title: The Beach (novel)

text: Richard swims out to the cave where the group's only boat is kept, only to find that Karl has used it to escape to the mainland. Étienne corners Richard thereafter, and Richard soon discovers that Étienne, along with the rest of his clique, has become frightened of Richard's "doing things" for Sal. Disillusioned with the beach, Richard convinces Étienne, Françoise, Jed, and a paranoid Keaty to leave the beach for good, and euthanizes the dying Christo. Now fully aware of what Sal is willing to do to protect the beach, they decide to spike the food for the Tet celebration and escape on the raft that the doomed backpackers used.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Night falls, and the party begins. People are in a celebratory mood, drinking fermented coconut milk. Prior to dinner, Keaty and Richard spike the stew that Unhygienix cooked with a huge quantity of cannabis to immobilize the group. Richard and his friends are about to slip away when the cannabis farmers arrive, threatening all of them with guns, as they believe that the beach dwellers invited the recent arrivals. The farmers beat up Richard and leave the bloodied corpses of the American/German backpackers as a warning. At the sight of this, the extremely intoxicated group experiences a collective mental breakdown and starts to rip the corpses apart in a frenzy.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: A bloodied Roxxy confesses to Richard that she never wanted to be a permanent resident of the beach and dreams of a city-life between Los Angeles and New York but says she believes the beach will always call her back. After saying her goodbyes, she kills herself by diving backwards off the top of the beach's cliff.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Sal discovers that Richard has spread the secret of the beach when she picks up the map he drew for Zeph and Sammy. Upon hearing this, the now unstable community members attack Richard with sharp objects. Richard believes that he is about to die, but he is saved when Françoise, Étienne, Keaty, and Jed return from the beach armed with their fishing spears to drive the others off, seriously wounding Sal and Bugs in the process. Richard and his rescuers make their planned escape on the raft.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: In the epilogue, it is revealed that the five friends got away and split up when they reached the mainland. It has been a year and one month since their departure from Thailand, and Richard has returned home to England. He hasn't heard from Françoise and Étienne, but states he is likely to bump into them eventually, because "the world is a small place, and Europe is even smaller". He still maintains contact with Keaty and Jed. By chance, Keaty and Jed end up working new jobs in the same building, although for different companies; similar to how they both happened to stay in the same guest house years before they first met at the beach.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Richard hears in a news report that Cassie has been arrested in Malaysia for smuggling a large amount of heroin and will be the first Westerner to be executed in the country in six years. He wonders whether anyone else got off the island, particularly Unhygienix, whom he liked. He believes that Bugs died and hopes that Sal died too, because he dislikes the idea of her "turning up on his doorstep".


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Richard finishes by saying that he is content with his life, although he carries a lot of scars: "I like the way that sounds. I carry a of scars".


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Although set in Thailand, Garland wrote the book while living in the Philippines and, in particular, was inspired by similar geography on the island of Palawan.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Maya Bay in Phi Phi was used as the location of the beach in the movie but the actual inspiration for the book is rumoured to be Haad Tien on Koh Phangan, in the Gulf of Thailand, specifically the hippy community that started up in 1990 - the year the book is set - and evolved into The Sanctuary resort.


title: The Beach (novel)

text: Novelist Nick Hornby referred to "The Beach" as "a "Lord of the Flies" for Generation X", and the "Sunday Oregonian" called it "Generation X's first great novel". "The Washington Post" wrote that it is "a furiously intelligent first novel" and "a book that moves with the kind of speed and grace many older writers can only day-dream about." "Publishers Weekly" wrote that "Garland is a good storyteller, though, and Richard's nicotine-fueled narrative of how the denizens of the beach see their comity shatter and break into factions is taut with suspense, even if the bloody conclusion offers few surprises".


title: The Beach (novel)

text: "The Beach" was adapted as a film released in 2000, directed by Danny Boyle, and starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Tilda Swinton, Robert Carlyle, Virginie Ledoyen, and Guillaume Canet.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: The AGR-20 Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS) is a design conversion of Hydra 70 unguided rockets with a laser guidance kit to turn them into precision-guided munitions (PGMs). APKWS is approximately one-third the cost and one-third the weight of the current inventory of laser-guided weapons, has a lower yield more suitable for avoiding collateral damage, and takes one quarter of the time for ordnance personnel to load and unload.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: Where possible the system utilizes existing Hydra 70 components such as launchers, rocket motors, warheads and fuzes. The weapon bridges the gap between the Hydra 70 and AGM-114 Hellfire systems and provides a cost-effective method of engaging lightly armored point targets. APKWS is the U.S. government's only Program of Record for the semi-active, laser-guided 2.75-inch (70 millimeter) rocket.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: It converts the Hydra 70 unguided rocket into a precision guided munition through the addition of a mid-body guidance unit developed by BAE Systems. The APKWS has also been successfully tested in live fire exercises with the Forges de Zeebrugge unguided rocket, converting it into a precision guided munition and demonstrating the technology can be used on other rocket types than the Hydra 70.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: The winning bidder for the APKWS II contract was the team of BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman and General Dynamics, beating the offerings from Lockheed Martin and Raytheon Systems.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: The APKWS II uses the Distributed Aperture Semi-Active Laser Seeker (DASALS) technology. This system allows a laser seeker to be located in the leading edge of each of the forward control canards, working in unison as if they were a single seeker. This configuration allows existing warheads from the Hydra 70 system to be used without the need for a laser seeker in the missile nose.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: The APKWS II system is composed of the launch platform, rockets equipped with the WGU-59/B mid-body guidance unit, the lengthened 7-tube LAU-68 F/A rocket launcher, the SCS 7 aiming cue (not needed for attack helicopters), and Fastpack PA-140 and CNU-711/E storage kits for rockets and guidance kits, respectively, to ensure they are safe in the field. The WGU-59/B mid-body guidance unit is equipped with DASALS seeker optics which deploy 0.5 seconds after launch. They are attached in between the Mk 66 Mod 4 rocket motor and a warhead and fuze, which increases length by and weight by over the legacy Hydra system.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: Firing ranges are 1,100-5,000 meters, the former of which can be hit less than 5 seconds after firing. Maximum range is constrained by use of the existing Hydra 70 motor, but since the seeker can see as far as , a more powerful motor could extend range while retaining accuracy. Nammo is working on a modified rocket motor that can extend range to .


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: A software upgrade of the APKWS will be applied starting in late 2021; the upgrade increases range by 30% by means of an optimized flight trajectory to engage targets at a steeper angle of attack, while also being qualified on both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft in a single variant and improving the surface danger zone logic for better training range options.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: In June 2021, BAE successfully tested the APKWS in a counter-unmanned aerial systems (C-UAS) role. An APKWS-equipped rocket was fitted with a proximity fuze and destroyed a Class 2 UAS. The proximity fuze enables it to intercept UAS at a lower cost than other methods, and due to the rocket's laser guidance that activates on launch it does not require locking on to the target before launch.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: In December 2019, the 85th Test and Evaluation Squadron at Eglin AFB, Florida, conducted a test using APKWS rocket against a drone representing a cruise missile. By adapting the rocket for cruise missile defense, it can serve the same role as the much more expensive AIM-120 missile, according to an Air Force release. "The test was unprecedented and will shape the future of how the Air Force executes CMD," Col. Ryan Messer, commander of the 53d Wing at Eglin, said in a release. "This is a prime example of how the 53d Wing is using resources readily available to establish innovative ways that enhance combat capabilities for our combat units."


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: In June 2020, BAE announced they had completed test firings of the APKWS from a ground launcher for the first time. Several rockets were fired from an Arnold Defense-built launcher called the Fletcher designed specifically for ground vehicles, demonstrating the weapon's ability to address a demand for standoff ground-to-ground precision munitions for small ground units.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: On 14 April 2014, the U.S. Navy signed an agreement with the Jordanian Air Force for the first international sale of the APKWS for use on the CN-235 gunship. Jordan received 110 units in late November 2015.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: In June 2015, a deal to sell 6 A-29 Super Tucano light attack aircraft to the Lebanese Air Force was approved that included the sale of 2,000 APKWS rockets for use on the turboprops. The million sale was financed by Saudi Arabia.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: In April 2018, The U.S. State Department approved the future sale of APKWS units to the Mexican Navy at the same time that they approved the sale of eight MH-60R helicopters.


title: Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System

text: Ukraine is being supplied with APKWS rockets following the 2022 Russia invasion of Ukraine. As part of an aid package announced by the U.S. in August 2022, the L3Harris Vehicle-Agnostic Modular Palletized ISR Rocket Equipment () system will be sent to Ukraine. The system consists of a sensor ball and a four-barreled APKWS rocket launcher that can be mounted on trucks. While it can direct laser-guided rockets on ground targets, the Pentagon specified it as a counter-UAS system. The kit could be ready by May 2023.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Winston is an American brand of cigarettes, currently owned and manufactured by ITG Brands, subsidiary of Imperial Tobacco in the United States and by Japan Tobacco outside the U.S. The brand is named after the town where R. J. Reynolds started his business which is Winston-Salem, North Carolina. , Winston has the seventh-highest U.S. market share (2 percent) of all cigarette brands, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Maxwell Report.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: This market share has been falling since 2003, when it peaked at 3.92 percent, although Winston has consistently been in the top 10 cigarette brands by U.S. market share since 2001, according to data from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's National Household Survey on Drug Abuse.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Winston was introduced in 1954 by the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company and quickly became one of the top-selling cigarette brands, using the slogan "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should". It became the number one cigarette sold in the world by 1966, a position it held until 1972 when Marlboro overtook the brand.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: In the 1980s, Winston was the most favored brand in Puerto Rico, thanks to their advertising slogan "Winston y Puerto Rico: No hay nada mejor" ("Winston and Puerto Rico: There is nothing better").


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Winston then became the #2 cigarette, a position it continues to maintain today under ownership of Japan Tobacco outside of the U.S. while the American version of the brand has faced steadily declining sales, dropping to sixth place by 2005 in the last national survey. The American version of Winston is also known for its more recent claim of becoming additive-free in the late 1990s. This in turn led to a settlement with the Federal Trade Commission requiring Winston to clarify subsequent advertisements that the lack of additives did not result in a safer cigarette.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: In 1999, R.J. Reynolds was spun off from RJR Nabisco and subsequently sold its non-U.S. operations to Japan Tobacco.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: On July 15, 2014, Reynolds American (R.J. Reynolds parent company) agreed to purchase the Lorillard Tobacco Company for $27.4 billion and as a result, (to alleviate antitrust concerns) Winston, along with the Kool, Maverick, and Salem cigarette brands, was sold to Imperial Tobacco for $7.1 billion.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: On June 12, 2015, Reynolds American and Lorillard completed their merger and Winston officially fell under ownership of Imperial tobacco spinoff ITG brands.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Beginning in 1971, Winston was the sponsor of the highest title of the NASCAR series, known as the Winston Cup Series. R. J. Reynolds ended Winston's association with the series in 2003. The series is now known as the NASCAR Cup Series.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: From 1975 to 2001, Winston was also the sponsor of the NHRA drag racing series, which is currently sponsored by Camping World.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Winston sponsored the Ten Kate Racing team in 2005 and 2006. In countries where tobacco advertising was prohibited, the acronym ""WinWin"" was used instead.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: In 1960, Winston was one of the original sponsors of The Flintstones up until 1962. In the commercials, "Flintstones" characters Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble were seen promoting Winston, and every episode ended with Fred lighting a Winston for his wife Wilma while singing the product's jingle. By the third season, however, the show's ads became more oriented towards children and Winston was replaced by Welch's.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: In the 1970s, Winston specifically targeted the Afro-American minority, similar to what Kool and Newport did during the time.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: After World War II had ended, American tobacco companies started to explore new markets to maintain their prosperity. The growth in urban migration and the growing incomes of African Americans (called at the time the ""emerging Negro market"") gave the tobacco companies what was sometimes called an ""export market at home"". Additionally, a new kind of media started to appear after the war when several glossy monthly magazines including Negro Digest (1942, renamed Black World), Ebony (1945) and Negro Achievements (1947, renamed Sepia) began to be published. These relatively expensively produced magazines were far more attractive to the tobacco advertisers than the cheap 'negro' daily newspapers of the pre-war era, with glossy pages and a far wider national distribution. The magazines meant for a purely African-American audience also meant that advertisers could produce adverts aimed at and featuring African Americans away from the eyes of white consumers.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Between 1982 and 1988, David Goerlitz was the ""Winston Man"", appearing in 42 billboard advertisements – more than the Marlboro man. In 1988, he publicly denounced the tobacco industry and joined the emerging anti-smoking movement after suffering health issues related to smoking. He has spent the last 21 years working in schools as a public speaker, encouraging kids not to start smoking.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: In September 2015, The Food and Drug Administration warned ITG Brands, the makers of Winston cigarettes, that labeling the product as "additive-free" violated federal law because the claim implied that the cigarettes were safer than other brands


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: The August warning letter to ITG marked the first time the FDA had used its authority under a 2009 tobacco-control law to take action against a company for making "additive-free" ("No Bull" ad campaign) claims on product packaging. It was one of three warning letters that the agency shipped out in August 2015 to cigarette companies whose products were labeled "additive-free", "natural" or both.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: Winston cigarettes were or still are sold in the following countries: Iran, Canada, United States, Mexico, Chile, Peru, Argentina, Brazil, United Kingdom, Sweden, Finland, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Switzerland, Austria, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Poland, Hungary, Iceland, Romania, Moldova, Croatia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tunesia, South Africa, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, Kosovo, Morocco, Myanmar, Vietnam, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Norway, Cyprus, Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan, North Macedonia, the Philippines, Timor Leste, and Ethiopia.


title: Winston (cigarette)

text: In 2022, all of the Winston box cigarettes were redesigned to a new style that says "Winston: Tobacco & Water".


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The Union for a Popular Movement (, ; UMP, ) was a centre-right political party in France that was one of the two major contemporary political parties in France along with the centre-left Socialist Party (PS). The UMP was formed in 2002 as a merger of several centre-right parties under the leadership of President Jacques Chirac. In May 2015, the party was renamed and succeeded by The Republicans ("").


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Nicolas Sarkozy, then the president of the UMP, was elected President of France in the 2007 presidential election, but was defeated by PS candidate François Hollande in a run-off five years later. After the November 2012 party congress, the UMP experienced internal fractioning and was plagued by monetary scandals which forced its president, Jean-François Copé, to resign. After his re-election as UMP president in November 2014, Sarkozy put forward an amendment to change the name of the party into The Republicans, which was approved and came into effect on 30 May 2015.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP enjoyed an absolute majority in the National Assembly from 2002 to 2012 and was a member of the European People's Party (EPP), the Centrist Democrat International (CDI) and the International Democrat Union (IDU).


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Since the 1980s, the political groups of the parliamentary right have joined forces around the values of economic liberalism and the building of Europe. Their rivalries had contributed to their defeat in the 1981 and 1988 legislative elections.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Before the 1993 legislative election, the Gaullist Rally for the Republic (RPR) and the centrist Union for French Democracy (UDF) formed an electoral alliance, the Union for France (UPF). However, in the 1995 presidential campaign they were both divided between followers of Jacques Chirac, who was eventually elected, and supporters of Prime Minister Edouard Balladur. After their defeat in the 1997 legislative election, the RPR and UDF created the Alliance for France in order to coordinate the actions of their parliamentary groups.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Before the 2002 presidential campaign, the supporters of President Jacques Chirac, divided in three centre-right parliamentary parties, founded an association named Union on the Move ("Union en mouvement"). After Chirac's re-election, in order to contest the legislative election jointly, the Union for the Presidential Majority ("Union pour la majorité présidentielle") was created. It was renamed "Union for a Popular Movement" and as such established as a permanent organisation.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP was the merger of the Gaullist-conservative Rally for the Republic (RPR), the conservative-liberal party Liberal Democracy (DL), a sizeable portion of the Union for French Democracy (UDF), more precisely the UDF's Christian Democrats (such as Philippe Douste-Blazy and Jacques Barrot), the Radical Party and the centrist Popular Party for French Democracy (both associate parties of the UDF until 2002). In the UMP four major French political families were thus represented: Gaullism, republicanism (the kind of liberalism put forward by parties like the Democratic Republican Alliance or the PR, heir of DL), Christian democracy ("Popularism") and radicalism.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Chirac's close ally Alain Juppé became the party's first president at the party's founding congress at the Bourget in November 2002. Juppé won 79.42% of the vote, defeating Nicolas Dupont-Aignan, the leader of the party's Eurosceptic Arise the Republic faction, and three other candidates. During the party's earlier years, it was marked by tensions and rivalries between Juppé and other "chiraquiens" and supporters of Nicolas Sarkozy, the then-Minister of the Interior.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: In the 2004 regional elections the UMP suffered a heavy blow, winning the presidencies of only 2 out of 22 regions in metropolitan France (Alsace and Corsica) and only half of the departments (the right had previously won numerous departmental presidencies) in the simultaneous 2004 cantonal elections. In the 2004 European Parliament election on 13 June 2004, the UMP also suffered another heavy blow, winning 16.6% of the vote, far behind the Socialist Party (PS), and only 16 seats.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Juppé resigned the party's presidency on 15 July 2004 after being found guilty in a corruption scandal in January of the same year. Nicolas Sarkozy rapidly announced that he would take over the presidency of the UMP and resign his position as finance minister, ending months of speculation. On 28 November 2004, Sarkozy was elected to the party's presidency with 85.09% of the votes against 9.1% for Dupont-Aignan and 5.82% for Christine Boutin, the leader of the UMP's social conservatives. Having gained control of what had been Chirac's party, Sarkozy focused the party machinery and his energies on the 2007 presidential election.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The failure of the referendum on the European Constitution on 25 May 2005 led to the fall of the government of Jean-Pierre Raffarin and to the formation of a new cabinet, presided by another UMP politician, Dominique de Villepin. However, during this time, the UMP under Sarkozy gained a record number of new members and rejuvenated itself in preparation of the 2007 election. On 14 January 2007, Sarkozy was nominated unopposed as the UMP's presidential candidate for the 2007 election.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: On the issues, the party under Sarkozy publicly disapproved of Turkey's proposed membership in the European Union, which Chirac had previously endorsed several times publicly, and generally took a more right-wing position.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: On 22 April 2007 Nicolas Sarkozy won the plurality of votes in the first round of the 2007 presidential election. On 6 May he faced the Socialist Party candidate Ségolène Royal in the second round and won, taking 53.06% of the vote. As a consequence, he resigned from the presidency of the UMP on 14 May 2007, two days before becoming President of the French Republic. François Fillon was appointed Prime Minister. On 17 June 2007, at a 2007 legislative election, the UMP gained a majority in the National Assembly with 313 out of 577 seats.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Following Sarkozy's election to the presidency, interim leader Jean-Claude Gaudin prevented a leadership struggle between Patrick Devedjian and Jean-Pierre Raffarin by announcing that the UMP should have a collegial leadership while Sarkozy was President of the Republic. In July, the UMP's national council approved an amendment to the party's statute allowing for a collegial leadership around three vice-presidents (Jean-Pierre Raffarin, Jean-Claude Gaudin and Pierre Méhaignerie) and a secretary-general (Patrick Devedjian) and two associate secretary-generals.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: On 9 March 2008 municipal and cantonal elections, the party performed quite poorly, losing numerous cities, such as Toulouse and Strasbourg, as well as eight departmental presidencies to the left. Xavier Bertrand was selected as secretary-general of the party in late 2008 to replace Patrick Devedjian, who resigned to take up a cabinet position.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: In the 2009 European Parliament election on 7 June 2009, the UMP ran common lists with its junior allies including Jean-Louis Borloo's Radical Party, the New Centre and Modern Left. The UMP list won 27.9%, a remarkably good result for a governing party in off-year "mid-term" elections, and elected 29 MEPs, significantly improving on the UMP's poor result in the 2004 European election – also an off-year election. However, in the 2010 regional elections on 14 and 21 March 2010, the UMP obtained a very poor result with only 26%. While it lost Corsica, it retained Alsace but also defeated the left in "La Réunion" and French Guiana.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: In a cabinet reshuffle in November 2010, which disappointed centrists within and outside the UMP, François Fillon was confirmed Prime Minister and Alain Juppé re-joined the government. Among those who resigned from the cabinet were Bernard Kouchner, Hervé Morin and, above all, Jean-Louis Borloo. Xavier Bertrand, who re-joined the government, was replaced as general-secretary of the UMP by Jean-François Copé on 17 November 2010.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The party suffered another major electoral defeat in the 2011 cantonal elections held on 20 and 27 March 2011, and in September, the centre-right lost control of the French Senate for the first time in the history of the Fifth Republic.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: In May 2011, during a party congress, the Radical Party, led by Borloo, decided to leave the UMP and launch The Alliance, a new centrist coalition.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The party opted not to organise primaries ahead of the 2012 presidential election and endorsed Nicolas Sarkozy's bid for second term. Sarkozy lost reelection to the Socialist Party candidate François Hollande on 6 May 2012, winning 48.36% in the runoff. The party was defeated by the new President's left-wing majority in the subsequent legislative election.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Prior to Sarkozy's defeat on 6 May, the UMP's secretary-general Jean-François Copé announced that he supported the creation of internal "movements" within the party and the organisation of primaries for the next presidential election.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP's political bureau announced the organisation of a party congress on 18 and 25 November 2012, leading prominent party leaders to organise factions and "movements" to influence the party's new direction.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Ultimately, two candidates amassed the required endorsements to run for the party's presidency: former Prime Minister François Fillon and incumbent party secretary-general Jean-François Copé. Nathalie Kosciusko-Morizet, Bruno Le Maire, Xavier Bertrand, Henri Guaino, and Dominique Dord had also announced their candidacies but did not meet tough candidacy requirements.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The campaign between Fillon and Copé lasted two months. Fillon had a strong lead in polls of UMP 'sympathizers' (as opposed to actual members, who would be the only eligible voters) and was backed by most UMP parliamentarians while Copé claimed he was the candidate of party activists rather than party 'barons'. However, Copé remained as secretary-general and retained control of the party machinery.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: While Fillon's campaign was regarded as more consensual, moderate and centre-right; Copé campaigned as the candidate of the "droite décomplexée" ('uninhibited right') and introduced issues such as anti-white racism. However, both candidates received support from moderate and conservative members of the party and their main differences were in rhetoric, style and temperament. Copé, again, appeared more militant and activist, saying that he would support and participate in street demonstrations while Fillon disagreed with his rival.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Six 'motions' (declarations of principles) were submitted to party voters; under the new statutes, motions which won over 10% of the vote at the congress would be recognised as "movements" by the UMP leadership, granted financial autonomy and receive positions in the party structures.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The vote on 18 November saw high turnout but was quickly marred by allegations of irregularities and potential fraud on both sides. Both candidates proclaimed victory within 20 minutes of each other on the night of the vote.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: 24 hours later, the control commission in charge of the vote (COCOE) announced Copé's victory by only 98 votes. While Fillon initially conceded defeat, by 21 November his campaign claimed victory anew, with a 26-vote advantage over Copé. Fillon's campaign argued that the COCOE had failed to take into account votes cast in three overseas federations.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Party elder Alain Juppé accepted to lead a mediation between both candidates on 23 November, but it failed within two days. Fillon's announced "precautionary seizure" of ballots cast "to protect them from tampering or alteration" and threatened to take the matter to court. On 26 November, the party appeals commission – led by a close supporter of Copé – decided in Copé's favour and rejected Fillon's arguments.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: On 27 November 72 "filloniste" parliamentarians in the National Assembly announced the creation of a new parliamentary group, the "Rassemblement-UMP", led by Fillon. Copé took up former President Nicolas Sarkozy's proposal of organising a referendum on a revote, but he saw the creation of the dissident "filloniste" group as a casus belli and took back his proposal. Luc Chatel, the new vice-president and a Copé supporter, later announced that he supported a new presidential vote and a modification of party statutes. The next day, Copé announced that he favoured organising a referendum the modification of party statutes and a reduction of his own term as president to two years (until November 2014); while Fillon welcomed the "consensus on the organisation of a new election" he rejected his rival's timeline and called for a new election before 2014. 'Unaligned' members of the UMP led by Bruno Le Maire and Nathalie Kosciusko-Morizet appealed for the organisation of a new election in the spring of 2013 and a reform of the party statutes.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Both rivals reached an agreement at the end of December 2012, with Copé agreeing to the organisation of a new election and a modification of party statutes while Fillon agreed to dissolve his parliamentary group.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The party's leadership was reorganized in January 2013 to accommodate Copé and Fillon's supporters: Laurent Wauquiez and Valérie Pécresse joined Luc Chatel and Michèle Tabarot as vice-president and secretary-general respectively. Christian Estrosi, Gérard Longuet, Henri de Raincourt (pro-Fillon), Jean-Claude Gaudin, Brice Hortefeux and Roger Karoutchi (pro-Copé) also became vice-presidents. Other positions in the party hierarchy were divided between supporters of both candidates. New leaders were also nominated in February 2013.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Several spending scandals appeared in 2014. In early 2014, the Bygmalion scandal () pushed the party's leader Jean-François Copé to resign. In early July, Sarkozy got held in custody due to possible spying and active corruption of the judiciary system. On 8 July 2014, the UMP was discovered to have a hidden debt of €79.1 million for the year 2013. On 20 May 2021, the criminal trial began for Sarkozy and 13 other defendants who were said to have been involved in the Bygmalion scandal. The scandal allegations that Sarkozy diverting tens of millions of euros which was intended to be spent on the his failed 2012 re-election campaign and then hiring a PR firm to cover it up. The illicit campaign finance money which was not reported as being spent on Sarkozy's re-election campaign was instead used to overspend on lavish campaign rallies and events. On 30 September 2021, Sarkozy and his co-defendants would be convicted for violating France's campaign finance spending limit law. For this conviction, Sarkozy was given a 1-year prison sentence, though he was also given the option to instead serve this sentence at home with an electronic bracelet.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: After the election of Nicolas Sarkozy, the former President of France (2007–2012), as president of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) in November 2014, he put forward a request to the party's general committee to change its name to the Republicans as well as the statutes of the party. With the name already chosen Nathalie Kosciusko-Morizet, vice president of the UMP, presented Nicolas Sarkozy and the party's political bureau a project of new statutes. The proposed statutes provided for, among others, the election of the presidents of the departmental federations by direct suffrage, the end of the political currents and consulting members on election nominations.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Critics of Sarkozy claimed it was illegal for him to name the party "Republicans" because every French person is a republican in that they support the values and ideals of the French Republic that emanated from the French Revolution, and as such the term is above party politics. The new name was adopted by the bureau on 5 May 2015 and approved by the party membership on 28 May by an online yes vote of 83.28% on a 45.74% participation after a court ruling in favor of Sarkozy. Similarly the new party statutes are adopted by 96.34% of voters and the composition of the new party's political bureau by 94.77%.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The Republicans thus became the legal successor of the UMP as the leading centre-right party in France.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP was a centre-right party and was created to represent the various families of the French right, uniting the traditions of Gaullism, Christian democracy, conservatism and liberalism. As such, it officially adopted fairly vague policy statements which emphasize consensual common values.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP believed that each individual's destiny must be unencumbered and it rejects political systems which "stifle economic freedom". It said that work, merit, innovation and personal initiative must be encouraged to reduce unemployment and boost economic growth; but at the same time, it maintained that adherence to the rule of law and the authority of the state is necessary. In a Gaullist tradition, the UMP supported solidarity, with the state guaranteeing social protection of less fortunate individuals. But in a more liberal vein, the party always denounced "l'assistanat", a French term which can refer to "welfare handouts".


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The party took more nationalist positions at times, and often adopted tough stances against immigration and illegal immigration. It strongly supported the integration and assimilation of immigrants into French society and always denounced communitarianism as a danger to the French nation-state. However, the UMP traditionally was a strong proponent of European integration and the European Union, albeit sometimes with a hint of traditional Gaullist souverainism.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Under Nicolas Sarkozy's leadership, the UMP adopted a liberal and security-oriented platform. His platform in the 2007 and 2012 presidential elections emphasized the ideas of personal responsibility and individual initiative. He developed the idea of "working more to earn more", promising that overtime hours would not be taxed and employers exonerated from non-wage labour costs. Under his presidency, the government's short-lived tax cap for high-income earners was denounced by the left but also several centrist and centre-right politicians within or outside the UMP.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Having gained his popularity as a 'hardliner' Interior minister, Sarkozy's policies also carried a strong law-and-order and tough on crime orientation. He supported tougher sentences for criminals and repeat offenders. As candidate and President, he placed heavy emphasis on immigration and national identity, presenting immigration as a danger to French identity and as source of increased criminality. As President, he imposed stricter limits on family reunification, created a Ministry of Immigration, and National Identity for three years between 2007 and 2010, launched a controversial national dialogue on national identity and expelled thousands of Roma from illegal camps.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Critics of the right-wing government denounced what they felt was a rapprochement with the controversial far-right National Front (FN). While several members of the UMP's right-wing have indicated that they would favour local alliances with the FN and prefer to vote for a FN candidate over a Socialist Party or left-wing candidate in runoff elections between the left and the FN; the party's official position continues to reject alliances with the FN at any level but also opposes so-called "republican fronts" with the left against the FN.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP's original statutes in 2002 allowed for the organisation of formal factions or movements within the party, to represent the various political families of which it was made up. However, fearing leadership rivalries and divisions, Juppé, Chirac and later Sarkozy 'postponed' the creation of such organised movements indefinitely. Nevertheless, prior to the organisations of formal "movements" in November 2012, there existed informal groupings of like-minded members, either through associations, political clubs, associated political parties or even informal factions.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Jean-François Copé allowed for the organisation of formal movements within the party following the November 2012 congress. According to the party's statutes, motions backed by at least 10 parliamentarians from 10 departmental federations and which obtain at least 10% support from members at a congress are recognised as movements. They are granted financial autonomy by way of a fixed grant and additional funding in proportion to the votes they obtained; but the sum of funds transferred by the party to its movements can be no larger than 30% of the annual public subsidies the UMP receives from the state.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Six motions representing various ideological tendencies within the party ran to be recognised as official movements following the November 2012 congress. Five of these motions met the conditions to be recognised as such, and their leaders have since integrated the UMP's leadership structure:


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition, the Christian Democratic Party, the Rally for France and The Progressives are associate parties of the UMP. By adhering to these parties, members also adhered to the UMP and could participate in the UMP's inner organisation. The Radical Party was associated with the UMP from 2002 through 2011.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: Overseas parties associated with the UMP included O Porinetia To Tatou Ai'a in French Polynesia and The Rally–UMP in New Caledonia.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The aforementioned November 2012 congress saw the division of the party between the two candidates who sought the party's presidency, François Fillon and Jean-François Copé – the "fillonistes" and "copéistes".


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: The UMP's electoral base reflects that of the old Rally for the Republic (RPR) and, in some cases, that of the Union for French Democracy (UDF). In the 2007 presidential election, Nicolas Sarkozy performed best in the east of France – particularly Alsace (36.2%); Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur (37.0%) – the wealthy coastal department of the Alpes-Maritimes (43.6%) was his best department in France; Champagne-Ardenne (32.7%) and Rhône-Alpes (32.7%). These areas were among National Front candidate Jean-Marie Le Pen's best regions in 2002 and are conservative on issues such as immigration. Sarkozy received a lot of votes from voters who had supported the far-right in April 2002. For example, in the Alpes-Maritimes, Sarkozy performed 21.6% better than Chirac did in 2002 while Le Pen lost 12.6% in five years. Sarkozy also appealed more than average to blue-collar workers in regions such as northern Meurthe-et-Moselle and the Nord-Pas-de-Calais, although most of these regions, despite his gains, remain reliably left-wing. The party is also strong in every election in very wealthy suburban or coastal (and, in some cases, urban) areas such as Neuilly-sur-Seine (72.6% for Sarkozy in the first round), Saint-Tropez (54.79%), Cannes (48.19%) or Marcq-en-Barœul (47.35%). It is strong in most rural areas, like most conservative parties in the world, but this does not extend to the rural areas of the south of France, areas which are old strongholds of republican and secular ideals. However, in old "clerical" Catholic rural areas, such as parts of Lozère or Cantal, it is very strong, as was the UDF during its hey day.


title: Union for a Popular Movement

text: However, the UMP does poorly in one of the UDF's best regions, Brittany, where the decline of religious practice, a moderate electorate and urbanisation has hurt the UMP and also the UDF. Nicolas Sarkozy performed relatively poorly in departments with a large share of moderate Christian democratic (often centrist or centre-right) voters, such as Lozère where the Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal performed better (44.3%) than François Mitterrand had in his 1988 left-wing landslide (43.1%). While former President Jacques Chirac, the right's strongman in normally left-wing Corrèze had always done very well in Corrèze and the surrounding departments, Sarkozy did very poorly and actually lost the department in the 2007 runoff. However, in the 2009 European election, the UMP's results in those departments were superior to Sarkozy's first round result (nationally, they were 4% lower).


title: Buran programme

text: The "Buran" program (, , "Snowstorm", "Blizzard"), also known as the "VKK Space Orbiter program" (), was a Soviet and later Russian reusable spacecraft project that began in 1974 at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute in Moscow and was formally suspended in 1993. In addition to being the designation for the whole Soviet/Russian reusable spacecraft project, "Buran" was also the name given to Orbiter K1, which completed one uncrewed spaceflight in 1988 and was the only Soviet reusable spacecraft to be launched into space. The "Buran"-class orbiters used the expendable Energia rocket as a launch vehicle. Unlike the Space Shuttle, Buran had a capability of flying uncrewed missions, as well as performing fully automated landings.


title: Buran programme

text: The Buran program was started by the Soviet Union as a response to the United States Space Shuttle program. The project was the largest and the most expensive in the history of Soviet space exploration. Development work included sending BOR-5 test vehicles on multiple sub-orbital test flights, and atmospheric flights of the OK-GLI aerodynamic prototype. Buran completed one uncrewed orbital spaceflight in 1988, after which it was recovered successfully. Although the Buran class was similar in appearance to NASA's Space Shuttle orbiter, and could similarly operate as a re-entry spaceplane, its internal and functional design was distinct. For example, the main engines during launch were on the Energia rocket and were not taken into orbit by the spacecraft. Smaller rocket engines on the craft's body provided propulsion in orbit and de-orbital burns, similar to the Space Shuttle's OMS pods.


title: Buran programme

text: The Buran orbital vehicle program was developed in response to the U.S. Space Shuttle program, which in the 1980s raised considerable concerns among the Soviet military and especially Defense Minister Dmitry Ustinov. An authoritative chronicler of the Soviet and later Russian space programs, the academic Boris Chertok, recounts how the program came into being. According to Chertok, after the U.S. developed its Space Shuttle program, the Soviet military became suspicious that it could be used for military purposes, due to its enormous payload, several times that of previous U.S. launch vehicles. The Soviet government asked the TsNIIMash (, a major player in defence analysis) for an expert opinion. Lieutenant General Yuri Mozzhorin recalled that by "approximately 1965", when the Soviet Union had the 'long arm' (ICBMs), the Soviets did not expect war "and thought it would not happen." As institute director, Mozzhorin, recalled that for a long time the institute could not envisage a civilian payload large enough to require a vehicle of that capacity.


title: Buran programme

text: Officially, the Buran orbital vehicle was designed for the delivery to orbit and return to Earth of spacecraft, cosmonauts, and supplies. Both Chertok and Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy (General Designer and General Director of NPO Molniya) suggest that from the beginning, the program was military in nature; however, the exact military capabilities, or intended capabilities, of the Buran program remain classified. Commenting on the discontinuation of the program in his interview to "New Scientist", Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kotov confirms their accounts:


title: Buran programme

text: Like its American counterpart, the Buran orbital vehicle, when in transit from its landing sites back to the launch complex, was transported on the back of a large jet aeroplane – the Antonov An-225 Mriya transport aircraft, which was designed in part for this task and was the largest aircraft in the world to fly multiple times. Before the "Mriya" was ready (after the Buran had flown), the Myasishchev VM-T "Atlant", a variant on the Soviet Myasishchev M-4 "Molot" (Hammer) bomber (NATO code: Bison), fulfilled the same role.


title: Buran programme

text: The Soviet reusable spacecraft program has its roots in the late 1950s, at the very beginning of the space age. The idea of Soviet reusable space flight is very old, though it was neither continuous nor consistently organized. Before Buran, no project of the program reached operational status.


title: Buran programme

text: The idea saw its first iteration in the Burya high-altitude jet aircraft, which reached the prototype stage. Several test flights were made before it was cancelled by order of the Central Committee. The Burya had the goal of delivering a nuclear payload, presumably to the United States, and then returning to base. The cancellation was based on a final decision to develop ICBMs. The next iteration of the idea was Zvezda from the early 1960s, which also reached a prototype stage. Decades later, another project with the same name was used as a service module for the International Space Station. After Zvezda, there was a hiatus in reusable projects until Buran.


title: Buran programme

text: The development of the Buran began in the early 1970s as a response to the U.S. Space Shuttle program. Soviet officials were concerned about a perceived military threat posed by the U.S. Space Shuttle. In their opinion, the Shuttle's 30-ton payload-to-orbit capacity and, more significantly, its 15-ton payload return capacity, were a clear indication that one of its main objectives would be to place massive experimental laser weapons into orbit that could destroy enemy missiles from a distance of several thousands of kilometres. Their reasoning was that such weapons could only be effectively tested in actual space conditions and that to cut their development time and save costs it would be necessary to regularly bring them back to Earth for modifications and fine-tuning. Soviet officials were also concerned that the U.S. Space Shuttle could make a sudden dive into the atmosphere to drop nuclear bombs on Moscow.


title: Buran programme

text: In 1974, Valentin Glushko's design bureau, OKB-1 (later NPO Energiya), proposed a new family of heavy-lift rockets called RLA (). The RLA concept included the use of kerosene and liquid hydrogen as fuel, and liquid oxygen as oxidizer (both new technologies in the Soviet space program), with the shuttle orbiter being one possible payload. By 1975, NPO Energiya had come up with two competing designs for the orbiter vehicle: the MTKVP (), a 34 meter-long lifting body spaceplane launched on top of a stack of kerosene-fueled strap on boosters; and the OS-120 (), a close copy of the US Space Shuttle composed of a delta-winged spaceplane equipped with three liquid hydrogen engines, strapped to a detachable external tank and four liquid fuel boosters (NPO Energiya even considered the use of solid propellant rocket boosters, further imitating the US Shuttle's configuration). A compromise between these two proposals was achieved by NPO Energiya in January 1976 with the OK-92 (), a delta-winged orbiter equipped with two Soloviev D-30 turbofan jet engines for autonomous atmospheric flight, launched to space from a rocket stack made of a core stage with three cryogenic engines, and four kerosene-fueled boosters, each with four engines. By 1978, the OK-92 design was further refined, with its final configuration completed in June 1979.


title: Buran programme

text: Soviet engineers were initially reluctant to design a spacecraft that looked superficially identical to the Shuttle. Although it has been commented that wind tunnel testing showed that NASA's design was already ideal, the shape requirements were mandated by its potential military capabilities to transport large payloads to low Earth orbit, themselves a counterpart to the Pentagon's initially projected missions for the Shuttle. Even though the Molniya Scientific Production Association proposed its Spiral program design (halted 13 years earlier), it was rejected as being altogether dissimilar from the American shuttle design. While NPO Molniya conducted development under the lead of Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy, the Soviet Union's Military-Industrial Commission, or VPK, was tasked with collecting all data it could on the U.S. Space Shuttle. Under the auspices of the KGB, the VPK was able to amass documentation on the American shuttle's airframe designs, design analysis software, materials, flight computer systems and propulsion systems. The KGB targeted many university research project documents and databases, including Caltech, MIT, Princeton, Stanford and others. The thoroughness of the acquisition of data was made much easier as the U.S. shuttle development was unclassified.


title: Buran programme

text: The construction of the shuttles began in 1980, and by 1984 the first full-scale Buran was rolled out. The first suborbital test flight of a scale-model (BOR-5) took place as early as July 1983. As the project progressed, five additional scale-model flights were performed. A test vehicle was constructed with four jet engines mounted at the rear; this vehicle is usually referred to as OK-GLI, or as the "Buran aerodynamic analogue". The jets were used to take off from a normal landing strip, and once it reached a designated point, the engines were cut and OK-GLI glided back to land. This provided invaluable information about the handling characteristics of the Buran design, and significantly differed from the carrier plane/air drop method used by the United States and the test craft. Twenty-four test flights of OK-GLI were performed by the Gromov Flight Research Institute test pilots and researchers after which the shuttle was "worn out". The developers considered using a couple of Mil Mi-26 helicopters to "bundle" lift the Buran, but test flights with a mock-up showed how risky and impractical that was. The VM-T ferried components and the Antonov An-225 Mriya (the heaviest airplane ever) was designed and used to ferry the shuttle.


title: Buran programme

text: The flight and ground-testing software also required research. In 1983 the Buran developers estimated that the software development would require several thousand programmers if done with their existing methodology (in assembly language), and they appealed to Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics for assistance. It was decided to develop a new high-level "problem-oriented" programming language. Researchers at Keldysh developed two languages: PROL2 (used for real-time programming of onboard systems) and DIPOL (used for the ground-based test systems), as well as the development and debugging environment SAPO PROLOGUE. There was also an operating system known as Prolog Manager. Work on these languages continued beyond the end of the Buran program, with PROL2 being extended into SIPROL, and eventually all three languages developed into DRAKON which is still in use in the Russian space industry. A declassified May 1990 CIA report citing open-source intelligence material states that the software for the Buran spacecraft was written in "the French-developed programming language known as Prolog", possibly due to confusion with the name PROLOGUE.


title: Buran programme

text: Until the end of the Soviet Union in 1991, seven cosmonauts were allocated to the Buran program and trained on the OK-GLI ("Buran aerodynamic analogue") test vehicle. All had experience as test pilots. They were: Ivan Ivanovich Bachurin, Alexei Sergeyevich Borodai, Anatoli Semyonovich Levchenko, Aleksandr Vladimirovich Shchukin, Rimantas Antanas Stankevičius, Igor Petrovich Volk, and Viktor Vasiliyevich Zabolotsky.


title: Buran programme

text: A rule, set in place for cosmonauts because of the failed Soyuz 25 of 1977, insisted that all Soviet space missions contain at least one crew member who has been to space before. In 1982, it was decided that all Buran commanders and their back-ups would occupy the third seat on a Soyuz mission, prior to their Buran spaceflight. Several people had been selected to potentially be in the first Buran crew. By 1985, it was decided that at least one of the two crew members would be a test pilot trained at the Gromov Flight Research Institute (known as "LII"), and potential crew lists were drawn up. Only two potential Buran crew members reached space: Igor Volk, who flew in Soyuz T-12 to the space station Salyut 7, and Anatoli Levchenko who visited Mir, launching with Soyuz TM-4 and landing with Soyuz TM-3. Both of these spaceflights lasted about a week.


title: Buran programme

text: Levchenko died of a brain tumour the year after his orbital flight, Bachurin left the cosmonaut corps because of medical reasons, Shchukin was assigned to the back-up crew of Soyuz TM-4 and later died in a plane crash, Stankevičius was also killed in a plane crash, while Borodai and Zabolotsky remained unassigned to a Soyuz flight until the Buran programme ended.


title: Buran programme

text: Igor Volk was planned to be the commander of the first crewed "Buran" flight. There were two purposes of the Soyuz T-12 mission, one of which was to give Volk spaceflight experience. The other purpose, seen as the more important factor, was to beat the United States and have the first spacewalk by a woman. At the time of the Soyuz T-12 mission the Buran program was still a state secret. The appearance of Volk as a crew member caused some, including the British Interplanetary Society magazine "Spaceflight", to ask why a test pilot was occupying a Soyuz seat usually reserved for researchers or foreign cosmonauts.


title: Buran programme

text: Anatoli Levchenko was planned to be the back-up commander of the first crewed Buran flight, and in March 1987 he began extensive training for his Soyuz spaceflight. In December 1987, he occupied the third seat aboard Soyuz TM-4 to Mir, and returned to Earth about a week later on Soyuz TM-3. His mission is sometimes called "Mir LII-1", after the Gromov Flight Research Institute shorthand. When Levchenko died the following year, it left the back-up crew of the first Buran mission again without spaceflight experience. A Soyuz spaceflight for another potential back-up commander was sought by the Gromov Flight Research Institute, but never occurred.


title: Buran programme

text: Maintenance, launches and landings of the Buran-class orbiters were to take place at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh SSR. Several facilities at Baikonur were adapted or newly built for these purposes:


title: Buran programme

text: Following a series of atmospheric test flights using the jet-powered OK-GLI prototype, the first operational spacecraft (Orbiter K1) flew one test mission on 15 November 1988 at 03:00:02 UTC. The spacecraft was launched uncrewed from and landed at Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh S.S.R. and flew two orbits, travelling in 3 hours and 25 minutes (0.14 flight days). Buran never flew again; the program was cancelled shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2002, the collapse of the hangar in which it was stored destroyed the Buran K1 orbiter.


title: Buran programme

text: An aerodynamic testbed, OK-GLI, was constructed in 1984 to test the in-flight properties of the Buran design. Unlike the American prototype , OK-GLI had four AL-31 turbofan engines fitted, meaning it was able to fly under its own power.


title: Buran programme

text: The only orbital launch of the Buran 1.01 was at 03:00 UTC on 15 November 1988 from pad 110/37 in Baikonur. The uncrewed craft was lifted into orbit by the specially designed Energia booster rocket. The life support system was not installed and no software was installed on the CRT displays. The shuttle orbited the Earth twice in 206 minutes of flight. On its return, it performed an automated landing on the shuttle runway at Baikonur Cosmodrome.


title: Buran programme

text: The planned flights for the shuttles in 1989, before the downsizing of the project and eventual cancellation, were:


title: Buran programme

text: After the first flight of a Buran shuttle, the project was suspended due to lack of funds and the political situation in the Soviet Union. The two subsequent orbiters, which were due in 1990 (Orbiter 1.02) and 1992 (Orbiter 2.01) were never completed. The project was officially terminated on 30 June 1993, by President Boris Yeltsin. At the time of its cancellation, 20 billion roubles had been spent on the Buran program.


title: Buran programme

text: The program was designed to boost national pride, carry out research, and meet technological objectives similar to those of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, including resupply of the Mir space station, which was launched in 1986 and remained in service until 2001. When Mir was finally visited by a spaceplane, the visitor was a Space Shuttle orbiter, not a Buran-class orbiter.


title: Buran programme

text: The "Buran" SO, a docking module that was to be used for rendezvous with the Mir space station, was refitted for use with the U.S. Space Shuttles during the Shuttle–Mir missions.


title: Buran programme

text: The cost of a Buran launch carrying a 20 ton payload was estimated at 270 million roubles, vs 5.5 million roubles on the Proton rocket.


title: Buran programme

text: On 12 May 2002, a hangar roof at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan collapsed because of a structural failure due to poor maintenance. The collapse killed eight workers and destroyed one of the Buran-class orbiters (Buran 1.01), which flew the test flight in 1988, as well as a mock-up of an Energia booster rocket. It was not clear to outsiders at the time which Buran-class orbiter was destroyed, and the BBC reported that it was just "a model" of the orbiter. It occurred at the "MIK RN/MIK 112" building at Site 112 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, 14 years after the only Buran flight. Work on the roof had begun for a maintenance project, whose equipment is thought to have contributed to the collapse. Also, before the day of collapse, there had been several days of heavy rain.


title: Buran programme

text: Over time, several scientists looked into trying to revive the Buran program, especially after the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster.


title: Buran programme

text: The 2003 grounding of the U.S. Space Shuttles caused many to wonder whether the Energia launcher or Buran shuttle could be brought back into service. By then, however, all of the equipment for both (including the vehicles themselves) had fallen into disrepair or been repurposed after falling into disuse with the collapse of the Soviet Union.


title: Buran programme

text: In 2010 the director of Moscow's Central Machine Building Institute said the Buran program would be reviewed in the hope of restarting a similar crewed spacecraft design, with rocket test launches as soon as 2015. Russia also continues work on the PPTS but has abandoned the Kliper program, due to differences in vision with its European partners.


title: Buran programme

text: Due to the 2011 retirement of the American Space Shuttle and the need for STS-type craft in the meantime to complete the International Space Station, some American and Russian scientists had been mulling over plans to possibly revive the already-existing Buran shuttles in the Buran program rather than spend money on an entirely new craft and wait for it to be fully developed but the plans did not come to fruition.


title: Buran programme

text: On the 25th anniversary of the Buran flight in November 2013, Oleg Ostapenko, the new head of Roscosmos, the Russian Federal Space Agency, proposed that a new heavy-lift launch vehicle be built for the Russian space program. The rocket would be intended to place a payload of in a baseline low Earth orbit and is projected to be based on the Angara launch vehicle technology.


title: Buran programme

text: Because Buran debut followed that of , and because there were striking visual similarities between the two shuttle systems—a state of affairs which recalled the similarity between the Tupolev Tu-144 and Concorde supersonic airliners—many speculated that Cold War espionage played a role in the development of the Soviet shuttle. Despite remarkable external similarities, many key differences existed, which suggests that, had espionage been a factor in Buran development, it would likely have been in the form of external photography or early airframe designs. NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher stated that Buran was based on a rejected NASA design. See the section above.


title: Beyhadh

text: Beyhadh () is an Indian romantic thriller television series which aired from 11 October 2016 to 27 October 2017 on Sony Entertainment Television. It starred Jennifer Winget, Kushal Tandon and Aneri Vajani.


title: Beyhadh

text: "Beyhadh 2" premiered on 2 December 2019 and starred Jennifer Winget, Ashish Chaudhary and Shivin Narang. It went off-air abruptly due to the COVID-19 pandemic.""


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya Mehrotra, owner of "Fashion and the City" is a young and successful business tycoon, suffering from dark past and troubled childhood due to her abusive dad, Ashwin. Carefree and cheerful, Arjun Sharma is a photographer. His childhood friend, lawyer Saanjh Mathur, secretly loves him. As Arjun rescues Maya in an elevator accident and later, from Ashwin, she falls in love with and proposes him.


title: Beyhadh

text: A series of circumstances including Maya rescuing Ayaan from jail, revealing her past to Arjun, helping him realize his past mistakes and uniting his family in the process leads to Arjun falling for Maya. Thus, he ends up proposing her in Mauritius, much to Saanjh's dismay. As Maya and Arjun plan their wedding, Ashwin tries to provoke Saanjh and Vandana against Maya to ruin her wedding. Moreover, he tries to get over her company's shares as well but all in vain as he was murdered.


title: Beyhadh

text: Later, Jhanvi gets to know about Ashwin's murderer and tries to expose the truth, however, was pushed off a building by the murderer causing her to go in a coma and was blamed for the murder. Meanwhile, Arjun's flirtatious nature and his extreme friendship with Saanjh irks Maya and she fakes a miscarriage and blames Saanjh, leading to a fall out between Arjun and Saanjh. Hurt, Saanjh leaves for London.


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya has completely isolated Arjun from everyone. Arjun has realized Maya's mental illness. Saanjh returns to India with her boyfriend Samay Ahuja. Saanjh and Samay are about to get married. Later, it is revealed that Samay has been Maya's obsessive lover for the last eight years.


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya accuses Ayaan in her fake attempt to rape case with the help of Samay. Later, Saanjh tries to expose Maya but Samay kills Prem to discard all the evidences against Maya. It is revealed that the person behind Ashwin's murder and Jhanvi's accident is none other than Maya, and thus she is blackmailed by Samay. Later, on his wedding day, he abducts Maya but Arjun saves her as she is pregnant with his child and thus gets to know about Samay and Maya's relationship, which makes him hate her.


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya is in a mental hospital where she admitted herself for her treatment to pretend to be cured. Ayaan tries to expose Maya but she runs her car over him and he gets severely injured. Later, during a fight with Vandana, Maya falls from the stairs and loses her unborn child. Filled with anguish and desire for revenge, Maya kills Vandana.


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya learns Arjun's feelings of hatred for her, thus, she traps him and fakes her death by knocking him out and then killing and planting her look alike, Mansi, at the scene of the crime. Arjun is convicted of her murder and is given death sentence. Maya decides to die to unite Arjun in her after life but is saved by Samay.


title: Beyhadh

text: Arjun believes that Maya is alive and escapes from jail to expose Maya. Maya joins hands with Samay to plot against Arjun and Saanjh but Arjun convinces Samay that Maya is only using him. Maya kills Samay and abducts Saanjh. Arjun rescues Saanjh and Maya is proved guilty in court after her own mother testifies against her and is sentenced to be hanged. Arjun realizes his love for Saanjh, and so does Saanjh and both decide to get married, much to Maya's dismay. She sends many people to injure and kill Saanjh, but none of her plan work. On the day Maya was going to be hanged, her punishment changed to life time prison. Finally, Arjun and Saanjh get married. Saanjh is still scared of Maya. Later, Maya is sent to solitary confinement.


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya is still in jail. Arjun has become a millionaire and has tight security around the house. Ayaan is a widower and has a daughter named Arohi. Saanjh and Arjun raise his child together. Maya escapes from jail by, once again, faking her death.


title: Beyhadh

text: Maya unintentionally hurts Ayaan's daughter due to which Ayaan moves away from Arjun with Arohi. Later, Arjun and Saanjh decide to use a surrogate as Saanjh cannot conceive. Maya manages to somehow become their surrogate leaving Arjun and Saanjh shocked.


title: Beyhadh

text: Saanjh decides to care for Maya despite her longtime animosity towards her, whilst Maya plots against everyone. As the pregnancy nears an end, Maya asks Saanjh for Arjun in exchange for the baby but he expresses his hatred for Maya and love for Saanjh. Maya gives birth to a baby girl and runs away with it. Saanjh approaches Maya who points the gun at her. Arjun shoots Maya from behind. Saanjh finds out the gun which Maya pointed on her was empty. Thus Maya dies by Arjun's hands confessing her obsessive and limitless love for him.


title: Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu

text: In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the name may be transcribed as . In the Māori language, the digraph "wh" is pronounced as , a voiceless bilabial fricative, akin to an sound made with pursed lips.


text: The name "" translates roughly as "The summit where Tamatea, the man with the big knees, the slider, climber of mountains, the land-swallower who travelled about, played his (flute) to his loved one". Parsed by individual words: Taumata whaka tangi hanga koauau O tamatea turipukaka piki maunga horo nuku pokai whenua kitana tahu.


text: Some forms of the name are longer still: "" has 92 letters. An even longer version, Taumata-whakatangihanga-koauau-o-Tamatea-haumai-tawhiti-ure-haea-turi-pukaka-piki-maunga-horo-nuku-pokai-whenua-ki-tana-tahu, has 105 letters and means "The hill of the flute playing by Tamatea – who was blown hither from afar, had a slit penis, grazed his knees climbing mountains, fell on the earth, and encircled the land – to his beloved one".


text: Maps from 1929 published by the Department of Lands and Survey use a 28-character name "". In 1941, the Honorary Geographic Board of New Zealand renamed the hill to a 57-character name "", which has been an official name since 1948, and first appeared in a 1955 map. The New Zealand Geographic Placenames Database, maintained by Land Information New Zealand (LINZ), shows the official name with macrons "".


text: Tamatea-pōkai-whenua (Tamatea the explorer of the land) was the father of Kahungunu, ancestor of the Ngāti Kahungunu iwi (tribe). Mention of Tamatea's explorations of the land occur not only in Ngāti Kahungunu legends, but also in the traditions of iwi from Northland, where he is said to have explored the Hokianga and Kaipara harbours.


text: In traditions from the Bay of Plenty region, he left a son, Ranginui, who is the ancestor of Ngāti Ranginui of Tauranga. Legends from the East Coast of the North Island tell of his explorations in Tūranga-nui (Gisborne), Māhia, Wairoa, Ahuriri (Napier), Heretaunga (near Hastings) and Pōrangahau. He travelled via the Mangakopikopiko River, over the Tītī-o-kura saddle via Pohokura to Taupō-nui-a-Tia (Lake Taupō). The Ōtamatea River and swamp is named after him. Tamatea is also the name of a place in Napier.


text: Early South Island legends say that Tamatea sailed down the east coast. His canoe was wrecked in the far south, and transformed into Tākitimu mountain range. Tamatea then returned to the North Island, and travelled via the Whanganui River.


text: The name is featured in a Mountain Dew jingle and a SEEK Learning TV ad in Australia. It also appears in the 1976 (re-released in 1979) single "The Lone Ranger" by British band Quantum Jump, which featured in the title sequence of the second series of "The Kenny Everett Video Show". It is the subject of a 1960 song by the New Zealand balladeer Peter Cape. Tennis star Martina Navratilova learned to say the word when she was ten years old.


title: District heating

text: District heating (also known as heat networks or teleheating) is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location through a system of insulated pipes for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating and water heating. The heat is often obtained from a cogeneration plant burning fossil fuels or biomass, but heat-only boiler stations, geothermal heating, heat pumps and central solar heating are also used, as well as heat waste from factories and nuclear power electricity generation. District heating plants can provide higher efficiencies and better pollution control than localized boilers. According to some research, district heating with combined heat and power (CHPDH) is the cheapest method of cutting carbon emissions, and has one of the lowest carbon footprints of all fossil generation plants.


title: District heating

text: Fifth-generation district heat networks do not use combustion on-site and have zero emissions of CO and NO on-site; they employ heat transfer using electricity, which may be generated from renewable energy or from remote fossil-fuelled power stations. A combination of CHP and centralized heat pumps is used in the Stockholm multi-energy system. This allows the production of heat through electricity when there is an abundance of intermittent power production, and cogeneration of electric power and district heating when the availability of intermittent power production is low.


title: District heating

text: District heating traces its roots to the hot water-heated baths and greenhouses of the ancient Roman Empire. A hot water distribution system in Chaudes-Aigues in France is generally regarded as the first real district heating system. It used geothermal energy to provide heat for about 30 houses and started operation in the 14th century.


title: District heating

text: Although these and numerous other systems have operated over the centuries, the first commercially successful district heating system was launched in Lockport, New York, in 1877 by American hydraulic engineer Birdsill Holly, considered the founder of modern district heating.


title: District heating

text: Generally, all modern district heating system are demand driven, meaning that the heat supplier reacts to the demand from the consumers and ensures that there is sufficient temperature and water pressure to deliver the demanded heat to the users. The five generations have defining features that sets them apart from the prior generations. The feature of each generation can be used to give an indication of the development status of an existing district heating system.


title: District heating

text: The first generation was a steam-based system fueled by coal and was first introduced in the US in the 1880s and became popular in some European countries, too. It was state of the art until the 1930s and used concrete ducts, operated with very high temperatures and was therefore not very efficient. There were also problems with reliability and safety due to the hot pressurized steam tubes. Nowadays, this generation is technologically outdated. However, some of these systems are still in use, for example in New York or Paris. Other systems originally built have subsequently been converted to later generations.


title: District heating

text: The second generation was developed in the 1930s and was built until the 1970s. It burned coal and oil, and the energy was transmitted through pressurized hot water as the heat carrier. The systems usually had supply temperatures above 100 °C, and used water pipes in concrete ducts, mostly assembled on site, and heavy equipment. A main reason for these systems was the primary energy savings, which arose from using combined heat and power plants. While also used in other countries, typical systems of this generation were the Soviet-style district heating systems that were built after WW2 in several countries in Eastern Europe.


title: District heating

text: In the 1970s the third generation was developed and was subsequently used in most of the following systems all over the world. This generation is also called the "Scandinavian district heating technology", because many of the district heating component manufacturers are based in Scandinavia. The third generation uses prefabricated, pre-insulated pipes, which are directly buried into the ground and operates with lower temperatures, usually below 100 °C. A primary motivation for building these systems was security of supply by improving the energy efficiency after the two oil crises led to disruption of the oil supply. Therefore, those systems usually used coal, biomass and waste as energy sources, in preference to oil. In some systems, geothermal energy and solar energy are also used in the energy mix. For example, Paris has been using geothermal heating from a 55–70 °C source 1–2 km below the surface since the 1970s for domestic heating.


title: District heating

text: Currently, the fourth generation is being developed, with the transition to 4th generation already in process in Denmark. The fourth generation is designed to combat climate change and integrate high shares of variable renewable energy into the district heating by providing high flexibility to the electricity system.


title: District heating

text: Compared to the previous generations the temperature levels have been reduced to increase the energy efficiency of the system, with supply side temperatures of 70 °C and lower. Potential heat sources are waste heat from industry, CHP plants burning waste, biomass power plants, geothermal and solar thermal energy (central solar heating), large scale heat pumps, waste heat from cooling purposes and data centers and other sustainable energy sources. With those energy sources and large scale thermal energy storage, including seasonal thermal energy storage, fourth generation district heating systems are expected to provide flexibility for balancing wind and solar power generation, for example by using heat pumps to integrate surplus electric power as heat when there is much wind energy or providing electricity from biomass plants when back-up power is needed. Therefore, large scale heat pumps are regarded as a key technology for smart energy systems with high shares of renewable energy up to 100% and advanced fourth generation district heating systems.


title: District heating

text: A fifth generation district heating and cooling network (5GDHC), also called "cold district heating", distributes heat at near ambient ground temperature: this in principle minimizes heat losses to the ground and reduces the need for extensive insulation. Each building on the network uses a heat pump in its own plant room to extract heat from the ambient circuit when it needs heat, and uses the same heat pump in reverse to reject heat when it needs cooling. In periods of simultaneous cooling and heating demands this allows waste heat from cooling to be used in heat pumps at those buildings which need heating. The overall temperature within the ambient circuit is preferably controlled by heat exchange with an aquifer or another low temperature water source to remain within a temperature range from 10 °C to 25 °C.


title: District heating

text: While network piping for ambient ground temperature networks is less expensive to install per pipe diameter than in earlier generations, as it does not need the same degree of insulation for the piping circuits, it has to be kept in mind that the lower temperature difference of the pipe network leads to significantly larger pipe diameters than in prior generations. Due to the requirement of each connected building in the fifth generation district heating and cooling systems to have their own heat pump the system can be used both as a heat source or a heat sink for the heat pump, depending on if it is operated in a heating and cooling mode. As with prior generations the pipe network is an infrastructure that in principle provides an open access for various low temperature heat sources, such as ambient heat, ambient water from rivers, lakes, sea, or lagoons, and waste heat from industrial or commercial sources.


title: District heating

text: Based on the above description it is clear that there is a fundamental difference between the 5GDHC and the prior generations of district heating, particularly in the individualization of the heat generation. This critical system has a significant impact when comparing the efficiencies between the different generations, as the individualization of the heat generation moves the comparison from being a simple distribution system efficiency comparison to a supply system efficiency comparison, where both the heat generation efficiency as well as the distribution system efficiency needs to be included.


title: District heating

text: A modern building with a low-temperature internal heat distribution system can install an efficient heat pump delivering heat output at 45 °C. An older building with a higher-temperature internal distribution system e.g. using radiators will require a high-temperature heat pump to deliver heat output.


title: District heating

text: A larger example of a fifth generation heating and cooling grid is Mijnwater in Heerlen, the Netherlands. In this case the distinguishing feature is a unique access to an abandoned water-filled coal mine within the city boundary that provides a stable heat source for the system.


title: District heating

text: A fifth generation network ("Balanced Energy Network", BEN) was installed in 2016 at two large buildings of the London South Bank University as a research and development project.


title: District heating

text: District heating networks exploit various energy sources, sometimes indirectly through multipurpose infrastructure such as combined heat and power plants (CHP, also called co-generation).


title: District heating

text: The most used energy source for district heating is the burning of hydrocarbons. As the supply of renewable fuels is insufficient, the fossil fuels coal and gas are massively used for district heating. This burning of fossil hydrocarbons usually contributes to climate change, as the use of systems to capture and store the CO instead of releasing it into the atmosphere is rare.


title: District heating

text: In the case of a cogeneration plant, the heat output is typically sized to meet half of the peak winter heat load, but over the year will provide 90% of the heat supplied. Much of the heat produced in summer will generally be wasted. The boiler capacity will be able to meet the entire heat demand unaided and can cover for breakdowns in the cogeneration plant. It is not economic to size the cogeneration plant alone to be able to meet the full heat load. In the New York City steam system, that is around 2.5 GW. Germany has the largest amount of CHP in Europe.


title: District heating

text: A simple thermal power station can be 20–35% efficient, whereas a more advanced facility with the ability to recover waste heat can reach total energy efficiency of nearly 80%. Some may approach 100% based on the lower heating value by condensing the flue gas as well.


title: District heating

text: The heat produced by nuclear chain reactions can be injected into district heating networks. This does not contaminate the district pipes with radioactive elements, as the heat is transferred to the network through heat exchangers. It is not technically necessary for the nuclear reactor to be very close to the district heating network, as heat can be transported over significant distances (exceeding 200 km) with affordable losses, using insulated pipes.


title: District heating

text: Since nuclear reactors do not significantly contribute to either air pollution or global warming, they can be an advantageous alternative to the combustion of fossil hydrocarbons. However, only a small minority of the nuclear reactors currently in operation around the world are connected to a district heating network. These reactors are in Bulgaria, China, Hungary, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Ukraine.


title: District heating

text: The Ågesta Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden was an early example of nuclear cogeneration, providing small quantities of both heat and electricity to a suburb of the country's capital between 1964 and 1974. The Beznau Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland has been generating electricity since 1969 and supplying district heating since 1984. The Haiyang Nuclear Power Plant in China started operating in 2018 and started supplying small scale heat to the Haiyang city area in 2020. By November 2022, the plant used 345 MW-thermal effect to heat 200,000 homes, replacing 12 coal heating plants.


title: District heating

text: Recent years have seen renewed interest in small modular reactors (SMRs) and their potential to supply district heating. Speaking on the Energy Impact Center's (EIC) podcast, "Titans of Nuclear", principal engineer at GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Christer Dahlgren noted that district heating could be the impetus for the construction of new nuclear power plants in the future. EIC's own open-source SMR blueprint design, OPEN100, could be incorporated into a district heating system.


title: District heating

text: Direct use geothermal district heating systems, which tap geothermal reservoirs and distribute the hot water to multiple buildings for a variety of uses, are uncommon in the United States, but have existed in America for over a century.


title: District heating

text: In 1890, the first wells were drilled to access a hot water resource outside of Boise, Idaho. In 1892, after routing the water to homes and businesses in the area via a wooden pipeline, the first geothermal district heating system was created.


title: District heating

text: As of a 2007 study, there were 22 geothermal district heating systems (GDHS) in the United States. As of 2010, two of those systems have shut down. The table below describes the 20 GDHS currently operational in America.


title: District heating

text: Use of solar heat for district heating has been increasing in Denmark and Germany in recent years. The systems usually include interseasonal thermal energy storage for a consistent heat output day to day and between summer and winter. Good examples are in Vojens at 50 MW, Dronninglund at 27 MW and Marstal at 13 MW in Denmark. These systems have been incrementally expanded to supply 10% to 40% of their villages' annual space heating needs. The solar-thermal panels are ground-mounted in fields. The heat storage is pit storage, borehole cluster and the traditional water tank. In Alberta, Canada the Drake Landing Solar Community has achieved a world record 97% annual solar fraction for heating needs, using solar-thermal panels on the garage roofs and thermal storage in a borehole cluster.


title: District heating

text: In Stockholm, the first heat pump was installed in 1977 to deliver district heating sourced from IBM servers. Today the installed capacity is about 660 MW heat, utilizing treated sewage water, sea water, district cooling, data centers and grocery stores as heat sources. Another example is the Drammen Fjernvarme District Heating project in Norway which produces 14 MW from water at just 8 °C, industrial heat pumps are demonstrated heat sources for district heating networks. Among the ways that industrial heat pumps can be utilized are:


title: District heating

text: Concerns have existed about the use of hydrofluorocarbons as the working fluid (refrigerant) for large heat pumps. Whilst leakage is not usually measured, it is generally reported to be relatively low, such as 1% (compared to 25% for supermarket cooling systems). A 30-megawatt heatpump could therefore leak (annually) around 75 kg of R134a or other working fluid. Given the high global warming potential of some HFCs, this could equate to over of car travel per year.


title: District heating

text: However, recent technical advances allow the use of natural heat pump refrigerants that have very low global warming potential (GWP). CO refrigerant (R744, GWP=1) or ammonia (R717, GWP=0) also have the benefit, depending on operating conditions, of resulting in higher heat pump efficiency than conventional refrigerants. An example is a 14 MW(thermal) district heating network in Drammen, Norway, which is supplied by seawater-source heatpumps that use R717 refrigerant, and has been operating since 2011. 90 °C water is delivered to the district loop (and returns at 65 °C). Heat is extracted from seawater (from depth) that is 8 to 9 °C all year round, giving an average coefficient of performance (COP) of about 3.15. In the process the seawater is chilled to 4 °C; however, this resource is not utilized. In a district system where the chilled water could be utilized for air conditioning, the effective COP would be considerably higher.


title: District heating

text: In the future, industrial heat pumps will be further de-carbonised by using, on one side, excess renewable electrical energy (otherwise spilled due to meeting of grid demand) from wind, solar, etc. and, on the other side, by making more of renewable heat sources (lake and ocean heat, geothermal, etc.). Furthermore, higher efficiency can be expected through operation on the high voltage network.


title: District heating

text: Increasingly large heat stores are being used with district heating networks to maximise efficiency and financial returns. This allows cogeneration units to be run at times of maximum electrical tariff, the electrical production having much higher rates of return than heat production, whilst storing the excess heat production. It also allows solar heat to be collected in summer and redistributed off season in very large but relatively low-cost in-ground insulated reservoirs or borehole systems. The expected heat loss at the 203,000m³ insulated pond in Vojens is about 8%.


title: District heating

text: With European countries such as Germany and Denmark moving to very high levels (80% and 100% respectively by 2050) of renewable energy for all energy uses there will be increasing periods of excess production of renewable electrical energy. Heat pumps can take advantage of this surplus of cheap electricity to store heat for later use. Such coupling of the electricity sector with the heating sector (Power-to-X) is regarded as a key factor for energy systems with high shares of renewable energy.


title: District heating

text: After generation, the heat is distributed to the customer via a network of insulated pipes. District heating systems consist of feed and return lines. Usually the pipes are installed underground but there are also systems with overground pipes. Within the system heat storage units may be installed to even out peak load demands.


title: District heating

text: The common medium used for heat distribution is water or superheated water, but steam is also used. The advantage of steam is that in addition to heating purposes it can be used in industrial processes due to its higher temperature. The disadvantage of steam is a higher heat loss due to the high temperature. Also, the thermal efficiency of cogeneration plants is significantly lower if the cooling medium is high-temperature steam, reducing electric power generation. Heat transfer oils are generally not used for district heating, although they have higher heat capacities than water, as they are expensive and have environmental issues.


title: District heating

text: At customer level the heat network is usually connected to the central heating system of the dwellings via heat exchangers (heat substations): the working fluids of both networks (generally water or steam) do not mix. However, direct connection is used in the Odense system.


title: District heating

text: Typical annual loss of thermal energy through distribution is around 10%, as seen in Norway's district heating network.


title: District heating

text: The amount of heat provided to customers is often recorded with a heat meter to encourage conservation and maximize the number of customers which can be served, but such meters are expensive. Due to the expense of heat metering, an alternative approach is simply to meter the water – water meters are much cheaper than heat meters, and have the advantage of encouraging consumers to extract as much heat as possible, leading to a very low return temperature, which increases the efficiency of power generation.


title: District heating

text: Many systems were installed under a socialist economy (such as in the former Eastern Bloc) which lacked heat metering and means to adjust the heat delivery to each apartment. This led to great inefficiencies – users had to simply open windows when too hot – wasting energy and minimising the numbers of connectable customers.


title: District heating

text: District heating systems can vary in size. Some systems cover entire cities such as Stockholm or Flensburg, using a network of large 1000 mm diameter primary pipes linked to secondary pipes – e.g. 200 mm diameter, which in turn link to tertiary pipes that might be of 25 mm diameter which might connect to 10 to 50 houses.


title: District heating

text: Some district heating schemes might only be sized to meet the needs of a small village or area of a city in which case only the secondary and tertiary pipes will be needed.


title: District heating

text: Some schemes may be designed to serve only a limited number of dwellings, of about 20 to 50 houses, in which case only tertiary sized pipes are needed.


title: District heating

text: District heating has various advantages compared to individual heating systems. Usually district heating is more energy efficient, due to simultaneous production of heat and electricity in combined heat and power generation plants. This has the added benefit of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The larger combustion units also have a more advanced flue gas cleaning than single boiler systems. In the case of surplus heat from industries, district heating systems do not use additional fuel because they recover heat which would otherwise be dispersed to the environment.


title: District heating

text: District heating requires a long-term financial commitment that fits poorly with a focus on short-term returns on investment. Benefits to the community include avoided costs of energy through the use of surplus and wasted heat energy, and reduced investment in individual household or building heating equipment. District heating networks, heat-only boiler stations, and cogeneration plants require high initial capital expenditure and financing. Only if considered as long-term investments will these translate into profitable operations for the owners of district heating systems, or combined heat and power plant operators. District heating is less attractive for areas with low population densities, as the investment per household is considerably higher. Also it is less attractive in areas of many small buildings; e.g. detached houses than in areas with a fewer larger buildings; e.g. blocks of flats, because each connection to a single-family house is quite expensive.


title: District heating

text: Individual heating systems can be completely shutdown intermittently according to local heating demand which is not the case with a district heating system.


title: District heating

text: In many cases large combined heat and power district heating schemes are owned by a single entity. This was typically the case in the old Eastern bloc countries. However, for many schemes, the ownership of the cogeneration plant is separate from the heat using part.


title: District heating

text: Examples are Warsaw which has such split ownership with PGNiG Termika owning the cogeneration unit, the Veolia owning 85% of the heat distribution, the rest of the heat distribution is owned by municipality and workers. Similarly all the large CHP/CH schemes in Denmark are of split ownership.


title: District heating

text: Sweden provides an alternative example where the heating market is deregulated. In Sweden it is most common that the ownership of the district heating network is not separated from the ownership of the cogeneration plants, the district cooling network or the centralized heat pumps. There are also examples where the competition has spawned parallel networks and interconnected networks where multiple utilities cooperate.


title: District heating

text: In the United Kingdom there have been complaints that district heating companies have too much of a monopoly and are insufficiently regulated, an issue the industry is aware of, and has taken steps to improve consumer experience through the use of customer charters as set out by the Heat Trust. Some customers are taking legal action against the supplier for Misrepresentation & Unfair Trading, claiming district Heating is not delivering the savings promised by many heat suppliers.


title: District heating

text: Since conditions from city to city differ, every district heating system is unique. In addition, nations have different access to primary energy carriers and so they have a different approach on how to address heating markets within their borders.


title: District heating

text: Since 1954, district heating has been promoted in Europe by Euroheat & Power. They have compiled an analysis of district heating and cooling markets in Europe within their Ecoheatcool project supported by the European Commission. A separate study, entitled Heat Roadmap Europe, has indicated that district heating can reduce the price of energy in the European Union between now and 2050. The legal framework in the member states of the European Union is currently influenced by the EU's CHP Directive.