title: Earth mass

text: Henry Cavendish (1798) was the first to attempt to measure the gravitational attraction between two bodies directly in the laboratory. Earth's mass could be then found by combining two equations; Newton's second law, and Newton's law of universal gravitation.


title: Earth mass

text: In modern notation, the mass of the Earth is derived from the gravitational constant and the mean Earth radius by


title: Earth mass

text: While the mass of the Earth is implied by stating the Earth's radius and density, it was not usual to state the absolute mass explicitly prior to the introduction of scientific notation using powers of 10 in the later 19th century, because the absolute numbers would have been too awkward. Ritchie (1850) gives the mass of the Earth's atmosphere as "11,456,688,186,392,473,000 lbs." ( = , modern value is ) and states that "compared with the weight of the globe this mighty sum dwindles to insignificance".


title: Earth mass

text: Absolute figures for the mass of the Earth are cited only beginning in the second half of the 19th century, mostly in popular rather than expert literature. An early such figure was given as "14 septillion pounds" ("14 Quadrillionen Pfund") [] in Masius (1859). Beckett (1871) cites the "weight of the earth" as "5842 quintillion tons" []. The "mass of the earth in gravitational measure" is stated as "9.81996×6370980" in "The New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica" (Vol. 25, 1902) with a "logarithm of earth's mass" given as "14.600522" []. This is the gravitational parameter in m·s (modern value ) and not the absolute mass.


title: Earth mass

text: Experiments involving pendulums continued to be performed in the first half of the 19th century. By the second half of the century, these were outperformed by repetitions of the Cavendish experiment, and the modern value of (and hence, of the Earth mass) is still derived from high-precision repetitions of the Cavendish experiment.


title: Earth mass

text: In 1821, Francesco Carlini determined a density value of ρ = through measurements made with pendulums in the Milan area. This value was refined in 1827 by Edward Sabine to , and then in 1841 by Carlo Ignazio Giulio to . On the other hand, George Biddell Airy sought to determine ρ by measuring the difference in the period of a pendulum between the surface and the bottom of a mine.


title: Earth mass

text: The first tests took place in Cornwall between 1826 and 1828. The experiment was a failure due to a fire and a flood. Finally, in 1854, Airy got the value by measurements in a coal mine in Harton, Sunderland. Airy's method assumed that the Earth had a spherical stratification. Later, in 1883, the experiments conducted by Robert von Sterneck (1839 to 1910) at different depths in mines of Saxony and Bohemia provided the average density values ρ between 5.0 and . This led to the concept of isostasy, which limits the ability to accurately measure ρ, by either the deviation from vertical of a plumb line or using pendulums. Despite the little chance of an accurate estimate of the average density of the Earth in this way, Thomas Corwin Mendenhall in 1880 realized a gravimetry experiment in Tokyo and at the top of Mount Fuji. The result was ρ = .


title: Earth mass

text: The uncertainty in the modern value for the Earth's mass has been entirely due to the uncertainty in the gravitational constant "G" since at least the 1960s. "G" is notoriously difficult to measure, and some high-precision measurements during the 1980s to 2010s have yielded mutually exclusive results. Sagitov (1969) based on the measurement of "G" by Heyl and Chrzanowski (1942) cited a value of (relative uncertainty ).


title: Earth mass

text: Accuracy has improved only slightly since then. Most modern measurements are repetitions of the Cavendish experiment, with results (within standard uncertainty) ranging between 6.672 and 6.676 ×10 m / kg / s (relative uncertainty 3×10) in results reported since the 1980s, although the 2014 NIST recommended value is close to 6.674×10  m / kg / s with a relative uncertainty below 10. The "Astronomical Almanach Online" as of 2016 recommends a standard uncertainty of for Earth mass,


title: Earth mass

text: Earth's mass is variable, subject to both gain and loss due to the accretion of in-falling material, including micrometeorites and cosmic dust and the loss of hydrogen and helium gas, respectively. The combined effect is a net loss of material, estimated at per year. This amount is of the total earth mass. The annual net loss is essentially due to 100,000 tons lost due to atmospheric escape, and an average of 45,000 tons gained from in-falling dust and meteorites. This is well within the mass uncertainty of 0.01% (), so the estimated value of Earth's mass is unaffected by this factor.


title: Earth mass

text: Mass loss is due to atmospheric escape of gases. About 95,000 tons of hydrogen per year () and 1,600 tons of helium per year are lost through atmospheric escape. The main factor in mass gain is in-falling material, cosmic dust, meteors, etc. are the most significant contributors to Earth's increase in mass. The sum of material is estimated to be annually, although this can vary significantly; to take an extreme example, the Chicxulub impactor, with a midpoint mass estimate of , added 900 million times that annual dustfall amount to the Earth's mass in a single event.


title: Earth mass

text: Additional changes in mass are due to the mass–energy equivalence principle, although these changes are relatively negligible. Mass loss due to the combination of nuclear fission and natural radioactive decay is estimated to amount to 16 tons per year.


title: Earth mass

text: An additional loss due to spacecraft on escape trajectories has been estimated at since the mid-20th century. Earth lost about 3473 tons in the initial 53 years of the space age, but the trend is currently decreasing.


title: Early access

text: Early access, also known as alpha access, alpha founding, paid alpha, or game preview, is a funding model in the video game industry by which consumers can purchase and play a game in the various pre-release development cycles, such as pre-alpha, alpha, and/or beta, while the developer is able to use those funds to continue further development on the game. Those that pay to participate typically help to debug the game, provide feedback and suggestions, may have access to special materials in the game. The early-access approach is a common way to obtain funding for indie games, and may also be used along with other funding mechanisms, including crowdfunding. Many crowdfunding projects promise to offer access to alpha and/or beta versions of the game as development progresses; however, unlike some of these projects which solicit funds but do not yet have a playable game, all early access games offer an immediately playable version of the unfinished game to players.


title: Early access

text: Traditionally, game publishers do not release unfinished versions of their products to the public, instead relying on in-house testing non-disclosure agreements. This prevents such versions from becoming the target of software piracy, and limits what information can potentially be shared with competitors. As such, publishers will fund the full development of a game through its completion, but will be less willing to take risks on experimental titles. In some cases, publishers have found ways to allow players to win or buy into access into a game's beta state in a controlled environment. For example, an invitation to the beta version of the multiplayer portion of "Halo 3" was bundled with the game "Crackdown", contributing to the latter's strong sales.


title: Early access

text: For indie games, which are typically distributed without a publisher, the source of funding for development is not as readily available. Many smaller indie companies use personal funds, while larger ones may get investments from other sources, and more recently crowdfunding programs such as Kickstarter or Patreon proven viable for both. Another difficulty for indie developers is the means of testing their games prior to release, lacking the resources of a publisher and not obtaining enough feedback prior to release.


title: Early access

text: The concept of early access helps to alleviate both problems. Early access to a game is typically offered when the game is in a playable state but may not be feature-complete, or may still have several software bugs to be found. Often these games are considered at alpha or beta releases, and may be months or years from anticipated completion. Interested players are able to buy into the development of the game, gaining access to the software in the working state, and are encouraged to play and stress-test the software. Their feedback can help the developer tune the game's direction, art, and software mechanics in anticipation of a final release. Once the game is released, the player either continues to have access to the software or is rewarded with a means to obtain the final release of the title and other extras, such as sounds, their name in the game's credits, or other rewards. These players help fund the game to completion, but take a risk that the game may never reach a final release. A further benefit can come from preliminary word-of-mouth of a game in an early access state. As players are typically not limited by confidentiality agreements to participate in early access, these players can provide reviews on social media, or play the game on streaming broadcasts, which subsequently can stimulate interest in the title.


title: Early access

text: One of the best-known early examples of this model is "Minecraft". The game's development began in 2009 by Markus Persson initially for internet browsers that he developed alongside his full-time job. The alpha-version game proved popular enough that within the month of release, Persson added a means by which players could pay 10 euros (approximately 15) to access the game, allowing him to continue its development. As sales of the game increased, he was able to quit his job about eight months later to work on the game full-time, founding Mojang to bring on a larger development team. "Minecraft" continued to offer early access throughout its development period, assuring those that bought into it would receive the final version for free, which happened in November 2011. Prior to this, nearly two million players had purchased into the alpha- and beta-stage releases, with over $33 million raised from these early sales. "Minecraft"s success led to the early access approach becoming a popular way to publishing indie titles.


title: Early access

text: To help early access, some digital distribution storefronts have provided the sales and distribution mechanisms for developers to use to offer their titles under early access. While these stores take a small fraction of the sales for the service, they also handle complex issues with payments through credit card and services like PayPal, bandwidth for delivering software, redemption of keys for other digital storefronts, and promotion within the storefront. The digital storefront Desura launched an alpha-funding initiative in 2011 to help indie developers promote upcoming titles. Valve added an early access to Steam in March 2013, allowing developers to take advantage of the Steam storefront and the Steamworks API. The storefront GOG.com began an early access program, "Games in Development" similar to Steam's in January 2016, but staying true to their storefront's philosophy, maintaining digital rights management-free titles and providing more curation to vet the titles using the service. GOG further implemented a 14-day, no-questions-asked refund policy for early access titles, which removes some of the risk for the potential buyer. itch.io introduced its Refinery early-access program in May 2016, which allowed developers to choose from other early-access models, including limited-user alphas and by-invite-only betas.


title: Early access

text: The Humble Bundle group has created a Humble Store that also provides storefront and distribution methods for indie gamers that wish to sell early access to games, and for developers looking to get on Steam, offers the ability to provide Steam redemption keys once these titles are listed at the storefront, while also incorporating a method to allow players to pay or tip the developer in addition to the base cost.


title: Early access

text: Video game console makers have also looked to the success of early access and have created their own similar programs for their consoles' users. Sony Computer Entertainment stated in July 2014 that they considering creating an early access program for independent PlayStation 4 developers following the Steam model, and launched this approach in September 2015 with the game "Dungeon Defenders II". Microsoft similarly started the Xbox Game Preview program in June 2015 for those users involved with the dashboard preview of the Xbox One console with plans to expand it fully to all users on both Xbox One and Windows 10; the Xbox Game Preview program differs from other approaches as the early access titles include a free game demo at the current state of development to give players a chance to test the game before buying. This service was launched with the early access titles "The Long Dark" and "Elite Dangerous". Google offers a similar Early Access program for the Google Play store for Android devices, starting in mid-2016.


title: Early access

text: Though most titles that use early access are from independent developers, some AAA developers have used an early access approach to augment their normal development cycles. Codemasters used Steam's Early Access to help develop "Dirt Rally"; at a point where they had to make a go or no-go decision on whether to proceed with full development of a niche racing title, the company opted to use early access to offer a polished version of the game still in development to meter interest and gain feedback from players, correcting issues that players had had with previous titles in their series. After about a year, Codemasters was confident to proceed to complete the game and producing console versions of it with their publisher alongside the personal computer version. Ubisoft used early access to help complete "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Phantoms" (previously named "Ghost Recon Online") after the primary development work was complete, incorporating player response to fine-tune the final game.


title: Early access

text: Early access is often tied in with other means of funding. Games that have used Kickstarter or other crowdfunding mechanisms often include early access to backers, and later allow those that did not participate in the funding to buy into that early access, which helps to provide additional funds for further expansion. The term may also be used in a derogatory way to describe games released to the public at large under the presumption they were completed games, but still required a high degree of patching or updates to resolve large numbers of software bugs or to add features missing at launch, even if this was not the intent of the developer or publisher. Full release games such as "No Man's Sky", "", and "Sea of Thieves" have been negatively labeled by critics as "early access" in this manner.


title: Early access

text: For games that expect to be released as free-to-play with in-game monetization, developers and publishers frequently offer a paid-for "founders" package that gives players early access to the game, including in-game currency, special equipment or other items that mark them as founders they can use after the game's full release, and other benefits; further, any progress made during this period is retained when the game leaves early access, giving such players a head start over newer players. This approach has been used for games such as "Paragon", "Dauntless", and "".


title: Early access

text: The "Steam Early Access" release service (run by Valve), makes use of proprietary Steam software for sales and distribution. The program launched on March 20, 2013, and initially made 12 games available. Before the games are released, the developers solicit feedback from Steam Early Access purchasers (who have contributed funds to the game's creation), to provide the needed input. After its release, Valve planned to have titles taken from their Steam Greenlight program added to Steam Early Access, as well as adding titles which have already been accepted through Steam Greenlight.


title: Early access

text: In addition to "Minecraft", the following is a partial list of games that have been considered successful uses of the early access approach:


title: Early access

text: There have been some notable examples of failures of the early access approach. The game "Earth: Year 2066" was placed on Steam's early access with numerous promised features, but found by those that purchased the title that the game has numerous programming bugs making it unplayable, that it failed to approach its promises on the product page and used a number of assets from the commercial game engine. Many users, including Jim Sterling of "The Escapist", called out on both its developer Killing Day Studios for abusing the early access program and for Valve to remove the title for fraudulently representing gameplay. Valve subsequently removed the title and refunded money, noting that while developers using early access have the right to promote and set the pricing for their games, "Steam does require honesty from developers in the marketing of their games".


title: Early access

text: Another example is the "Spacebase DF-9"; while the development team from Double Fine had laid out plans for several features and gameplay improvements over time, Double Fine opted to end its full-time development, completing its early access and releasing a final product that while fully playable lacked many of the planned features; the company will continue to fix critical bugs with the game and will include support for user modifications via Steam's Workshop channel but will not create any new content for the game itself, disappointing many players of the game that were looking forwards to these planned features. Shortly after the release of 1.0 twelve employees were laid off including the programmer and project lead JP LeBreton. Later on the Double Fine forums it was announced that there were no further plans for patches and there was no team assigned to the project leaving Steam Workshop integration in limbo. Double Fine's Tim Schafer stated that they opted for this solution as while "DF-9" represented their first experiment with the early access approach, they had reached a point where the amount of money earned from sales of the game in early access were not covering the production costs, and the timeline to reach the planned goals would have been several years down the road.


title: Early access

text: Video game critics have generally developed policies to avoid doing final, scored reviews for games in early access, instead offering interim commentary on the game. "Polygon" states they feel that they should provide consumer commentary on any product that is being sold to consumers, but recognize that early access titles are still in-progress works and thus will handle these in a different manner than their normal product reviews. "Eurogamer", as part of an updated review policy, will only formally review retail versions of games after their release, though may give initial impressions of games still in early access development.


title: Early access

text: Games still in early access have generally not been considered for the industry's top awards, since they have technically not yet been published yet and received in-depth critical reviews. However, the question of whether early access games can qualify for these awards was raised in 2017 when "PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds" was nominated for several awards including Game of the Year for The Game Awards; at the time, "Battlegrounds" was nearing its first non-early access release, but had yet to officially publish outside it. "Gamasutra" considered the concept of early access, particularly Steam's approach, as one of the five trends in 2013 that defined the direction that the video game industry was headed.


title: Early access

text: The early access approach has been criticized by some; as noted by Ben Kurchera of "Polygon" stated that the early access model validates the use of unfinished games as a "valid business strategy". While those that buy into the early access do get an incomplete game to play, test out, and provide input to the developers, these people also run the risk that the game will never be completed or may be a sub-par product. A study using Steam's Early Access as of November 2014 found that only 25% of the titles submitted as early access had made it to a final release form. Sergey Galyonkin, the creator of the Steam Spy tool to estimate sales of games through Steam profiles, identified that contrary to popular belief, early access titles only gain one major sales boost - when the game is first released in early access on Steam - as opposed to having a second sales boost once the game leaves early access.


title: Early access

text: Another concern related to early access is how long the title spends in that state. Most successful titles that have used early access typical remained in early access for about one year before a full release. Some have stayed in an early access state for multiple years, such as "Kerbal Space Program" and "DayZ", and others have remained in a perpetual early access state, like "Star Citizen". Consumers do not necessarily have assurance of when the early access period will be done, or if it will ever be considered complete.


title: Early access

text: Due to some early access failures, such as "Spacebase DF-9", by 2014 early access has gained a negative connotation, as games do not have the quality assurances of complete titles, and in the case of Steam's Early Access, the lack of curating and testing by Steam to make sure the games are representative of the storefront's description. Some players also worry about the "double dip" effect, in which a game may be promoted twice, first through its introduction on early access, and then on its subsequent full release. In November 2014, Valve updated its early access rules for developers to address concerns that had been raised. Among these include the statement that games on early access should be in a playable alpha or beta state, there are clear expectations of what the final product of the game will be like, and that the developer intends to continue work on the game, and can be financial stable to ultimately release a finished product. Since 2014, early access has regained more acceptance as developers better tailor projects for release in this manner, typically by creating sufficient foundation for game to have its planned an entertainment factor and technical stability, and using early access to gradually release additional content and observe and adjust to emergent ideas that come from the early access player base.


title: Early access

text: Other games have been considered by commentators to have used the early access approach well in light of the above concerns, typically bringing near-finished products with frequent and continual content updates and direct interaction between developer and players to improve the product before its final release. Games with roguelike features appear well suited to take advantage of early access, allowing the developers to tweak the procedural generation systems with player feedback. Several titles that have used Steam's Early Access in such a manner include "Invisible, Inc.", "Nuclear Throne", "Armello", "Broforce", "Prison Architect", "Darkest Dungeon", "Besiege", "Infinifactory", "Subnautica", and "". This also helps in combination with early access games that gain popularity through streaming channels, as the developers not only get increased awareness of the game but can gain direct feedback from the streamer and their audience on game balance and improvement, such as reported by the developers for "Hades", "Slay the Spire", and "Risk of Rain 2".


title: Miracast

text: Miracast (also called screen mirroring and wireless display among other names on consumer devices) is a standard for wireless connections from sending devices (such as laptops, tablets, or smartphones) to display receivers (such as TVs, monitors, or projectors), introduced in 2012 by the Wi-Fi Alliance. It can roughly be described as "HDMI over Wi-Fi", replacing the cable from the device to the display.


title: Miracast

text: The Wi-Fi Alliance launched the Miracast certification program at the end of 2012. Devices that are Miracast-certified can communicate with each other, regardless of manufacturer. Adapters became available that may be plugged either into HDMI or USB ports, allowing devices without built-in Miracast support to connect via Miracast. In 2013, Nvidia announced support for Miracast. In 2017, Wi-Fi Alliance stated Miracast as a use for Wi-Fi Direct.


title: Miracast

text: Miracast is based on the peer-to-peer Wi-Fi Direct standard. It allows sending up to 1080p HD video (H.264 codec) and 5.1 surround sound (AAC and AC3 are optional codecs, mandated codec is linear pulse-code modulation16 bits 48 kHz 2 channels). The connection is created via WPS and therefore is secured with WPA2. IPv4 is used on the Internet layer. On the transport layer, TCP or UDP are used. On the application layer, the stream is initiated and controlled via RTSP, RTP for the data transfer.


title: Miracast

text: Nvidia announced support in 2012 for their Tegra 3 platform, and Freescale Semiconductor, Texas Instruments, Qualcomm, Marvell Technology Group and other chip vendors have also announced their plans to support it. Actiontec Electronics also supports Miracast with its line of ScreenBeam products.


title: Miracast

text: Both devices (the sender and the receiver) need to be Miracast certified for the technology to work. However, to stream music and movies to a non-certified device, Miracast adapters are available that plug into HDMI or USB ports.


title: Miracast

text: On 29 October 2012, Google announced that Android version 4.2+ (from an updated version of Jelly Bean) supports the Miracast wireless display standard, and by default have it integrated. With Android 6.0 Marshmallow, released in 2015, Miracast support was dropped. Despite this, there are still Miracast apps for Android available.


title: Miracast

text: As of 8 January 2013, the LG Nexus 4 and Sony's Xperia Z, ZL, T and V officially supported the function, as did HTC One, Motorola in their Droid Maxx and Droid Ultra flagships, and Samsung in its Galaxy S III and Galaxy Note II under the moniker "AllShare Cast". The Galaxy S4 uses Samsung Link for its implementation.


title: Miracast

text: In October 2013, BlackBerry released its 10.2.1 update to most of the existing BlackBerry 10 devices available at that time. As of March 2015, the BlackBerry Q10, Q5, Z30, and later models support Miracast streaming; the BlackBerry Z10 does not support Miracast, due to hardware limitations.


title: Miracast

text: Microsoft also added support for Miracast in Windows 8.1 (announced in June 2013) and Windows 10. This functionality first became available in the Windows 8.1 Preview, and is available on hardware with supported Miracast drivers from hardware (GPU) manufacturers such as those listed above.


title: Miracast

text: On 28 July 2013, Google announced the availability of the Chromecast powered by a Marvell DE3005-A1, but despite the similarity in name and Google's early support of Miracast in Android, the Chromecast does not support Miracast.


title: Miracast

text: On 23 September 2014, Microsoft announced the Microsoft Wireless Display Adaptor, a USB-powered HDMI dongle for high definition televisions.


title: Miracast

text: The technology was promoted to work across devices, regardless of brand. Miracast devices negotiate settings for each connection, which simplifies the process for the users. In particular, it obviates having to worry about format or codec details. Miracast is "effectively a wireless HDMI cable, copying everything from one screen to another using the H.264 codec and its own digital rights management (DRM) layer emulating the HDMI system". The Wi-Fi Alliance suggested that Miracast could also be used by a set-top box wanting to stream content to a TV or tablet.


title: Miracast

text: Miracast can stream videos that are in 1080p, media with DRM such as DVDs, as well as protected premium content streaming, enabling devices to stream feature films and other copy-protected materials. This is accomplished by using a Wi-Fi version of the same trusted content mechanisms used on cable-based HDMI and DisplayPort connections.


title: Miracast

text: Mandatory: ITU-T H.264 (Advanced Video Coding [AVC]) for HD and Ultra HD video; supports several profiles in transcoding and non-transcoding modes, including Constrained Baseline Profile (CBP), at levels ranging from 3.1 to 5.2


title: Miracast

text: Optional: ITU-T H.265 (High-Efficiency Video Coding [HEVC]) for HD and Ultra HD video; supports several profiles in transcoding and non-transcoding modes, including Main Profile, Main 444, SCC-8 bit 444, Main 444 10, at levels ranging from 3.1 to 5.1


title: Miracast

text: Certification does not mandate a maximum latency (i.e. the time between the display of pictures on the source and display of the mirrored image on the sync display). Even with certification, it is possible an underpowered device will be constrained in performance or bandwidth. Also, as a certified hardware standard, Miracast device support is 100% OEM determined. A software, firmware or OS update doesn't grant Miracast on uncertified hardware, even if the minimum requirements are met. (ex: Apple MacBooks, even with compatible Intel Core processors and Wi-Fi support that would be able to do Miracast if they were using Windows, either natively or under BootCamp, are not supported.)


title: Miracast

text: It was a feature of Android KitKat, support in Android was dropped in 2015, and "Computerworld" observed that "Miracast never quite caught on as a standard".


title: Miracast

text: Windows 10 and Windows 11 support Miracast transmitting along with User Input Back Channel (UIBC) support to allow for human interface devices (touch screens, mouse, keyboard) to also have wireless connectivity (provided the host hardware also supports this). The transmit feature is built-in from launch for all Miracast devices with no additional setup past using the WIN+K keystroke to pair with a compatible display sink (including Microsoft's own Wireless Display Adapter). Since Version 2004 was released a user needs to add "Wireless Display" as a optional Windows add-in feature in the Settings app to have a device receive video as a Miracast display sink on compatible hardware (using the UWP-based "Connect" app). Windows 11 has the "Connect" app only as an optional add-in since RTM launch. Windows 8.1 supports broadcasting/sending the screen via Miracast. Miracast is also built into Windows Phone 8.1. Developers can also implement Miracast on top of the built-in Wi-Fi Direct support in Windows 7 and Windows 8. Another way to support Miracast in Windows is with Intel's proprietary WiDi (v3.5 or higher). A software-based Miracast receiver for Windows 8.1, AirServer Universal, was made available on 31 October 2014 by App Dynamic.


title: Miracast

text: Apple does not support the Miracast standard on iOS or macOS, instead using its own proprietary peer-to-peer AirPlay protocol.


title: Miracast

text: GNOME Network Displays is an experimental Miracast implementation for Linux. Despite its name, it should work on all Linux desktop environments. It provides a GUI and should work out of the box for most Miracast devices.


title: Miracast

text: Miracast support was built into stock Android as of version 4.2 (Android Jelly Bean) and starting with Android 4.4, devices could be certified to the Wi-Fi Alliance Display Specification as Miracast compatible. Since Android 6.0 Marshmallow released in 2015, Google dropped Miracast support in favor of their own proprietary Google Cast protocol. However, some manufacturers of Android devices step in and support Miracast through their customized versions of Android (for example: Smart View on Samsung's One UI, Cast on Xiaomi's MIUI, Screencast on Oppo's ColorOS, Wireless Projection on Huawei's EMUI, HTC Sense, LG UX, Asus ZenUI, Sony Xperia devices, OnePlus's OxygenOS etc.). The performance quality of the streamed video is dependent on the device's hardware.


title: Miracast

text: Nokia devices, which ran a near-stock version of Android, originally did not support Miracast. However, Nokia 7 Plus, 8, 8 Sirocco, and 8.1 smartphones that have been upgraded to Android 9 or 10 are able to support Miracast, after enabling Wireless Display Certification in Developer Options. Devices such as Nokia 2.3, 2.4, 3.4, 5.4, and 8.3 5G have Miracast support enabled by default.


title: Computer language

text: A computer language is a formal language used to communicate with a computer. Types of computer languages include:


title: Rocket Lab

text: Rocket Lab is a public American aerospace manufacturer and launch service provider, with a New Zealand subsidiary. The company operates lightweight Electron orbital rockets, which provide dedicated launches for small satellites. Rocket Lab also plans to build a larger Neutron rocket as early as 2024. Electron rockets have launched 26 times from either Rocket Lab's Launch Complex 1 in New Zealand or the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport in the United States. Two attempts have been made at recovery of the Electron booster. As of 2022, Rocket Lab is developing the bigger Neutron reusable unibody rocket; Photon satellite buses; and Rutherford, Curie, HyperCurie, and Archimedes rocket engines.


title: Rocket Lab

text: The company was founded in New Zealand in 2006. By 2009, the successful launch of Ātea-1 made Rocket Lab the first private company in the Southern Hemisphere to reach space. The company then established a headquarter in California in 2013 and developed the expendable Electron rocket. The first launch of the rocket took place in May 2017. In August 2021, Rocket Lab became a public company, listed on the Nasdaq stock exchange through a SPAC merger. In May 2022, after four years of development, the Electron booster attempted recovery by a helicopter.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Rocket Lab also builds and operates satellites for the Space Development Agency, a space-based missile defense program of the United States founded by Rocket Lab board member Michael D. Griffin. Rocket Lab's participation drew controversy in New Zealand, where members of parliament noted the company is contributing to the "weaponization of space" and could be in violation of New Zealand's nuclear-free zone laws.


title: Rocket Lab

text: The Union of Concerned Scientists warns SDA will escalate global tensions and called the project "fundamentally destabilizing".


title: Rocket Lab

text: Rocket Lab was founded in June 2006 by Peter Beck from New Zealand, after a trip to the United States. While contacting potential investors, he met Mark Rocket, who would become a key seed investor to Rocket Lab and was co-Director from 2007 to 2011. Other investors to the company includes Stephen Tindall, Vinod Khosla, and the New Zealand Government.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Rocket Lab became the first private company in the Southern Hemisphere to reach space after launching its Ātea-1 sounding rocket in November 2009. The payload was not recovered, as it was deemed to be unnecessary. The payload was a ballistic instrumentation dart and its trajectory depended only on the boost phase of flight. The launch took place off the coast of New Zealand, from the private island (the Great Mercury Island) of Michael Fay, a New Zealand banker and Rocket Lab investor. A second early investor was Stephen Tindall, a New Zealand entrepreneur.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In December 2010, Rocket Lab was awarded a U.S. government contract from the Operationally Responsive Space Office (ORS) to study a low cost space launcher to place CubeSats into orbit. The agreement with NASA enabled the company to contract for limited NASA resources such as personnel, facilities, and equipment for commercial launch efforts.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Around 2013, the company moved its registration from New Zealand to the United States, and opened headquarters in Huntington Beach, California. The move coincided with the company receiving funding from American sources, and was in part due to increased U.S. government involvement in the company. In 2020, Rocket Lab moved its headquarters to Long Beach, California.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In 2013, additional funding was obtained from Khosla Ventures, and Callaghan Innovation (a Crown entity of New Zealand). Bessemer Venture Partners invested in 2014 and Lockheed Martin became a strategic investor in 2015. Rocket Lab announced in March 2017 that it had raised an additional US$75 million in a Series D equity round led by Data Collective with participation by Matthew Brown Companies and Promus Ventures as well as several previous investors. In May 2017, the investments of Callaghan Innovation was reported to total NZ$15 million. In November 2018, the company reported raising a US$150 million Series E round led by Future Fund. The first NASA mission, launched in 2018, was valued by the space agency at US$6.9 million (with launch services, etc., included).


title: Rocket Lab

text: In 2018, Rocket Lab began to develop reusable first-stage technology, after previously stating publicly that they had no intention of attempting to recover and then reuse their small low-cost launch vehicles. They disclosed the effort to study the potential recovery of an Electron first stage in August 2019, aiming to use a parachute and mid-air retrieval, with a goal of a stage recovery attempt before mid-2020. In December 2019, they flight tested the reentry technology — a Rocket Lab proprietary aerothermal decelerator — on Electron flight number 10, and were able to decelerate the rocket and successfully bring it through the space-to-dense-atmosphere transition. They did not attempt to recover the rocket on this first test; but they planned to add guided parachutes to future test flights, to recover the booster by snagging the rocket with a helicopter in the lower atmosphere.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In March 2020, the company announced that it had acquired Sinclair Interplanetary, a Canadian manufacturer of components for small satellites. Rocket Lab said that it will use Sinclair technology on its Photon line of small satellite buses, and that it would help Sinclair increase production of small satellite components for sale to other firms. Since then, Rocket Lab has launched a variety of missions with some or all of the payload being made by Sinclair Interplanetary.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In March 2021, the company announced that it was planning to go public through an initial public offering (IPO) of stock in the second quarter of 2021. The company planned to accomplish the IPO through a merger with a special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC) called Vector Acquisition Corporation (VACQ). The deal had been rumored and some details of the impending deal had leaked out the previous day in New Zealand news outlets. The merger was planned to value Rocket Lab at US$4.1 billion and provide the company with US$790 million in working capital in order to begin development of a new medium-lift two-stage-to-orbit launch vehicle called "Neutron", aiming for the mega-constellation satellite deployment market. Neutron was planned to be partially reusable with the booster stage returning to land on an ocean platform, to be refurbished and launched again.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Rocket Lab began trading on the Nasdaq on 25 August 2021 after it merged with SPAC Vector Acquisition, which valued Rocket Lab at $4.8 billion in equity, and the transaction added $777 million in gross cash proceeds. At the time of going public, Rocket Lab had over 500 employees and it had launched 105 satellites into orbit up to that point in time. Rocket Lab's launch business booked revenues of $13.5 million in 2018, $48 million in 2019 and an estimated $33 million in 2020. Rocket Lab expects to spend about $200 million of the cash gained from going public to develop its next-generation rocket Neutron. Rocket Lab aims to launch Neutron for the first time by 2024.


title: Rocket Lab

text: As of August 2021, Rocket Lab intended to build a new factory in the U.S. to build the rockets as well as new launch infrastructure for Neutron at the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport in Virginia. In October 2021, the company acquired Advanced Solutions, Inc (ASI), a Colorado-based spacecraft flight software company. In November 2021, the company acquired Planetary Systems Corporation (PSC), a manufacturer of satellite separation systems for $81.4 million. In January 2022, the company acquired SolAero, a supplier of space solar power products.


title: Rocket Lab

text: On May 3, 2022, the company launched its Electron rocket from New Zealand, hoping to recover it for the first time. It was able to capture the falling rocket booster in mid air, a historic first. Beck later said that the booster was hanging improperly, so it was allowed to parachute into the water where it was pulled out by a ship.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In August 2022, Rocket Lab revealed plans to become the first private company to reach Venus. The company is building a small probe, called the Venus Life Finder (VLF), with the ability to fly through Venus's upper atmosphere for roughly five minutes between 29 and 37 miles above the planets' surface. The target launch date aboard the Electron rocket is May 2023 with the goal of reaching Venus in October.


title: Rocket Lab

text: The first launch of the "Ātea" (Māori for "space") sub-orbital sounding rocket occurred in late 2009. The of long rocket weighing was designed to carry a payload to an altitude of . It was intended to carry scientific payloads or possibly personal items. A project for "Ātea-2" was developed, but never launched.


title: Rocket Lab

text: "Ātea-1", named "Manu Karere" or "Bird Messenger" by the local Māori iwi, was successfully launched from Great Mercury Island near the Coromandel Peninsula on 30 November 2009 at 01:23 UTC (14:23 local time) after fueling problems delayed the scheduled 20:10 UTC (07:10 local time) liftoff. The rocket was tracked by GPS uplink to the Inmarsat-B satellite constellation; it splashed down approximately downrange. The payload had no telemetry downlink, but had instrumentation including the launch vehicle's uplink to Inmarsat. Payload was not required to be recovered, being only a dart, and the company advised that should it be encountered by vessels at sea, the payload should not be handled as it was "potentially hazardous" and contained delicate instruments. However, performance characteristics were completely determined by the boost stage, which did have downlink telemetry and was recovered. A second launch of Ātea-1 was not attempted.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Electron is a two-stage launch vehicle which uses Rocket Lab's Rutherford liquid engines on both stages. The vehicle is capable of delivering payloads of 150 kg to a 500 km Sun-synchronous orbit, the target range for the growing small satellite market. The projected cost is less than US$5 million per launch.


title: Rocket Lab

text: The Rutherford engine uses pumps that are uniquely driven by battery-powered electric motors rather than a gas generator, expander, or preburner. The engine is fabricated largely by 3D printing, via electron beam melting, whereby layers of metal powder are melted in a high vacuum by an electron beam rather than a laser. By March 2016, the second-stage Rutherford engine had completed firing tests. The first test flight took place on 25 May 2017 at 04:20 UTC from Māhia Peninsula in New Zealand's North Island. After reaching an altitude of about , the rocket was performing nominally but telemetry was lost so the decision to destroy it was made by range safety.


title: Rocket Lab

text: On 21 January 2018 at 01:43 UTC, their second rocket, on a flight named "Still Testing", launched, reached orbit and deployed three CubeSats for customers Planet Labs and Spire Global. The rocket also carried an additional satellite payload called "Humanity Star", a of wide carbon fibre geodesic sphere made up of 65 panels that reflect the Sun's light. "Humanity Star" re-entered Earth's atmosphere and burned up in March 2018. On 11 November 2018, the first commercial launch (third launch in total) of Electron occurred from Māhia Peninsula carrying satellites for Spire Global, GeoOptics, a CubeSat built by high school students, and a prototype of a dragsail.


title: Rocket Lab

text: On 4 July 2020, an issue during the second-stage burn of flight 13, named "Pics or It Didn't Happen", caused Electron to fail to get into orbit and its payloads were lost. On 19 November 2020, a successful launch mission named "Return to Sender" deployed its payload of 29 small sats into orbit. In addition to satellite deployment, a new method of the first stage recovery was successfully implemented. "After stage separation, the first stage will reorient itself for reentry, then deploy a drogue parachute and a larger main parachute before splashing down in the Pacific Ocean about 400 kilometers from the launch site". On 15 May 2021, the company launched the mission "Running Out Of Toes" which successfully utilized the first stage recovery method like the one used on "Return to Sender". However, the rocket failed to place its payload of two BlackSky satellites into orbit after an issue occurred with the second stage. On 15 September 2022, Rocket Lab launched "The Owl Spreads Its Wings" mission, sending a radar satellite into Earth orbit.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Rocket Lab announced in March 2021 that they were developing a new medium-lift two-stage human rated launch vehicle called "Neutron", capable of launching an payload to low Earth orbit. The rocket is expected to be tall with a -diameter fairing. Rocket Lab have said they are going to aim to make the first stage of the vehicle reusable with landings planned on a floating landing platform downrange in the ocean. During a Q&A with space and rocket communicator Scott Manley, Peter Beck indicated a preference to avoid fixed assets like landing barges indicating design work proceeded on the basis that the Neutron would return for landing.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Neutron launches are intended to take place from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport on the eastern coast of Virginia, by modifying the existing launch pad infrastructure at Launch Pad 0A (LP-0A). In March 2022, Rocket Lab announced that Neutron will be built at a facility adjacent to Launch Complex 2 at the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (being used for Electron launches). Ground was broken for this facility on April 11, 2022. As of March 2021, the company is planning for the first launch no earlier than 2024.


title: Rocket Lab

text: Based on Rocket Lab's Electron kick stage, Photon is a satellite bus. It uses the company's Curie engine and communicates on S-band. Depending on the orbital inclination (37° to Sun-synchronous orbit), it is expected to have a maximum payload capacity of . In October 2019, Rocket Lab announced plans to use Photon to launch small payloads into lunar orbit as soon as fourth quarter 2020. A modified version of Photon would have bigger propellant tanks and the HyperCurie engine for interplanetary missions. The low Earth orbit version of Photon can take to Sun-synchronous orbit. The interplanetary version will have a payload capacity. HyperCurie is an evolution of the Curie engine, which comes in a monopropellant version and a bipropellant version, while the HyperCurie is a hypergolic version. HyperCurie is electrically pumped.


title: Rocket Lab

text: The first satellite to use the Photon bus (or a demo-version of it) was Photon Pathfinder, Rocket Lab's first in-house designed and built Photon demonstration satellite. It was launched aboard an Electron rocket on 13 June 2020. The second Photon satellite was the First Light satellite. It was launched aboard Electron rocket on 31 August 2020 on the 14th Electron mission "I Can't Believe It's Not Optical". On that mission, the Electron rocket lifted First Light and the customer satellite, Capella 2, to orbit; then the First Light satellite, acting in the capacity of a kick stage (final rocket stage which inserts the payload satellite into desired orbit), inserted the customer satellite into its orbit and then went on to begin its own orbital mission as a standalone satellite. First Light thus had a dual role in the mission: first as the final rocket stage delivering the customer satellite and then as a standalone satellite. The purpose of First Light standalone mission is to demonstrate the new (as compared to "plain" kick stage) systems for operating in orbit as a long-duration standalone satellite. To demonstrate Photon bus' payload hosting, the First Light had a low-resolution video camera.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In 2012, Rocket Lab demonstrated a rocket propelled by a Viscous Liquid Monopropellant (VLM) developed in work sponsored by DARPA and the Office of Naval Research (NRL). The VLM was reported to be thixotropic, so that it behaves as a pseudo solid until a shear force is applied, at which point it flows like a liquid. The VLM was reported to have a density comparable to solid-rocket fuels, with a specific gravity of about 1.72, whereas the specific gravity of liquid rocket fuels was reported to rarely be above 1. The VLM reportedly required no special handling, was non-toxic, water soluble, had low sensitivity to shock, a high ignition point, and was barely flammable in atmosphere. Rocket Lab has been issued on a Viscous Liquid Monopropellant which discloses additional details.


title: Rocket Lab

text: In October 2018, Rocket Lab revealed their new manufacturing facility in Auckland, New Zealand. It is intended for the production of propellant tanks and stage builds, and is in charge of the overall integration of launch vehicles at Launch Complex 1. The company's headquarters in Long Beach, California, produces their Rutherford engines and avionics.


title: Rocket Lab

text: After encountering difficulty in obtaining resource consent for the Kaitorete Spit launch site, Rocket Lab announced in November 2015 that its primary launch site would be on the Māhia Peninsula, east of Wairoa in the North Island, New Zealand. The site is licensed to launch rockets every 72 hours for 30 years. Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1 (LC-1A) was officially opened on 26 September 2016 (UTC; 27 September NZDT). , a second pad on Māhia Peninsula named Launch Complex 1B is under construction. , Launch Complex 1B hosted its first launch: "The Owl's Night Continues".


title: Rocket Lab

text: In October 2018, after several months of search, the company announced their selection of the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) at NASA's Wallops Flight Facility as their second launch site. The site was chosen for a number of factors: the speed and ease in which the new pad could be built due to infrastructure readiness, the low number of launches from other companies, and the location's ability to supplement orbital inclinations provided by LC-1. It is expected to be capable of monthly launches serving United States government and commercial missions. Launch Complex 2 (LC-2) is located within the fence line of MARS Launch Pad 0A. In December 2019, construction of the launch pad was completed and Rocket Lab inaugurated the LC-2.


title: Rocket Lab

text: The first flight of Electron from LC-2 is expected in 2022. In March 2021, Rocket Lab announced that they would modify the pad infrastructure at Launch Complex 0A in order to be able to launch the medium-lift launch vehicle Neutron from LP-0A, with the initial launch planned for as early as 2024.


title: 49th parallel north

text: The 49th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 49° north of Earth's equator. It crosses Europe, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, North America, and the Atlantic Ocean.


title: 49th parallel north

text: The city of Paris is about south of the 49th parallel and is the largest city between the 48th and 49th parallels. Its main airport, Charles de Gaulle Airport, lies on the parallel.


title: 49th parallel north

text: Roughly of the Canada–United States border was designated to follow the 49th parallel from British Columbia to Manitoba on the Canada side, and from Washington to Minnesota on the U.S. side, more specifically from the Strait of Georgia to the Lake of the Woods. This international border was specified in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 and the Oregon Treaty of 1846, though survey markers placed in the 19th century cause the border to deviate from the 49th parallel by up to tens of meters.


title: 49th parallel north

text: From a point on the ground at this latitude, the sun is above the horizon for 16 hours, 12 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours, 14 minutes during the winter solstice. This latitude also roughly corresponds to the minimum latitude in which astronomical twilight can last all night near the summer solstice. Slightly less than 1/8 of the Earth's surface is north of the 49th parallel.


title: 49th parallel north

text: In 1714, the Hudson's Bay Company proposed the 49th parallel as the western portion of the boundary between the company's land and French territory. At the time, Britain and France had agreed, in the Peace of Utrecht, to negotiate a boundary, but negotiations ultimately failed.


title: 49th parallel north

text: Following the Louisiana Purchase by the United States in 1803, it was generally agreed that the boundary between the new territory and British North America was along the watershed between the Missouri River and Mississippi River basins on one side and the Hudson Bay basin on the other. However, it is often difficult to precisely determine the location of a watershed in a region of level plains, such as in central North America. The British and American committees that met after the War of 1812 to resolve boundary disputes recognized there would be much animosity in surveying the watershed boundary, and agreed on a simpler border solution in the Treaty of 1818: the 49th parallel. Both sides gained and lost some territory by this convention, but the United States gained more than it lost, in particular securing title to the Red River Basin. This treaty established the boundary only between the line of longitude of the northwesternmost point of Lake of the Woods, on the east, and the Rocky Mountains, on the west. West of the Rockies, the treaty established joint occupation of the Oregon Country by both parties; east of Lake of the Woods, the boundary established in the Treaty of Paris would be retained.


title: 49th parallel north

text: Although the Convention of 1818 settled the boundary, neither country was immediately able to control over the territories on its side of the line; effective control still rested with local First Nations peoples, mainly the Métis, Assiniboine, Lakota, and Blackfoot. Their power was gradually ceded by conquest and treaty during the several decades that followed. Among these peoples, the 49th parallel was nicknamed the Medicine Line because of its seemingly magical ability to prevent U.S. soldiers from crossing it.


title: 49th parallel north

text: In the 1844 U.S. presidential election, the Democratic Party asserted that the northern border of the Oregon Territory should be 54°40, later reflected in the 1846 slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" However, the Oregon boundary dispute was settled diplomatically in the 1846 Oregon Treaty. This agreement divided the Oregon Country between British North America and the United States by extending the 49th parallel boundary to the west coast, ending in the Strait of Georgia; it then circumvents Vancouver Island through Boundary Pass, Haro Strait, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This had the side effect of isolating Point Roberts, Washington.


title: 49th parallel north

text: Although parts of Vancouver Island and parts of Eastern Canada are south of the 49th parallel, and parts of the United States (Alaska, Northwest Angle) are north of it, the term "49th parallel" is sometimes used metonymically to refer to the entire Canada-U.S. border. Actually, many of Canada's most populated regions (and about 72% of the population) are south of the 49th parallel, including the two largest cities Toronto (43°42 north) and Montreal (45°30 north). The federal capital Ottawa (45°25 north), and the provincial capital of seven provinces (Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador, and British Columbia) are south of the 49th parallel. Three provinces, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, are each entirely south of the parallel, but the vast majority of Canadian territory lies north of it.


title: 49th parallel north

text: Parts of the 49th parallel were originally surveyed using astronomical techniques that did not take into account slight departures of the Earth's shape from a simple ellipsoid, or the deflection of the plumb-bob by differences in terrestrial mass. The surveys were subject to the limitations of early to mid-19th century technology, but accurate results were obtained. However, in some places the surveyed 49th parallel is several hundred feet from the geographical 49th parallel for the currently adopted datum, the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). The Digital Chart of the World (DCW), which uses the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid, reports the border on average at latitude 48° 59 51″ north, roughly south of the modern 49th parallel. It ranges between 48° 59 25″ and 49° 0 10″ north, and on either side of the average. In any case, the Earth's North Pole moves around slightly, notionally moving the 49th and other parallels with it; see polar motion.


title: 49th parallel north

text: The Northwest Angle is the only part of the contiguous 48 states that goes north of the 49th parallel. The Treaty of Paris called for the boundary between the US and British territory to pass through the most northwesterly point of Lake of the Woods, and this was retained even after an 1818 treaty set the boundary west of that point to follow the 49th parallel.


title: 49th parallel north

text: At the time that the United States and Great Britain agreed on the 49th parallel as the boundary, much of the North American continent had not yet been mapped. After the boundary was established, British surveyors discovered that Point Roberts lay south of the 49th parallel. The British requested that the United States cede the territory to Great Britain, but no action was ever taken.


title: 49th parallel north

text: In 1909 the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada signed and ratified a treaty confirming the original survey lines as the official and permanent international border. Nevertheless, in 2002 the difference of the survey from the geographical 49th parallel was argued in front of the Washington Supreme Court in the case of "State of Washington v. Norman", under the premise that Washington did not properly incorporate the portions of land north of the geographical 49th parallel, as laid out by detailed GPS surveying. The court decided against the premise, ruling that the internationally surveyed boundary also served as the state boundary, regardless of its actual position.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: Amblyomma americanum, also known as the lone star tick, the northeastern water tick, or the turkey tick, or the "Cricker Tick", is a type of tick indigenous to much of the eastern United States and Mexico, that bites painlessly and commonly goes unnoticed, remaining attached to its host for as long as seven days until it is fully engorged with blood. It is a member of the phylum Arthropoda, class Arachnida. The adult lone star tick is sexually dimorphic, named for a silvery-white, star-shaped spot or "lone star" present near the center of the posterior portion of the adult female shield (scutum); adult males conversely have varied white streaks or spots around the margins of their shields.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: "A. americanum" is also referred to as the turkey tick in some Midwestern U.S. states, where wild turkeys are a common host for immature ticks. It is the primary vector of "Ehrlichia chaffeensis", which causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis, and "Ehrlichia ewingii", which causes human and canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis. Other disease-causing bacterial agents isolated from lone star ticks include "Francisella tularensis", "Rickettsia amblyommii", and "Coxiella burnetti".


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: The lone star tick is widely distributed across the East, Southeast, and Midwest United States. It lives in wooded areas, particularly in second-growth forests with thick underbrush, where white-tailed deer (the primary host of mature ticks) reside. Lone star ticks can also be found in ecotonal areas (transition zones between different biomes) such as those between forest and grassland ecosystems. The lone star tick uses thick underbrush or high grass to attach to its host by way of questing. Questing is an activity in which the tick climbs up a blade of grass or to the edges of leaves and stretches its front legs forward, in response to stimuli from biochemicals such as carbon dioxide or heat and vibration from movement, and mounts the passing host as it brushes against the tick's legs. Once attached to its host, the tick is able to move around and select a preferred feeding site.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: The tick has also been reported, outside of its range, in areas of Southern Ontario, including in London, Wellington County and the Region of Waterloo.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: The tick follows the normal developmental stages of egg, larva, nymph, and adult. It is known as a three-host tick, meaning that it feeds from a different host during each of the larval, nymphal, and adult stages. The lone star tick attaches itself to a host by way of questing. The eggs are laid on the ground, hatch, and the larvae wait for or actively seek a host (questing behavior). A larva feeds, detaches from its host, molts into a nymph when on the ground, and quests by crawling on the ground or waiting on vegetation. The nymph feeds and repeats the same process as the larva, but emerges having developed the anatomy of either an adult female or male. Adults quest similarly to nymphs. The female attaches only to a species of host for reproduction. The female engorges on much blood, expanding greatly, then detaches and converts the blood meal into eggs, which are laid on the ground. Females of large species of "Amblyomma" engorge to a weight of 5 g and lay 20,000 eggs. The female dies after this single egg-laying. The male takes repeated small meals of blood and attempts to mate repeatedly whilst on the same host. Feeding times for larvae last 4–7 days, nymphs for 5–10 days, and adults for 8 to 20 days. The time spent molting and questing off the host can occupy the remainder of 6 to 18 months for a single tick to complete its lifecycle. The lifecycle timing is often expanded by diapause (delayed or inactivated development or activity) in adaptation to seasonal variation of moisture and heat. Ticks are highly adapted for long-term survival off the host without feeding and can extract moisture directly from humid air. However, survival is greatly reduced by excess heat, dryness, and lack of suitable hosts to which to attach. Survival on the host is also greatly reduced by grooming and by hypersensitive immune reactions in the skin against the feeding of the ticks.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: The lone star tick is an aggressive, generalist feeder; it actively pursues blood meals and is not specific about the species of host upon which it feeds. As already mentioned, "A. americanum" requires a separate animal or human host to complete each stage of its life cycle. The lifecycle begins when the blood-engorged adult female tick drops from her host, depositing around 5,000 eggs a few days later, once she has reached a safe and suitable location, such as in mulch or leaf litter. After an incubation period, larvae hatch from their eggs and undergo a quiescent (resting) period; this is followed by the pursuit of a host via questing. After feeding for one to three days, the blood-engorged larva dislodges from its host to digest its blood meal and molt into a nymph. The nymph follows this same pattern, attaching to a new host via questing and dropping from the host after its blood meal to molt into an adult tick. The female adult tick dies shortly after depositing her eggs.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: Larval lone star ticks have been found attached to birds and small mammals, and nymphal ticks have been found on these two groups, as well as on small rodents. Adult lone star ticks usually feed on medium and large mammals, and are very frequently found on white-tailed deer. Lone star ticks also feed on humans at any stage of development.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: Like all ticks, it can be a vector of diseases including human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis ("Ehrlichia chaffeensis"), canine and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis ("Ehrlichia ewingii"), tularemia ("Francisella tularensis"), and southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI, possibly caused by the spirochete "Borrelia lonestari"). STARI exhibits a rash similar to that caused by Lyme disease, but is generally considered to be less severe.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: Though the primary bacterium responsible for Lyme disease, "Borrelia burgdorferi", has occasionally been isolated from lone star ticks, numerous vector competency tests have demonstrated that this tick is extremely unlikely to be capable of transmitting Lyme disease. Some evidence indicates "A. americanum" saliva inactivates "B. burgdorferi" more quickly than the saliva of "Ixodes scapularis". Recently the bacteria "Borrelia andersonii" and "Borrelia americana" have been linked to "A. americanum".


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: In 2013, in response to two cases of severe febrile illness occurring in two farmers in northwestern Missouri, researchers determined the lone star tick can transmit the heartland virus.


title: Amblyomma americanum

text: The bite of the lone star tick can cause a person to develop alpha-gal meat allergy, a delayed response to nonprimate mammalian meat and meat products. The allergy manifests as anaphylaxisa life-threatening allergic reaction characterized by constriction of airways and a drop in blood pressure. This response is triggered by an IgE antibody to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal). A study published in 2019 discovered alpha-gal in the saliva of the lone star tick. As well as occurring in non-primate mammals, alpha-gal is also found in cat dander and in the drug cetuximab. Allergic reactions to alpha-gal usually occur 3–6 hours after consuming red meat, unlike allergic reactions to other foods, whose onset following consumption is more or less immediate, making it more difficult to identify what caused the reaction. Skin tests with standard meat test solutions are unreliable when testing for alpha-gal allergy, whereas skin tests with raw meat and/or pork kidney are more sensitive. Specific tests for determination of IgE to alpha-gal are available.


title: Tina Barrett

text: Tina Ann Barrett (born 16 September 1976) is an English singer and actress. Her major breakthrough came in 1999 when she became a member of the pop group, S Club 7. She has been a member of spin-off group S Club Allstars (previously "S Club 3") since 2014. She is also a former member of the girl group Mis-Teeq, though she never appeared on any of their recordings.


title: Tina Barrett

text: Tina Barrett was born in Hammersmith, London, England to an English father and a Guyanese mother. She was at London's Arts Educational School for a period of eight years. Her first job was dancing in a pantomime with Lionel Blair. She was originally going to be in the group Face2Face, which later went on to become Mis-Teeq. She assisted with the group's choreography during her time there.


title: Tina Barrett

text: In 1996, Barrett, Alesha Dixon and Sabrina Washington became friends in a dance studio in Fulham. The trio, named Face2Face, performed singing and dancing. The group had started work on their debut album when Barrett left to join S Club 7 after a successful audition for Simon Fuller. After her departure, the group changed their name to Mis-Teeq and replaced her with two new members, Su-Elise Nash and Zena McNally.


title: Tina Barrett

text: Barrett became a member of S Club 7 after a series of auditions, along with members Paul Cattermole, Jon Lee, Bradley McIntosh, Jo O'Meara, Hannah Spearritt and Rachel Stevens in 1999. During five years they released four number one singles and one number one album. They also had a series of TV shows, which were: "Miami 7", "L.A. 7", "Hollywood 7" and "Viva S Club", and they also starred in a film, "Seeing Double". Barrett led some of the tracks on the groups' albums, such as "I'll Be There" and "Stronger", which was set to be a single, but was canceled when Paul Cattermole left the group. Barrett co-wrote two other songs that she also led: "Discotek" (the B-side to the single "Alive") and "Secret Love", a song from the group's final album "Seeing Double". The six remaining members stayed together as "S Club" until 2003, when they split after releasing their greatest hits album.


title: Tina Barrett

text: When the group announced they were to break up, Barrett expressed interest in working on a solo career, but she was unsuccessful to sign with a label or an entrepreneur. She took a nine-year hiatus from her career, appearing only on red carpets and social events.


title: Tina Barrett

text: In May 2012, a teaser video for Barrett's debut solo single "Fire" was released on YouTube and a short clip of the still unfinished video was shown during an interview on "LIVE!". The final version of the music video was finally released on 27 September 2012. Barrett announced that her debut album would be released in the end of 2013 and that she intends to tour with the album, but the album has not yet materialised. Barrett has also appeared in other music videos which include Russell Grant's version of "The Clapping Song" and as the main dancer in Asian artist Navin Kundra's song "Shudaayi". Barrett is also heard in a song called "Boom" by Old Boy which also features rapper Nasty Jack; an accompanying music video has been shot but has not yet been released. In 2014 Barrett joined with O'Meara, McIntosh and Cattermole in the S Club 3, which became S Club Party. In November 2014, Barrett reunited with the full group for a medley of S Club 7's greatest hits on BBC Children in Need. Later, the group announced a sold out arena reunion tour, titled Bring It All Back 2015, which toured the UK in May 2015. Following the reunion tour, Barrett continued to perform with O'Meara and McIntosh as S Club 3. In November 2016, Barrett released the single "All Fired Up". In January 2020, Barrett released "Mwah Mwah", along with the music video filmed in Canada during the S Club 3 tour in the summer of 2019. When O'Meara left in 2020, she was replaced the following year by S Club 8 original member Stacey Franks, and the group was renamed "S Club Allstars".


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: Supernova is a 2020 British romantic drama film written and directed by Harry Macqueen. The film stars Colin Firth and Stanley Tucci.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: "Supernova" had its world premiere at the 68th San Sebastián International Film Festival on 22 September 2020 and was released in the United States on 29 January 2021, by Bleecker Street, and in the United Kingdom on 25 June 2021, by StudioCanal.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: Sam and Tusker, romantic partners for 20 years and amateur astronomers, undertake a road trip in a campervan across England to the Lake District, to visit some of their favorite spots and for a reunion with friends and family. Tusker has been diagnosed with early onset dementia, with his progressing illness putting a strain on their relationship. He is in the middle of writing a book, but is struggling with it, refusing to show it to Sam. Sam is a pianist/composer preparing for what he says will be his final piano concert.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: The pair arrive at Sam’s sister’s house, where the rest of their family and friends later gather for a party in their honor. During subsequent conversation with one of their friends, Sam finds out Tusker has been having difficulties writing. Sam heads into their camper van and discovers in his journal that Tusker’s writing has been declining steadily over time. He also discovers that Tusker has a vial of Pentobarbital and has made a farewell audio tape, explaining that he intends to take his own life. Sam says nothing.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: The pair head to a leased cottage in the countryside. Sam confronts Tusker about his discovery and plays the tape to him, revealing Tusker’s plans to die by suicide before his dementia becomes too severe. Sam strongly and pleadingly argues with him against this idea, to no avail. They make up the next day and have an intimate night together. The next morning, as Sam plays the piano, he lets Tusker know that he accepts his decision and wants to be at his side when it happens.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: In the final scene, Sam appears on stage, playing the beautiful piano piece that Tusker loved so well.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: In October 2019, it was announced Colin Firth and Stanley Tucci had joined the cast of the film, with Harry Macqueen directing from a screenplay he wrote, with StudioCanal distributing in the United Kingdom. The film's soundtrack was written and recorded by Keaton Henson.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 68th San Sebastián International Film Festival on 22 September 2020, and was released in the United Kingdom on 25 June 2021, by StudioCanal. In October 2020, Bleecker Street acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film and released it in the United States on 29 January 2021.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: It was selected in official competition at London Film Festival, San Sebastian Film Festival and Rome Film festival in 2020.


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that of critic reviews are positive for the film. Critics consensus on the website reads, "Led by moving performances from Colin Firth and Stanley Tucci, "Supernova" is a heartbreaking look at the emotional toll that comes with accepting mortality." Metacritic calculated a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, based on 31 reviews, citing "generally favorable reviews".


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: It was a 'Critic's Pick' in "The New York Times" with Glenn Kenny calling the film "spectacularly moving". "The Washington Post" gave it four stars out of four. Justin Chang from "Los Angeles Times" said the film "shouldn't be missed".


title: Supernova (2020 film)

text: In 2022, "Supernova" was voted as one of the 'Best British Films of the 21st Century' in a poll by critics.


title: Signal

text: In signal processing, a signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon. Any quantity that can vary over space or time can be used as a signal to share messages between observers. The "IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing" includes audio, video, speech, image, sonar, and radar as examples of signal. A signal may also be defined as observable change in a quantity over space or time (a time series), even if it does not carry information.


title: Signal

text: In nature, signals can be actions done by an organism to alert other organisms, ranging from the release of plant chemicals to warn nearby plants of a predator, to sounds or motions made by animals to alert other animals of food. Signaling occurs in all organisms even at cellular levels, with cell signaling. Signaling theory, in evolutionary biology, proposes that a substantial driver for evolution is the ability of animals to communicate with each other by developing ways of signaling. In human engineering, signals are typically provided by a sensor, and often the original form of a signal is converted to another form of energy using a transducer. For example, a microphone converts an acoustic signal to a voltage waveform, and a speaker does the reverse.


title: Signal

text: Another important property of a signal is its entropy or information content. Information theory serves as the formal study of signals and their content. The information of a signal is often accompanied by noise, which primarily refers to unwanted modifications of signals, but is often extended to include unwanted signals conflicting with desired signals (crosstalk). The reduction of noise is covered in part under the heading of signal integrity. The separation of desired signals from background noise is the field of signal recovery, one branch of which is estimation theory, a probabilistic approach to suppressing random disturbances.


title: Signal

text: Engineering disciplines such as electrical engineering have advanced the design, study, and implementation of systems involving transmission, storage, and manipulation of information. In the latter half of the 20th century, electrical engineering itself separated into several disciplines: electronic engineering and computer engineering developed to specialize in the design and analysis of systems that manipulate physical signals, while design engineering developed to address the functional design of signals in user–machine interfaces.


title: Signal

text: Signals can be categorized in various ways. The most common distinction is between discrete and continuous spaces that the functions are defined over, for example, discrete and continuous-time domains. Discrete-time signals are often referred to as "time series" in other fields. Continuous-time signals are often referred to as "continuous signals".


title: Signal

text: A second important distinction is between discrete-valued and continuous-valued. Particularly in digital signal processing, a digital signal may be defined as a sequence of discrete values, typically associated with an underlying continuous-valued physical process. In digital electronics, digital signals are the continuous-time waveform signals in a digital system, representing a bit-stream.


title: Signal

text: Signals may also be categorized by their spatial distributions as either point source signals (PSSs) or distributed source signals (DSSs).


title: Signal

text: In Signals and Systems, signals can be classified according to many criteria, mainly: according to the different feature of values, classified into analog signals and digital signals; according to the determinacy of signals, classified into deterministic signals and random signals; according to the strength of signals, classified into energy signals and power signals.


title: Signal

text: Two main types of signals encountered in practice are "analog" and "digital". The figure shows a digital signal that results from approximating an analog signal by its values at particular time instants. Digital signals are "quantized", while analog signals are continuous.


title: Signal

text: An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., "analogous" to another time varying signal. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously with the sound pressure. It differs from a digital signal, in which the continuous quantity is a representation of a sequence of discrete values which can only take on one of a finite number of values.


title: Signal

text: The term "analog signal" usually refers to electrical signals; however, analog signals may use other mediums such as mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic. An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information.


title: Signal

text: Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; often such a signal is a measured response to changes in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For example, in sound recording, fluctuations in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which induces corresponding electrical fluctuations. The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound.


title: Signal

text: A digital signal is a signal that is constructed from a discrete set of waveforms of a physical quantity so as to represent a sequence of discrete values. A "logic signal" is a digital signal with only two possible values, and describes an arbitrary bit stream. Other types of digital signals can represent three-valued logic or higher valued logics.


title: Signal

text: Alternatively, a digital signal may be considered to be the sequence of codes represented by such a physical quantity. The physical quantity may be a variable electric current or voltage, the intensity, phase or polarization of an optical or other electromagnetic field, acoustic pressure, the magnetization of a magnetic storage media, etc. Digital signals are present in all digital electronics, notably computing equipment and data transmission.


title: Signal

text: With digital signals, system noise, provided it is not too great, will not affect system operation whereas noise always degrades the operation of analog signals to some degree.


title: Signal

text: Digital signals often arise via sampling of analog signals, for example, a continually fluctuating voltage on a line that can be digitized by an analog-to-digital converter circuit, wherein the circuit will read the voltage level on the line, say, every 50 microseconds and represent each reading with a fixed number of bits. The resulting stream of numbers is stored as digital data on a discrete-time and quantized-amplitude signal. Computers and other digital devices are restricted to discrete time.


title: Signal

text: According to the strengths of signals, practical signals can be classified into two categories: energy signals and power signals.


title: Signal

text: Energy signals: Those signals' energy are equal to a finite positive value, but their average powers are 0;


title: Signal

text: Power signals: Those signals' average power are equal to a finite positive value, but their energy are infinite.


title: Signal

text: Deterministic signals are those whose values at any time are predictable and can be calculated by a mathematical equation.


title: Signal

text: Random signals are signals that take on random values at any given time instant and must be modeled stochastically.


title: Signal

text: or equivalently if the following equation holds for all formula_4 and formula_5 in the domain of formula_6:


title: Signal

text: Signals can be classified as continuous or discrete time. In the mathematical abstraction, the domain of a continuous-time signal is the set of real numbers (or some interval thereof), whereas the domain of a discrete-time (DT) signal is the set of integers (or other subsets of real numbers). What these integers represent depends on the nature of the signal; most often it is time.


title: Signal

text: A continuous-time signal is any function which is defined at every time "t" in an interval, most commonly an infinite interval. A simple source for a discrete-time signal is the sampling of a continuous signal, approximating the signal by a sequence of its values at particular time instants.


title: Signal

text: If a signal is to be represented as a sequence of digital data, it is impossible to maintain exact precision - each number in the sequence must have a finite number of digits. As a result, the values of such a signal must be quantized into a finite set for practical representation. Quantization is the process of converting a continuous analog audio signal to a digital signal with discrete numerical values of integers.


title: Signal

text: Naturally occurring signals can be converted to electronic signals by various sensors. Examples include:


title: Signal

text: Signal processing is the manipulation of signals. A common example is signal transmission between different locations. The embodiment of a signal in electrical form is made by a transducer that converts the signal from its original form to a waveform expressed as a current or a voltage, or electromagnetic radiation, for example, an optical signal or radio transmission. Once expressed as an electronic signal, the signal is available for further processing by electrical devices such as electronic amplifiers and filters, and can be transmitted to a remote location by a transmitter and received using radio receivers.


title: Signal

text: In Electrical engineering programs, signals are covered in a class and field of study known as "signals and systems". Depending on the school, undergraduate EE students generally take the class as juniors or seniors, normally depending on the number and level of previous linear algebra and differential equation classes they have taken.


title: Signal

text: The field studies input and output signals, and the mathematical representations between them known as systems, in four domains: Time, Frequency, "s" and "z". Since signals and systems are both studied in these four domains, there are 8 major divisions of study. As an example, when working with continuous-time signals ("t"), one might transform from the time domain to a frequency or "s" domain; or from discrete time ("n") to frequency or "z" domains. Systems also can be transformed between these domains like signals, with continuous to "s" and discrete to "z".


title: Signal

text: Signals and systems is a subset of the field of Mathematical modeling. It involves circuit analysis and design via mathematical modeling and some numerical methods, and was updated several decades ago with Dynamical systems tools including differential equations, and recently, Lagrangians. Students are expected to understand the modeling tools as well as the mathematics, physics, circuit analysis, and transformations between the 8 domains.


title: Signal

text: Because mechanical engineering topics like friction, dampening etc. have very close analogies in signal science (inductance, resistance, voltage, etc.), many of the tools originally used in ME transformations (Laplace and Fourier transforms, Lagrangians, sampling theory, probability, difference equations, etc.) have now been applied to signals, circuits, systems and their components, analysis and design in EE. Dynamical systems that involve noise, filtering and other random or chaotic attractors and repellers have now placed stochastic sciences and statistics between the more deterministic discrete and continuous functions in the field. (Deterministic as used here means signals that are completely determined as functions of time).


title: Signal

text: EE taxonomists are still not decided where signals and systems falls within the whole field of signal processing vs. circuit analysis and mathematical modeling, but the common link of the topics that are covered in the course of study has brightened boundaries with dozens of books, journals, etc. called Signals and Systems, and used as text and test prep for the EE, as well as, recently, computer engineering exams.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: The Ford Trimotor (also called the "Tri-Motor", and nicknamed the "Tin Goose") is an American three-engined transport aircraft. Production started in 1925 by the companies of Henry Ford and ended on June 7, 1933, after 199 had been made. It was designed for the civil aviation market, but also saw service with military units.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: In the early 1920s, Henry Ford, along with a group of 19 other investors including his son Edsel, invested in the Stout Metal Airplane Company. Stout, a bold and imaginative salesman, sent a mimeographed form letter to leading manufacturers, blithely asking for $1,000 and adding: "For your one thousand dollars you will get one definite promise: You will never get your money back." Stout raised $20,000, including $1,000 each from Edsel and Henry Ford.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: In 1925, Ford bought Stout and its aircraft designs. The single-engined Stout monoplane was turned into a trimotor, the Stout 3-AT with three Curtiss-Wright air-cooled radial engines. After a prototype was built and test-flown with poor results, the "4-AT" and "5-AT" emerged.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: The Ford Trimotor using all-metal construction was not a revolutionary concept, but it was certainly more advanced than the standard construction techniques of the 1920s. The aircraft resembled the Fokker F.VII Trimotor (except for being all-metal which Henry Ford claimed made it "the safest airliner around"). Its fuselage and wings followed a design pioneered by Junkers during World War I with the Junkers J.I and used postwar in a series of airliners starting with the Junkers F.13 low-wing monoplane of 1920 of which a number were exported to the US, the Junkers K 16 high-wing airliner of 1921, and the Junkers G 24 trimotor of 1924. All of these were constructed of aluminum alloy, which was corrugated for added stiffness, although the resulting drag reduced its overall performance. So similar were the designs that Junkers sued and won when Ford attempted to export an aircraft to Europe. In 1930, Ford countersued in Prague, and despite the possibility of anti-German sentiment, was decisively defeated a second time, with the court finding that Ford had infringed upon Junkers' patents.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: Although designed primarily for passenger use, the Trimotor could be easily adapted for hauling cargo, since its seats in the fuselage could be removed. To increase cargo capacity, one unusual feature was the provision of "drop-down" cargo holds below the lower inner wing sections of the 5-AT version.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: One 4-AT with Wright J-4 200-hp engines was built for the U.S. Army Air Corps as the C-3, and seven with Wright R-790-3 (235 hp) as C-3As. The latter were upgraded to Wright R-975-1 (J6-9) radials at 300 hp and redesignated C-9. Five 5-ATs were built as C-4s or C-4As.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: The original (commercial production) 4-AT had three air-cooled Wright radial engines. It carried a crew of three: a pilot, a copilot, and a stewardess, as well as eight or nine passengers . The later 5-AT had more powerful Pratt & Whitney engines. All models had an aluminum corrugated sheet-metal body and wings. Unlike many aircraft of this era, extending through World War II, its control surfaces (ailerons, elevators, and rudders) were not fabric-covered, but were also made of corrugated metal. As was common for the time, its rudder and elevators were actuated by metal cables that were strung along the external surface of the aircraft. Engine gauges were also mounted externally, on the engines, to be read by the pilot while looking through the aircraft windshield. Another interesting feature was the use of the hand-operated "Johnny brake."


title: Ford Trimotor

text: Like Ford cars and tractors, these Ford aircraft were well designed, relatively inexpensive, and reliable (for the era). The combination of a metal structure and simple systems led to their reputation for ruggedness. Rudimentary service could be accomplished "in the field" with ground crews able to work on engines using scaffolding and platforms. To fly into otherwise-inaccessible sites, the Ford Trimotor could be fitted with skis or floats.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: The rapid development of aircraft at this time (the vastly superior Boeing 247 first flew at start of 1933), along with the death of his personal pilot, Harry J. Brooks, on a test flight, led to Henry Ford's losing interest in aviation. While Ford did not make a profit on its aircraft business, Henry Ford's reputation lent credibility to the infant aviation and airline industries, and Ford helped introduce many aspects of the modern aviation infrastructure, including paved runways, passenger terminals, hangars, airmail, and radio navigation.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: In the late 1920s, the Ford Aircraft Division was reputedly the "largest manufacturer of commercial airplanes in the world." Alongside the Ford Trimotor, a new single-seat commuter aircraft, the Ford Flivver or "Sky Flivver" had been designed and flown in prototype form, but never entered series production. The Trimotor was not to be Ford's last venture in aircraft production. During World War II, the largest aircraft manufacturing plant in the world was built at the Willow Run, Michigan plant, where Ford produced thousands of B-24 Liberator bombers under license from Consolidated Aircraft.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: William Stout left the Metal Airplane division of the Ford Motor Company in 1930. He continued to operate the Stout Engineering Laboratory, producing various aircraft. In 1954, Stout purchased the rights to the Ford Trimotor in an attempt to produce new examples. A new company formed from this effort brought back two modern examples of the trimotor aircraft, renamed the Stout Bushmaster 2000, but even with improvements that had been incorporated, performance was judged inferior to modern designs.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: Production ran from 1926 and 1933 and 199 were built, including 79 4-ATs, and 117 5-ATs, plus some experimental craft. Well over 100 airlines of the world flew the Ford Trimotor. From mid-1927, the type was also flown on executive transportation duties by several commercial nonairline operators, including oil and manufacturing companies.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: The impact of the Ford Trimotor on commercial aviation was immediate, as the design represented a "quantum leap over other airliners." Within a few months of its introduction, Transcontinental Air Transport was created to provide coast-to-coast operation, capitalizing on the Trimotor's ability to provide reliable and, for the time, comfortable passenger service. While advertised as a transcontinental service, the airline had to rely on rail connections with a deluxe Pullman train that would be based in New York being the first part of the journey. Passengers then met a Trimotor in Port Columbus, Ohio, that would begin a hop across the continent ending at Waynoka, Oklahoma, where another train would take the passengers to Clovis, New Mexico, where the final journey would begin, again on a Trimotor, to end up at the Grand Central Air Terminal in Glendale, a few miles northeast of Los Angeles. This demanding trip would be available for only a year before Transcontinental was merged into a combine with Western Air Service.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: Ford Trimotors were also used extensively by Pan American Airways, for its first international scheduled flights from Key West to Havana, Cuba, in 1927. Eventually, Pan American extended service from North America and Cuba into Central and South America in the late 1920s and early 1930s. One of Latin America's earliest airlines, Cubana de Aviación, was the first to use the Ford Trimotor in Latin America, starting in 1930, for its domestic services.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: The heyday for Ford's transport was relatively brief, lasting only until 1933, when more modern airliners began to appear. Rather than completely disappearing, the Trimotors gained an enviable reputation for durability with Ford ads in 1929 proclaiming, "No Ford plane has yet worn out in service." First being relegated to second- and third-tier airlines, the Trimotors continued to fly into the 1960s, with numerous examples being converted into cargo transports to further lengthen their careers, and when World War II began, the commercial versions were soon modified for military applications.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: Some of the significant flights made by the Ford Trimotor in this period greatly enhanced the reputation of the type for strength and reliability. One example was Ford 4-AT Trimotor serial number 10, built in 1927. It flew in the United States and Mexico under registration number C-1077, and for several years in Canada under registration G-CARC. It had many notable accomplishments; it was flown by Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart, among many others. It made the first commercial flight from the United States to Mexico City, as well as the first commercial flight over the Canadian Rockies. After damage on landing in 1936, it was grounded and remained for decades at Carcross, Yukon. In 1956, the wreck was salvaged and preserved, and in the mid-1980s, Greg Herrick took over C-1077 and began restoring it. As of 2006, C-1077 is in flying condition again, restored to its December 1927 appearance.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: On November 27 and 28, 1929, Commander Richard E. Byrd (navigator), chief pilot Bernt Balchen, and two other crewmen, the copilot and the photographer, made the first flight above the geographic South Pole in a Ford Trimotor that Byrd named the "Floyd Bennett". This was one of three aircraft taken on this polar expedition, with the other two being named "The Stars and Stripes" and "The Virginian", replacing the Fokker Trimotors that Byrd previously used.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: A Ford Trimotor was used for the flight of Elm Farm Ollie, the first cow to fly in an aircraft and to be milked mid-flight.


title: Ford Trimotor

text: Franklin Roosevelt flew aboard a Ford Trimotor in 1932 during his presidential campaign in one of the first uses of an aircraft in an election, replacing the traditional "whistle stop" train trips.