% of space heating and water heating. In 2007, 80.5% of this heat was produced by combined heat and power plants. Heat recovered from waste incineration accounted for 20.4% of the total Danish district heat production. In 2013, Denmark imported 158,000 ton waste for incineration. Most major cities in Denmark have big district heating networks, including transmission networks operating with up to 125 °C and 25 bar pressure and distribution networks operating with up to 95 °C and between 6 and 10 bar pressure. The largest district heating system in Denmark is in the Copenhagen area operated by CTR I/S and VEKS I/S. In central Copenhagen, the CTR network serves 275,000 households (90–95% of the area's population) through a network of 54 km double district heating distribution pipes providing a peak capacity of 663 MW, some of which is combined with district cooling. The consumer price of heat from CTR is approximately €49 per MWh plus taxes (2009). Several towns have central solar heating with various types of thermal energy storage.


title: District heating

text: In Finland district heating accounts for about 50% of the total heating market, 80% of which is produced by combined heat and power plants. Over 90% of apartment blocks, more than half of all terraced houses, and the bulk of public buildings and business premises are connected to a district heating network. Natural gas is mostly used in the south-east gas pipeline network, imported coal is used in areas close to ports, and peat is used in northern areas where peat is a local resource. Renewables, such as wood chips and other paper industry combustible by-products, are also used, as is the energy recovered by the incineration of municipal solid waste. Industrial units which generate heat as an industrial by-product may sell otherwise waste heat to the network rather than release it into the environment. Excess heat and power from pulp mill recovery boilers is a significant source in mill towns. In some towns waste incineration can contribute as much as 8% of the district heating heat requirement. Availability is 99.98% and disruptions, when they do occur, usually reduce temperatures by only a few degrees.


title: District heating

text: In Helsinki, an underground datacenter next to the President's palace releases excess heat into neighboring homes, producing enough heat to heat approximately 500 large houses. A quarter of a million households around Espoo are scheduled to receive district heating from datacenters.


title: District heating

text: In Germany district heating has a market share of around 14% in the residential buildings sector. The connected heat load is around 52,729 MW. The heat comes mainly from cogeneration plants (83%). Heat-only boilers supply 16% and 1% is surplus heat from industry. The cogeneration plants use natural gas (42%), coal (39%), lignite (12%) and waste/others (7%) as fuel.


title: District heating

text: The largest district heating network is located in Berlin whereas the highest diffusion of district heating occurs in Flensburg with around 90% market share. In Munich about 70% of the electricity produced comes from district heating plants.


title: District heating

text: District heating has rather little legal framework in Germany. There is no law on it as most elements of district heating are regulated in governmental or regional orders. There is no governmental support for district heating networks but a law to support cogeneration plants. As in the European Union the CHP Directive will come effective, this law probably needs some adjustment.


title: District heating

text: Greece has district heating mainly in the Province of Western Macedonia, Central Macedonia and the Peloponnese Province. The largest system is the city of Ptolemaida, where there are five power plants (thermal power stations or TPS in particular) providing heat to the majority of the largest towns and cities of the area and some villages. The first small installation took place in Ptolemaida in 1960, offering heating to Proastio village of Eordaea using the TPS of Ptolemaida. Today District heating installations are also available in Kozani, Ptolemaida, Amyntaio, Philotas, Serres and Megalopolis using nearby power plants. In Serres the power plant is a Hi-Efficiency CHP Plant using natural gas, while coal is the primary fuel for all other district heating networks.


title: District heating

text: According to the 2011 census there were 607,578 dwellings (15.5% of all) in Hungary with district heating, mostly panel flats in urban areas. The largest district heating system located in Budapest, the municipality-owned "Főtáv Zrt." ("Metropolitan Teleheating Company") provides heat and piped hot water for 238,000 households and 7,000 companies.


title: District heating

text: 93% of all housing in Iceland enjoy district heating services – 89.6% from geothermal energy, Iceland is the country with the highest penetration of district heating. There are 117 local district heating systems supplying towns as well as rural areas with hot water - reaching almost all of the population. The average price is around US$0.027 per kWh of hot water.


title: District heating

text: Southwest Iceland and Reykjavík's hot water supply for district heating comes from three geothermal power plants, producing over 800 MWth:


title: District heating

text: The Dublin Waste-to-Energy Facility will provide district heating for up to 50,000 homes in Poolbeg and surrounding areas. Some existing residential developments in the North Docklands have been constructed for conversion to district heating – currently using on-site gas boilers – and pipes are in place in the Liffey Service Tunnel to connect these to the incinerator or other waste heat sources in the area.


title: District heating

text: Tralee in Co Kerry has a 1 MW district heating system providing heat to an apartment complex, sheltered housing for the elderly, a library and over 100 individual houses. The system is fuelled by locally produced wood chip.


title: District heating

text: A scheme to use waste heat from an Amazon Web Services datacentre in Tallaght is intended to heat 1200 units and municipal buildings


title: District heating

text: In Italy, district heating is used in some cities (Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, Bolzano, Verona, Ferrara, Imola, Modena, Reggio Emilia, Terlan, Turin, Parma, Lodi, and now Milan). The district heating of Turin is the biggest of the country and it supplies 550.000 people (62% of the whole city population).


title: District heating

text: In Latvia, district heating is used in major cities such as Riga, Daugavpils, Liepāja, Jelgava. The first district heating system was constructed in Riga in 1952. Each major city has a local company responsible for the generation, administration, and maintenance of the district heating system.


title: District heating

text: District heating is used in Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Almere with more expected as the government has mandated a transition away from natural gas for all homes in the country by 2050.


title: District heating

text: The town of Heerlen has developed a grid using water in disused coalmines as a source and storage for heat and cold. This is a good example of a 5th generation heating and cooling grid


title: District heating

text: District heating is only available in Skopje. Balkan Energy Group (BEG) operates three DH production plants, which cover majority of the network, and supply heat to around 60.000 households in Skopje, more than 80 buildings in the educational sector (schools and kindergartens) and more than 1.000 other consumers (mostly commercial). The three BEG production plants use natural gas as a fuel source. There is also one cogeneration plant TE-TO AD Skopje producing heat delivered to the Skopje district heating system. The share of cogeneration in DH production was 47% in 2017. The distribution and supply of district heating is carried out by companies owned by BEG.


title: District heating

text: In Norway district heating only constitutes approximately 2% of energy needs for heating. This is a very low number compared to similar countries. One of the main reasons district heating has a low penetration in Norway is access to cheap hydro-based electricity, and 80% of private electricity consumption goes to heat rooms and water. However, there is district heating in the major cities.


title: District heating

text: In 2009, 40% of Polish households used district heating, most of them in urban areas. Heat is provided primarily by combined heat and power plants, most of which burn hard coal. The largest district heating system is in Warsaw, owned and operated by Veolia Warszawa, distributing approx. 34 PJ annually.


title: District heating

text: The largest district heating system in Romania is in Bucharest. Owned and operated by RADET, it distributes approximately 24 PJ annually, serving 570 000 households. This corresponds to 68% of Bucharest's total domestic heat requirements (RADET fulfills another 4% through single-building boiler systems, for a total of 72%).


title: District heating

text: In most Russian cities, district-level combined heat and power plants () produce more than 50% of the nation's electricity and simultaneously provide hot water for neighbouring city blocks. They mostly use coal- and gas-powered steam turbines for cogeneration of heat. Now, combined cycle gas turbines designs are beginning to be widely used as well.


title: District heating

text: In Serbia, district heating is used throughout the main cities, particularly in the capital, Belgrade. The first district heating plant was built in 1961 as a means to provide effective heating to the newly built suburbs of Novi Beograd. Since then, numerous plants have been built to heat the ever-growing city. They use natural gas as fuel, because it has less of an effect on the environment. The district heating system of Belgrade possesses 112 heat sources of 2,454 MW capacity, over 500 km of pipeline, and 4365 connection stations, providing district heating to 240,000 apartments and 7,500 office/commercial buildings of total floor area exceeding 17,000,000 square meters.


title: District heating

text: Slovakia's centralised heating system covers more than 54% of the overall demand for heat. In 2015 approximately 1.8 million citizens, 35% of the total population of Slovakia, were served by district heating. The infrastructure was built mainly during the 1960s and 1980s. In recent years large investments were made to increase the share of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency in district heating systems.


title: District heating

text: The heat production comes mostly from natural gas and biomass sources, and 54% of the heat in district heating is generated through cogeneration.


title: District heating

text: The distribution system consists of 2800 km of pipes. Warm and hot water are the most common heat carriers, but older high-pressure steam transport still accounts for around one-quarter of the primary distribution, which results in more losses in the system.


title: District heating

text: In terms of the market structure, there were 338 heat suppliers licensed to produce and/or distribute heat in 2016, of which 87% were both producers and distributors. Most are small companies that operate in a single municipality, but some large companies such as Veolia are also present in the market. The state owns and operates large co-generation plants that produce district heat and electricity in six cities (Bratislava, Košice, Žilina, Trnava, Zvolen and Martin). Multiple companies can operate in one city, which is the case in larger cities. A large share of DH is produced by small natural gas heat boilers connected to blocks of buildings. In 2014, nearly 40% of the total DH generation was from natural gas boilers, other than co-generation.


title: District heating

text: Sweden has a long tradition for using district heating (fjärrvärme) in urban areas. In 2015, about 60% of Sweden's houses (private and commercial) were heated by district heating, according to the Swedish association of district heating.


title: District heating

text: The city of Växjö reduced its emissions from fossil fuels by 34% from 1993 to 2009. This was to achieved largely by way of biomass fired district heating. Another example is the plant of Enköping, combining the use of short rotation plantations both for fuel as well as for phytoremediation.


title: District heating

text: 47% of the heat generated in Swedish district heating systems are produced with renewable bioenergy sources, as well as 16% in waste-to-energy plants, 7% is provided by heat pumps, 10% by flue-gas condensation and 6% by industrial waste heat recovery. The remaining are mostly fossil fuels: oil (3%), natural gas (3%), peat (2%), and coal (1%).


title: District heating

text: In the United Kingdom, district heating became popular after World War II, but on a restricted scale, to heat the large residential estates that replaced areas devastated by the Blitz. In 2013 there were 1,765 district heating schemes with 920 based in London alone. In total around 210,000 homes and 1,700 businesses are supplied by heat networks in the UK.


title: District heating

text: The Pimlico District Heating Undertaking (PDHU) first became operational in 1950 and continues to expand to this day. The PDHU once relied on waste heat from the now-disused Battersea Power Station on the South side of the River Thames. It is still in operation, the water now being heated locally by a new energy centre which incorporates 3.1 MWe / 4.0 MWth of gas fired CHP engines and 3 × 8 MW gas-fired boilers.


title: District heating

text: One of the United Kingdom's largest district heating schemes is EnviroEnergy in Nottingham. The plant initially built by Boots is now used to heat 4,600 homes, and a wide variety of business premises, including the Concert Hall, the Nottingham Arena, the Victoria Baths, the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre, the Victoria Centre, and others. The heat source is a waste-to-energy incinerator. Scotland has several district heating systems with the first in the UK being installed at Aviemore and others following at Lochgilphead, Fort William and Forfar.


title: District heating

text: Sheffield's district heating network was established in 1988 and is still expanding today. It saves an equivalent 21,000 plus tonnes of CO each year when compared to conventional sources of energy – electricity from the national grid and heat generated by individual boilers. There are currently over 140 buildings connected to the district heating network. These include city landmarks such as the Sheffield City Hall, the Lyceum Theatre, the University of Sheffield, Sheffield Hallam University, hospitals, shops, offices and leisure facilities plus 2,800 homes. More than 44 km of underground pipes deliver energy which is generated at Sheffield Energy Recovery Facility. This converts 225,000 tonnes of waste into energy, producing up to 60 MWe of thermal energy and up to 19 MWe of electrical energy.


title: District heating

text: The Southampton District Energy Scheme was originally built to use just geothermal energy, but now also uses the heat from a gas fired CHP generator. It supplies heating and district cooling to many large premises in the city, including the Westquay shopping centre, the De Vere Grand Harbour hotel, the Royal South Hants Hospital, and several housing schemes. In the 1980s Southampton began utilising combined heat and power district heating, taking advantage of geothermal heat "trapped" in the area. The geothermal heat provided by the well works in conjunction with the Combined Heat and Power scheme. Geothermal energy provides 15–20%, fuel oil 10%, and natural gas 70% of the total heat input for this scheme and the combined heat and power generators use conventional fuels to make electricity. "Waste heat" from this process is recovered for distribution through the 11 km mains network.


title: District heating

text: Lerwick District Heating Scheme is of note because it is one of the few schemes where a completely new system was added to a previously existing small town.


title: District heating

text: ADE has an online map of district heating installations in the UK. ADE estimates that 54 percent of energy used to produce electricity is being wasted via conventional power production, which relates to £9.5 billion ($US12.5 billion) per year.


title: District heating

text: In North America, district heating systems fall into two general categories. Those that are owned by and serve the buildings of a single entity are considered institutional systems. All others fall into the commercial category.


title: District heating

text: District Heating is becoming a growing industry in Canadian cities, with many new systems being built in the last ten years. Some of the major systems in Canada include:


title: District heating

text: The Holly Steam Combination Company was the first steam heating company to commercially distribute district heating from a central steam heating system. As of 2013, approximately 2,500 district heating and cooling systems existed in the United States, in one form or another, with the majority providing heat.


title: District heating

text: Historically, district heating was primarily used in urban areas of the US, but by 1985, it was mainly used in institutions. A handful of smaller municipalities in New England maintained municipal steam into the 21st century, in cities like Holyoke, Massachusetts and Concord, New Hampshire, however the former would end service in 2010 and the latter in 2017, attributing aging infrastructure and capital expenses to their closures. In 2019, Concord replaced a number of remaining pipes with more efficient ones for a smaller steam system heating only the State House and State Library, mainly due to historic preservation reasons rather than a broader energy plan.


title: District heating

text: District heating is also used on many college campuses, often in combination with district cooling and electricity generation. Colleges using district heating include the University of Texas at Austin; Rice University; Brigham Young University; Georgetown University; Cornell University, which also employs deep water source cooling using the waters of nearby Cayuga Lake; Purdue University; University of Massachusetts Amherst; University of Maine at Farmington; University of Notre Dame; Michigan State University; Eastern Michigan University; Case Western Reserve University; Iowa State University; University of Delaware; University of Maryland, College Park , University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of Georgia, University of Cincinnati, North Carolina State University, and several campuses of the University of California. MIT installed a cogeneration system in 1995 that provides electricity, heating and cooling to 80% of its campus buildings. The University of New Hampshire has a cogeneration plant run on methane from an adjacent landfill, providing the university with 100% of its heat and power needs without burning oil or natural gas.


title: District heating

text: North Dakota State University (NDSU) in Fargo, North Dakota has used district heating for over a century from their coal-fired heating plant.


title: District heating

text: Many companies operate district cogeneration facilities that provide steam and/or hot water to many of the office buildings. Also, most operators in the Greater Tokyo serve district cooling.


title: District heating

text: In southern China (south of the Qinling–Huaihe Line), there are nearly no district heating systems. In northern China, district heating systems are common. Most district heating system which are just for heating instead of CHP use hard coal. Since air pollution in China has become quite serious, many cities gradually are now using natural gas rather than coal in district heating system. There is also some amount of geothermal heating and sea heat pump systems.


title: District heating

text: In February 2019, China's State Power Investment Corporation (SPIC) signed a cooperation agreement with the Baishan municipal government in Jilin province for the Baishan Nuclear Energy Heating Demonstration Project, which would use a China National Nuclear Corporation DHR-400 (District Heating Reactor 400 MWt). Building cost is 1.5 billion yuan ($230 million), taking three years to build.


title: District heating

text: Geothermal energy in Turkey provides some district heating, and residential district heating and cooling requirements have been mapped.


title: District heating

text: Penetration of district heating (DH) into the heat market varies by country. Penetration is influenced by different factors, including environmental conditions, availability of heat sources, economics, and economic and legal framework. The European Commission aims to develop sustainable practices through implementation of district heating and cooling technology.


title: District heating

text: In the year 2000 the percentage of houses supplied by district heat in some European countries was as follows:


title: District heating

text: In Iceland the prevailing positive influence on DH is availability of easily captured geothermal heat. In most Eastern European countries, energy planning included development of cogeneration and district heating. Negative influence in the Netherlands and UK can be attributed partially to milder climate, along with competition from natural gas. The tax on domestic gas prices in the UK is a third of that in France and a fifth of that in Germany.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Oceanic trenches are prominent long, narrow topographic depressions of the ocean floor. They are typically wide and below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor, but can be thousands of kilometers in length. There are about of oceanic trenches worldwide, mostly around the Pacific Ocean, but also in the eastern Indian Ocean and a few other locations. The greatest ocean depth measured is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of below sea level.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Oceanic trenches are a feature of the Earth's distinctive plate tectonics. They mark the locations of convergent plate boundaries, along which lithospheric plates move towards each other at rates that vary from a few millimeters to over ten centimeters per year. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about 3 km/yr. A trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend beneath another lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to and about from a volcanic arc.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Much of the fluid trapped in sediments of the subducting slab returns to the surface at the oceanic trench, producing mud volcanoes and cold seeps. These support unique biomes based on chemotrophic microorganisms. There is concern that plastic debris is accumulating in trenches and threatening these communities.


title: Oceanic trench

text: There are approximately of convergent plate margins worldwide. These are mostly located around the Pacific Ocean, but are also found in the eastern Indian Ocean, with a few shorter convergent margin segments in other parts of the Indian Ocean, in the Atlantic Ocean, and in the Mediterranean. They are found on the oceanward side of island arcs and Andean-type orogens. Globally, there are over 50 major ocean trenches covering an area of 1.9 million km or about 0.5% of the oceans.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Trenches are geomorphologically distinct from troughs. Troughs are elongated depressions of the sea floor with steep sides and flat bottoms, while trenches are characterized by a V-shaped profile. Trenches that are partially infilled are sometimes described as troughs, for example the Makran Trough. Some trenches are completely buried and lack bathymetric expression as in the Cascadia subduction zone, which is completely filled with sediments. Despite their appearance, in these instances the fundamental plate-tectonic structure is still an oceanic trench.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Some troughs look similar to oceanic trenches but possess other tectonic structures. One example is the Lesser Antilles Trough, which is the forearc basin of the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. Also not a trench is the New Caledonia trough, which is an extensional sedimentary basin related to the Tonga-Kermadec subduction zone. Additionally, the Cayman Trough, which is a pull-apart basin within a transform fault zone, is not an oceanic trench.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Trenches, along with volcanic arcs and Wadati-Benioff zones (zones of earthquakes under a volcanic arc) are diagnostic of convergent plate boundaries and their deeper manifestations, subduction zones. Here, two tectonic plates are drifting into each other at a rate of a few millimeters to over per year. At least one of the plates is oceanic lithosphere, which plunges under the other plate to be recycled in the Earth's mantle.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Trenches are related to, but distinct from, continental collision zones, such as the Himalayas. Unlike in trenches, in continental collision zones continental crust enters a subduction zone. When buoyant continental crust enters a trench, subduction comes to a halt and the area becomes a zone of continental collision. Features analogous to trenches are associated with collision zones. One such feature is the "peripheral foreland basin", a sediment-filled foredeep. Examples of peripheral foreland basins include the floodplains of the Ganges River and the Tigris-Euphrates river system.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Trenches were not clearly defined until the late 1940s and 1950s. The bathymetry of the ocean was poorly known prior to the Challenger expedition of 1872–1876, which took 492 soundings of the deep ocean. At station #225, the expedition discovered Challenger Deep, now known to be the southern end of the Mariana Trench. The laying of transatlantic telegraph cables on the seafloor between the continents during the late 19th and early 20th centuries provided further motivation for improved bathymetry. The term "trench", in its modern sense of a prominent elongated depression of the sea bottom, was first used by Johnstone in his 1923 textbook "An Introduction to Oceanography".


title: Oceanic trench

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, Felix Andries Vening Meinesz measured gravity over trenches using a newly developed gravimeter that could measure gravity from aboard a submarine. He proposed the "tectogene hypothesis" to explain the belts of negative gravity anomalies that were found near island arcs. According to this hypothesis, the belts were zones of downwelling of light crustal rock arising from subcrustal convection currents. The tectogene hypothesis was further developed by Griggs in 1939, using an analogue model based on a pair of rotating drums. Harry Hammond Hess substantially revised the theory based on his geological analysis.


title: Oceanic trench

text: World War II in the Pacific led to great improvements of bathymetry, particularly in the western Pacific. In light of these new measurements, the linear nature of the deeps became clear. There was a rapid growth of deep sea research efforts, especially the widespread use of echosounders in the 1950s and 1960s. These efforts confirmed the morphological utility of the term "trench." Important trenches were identified, sampled, and mapped via sonar.


title: Oceanic trench

text: The early phase of trench exploration reached its peak with the 1960 descent of the Bathyscaphe "Trieste" to the bottom of the Challenger Deep. Following Robert S. Dietz’ and Harry Hess’ promulgation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis in the early 1960s and the plate tectonic revolution in the late 1960s, the oceanic trench became an important concept in plate tectonic theory.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Oceanic trenches are wide and have an asymmetric V-shape, with the steeper slope (8 to 20 degrees) on the inner (overriding) side of the trench and the gentler slope (around 5 degrees) on the outer (subducting) side of the trench. The bottom of the trench marks the boundary between the subducting and overriding plates, known as the basal plate boundary shear or the subduction décollement. The depth of the trench depends on the starting depth of the oceanic lithosphere as it begins its plunge into the trench, the angle at which the slab plunges, and the amount of sedimentation in the trench. Both starting depth and subduction angle are greater for older oceanic lithosphere, which is reflected in the deep trenches of the western Pacific. Here the bottoms of the Marianas and the Tonga-Kermadec trenches are up to below sea level. In the eastern Pacific, where the subducting oceanic lithosphere is much younger, the depth of the Peru-Chile trench is around .


title: Oceanic trench

text: Though narrow, oceanic trenches are remarkably long and continuous, forming the largest linear depressions on earth. An individual trench can be thousands of kilometers long. Most trenches are convex towards the subducting slab, which is attributed to the spherical geometry of the Earth.


title: Oceanic trench

text: The trench asymmetry reflects the different physical mechanisms that determine the inner and outer slope angle. The outer slope angle of the trench is determined by the bending radius of the subducting slab, as determined by its elastic thickness. Since oceanic lithosphere thickens with age, the outer slope angle is ultimately determined by the age of the subducting slab. The inner slope angle is determined by the angle of repose of the overriding plate edge. This reflects frequent earthquakes along the trench that prevent oversteepening of the inner slope.


title: Oceanic trench

text: As the subducting plate approaches the trench, it bends slightly upwards before beginning its plunge into the depths. As a result, the outer trench slope is bounded by an "outer trench high". This is subtle, often only tens of meters high, and is typically located a few tens of kilometers from the trench axis. On the outer slope itself, where the plate begins to bend downwards into the trench, the upper part of the subducting slab is broken by bending faults that give the outer trench slope a horst and graben topography. The formation of these bending faults is suppressed where oceanic ridges or large seamounts are subducting into the trench, but the bending faults cut right across smaller seamounts. Where the subducting slab is only thinly veneered with sediments, the outer slope will often show seafloor spreading ridges oblique to the horst and graben ridges.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Trench morphology is strongly modified by the amount of sedimentation in the trench. This varies from practically no sedimentation, as in the Tonga-Kermadec trench, to almost completely filled with sediments, as with the southern Lesser Antilles trench or the eastern Alaskan trench. Sedimentation is largely controlled by whether the trench is near a continental sediment source. The range of sedimentation is well illustrated by the Chilean trench. The north Chile portion of the trench, which lies along the Atacama Desert with its very slow rate of weathering, is sediment-starved, with from 20 to a few hundred meters of sediments on the trench floor. The tectonic morphology of this trench segment is fully exposed on the ocean bottom. The central Chile segment of the trench is moderately sedimented, with sediments onlapping onto pelagic sediments or ocean basement of the subducting slab, but the trench morphology is still clearly discernible. The southern Chile segment of the trench is fully sedimented, to the point where the outer rise and slope are no longer discernible. Other fully sedimented trenches include the Makran Trough, where sediments are up to thick; the Cascadia subduction zone, which is completed buried by of sediments; and the northernmost Sumatra subduction zone, which is buried under of sediments.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Sediments are sometimes transported along the axis of an oceanic trench. The central Chile trench experiences transport of sediments from source fans along an axial channel. Similar transport of sediments has been documented in the Aleutian trench.


title: Oceanic trench

text: In addition to sedimentation from rivers draining into a trench, sedimentation also takes place from landslides on the tectonically steepened inner slope, often driven by megathrust earthquakes. The Reloca Slide of the central Chile trench is an example of this process.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Convergent margins are classified as erosive or accretionary, and this has a strong influence on the morphology of the inner slope of the trench. Erosive margins, such as the northern Peru-Chile, Tonga-Kermadec, and Mariana trenches, correspond to sediment-starved trenches. The subducting slab erodes material from the lower part of the overriding slab, reducing its volume. The edge of the slab experiences subsidence and steepening, with normal faulting. The slope is underlain by relative strong igneous and metamorphic rock, which maintains a high angle of repose. Over half of all convergent margins are erosive margins.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Accretionary margins, such as the southern Peru-Chile, Cascadia, and Aleutians, are associated with moderately to heavily sedimented trenches. As the slab subducts, sediments are "bulldozed" onto the edge of the overriding plate, producing an "accretionary wedge" or "accretionary prism". This builds the overriding plate outwards. Because the sediments lack strength, their angle of repose is gentler than the rock making up the inner slope of erosive margin trenches. The inner slope is underlain by imbricated thrust sheets of sediments. The inner slope topography is roughened by localized mass wasting. Cascadia has practically no bathymetric expression of the outer rise and trench, due to complete sediment filling, but the inner trench slope is complex, with many thrust ridges. These compete with canyon formation by rivers draining into the trench. Inner trench slopes of erosive margins rarely show thrust ridges.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Accretionary prisms grow in two ways. The first is by frontal accretion, in which sediments are scraped off the downgoing plate and emplaced at the front of the accretionary prism. As the accretionary wedge grows, older sediments further from the trench become increasingly lithified, and faults and other structural features are steepened by rotation towards the trench. The other mechanism for accretionary prism growth is underplating (also known as basal accretion) of subducted sediments, together with some oceanic crust, along the shallow parts of the subduction decollement. The Franciscan Group of California is interpreted as an ancient accretionary prism in which underplating is recorded as tectonic mélanges and duplex structures.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Frequent megathrust earthquakes modify the inner slope of the trench by triggering massive landslides. These leave semicircular landslide scarps with slopes of up to 20 degrees on the headwalls and sidewalls.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Subduction of seamounts and aseismic ridges into the trench may increase aseismic creep and reduce the severity of earthquakes. Contrariwise, subduction of large amounts of sediments may allow ruptures along the subduction décollement to propagate for great distances to produce megathrust earthquakes.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Trenches seem positionally stable over time, but scientists believe that some trenches—particularly those associated with subduction zones where two oceanic plates converge—move backward into the subducting plate. This is called trench rollback or hinge retreat (also hinge rollback) and is one explanation for the existence of back-arc basins.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Forces perpendicular to the slab (the portion of the subducting plate within the mantle) are responsible for steepening of the slab and, ultimately, the movement of the hinge and trench at the surface. These forces arise from the negative buoyancy of the slab with respect to the mantle modified by the geometry of the slab itself. The extension in the overriding plate, in response to the subsequent subhorizontal mantle flow from the displacement of the slab, can result in formation of a back-arc basin.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Several forces are involved in the process of slab rollback. Two forces acting against each other at the interface of the two subducting plates exert forces against one another. The subducting plate exerts a bending force (FPB) that supplies pressure during subduction, while the overriding plate exerts a force against the subducting plate (FTS). The slab pull force (FSP) is caused by the negative buoyancy of the plate driving the plate to greater depths. The resisting force from the surrounding mantle opposes the slab pull forces. Interactions with the 660-km discontinuity cause a deflection due to the buoyancy at the phase transition (F660). The unique interplay of these forces is what generates slab rollback. When the deep slab section obstructs the down-going motion of the shallow slab section, slab rollback occurs. The subducting slab undergoes backward sinking due to the negative buoyancy forces causing a retrogradation of the trench hinge along the surface. Upwelling of the mantle around the slab can create favorable conditions for the formation of a back-arc basin.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Seismic tomography provides evidence for slab rollback. Results demonstrate high temperature anomalies within the mantle suggesting subducted material is present in the mantle. Ophiolites are viewed as evidence for such mechanisms as high pressure and temperature rocks are rapidly brought to the surface through the processes of slab rollback, which provides space for the exhumation of ophiolites.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Slab rollback is not always a continuous process suggesting an episodic nature. The episodic nature of the rollback is explained by a change in the density of the subducting plate, such as the arrival of buoyant lithosphere (a continent, arc, ridge, or plateau), a change in the subduction dynamics, or a change in the plate kinematics. The age of the subducting plates does not have any effect on slab rollback. Nearby continental collisions have an effect on slab rollback. Continental collisions induce mantle flow and extrusion of mantle material, which causes stretching and arc-trench rollback. In the area of the Southeast Pacific, there have been several rollback events resulting in the formation of numerous back-arc basins.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Interactions with the mantle discontinuities play a significant role in slab rollback. Stagnation at the 660-km discontinuity causes retrograde slab motion due to the suction forces acting at the surface. Slab rollback induces mantle return flow, which causes extension from the shear stresses at the base of the overriding plate. As slab rollback velocities increase, circular mantle flow velocities also increase, accelerating extension rates. Extension rates are altered when the slab interacts with the discontinuities within the mantle at 410 km and 660 km depth. Slabs can either penetrate directly into the lower mantle, or can be retarded due to the phase transition at 660 km depth creating a difference in buoyancy. An increase in retrograde trench migration (slab rollback) (2–4 cm/yr) is a result of flattened slabs at the 660-km discontinuity where the slab does not penetrate into the lower mantle. This is the case for the Japan, Java and Izu–Bonin trenches. These flattened slabs are only temporarily arrested in the transition zone. The subsequent displacement into the lower mantle is caused by slab pull forces, or the destabilization of the slab from warming and broadening due to thermal diffusion. Slabs that penetrate directly into the lower mantle result in slower slab rollback rates (~1–3 cm/yr) such as the Mariana arc, Tonga arcs.


title: Oceanic trench

text: As sediments are subducted at the bottom of trenches, much of their fluid content is expelled and moves back along the subduction décollement to emerge on the inner slope as mud volcanoes and cold seeps. Methane clathrates and gas hydrates also accumulate in the inner slope, and there is concern that their breakdown could contribute to global warming.


title: Oceanic trench

text: The fluids released at mud volcanoes and cold seeps are rich in methane and hydrogen sulfide, providing chemical energy for chemotrophic microorganisms that form the base of a unique trench biome. Cold seep communities have been identified in the inner trench slopes of the western Pacific (especially Japan), South America, Barbados, the Mediterranean, Makran, and the Sunda trench. These are found at depths as great as . The genome of the extremophile "Deinococcus" from Challenger Deep has sequenced for its ecological insights and potential industrial uses.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Because trenches are the lowest points in the ocean floor, there is concern that plastic debris may accumulate in trenches and endanger the fragile trench biomes.


title: Oceanic trench

text: Recent measurements, where the salinity and temperature of the water was measured throughout the dive, have uncertainties of about . Older measurements may be off by hundreds of meters.


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: The second series of "Love Island" began on 30 May 2016 hosted by Caroline Flack on ITV2, and ended on 11 July 2016. It's the second from the revived series, but fourth overall. The series was narrated by Iain Stirling. The series was extended to air every night of the week, as opposed to the previous series where it only aired six nights. However the Saturday episode was used as a weekly catch-up entitled "Love Island: The Weekly Hot List" rather than a nightly highlights episode. The average viewers for this series was 1,470,000, up 900,000 on the first series.


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: The series included the first time an Islander was removed from the villa, as Malia Arkian was removed just hours after she entered the villa following an altercation with Kady McDermott. It also featured a number of voluntarily exits from the series, as Rykard Jenkins decided to leave the villa after his new love interest Rachel Fenton was eliminated. Zara Holland also decided to leave after discovering her mum is in the hospital. Sophie Gradon also decided to voluntarily leave the villa. Sophie and Katie Salmon were also the first same-sex couple to feature in "Love Island".


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: On 11 July 2016 the series was won by Cara De La Hoyde and Nathan Massey, with Alex Bowen and Olivia Buckland as runners-up.


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: Winners Cara and Nathan later went onto appear on "The Only Way Is Essex", whilst Rykard joined the cast of "Ibiza Weekender" in 2017


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: On Valentine's Day, 14 February 2016, it was confirmed that "Love Island" would return for a second series due to air later in the year. On 18 May 2016 it was confirmed that the series would begin on 30 May 2016, but had scrapped the live eliminations. A one-minute trailer for the series aired on 23 May 2016. Pictures of the villa were unveiled on 28 May 2016. The villa is located in Mallorca with 69 cameras watching the Islanders' every move. It only includes double beds forcing them to share with each other, but has a special Hideaway bedroom for couples to spend the night away from the others.


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: The Islanders for the second series were revealed on 24 May 2016, just a week before the launch. However, throughout the series, more Islanders entered the villa to find love. Some Islanders were dumped from the island for either failing to couple up, some were voted off by their fellow Islanders, and others for receiving the fewest votes in public eliminations. The series was won by Cara and Nathan on 11 July 2016 having received 54% of the vote.


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: The couples were chosen shortly after the contestants entered the villa. After all of the girls entered, the boys were asked to choose a girl to pair up with. Sophie was paired with Tom, Cara with Nathan, Malin and Rykard paired up, Zara and Scott coupled up, whilst Olivia paired up with Daniel and Javi remained single. However, throughout the series the couples swapped and changed.


title: Love Island (2015 TV series, series 2)

text: Official ratings are taken from BARB and include ITV2 +1. Because the Saturday episodes are weekly catch-up episodes rather than nightly highlights, these are not included in the overall averages.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944), was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States to uphold the exclusion of Japanese Americans from the West Coast Military Area during World War II. The decision has been widely criticized, with some scholars describing it as "an odious and discredited artifact of popular bigotry", and as "a stain on American jurisprudence". The case is often cited as one of the worst Supreme Court decisions of all time. Chief Justice John Roberts explicitly repudiated the "Korematsu" decision in his majority opinion in the 2018 case of "Trump v. Hawaii".


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: In the aftermath of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the U.S. War Department to create military areas from which any or all Americans might be excluded. Subsequently, the Western Defense Command, a U.S. Army military command charged with coordinating the defense of the West Coast of the United States, ordered "all persons of Japanese ancestry, including aliens and non-aliens" to relocate to internment camps. However, a 23-year-old Japanese-American man, Fred Korematsu, refused to leave the exclusion zone and instead challenged the order on the grounds that it violated the Fifth Amendment.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: In a majority opinion joined by five other justices, Associate Justice Hugo Black held that the need to protect against espionage by Japan outweighed the rights of Americans of Japanese ancestry. Black wrote that "Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him or his race", but rather "because the properly constituted military authorities ... decided that the military urgency of the situation demanded that all citizens of Japanese ancestry be segregated from the West Coast" during the war against Japan. Dissenting justices Frank Murphy, Robert H. Jackson, and Owen J. Roberts all criticized the exclusion as racially discriminatory; Murphy wrote that the exclusion of Japanese "falls into the ugly abyss of racism" and resembled "the abhorrent and despicable treatment of minority groups by the dictatorial tyrannies which this nation is now pledged to destroy."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: The "Korematsu" opinion was the first instance in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard of review to racial discrimination by the government; it is one of only a handful of cases in which the Court held that the government met that standard. Korematsu's conviction was voided by a California district court in 1983 on the grounds that Solicitor General Charles H. Fahy had suppressed a report from the Office of Naval Intelligence that held that there was no evidence that Japanese Americans were acting as spies for Japan. The Japanese-Americans who were interned were later granted reparations through the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: In the wake of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the report of the First Roberts Commission, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the War Department to create military areas from which any or all Americans might be excluded, and to provide for the necessary transport, lodging, and feeding of persons displaced from such areas. On March 2, 1942, the U.S. Army Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, commander of the Western Defense Command, issued Public Proclamation No. 1, demarcating western military areas and the exclusion zones therein, and directing any "Japanese, German, or Italian aliens" and any person of Japanese ancestry to inform the U.S. Postal Service of any changes of residence. Further military areas and zones were demarcated in Public Proclamation No. 2.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: In the meantime, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson mailed to Senator Robert Rice Reynolds and House Speaker Sam Rayburn draft legislation authorizing the enforcement of Executive Order 9066. By March 21, Congress had enacted the proposed legislation, which Roosevelt signed into law. On March 24, 1942, Western Defense Command began issuing Civilian Exclusion orders, commanding that "all persons of Japanese ancestry, including aliens and non-aliens" report to designated assembly points. With the issuance of Civilian Restrictive Order No. 1 on May 19, 1942, Japanese Americans were forced to move into relocation camps.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Meanwhile, Fred Korematsu was a 23-year-old Japanese-American man who decided to stay at his residence in San Leandro, California, instead of obeying the order to relocate; however, he knowingly violated Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34 of the U.S. Army, even undergoing plastic surgery in an attempt to conceal his identity. Korematsu argued that Executive Order 9066 was unconstitutional and that it violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Fifth Amendment was selected over the Fourteenth Amendment due to the lack of federal protections in the Fourteenth Amendment. He was arrested and convicted. No question was raised as to Korematsu's loyalty to the United States. The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit eventually affirmed his conviction, and the Supreme Court granted "certiorari".


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: The decision of the case, written by Justice Hugo Black, found the case largely indistinguishable from the previous year's "Hirabayashi v. United States" decision, and rested largely on the same principle: deference to Congress and the military authorities, particularly in light of the uncertainty following Pearl Harbor. Justice Black further denied that the case had anything to do with racial prejudice: Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him or his race. He was excluded because we are at war with the Japanese Empire, because the properly constituted military authorities feared an invasion of our West Coast and felt constrained to take proper security measures, because they decided that the military urgency of the situation demanded that all citizens of Japanese ancestry be segregated from the West Coast temporarily, and, finally, because Congress, reposing its confidence in this time of war in our military leaders—as inevitably it must—determined that they should have the power to do just this.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: In his diaries, Justice Felix Frankfurter reported that Justice Black told the justices as reason for deferring to the executive branch: "Somebody must run this war. It is either Roosevelt or us. And we cannot."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: While "Korematsu" is regularly described as upholding the internment of Japanese Americans, the majority opinion expressly declined to reach the issue of internment on the ground that Korematsu's conviction did not present that issue, which it said raised different questions. The Court cross-referenced its decision the same day in "Ex Parte Endo", 323 U.S. 283 (1944), in which the Court ruled that a loyal Japanese American must be released from detention.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Justice Frank Murphy issued a vehement dissent, saying that the exclusion of Japanese "falls into the ugly abyss of racism", and resembles "the abhorrent and despicable treatment of minority groups by the dictatorial tyrannies which this nation is now pledged to destroy." Murphy argued that collective punishment for Japanese Americans was an unconstitutional response to any disloyalty that might have been found in a minority of their cohort. He also compared the treatment of Japanese Americans with the treatment of Americans of German and Italian ancestry, as evidence that race, and not emergency alone, led to the exclusion order which Korematsu was convicted of violating: I dissent, therefore, from this legalization of racism. Racial discrimination in any form and in any degree has no justifiable part whatever in our democratic way of life. It is unattractive in any setting, but it is utterly revolting among a free people who have embraced the principles set forth in the Constitution of the United States. All residents of this nation are kin in some way by blood or culture to a foreign land. Yet they are primarily and necessarily a part of the new and distinct civilization of the United States. They must, accordingly, be treated at all times as the heirs of the American experiment, and as entitled to all the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Justice Murphy's two uses of the term "racism" in this opinion, along with two additional uses in his concurrence in "Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.", decided the same day, are among the first appearances of the word "racism" in a United States Supreme Court opinion. The first appearance was in Justice Murphy's concurrence in . The term was also used in other cases, such as and . It then disappeared from the court's lexicon for 18 years—it reappeared in . It did not appear in , even though that case did talk about racial discrimination and interracial marriages.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Justice Murphy's dissent is considered the strongest of the three dissenting opinions and, since the 1980s, has been cited as part of modern jurisprudence's categorical rejection of the majority opinion.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Justice Roberts's dissent also acknowledges the racism inherent in the case although he does not use the word. He recognized that the defendant was being punished based solely upon his ancestry: This is not a case of keeping people off the streets at night, as was "Hirabayashi v. United States", 320 U.S. 81, [p. 226] nor a case of temporary exclusion of a citizen from an area for his own safety or that of the community, nor a case of offering him an opportunity to go temporarily out of an area where his presence might cause danger to himself or to his fellows. On the contrary, it is the case of convicting a citizen as a punishment for not submitting to imprisonment in a concentration camp, based on his ancestry, and solely because of his ancestry, without evidence or inquiry concerning his loyalty and good disposition towards the United States. If this be a correct statement of the facts disclosed by this record, and facts of which we take judicial notice, I need hardly labor the conclusion that Constitutional rights have been violated.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: By contrast, Justice Robert Jackson's dissent argued that "defense measures will not, and often should not, be held within the limits that bind civil authority in peace", and that it would perhaps be unreasonable to hold the military, who issued the exclusion order, to the same standards of constitutionality that apply to the rest of the government. "In the very nature of things", he wrote, "military decisions are not susceptible of intelligent judicial appraisal." He acknowledged the Court's powerlessness in that regard, writing that "courts can never have any real alternative to accepting the mere declaration of the authority that issued the order that it was reasonably necessary from a military viewpoint."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: He nonetheless dissented, writing that, even if the courts should not be put in the position of second-guessing or interfering with the orders of military commanders, that does not mean that they should have to ratify or enforce those orders if they are unconstitutional. Jackson writes, "I do not think [the civil courts] may be asked to execute a military expedient that has no place in law under the Constitution. I would reverse the judgment and discharge the prisoner." Indeed, he warns that the precedent of "Korematsu" might last well beyond the war and the internment: A military order, however unconstitutional, is not apt to last longer than the military emergency. Even during that period, a succeeding commander may revoke it all. But once a judicial opinion rationalizes such an order to show that it conforms to the Constitution, or rather rationalizes the Constitution to show that the Constitution sanctions such an order, the Court for all time has validated the principle of racial discrimination in criminal procedure and of transplanting American citizens. The principle then lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need. Every repetition imbeds that principle more deeply in our law and thinking and expands it to new purposes.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Jackson further warned: Of course the existence of a military power resting on force, so vagrant, so centralized, so necessarily heedless of the individual, is an inherent threat to liberty. But I would not lead people to rely on this Court for a review that seems to me wholly delusive. The military reasonableness of these orders can only be determined by military superiors. If the people ever let command of the war power fall into irresponsible and unscrupulous hands, the courts wield no power equal to its restraint. The chief restraint upon those who command the physical forces of the country, in the future as in the past, must be their responsibility to the political judgments of their contemporaries and to the moral judgments of history.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Jackson acknowledged the racial issues at hand, writing: Korematsu was born on our soil, of parents born in Japan. The Constitution makes him a citizen of the United States by nativity and a citizen of California by residence. No claim is made that he is not loyal to this country. There is no suggestion that apart from the matter involved here he is not law abiding and well disposed. Korematsu, however, has been convicted of an act not commonly a crime. It consists merely of being present in the state whereof he is a citizen, near the place where he was born, and where all his life he has lived. [...] [H]is crime would result, not from anything he did, said, or thought, different than they, but only in that he was born of different racial stock. Now, if any fundamental assumption underlies our system, it is that guilt is personal and not inheritable. Even if all of one's antecedents had been convicted of treason, the Constitution forbids its penalties to be visited upon him. But here is an attempt to make an otherwise innocent act a crime merely because this prisoner is the son of parents as to whom he had no choice, and belongs to a race from which there is no way to resign. If Congress in peace-time legislation should enact such a criminal law, I should suppose this Court would refuse to enforce it.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: In 1980, Congress established a commission to evaluate the events leading up to the issuance of Executive Order 9066 and accompanying military directives and their impact on citizens and resident aliens, charging the commission with recommending remedies. Discussing the "Korematsu" decision in their 1982 report entitled "Personal Justice Denied", this Congressional Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CCWRIC) concluded that "each part of the decision, questions of both factual review and legal principles, has been discredited or abandoned," and that, "Today the decision in "Korematsu" lies overruled in the court of history."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Korematsu challenged his conviction in 1983 by filing before the United States District Court for the Northern District of California a writ of "coram nobis", which asserted that the original conviction was so flawed as to represent a grave injustice that should be reversed. As evidence, he submitted the conclusions of the CCWRIC report as well as newly-discovered internal Justice Department communications demonstrating that evidence contradicting the military necessity for the Executive Order 9066 had been knowingly withheld from the Supreme Court. Specifically, he said Solicitor General Charles H. Fahy had kept from the Court a wartime finding by the Office of Naval Intelligence, the Ringle Report, that concluded very few Japanese represented a risk and that almost all of those who did were already in custody when the Executive Order was enacted. While not admitting error, the government submitted a counter-motion asking the court to vacate the conviction without a finding of fact on its merits. Judge Marilyn Hall Patel denied the government's petition, and concluded that the Supreme Court had indeed been given a selective record, representing a compelling circumstance sufficient to overturn the original conviction. She granted the writ, thereby voiding Korematsu's conviction, while pointing out that since this decision was based on prosecutorial misconduct and not an error of law, any legal precedent established by the case remained in force.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: On May 20, 2011, Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal released an unusual statement denouncing one of his predecessors, Solicitor General Charles H. Fahy. He faulted Fahy for having "suppressed critical evidence" in the "Hirabayashi" and "Korematsu" cases before the Supreme Court during World War II, specifically the Ringle Report's conclusion that there was no indication Japanese Americans were acting as spies or sending signals to enemy submarines. The rulings in the 1980s that overturned the convictions of Korematsu and Hirabayashi concluded that failure to disclose the Ringle Report, along with an initial report by General De Witt that demonstrated racist motivations behind the military orders, represented a fatal flaw in the prosecution of their cases before the Supreme Court. Katyal noted that Justice Department attorneys had actually alerted Fahy that failing to disclose the Ringle Report's existence in the briefs or argument in the Supreme Court "might approximate the suppression of evidence". Thus, Katyal concluded that Fahy "did not inform the Court that a key set of allegations used to justify the internment" had been doubted, if not fully discredited, within the government's own agencies.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Katyal therefore announced his office's filing of a formal "admission of error". He reaffirmed the extraordinary duty of the Solicitor General to address the Court with "absolute candor," due to the "special credence" the Court explicitly grants to his court submissions.


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Eleven lawyers who had represented Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Minoru Yasui in successful efforts in lower federal courts to nullify their convictions for violating military curfew and exclusion orders sent a letter dated January 13, 2014, to Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr. In light of the appeal proceedings before the U.S. Supreme Court in "Hedges v. Obama", the lawyers asked Verrilli to ask the Supreme Court to overrule its decisions in "Korematsu", "Hirabayashi" (1943) and "Yasui" (1943). If the Solicitor General shouldn't do this, they asked that the United States government to "make clear" that the federal government "does not consider the internment decisions as valid precedent for governmental or military detention of individuals or groups without due process of law [...]."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: On February 3, 2014, Justice Antonin Scalia, during a discussion with law students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa William S. Richardson School of Law, said that "the Supreme Court's Korematsu decision upholding the internment of Japanese Americans was wrong, but it could happen again in war time." In October 2015 at Santa Clara University, Scalia told law students that Justice Jackson's dissenting opinion in "Korematsu" was the past court opinion he admired most, adding "It was nice to know that at least somebody on the court realized that that was wrong."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Donald Trump's Presidential election led Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach to advocate for Trump to implement immigration controls like the National Security Entry-Exit Registration System. One Trump supporter, Carl Higbie, said that Jimmy Carter's 1980 restriction on Iranian immigration, as well as the "Korematsu" decision, gives legal precedent for a registry of immigrants. Critics of Higbie argued that "Korematsu" should not be referenced as precedent. Constitutional lawyer Bruce Fein argued that the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 granting reparations to the Japanese Americans who were interned amounts to "Korematsu" having been overturned by history—outside of a potential formal Supreme Court overrule. Another critic of Higbie described "Korematsu" as a "stain on American jurisprudence".


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: According to Harvard University's Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law Noah Feldman, "a decision can be wrong at the very moment it was decided—and therefore should not be followed subsequently." Justice Anthony Kennedy applied this approach in "Lawrence v. Texas" to overturn "Bowers v. Hardwick" and thereby strike down anti-sodomy laws in 14 states. The implication is that decisions which are wrong when decided should not be followed even before the Court reverses itself, and "Korematsu" has probably the greatest claim to being wrong when decided of any case which still stood. Legal scholar Richard Primus applied the term "Anti-Canon" to cases which are "universally assailed as wrong, immoral, and unconstitutional" and have become exemplars of faulty legal reasoning. "Plessy v. Ferguson" is one such example, and "Korematsu" has joined this group—as Feldman then put it, ""Korematsu"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s uniquely bad legal status means it's not precedent even though it hasn't been overturned."


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Chief Justice Roberts, in writing the majority opinion of the Supreme Court in "Trump v. Hawaii", stated that "Korematsu v. United States" was wrongly decided, essentially disavowing the decision and indicating that a majority of the court no longer finds "Korematsu" persuasive. Quoting Justice Robert H. Jackson's dissent from "Korematsu", the Chief Justice stated:


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Roberts also added: "The forcible relocation of U.S. citizens to concentration camps, solely and explicitly on the basis of race, is objectively unlawful and outside the scope of Presidential authority." Congress regards "Korematsu" as having been overruled by "Trump v. Hawaii".


title: Korematsu v. United States

text: Justice Gorsuch, writing in his dissent of "United States v. Zubaydah", reiterated the fact that "Korematsu" was negligent. Gorsuch criticised the court for allowing "state interest" as a justification for "suppressing judicial proceedings in the name of national security." He used "Korematsu" as a justification against doing such.


title: Michael Savage

text: Michael Alan Weiner (born March 31, 1942), known by his professional name Michael Savage, is a far-right author, conspiracy theorist, political commentator, activist, and former radio host. Savage is best known as the host of "The Savage Nation", a nationally syndicated talk show that aired on Talk Radio Network across the United States until 2021, and in 2009 was the second most listened-to radio talk show in the country with an audience of over 20 million listeners on 400 stations across the United States. From October 23, 2012, to January 1, 2021, Michael Savage had been syndicated by Cumulus Media and Westwood One. He holds master's degrees from the University of Hawaii in medical botany and medical anthropology, and a Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley in nutritional ethnomedicine. As Michael Weiner, he has written books on nutrition, herbal medicine, and homeopathy; as Michael Savage, he has written several political books that have reached "The New York Times" Best Seller list.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage has summarized his political philosophy in three words: borders, language, and culture. He has characterized his views as conservative nationalism, while critics have characterized them as "fostering extremism." He supports the English-only movement and argues that liberalism and progressivism are degrading American culture. Although his radio delivery is mainly characterized as politically themed, he also often covers topics such as medicine, nutrition, music, literature, history, theology, philosophy, sports, business, economics, and culture, and tells personal anecdotes.


title: Michael Savage

text: In 2009, Savage was placed on a list of people permanently banned from entering the United Kingdom by British Home Secretary for "seeking to provoke others to serious criminal acts and fostering hatred."


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage was born Michael Alan Weiner in the Bronx, New York, one of three children of Benjamin Weiner, a Jewish immigrant from Russia. His mother, Rae, was from Montreal, Canada.


title: Michael Savage

text: He described his childhood as difficult, with a "gruff, profane" father who would frequently criticize and belittle him. His younger brother, Jerome, was born with developmental disabilities and was unable to hear or speak. Jerome died in 1969. His father, the owner of an antiques shop, died of a heart attack at age 57 in 1970, and his mother died in 2003.


title: Michael Savage

text: After graduating from Jamaica High School in 1958, Savage attended Queens College, where he earned a bachelor's degree in biology in 1963. After college, Savage taught high school for several years in New York City. His first marriage in 1964 to Carol Ely ended in divorce, and he remarried in 1967 after meeting his current wife, Janet. During this time, Savage also worked for famous psychedelic drug advocate Timothy Leary as keeper of the stone gatehouse on the Hitchcock Cattle Company estate in Millbrook, New York, to which Leary had been given access. Leary hired him to the post because Savage did not use LSD. Savage then studied at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, earning a Master of Science in botany in 1970 and a Master of Arts in anthropology in 1972. He obtained a PhD in 1978 from the University of California, Berkeley, in nutritional ethnomedicine. His thesis was titled "Nutritional Ethnomedicine in Fiji".


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage introduced himself to certain writers in the North Beach neighborhood of San Francisco in the 1970s. He befriended and traveled with Beat poets Allen Ginsberg and Lawrence Ferlinghetti. Savage maintained a correspondence with Ginsberg consisting of ten letters and three postcards across four years, which is maintained with Ginsberg's papers at Stanford University. One letter asked for Ginsberg and Ferlinghetti to come do a poetry reading, so others could "hear and see and know why I adore your public image." Another acquaintance was poet and author Neeli Cherkovski, who says that Savage dreamed of becoming a stand-up comic in the mold of Lenny Bruce.


title: Michael Savage

text: Acquaintance Robert Cathcart says that by 1980, in his private conversations with Savage, he knew him to have conservative political views. Schwartz stated Savage became alienated from the North Beach scene in the early 1980s. Savage had intense arguments with his liberal friends. When asked about his shift in politics and other views, Savage replied, "I was once a child; I am now a man." Savage has cited many occurrences in his life that helped shape his conservative views. Savage states that his opinions on welfare were partly shaped by his first job out of college as a social worker. He described one incident in which his supervisor had him deliver a check to a welfare client to furnish their apartment, while his own apartment was furnished with cardboard boxes. Another turning point occurred for him as a writer of health and nutrition books in the 1980s, when he experienced what he saw as "political opposition" after making the suggestion that the closure of homosexual bathhouses might be necessary in response to the emerging HIV/AIDS epidemic. In 1994 his final health and nutrition manuscript, "Immigrants and Epidemics", was rejected by publishers for being inflammatory. In 1996, Savage applied to become the Dean of the Graduate School of Journalism at the University of California, Berkeley. The university instead selected award-winning journalist and China scholar Orville Schell. Savage sued the university, contending discrimination for being conservative. Savage later dropped the lawsuit.


title: Michael Savage

text: The rejection by publishers of his 1994 manuscript about illegal immigration and epidemics prompted Savage to record a demo tape with a mock radio talk show about the contents of the work. He mailed this tape to 250 radio stations in an attempt to change careers and become a radio talk show host. On March 21, 1994, Savage began his radio career on KGO (a San Francisco news/talk radio station) as a fill-in host for liberal Ray Taliaferro's overnight show and later as a weekend host. At the time, his slogan was "To the right of Rush and to the left of God." The show quickly became a local hit.


title: Michael Savage

text: Later in 1994, KGO parent company Capital Cities/ABC Inc. purchased the station KSFO and changed it to a conservative talk format. On January 2, 1995, the first day of KSFO's new format, Savage debuted as host of afternoon drive time show "The Savage Nation". By 2000, Savage was the most popular afternoon drive host among all adults in San Francisco Arbitron ratings.


title: Michael Savage

text: In 1999, Talk Radio Network began syndicating part of "The Savage Nation" nationally. Starting September 21, 2000, "The Savage Nation" became an entirely national show distributed by TRN.


title: Michael Savage

text: In mid-2006, Savage had 8–10 million listeners per week, which made his show the third most widely heard broadcast in the United States at that time. Savage has described his listeners as "literate callers with intelligence, wit, and energy." He has described his show's production as one with a "... hard edge combined with humor and education ... Those who listen to me say they hear a bit of Plato, Henry Miller, Jack Kerouac, Moses, Jesus, and Frankenstein." Mark de la Viña of the "San Jose Mercury News" wrote of Savage: "In contrast to Rush Limbaugh, Sean Hannity and Laura Schlessinger, Bay Area-based Savage mixes conservative diatribe and blunt observations with acerbic humor and the gift of gab."


title: Michael Savage

text: By 2009, "The Savage Nation" had an audience of 8 to 10 million listeners on 400 stations across the United States, making it the second most listened-to radio talk show in the country at the time. Around that time, Savage asked his audience for their opinion prior to consenting to a profile interview by Kelefa Sanneh of "The New Yorker"; Savage eventually accepted that offer and the "New Yorker" profile, titled "Party of One", was published in the August 3, 2009, issue, which covered Savage's life and personality in great detail.


title: Michael Savage

text: On September 10, 2009, KNEW (910 kHz) in Savage's home market of San Francisco announced that it was dropping his program and replacing him with John and Ken from sister station KFI (640 kHz)—Los Angeles. John Scott, program director of KNEW said in an email that the station was headed "... in a different philosophical and ideological direction, featuring more contemporary content and more local information." According to Arbitron monthly ratings, KNEW dropped in the ratings since Savage was let go. San Francisco station KTRB picked up the program for the San Francisco market, and saw a ratings boost in the afternoon drive. However, the program was among the first casualties when KTRB went into receivership in September 2010.


title: Michael Savage

text: On January 22, 2010, Savage revealed to his audience that a writer for "Playboy" had contacted him via email to do a lengthy interview, and again asked his listeners if he should accept the offer. During the show, Savage read from personal emails between the "Playboy" writer and himself. The writer admitted to being a listener of the "Savage Nation" but a critic of the profile done by "The New Yorker". The writer also stated that the purpose of the interview was to "rattle" "Playboy"s readers. On May 12, 2010, Savage revealed that he had granted the interview at his home. "Playboy" published the interview in June 2010. He read from a pre-publication copy of the 8,000-word "Playboy" interview, in which the writer expressed animosity for Savage and his views. Savage said that he was disappointed at the lack of journalistic objectivity, but did not harbor hatred for the writer. He referred back to the "New Yorker" interview by Kelefa Sanneh, and praised Sanneh as a "real writer" who had understood his subject.


title: Michael Savage

text: On September 27, 2012, Savage's talk show left the airwaves after he won a legal battle with Talk Radio Network, his longtime employer, and his attorney said discussions with new networks were underway. Savage began an occasional series of video webcasts via Ustream on September 30, 2012. On October 17, 2012, Savage and his new syndicator Cumulus Media Networks announced that they had made a deal and the program, after several weeks off the air, would be returning as of October 23, 2012. By April 2013, according to the radio industry's "Talkers Magazine", Savage had 3.5+ million weekly listeners, putting him in a six-way tie for sixth place, and six talk show hosts getting 7.5+ million weekly listeners. On September 26, 2013, Cumulus Media Networks announced that Michael Savage's radio show, "The Savage Nation", would move to the 3p-6p ET time-slot beginning in January 2014. This time slot had been occupied by Sean Hannity.


title: Michael Savage

text: In January 2015, it was announced that Savage and Westwood One had reached agreement on a long-term contract renewal for "The Savage Nation".


title: Michael Savage

text: In January 2019, Savage in collaboration with Westwood One introduced a podcast format with a mixture of live-broadcast and studio material.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage had a brief political talk show on MSNBC beginning March 8, 2003, and ending July 7, 2003. Savage was hired by MSNBC president Erik Sorenson to do the one-hour show despite Savage's previous criticism of the network in his book "The Savage Nation" and the objections of NBC employees. Sorenson called Savage "brash, passionate and smart," and promised that he would provide "compelling opinion and analysis with an edge." After four months, Savage was fired from the show after remarks made in response to a caller, later identified as prank caller Bob Foster, caused controversy in the gay community.


title: Michael Savage

text: Michael Savage calls himself an "independent-minded individualist" and says that he "fits no stereotype." In a 2006 interview, Savage cited Barry Goldwater as an influence, saying “I’m a Goldwater conservative…. If [another] Goldwater appeared, I’d work for him, I’d give money to him"


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage criticizes big government as well as liberalism and liberal activism, and accuses the mainstream news media of liberal bias. He considers the three aspects that define a nation as borders, language, and culture; those aspects inspired the motto of the Paul Revere Society.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage is a longtime advocate of wildlife conservation, and often points out that "conservative" and "conservation" have the same root, meaning "to conserve". He argues that conservatives should "own" environmental protection and conservation of wildlife resources. A December 2017 Huffington Post article quotes Savage regarding President Trump's revoking of an Obama-era trophy hunting ban: "... long-time animal activist Michael Savage ... implored the president to reconsider:


title: Michael Savage

text: The article continues ... "Savage also addressed the (biblical) aspects of killing an elephant, lion or giraffe, animals that we don’t normally hunt.


title: Michael Savage

text: A March 2018 article at The Hill quotes him at greater length: "Conservative radio host Michael Savage has also spoken out against the Fish & Wildlife Service proposed policy this week, writing in a blog post Wednesday that he 'felt betrayed' by the administration’s secret decision after having previously spoken in person with Trump on the issue.


title: Michael Savage

text: 'I had spent a dinner talking to the President about environmental issues, and especially this, and this is what happened anyway,' Savage wrote. 'I made it clear that this was a red line that could not be crossed, that now elephants, lions and other big game had a target painted on them. I explained that the root of ‘conservative’ is the same as ‘conservation’ and the two do not need to be diametrically opposed. I explained what was meant by dominion, as I carefully spelled out in God Faith and Reason.' 'We hope that the president will step in here and overrule this order,' he added.'


title: Michael Savage

text: The private meeting with President Donald Trump at Mar-a-Lago followed a series of pleas on his radio show for Trump to support legislation that protected wildlife. In August 2019, following the Trump administration's reauthorization of the use of cyanide bombs against wild animals, Savage called on the White House and the US Environmental Protection Agency to reverse approval.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage opposes immigration, citing the black tar heroin epidemic, large percentage of immigrant prisoners, illegal use of public services, and diminishing American nationalism. in a tweet on May 17, 2019, Michael said, "Read my lips: no new immigrants." He frequently warns that migrants carry diseases. On March 28, 2006, following pro-immigration rallies in California, he encouraged his listeners to burn Mexican flags as an act of American nationalism to protest illegal immigration from Mexico.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage describes the European Union as "Hitler's dream of a united Europe under German control." He equates Britain's vote to leave the Union with the Second World War, saying it was "in many ways the Battle of Britain all over again." Savage foresees that, after Brexit, the E.U. risks igniting a civil war to gain total control of the population for their plans of "a new Soviet-style superstate, which have been long on the drawing books."


title: Michael Savage

text: In 2003, Savage said that he voted in 2000 for George W. Bush "quite reluctantly, incidentally." In 2004, Savage and the Revere Society hosted a party at Schroeder's Cafe in San Francisco celebrating the re-election of Bush. Savage donated $5,600 to the campaign of Democratic candidate Jerry Brown in the 2006 California Attorney General election.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage strongly supported Donald Trump, a regular guest on his talk show, since Trump's June 2015 announcement of his candidacy in the United States 2016 presidential election. Trump has claimed to be a listener and a fan of Savage's show, and an April 2016 Salon article described Savage as having been a major influence on Trump's campaign.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage has disagreed strongly with some of Trump's actions and policies, including the appointment of John Bolton as National Security Advisor, the bombings of Syria, what Savage describes as a failure to get illegal immigration to the United States under control, and failure to protect endangered and vulnerable wild animals. Nevertheless, he has endorsed Trump for president in the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Michael Savage

text: In early 2006, the administration of President George W. Bush approved sale of a port security contract to a company, Dubai Ports World (DP World), headquartered in The United Arab Emirates (UAE).


title: Michael Savage

text: Michael Savage was highly influential in the defeat of the deal. On February 13, the first day it was reported in the news, “Savage used his radio show to attack the transfer of American homeland assets to a company owned by an Arab state.” Savage's concerns were based in part on the fact that “two of the 9/11 suicide hijackers came from the United Arab Emirates, and much of the funding for the attacks flowed through United Arab Emirates banks.” On his February 17 radio show, Savage interviewed Democratic Senator Chuck Schumer of New York, a longtime nemesis with whom Savage otherwise agreed on the Dubai ports issue.


title: Michael Savage

text: The White House was listening to Savage: “Though the deal had received some newspaper attention before then, Mr. Savage's angry message raised early concerns inside the Bush White House about trouble ahead." Savage and other opponents of the deal “generated a wave of anger from Americans across the country that left lawmakers in Washington -- by their own admission -- following their constituents much more than leading them.” Lawmakers said the negative response from constituents was overwhelming. Congressional offices on Capitol Hill were deluged by phone calls and emails protesting the deal, and congressmen told of being pulled aside wherever they went in their districts. Rep. Don Manzullo, a Republican from Illinois who is chairman of the House subcommittee on small business, said "I got stopped all over the place," he said. "People are big-time upset."


title: Michael Savage

text: According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, Savage subscribes to the white genocide conspiracy theory, a white nationalist belief, which claims that white people are becoming extinct through forced assimilation or violent genocide. Savage blames Barack Obama and the Democratic Party for promoting the concept within the United States. He has claimed there is a "cultural genocide being promulgated against Caucasians".


title: Michael Savage

text: A January 31, 2020 article in Stat News quoted Savage's call for a stop to flights from China: “QUARANTINE! STOP TRAVELERS FROM CHINA NOW!" Two months later, an April 16, 2020 "New York Times" feature article credited Savage for being one of the first in the media, especially the conservative media, to take the COVID-19 epidemic seriously. On his radio show Savage used his credentials—a PhD with training in epidemiology—to speak to his fans on coronavirus research: How the virus is transmitted; which treatments were proving effective; and the difference between morbidity and mortality rates. "Savage's views were a departure from those of other conservative commentators, who made a concerted effort to deny that they downplayed the epidemic. Savage attacked their credibility and demanded that they be held accountable for misleading millions of Americans." As early as February 24, 2020 Savage was saying of Limbaugh and Hannity: “How can we not let our side be called on the carpet when they lie to the people?” Savage is also sharply critical of the Director of the NIAID, Dr. Anthony Fauci, dismissing him as “a grandstander” who mishandled the AIDS epidemic by refusing to close down the gay bathhouses. Savage believes that one-size-fits-all lockdowns are a threat to individual liberty, and calls instead for selective quarantine of at-risk populations.


title: Michael Savage

text: In a May 4, 2020 article in the "Washington Examiner", Savage is quoted as saying he will refuse to take a coronavirus vaccine, saying that it will likely be "ineffective and dangerous." Savage has a history of opposing the flu vaccine, for reasons he outlined in a January 15, 2013 interview. Savage argued that the Centers for Disease Control authorities have to guess what the vaccine should be made of. “So they choose five strains out of 250-plus strains of Influenza A, and if they don’t choose the right one, you’re going to get sick,” he said. “So you’re putting your faith in the CDC’s ability to guess the one that might be a pandemic." He said that "this year" (2013), the CDC guessed right on two of the strains and wrong on one of them.


title: Michael Savage

text: In contrast to his views on the flu vaccine, Savage supports vaccines, such as for polio, that last for many years because they address an infectious agent with a low mutation rate. A 2013 Ethics Alarms article recounts Savage saying that "...one of his heroes growing up was Jonas Salk, not because he invented the first effective polio vaccine, but because he refused to patent it, and gave it to the world for the benefit of humanity. A bit later, Savage noted that Albert Sabin, Salk’s bitter rival who later invented the oral vaccine, also declined to profit from his invention. Could all this be true, I wondered? If it is true, why did I not know about it? Why doesn’t everybody know about it? It is true. Asked why he didn’t patent his vaccine, Salk famously answered, “Can you patent the sun?”


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage opposes wearing masks to slow the spread of COVID-19 in both indoor and outdoor settings. Recently, he accepted wearing masks in indoor public places.


title: Michael Savage

text: Savage has regularly donated money toward the legal defense of the U.S. Marines accused of murdering civilians in Haditha, Iraq; occasionally, Savage will offer proceeds from any sales through his website. Savage had regular contact with the attorneys of the accused and criticizes their treatment at Camp Pendleton. Most recently, Savage has donated over $10,000 to the U.S. Marines Charity Defense Fund at the Thomas More Law Center On April 25, 2007, he pledged $1 for each copy of "Healing Children Naturally" and "Reducing the Risk of Alzheimer's" purchased from his website to be donated to the U.S. Marines Defense Fund.


title: Michael Savage

text: On November 17, 2016, Savage was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame. Savage describes this event as "The capstone of my career."


title: Michael Savage

text: On March 26, 2020, Savage was named by President Trump to serve on the Board of Directors of The Presidio Trust, which teams with the National Park Service to manage the Presidio of San Francisco, the former military fort that is part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Savage stated that he hopes "to help save this great legacy while also reminding the public of the military significance of this land.” Once on the board, he regularly protested what he believed to be the museum's overemphasis on the facility's use as a Japanese American internment camp during World War II, an action he insisted was not motivated by racism but military necessity. He also did not get along with other board members, often writing them angry ALL CAPS emails about small things that greatly angered him; in turn, the rest of the board felt he could have lobbied the administration for additional funding far more intensively than he ever did, given his connections. On May 20, 2021, he was ordered to resign from the Board of Directors of The Presidio Trust or he would be fired by the end of the workday. The current website for the Presidio Trust Board of Directors no longer shows him as a board member.


title: Michael Savage

text: In July 2005, former CBS reporter Bernard Goldberg ranked Savage as number 61 in his book "100 People Who Are Screwing Up America". Goldberg wrote that "Savage's brand of over-the-top bile ... puts him right in there with the angriest haters of the Left." David Klinghoffer, a "National Review" columnist, speculated that "The Savage Nation" "is an act, a put-on." Various progressive advocacy groups such as GLAAD and FAIR accuse Savage of racism, homophobia, transphobia, and Islamophobia because of his controversial statements about homosexuality, Islam, feminism, sex education, and immigration.


title: Michael Savage

text: On April 17, 2006, Savage said on the topic of Muslims, "They say, 'Oh, there's a billion of them.' I said, 'So, kill 100 million of them, then there'll be 900 million of them.' I mean, would you rather die—would you rather us die than them?" The remarks made by Savage were seriously criticized worldwide and was taken from an argument dealing with the possibility of a nuclear conflict in that region. This was repeated in the media after Savage was barred from entering the UK.


title: Michael Savage

text: In the wake of the actor Robin Williams' suicide, Savage said that suicide is an "aggressive act" that shows no consideration for loved ones left behind. The assertion prompted criticism.