title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Genetic contributions are usually due to the additive effects of multiple genes ("polygenic"), though occasionally may be due to a single gene defect such as in the case of familial hypercholesterolaemia. In familial hypercholesterolemia, mutations may be present in the APOB gene (autosomal dominant), the autosomal recessive "LDLRAP1" gene, autosomal dominant familial hypercholesterolemia ("HCHOLA3") variant of the "PCSK9" gene, or the LDL receptor gene. Familial hypercholesterolemia affects about one in 250 individuals.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Cholesterol is measured in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) of blood in the United States and some other countries. In the United Kingdom, most European countries and Canada, millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L) is the measure.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: For healthy adults, the UK National Health Service recommends upper limits of total cholesterol of 5 mmol/L, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) of 3 mmol/L. For people at high risk of cardiovascular disease, the recommended limit for total cholesterol is 4 mmol/L, and 2 mmol/L for LDL.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: In the United States, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute within the National Institutes of Health classifies total cholesterol of less than 200 mg/dL as "desirable", 200 to 239 mg/dL as "borderline high", and 240 mg/dL or more as "high".


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: There is no absolute cutoff between normal and abnormal cholesterol levels, and values must be considered in relation to other health conditions and risk factors.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Higher levels of total cholesterol increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, particularly coronary heart disease. Levels of LDL or non-HDL cholesterol both predict future coronary heart disease; which is the better predictor is disputed. High levels of small dense LDL may be particularly adverse, although measurement of small dense LDL is not advocated for risk prediction. In the past, LDL and VLDL levels were rarely measured directly due to cost. Levels of fasting triglycerides were taken as an indicator of VLDL levels (generally about 45% of fasting triglycerides is composed of VLDL), while LDL was usually estimated by the Friedewald formula:


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: However, this equation is not valid on nonfasting blood samples or if fasting triglycerides are elevated (>4.5 mmol/L or >∼400 mg/dL). Recent guidelines have, therefore, advocated the use of direct methods for measurement of LDL wherever possible. It may be useful to measure all lipoprotein subfractions (VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL) when assessing hypercholesterolemia and measurement of apolipoproteins and lipoprotein (a) can also be of value. Genetic screening is now advised if a form of familial hypercholesterolemia is suspected.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Classically, hypercholesterolemia was categorized by lipoprotein electrophoresis and the Fredrickson classification. Newer methods, such as "lipoprotein subclass analysis", have offered significant improvements in understanding the connection with atherosclerosis progression and clinical consequences. If the hypercholesterolemia is hereditary (familial hypercholesterolemia), more often a family history of premature, earlier onset atherosclerosis is found.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force in 2008 strongly recommends routine screening for men 35 years and older and women 45 years and older for lipid disorders and the treatment of abnormal lipids in people who are at increased risk of coronary heart disease. They also recommend routinely screening men aged 20 to 35 years and women aged 20 to 45 years if they have other risk factors for coronary heart disease. In 2016 they concluded that testing the general population under the age of 40 without symptoms is of unclear benefit.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: In Canada, screening is recommended for men 40 and older and women 50 and older. In those with normal cholesterol levels, screening is recommended once every five years. Once people are on a statin further testing provides little benefit except possibly to determine compliance with treatment.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Treatment recommendations have been based on four risk levels for heart disease. For each risk level, LDL cholesterol levels representing goals and thresholds for treatment and other action are made. The higher the risk category, the lower the cholesterol thresholds.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: For those at high risk, a combination of lifestyle modification and statins has been shown to decrease mortality.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Lifestyle changes recommended for those with high cholesterol include: smoking cessation, limiting alcohol consumption, increasing physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Overweight or obese individuals can lower blood cholesterol by losing weight – on average a kilogram of weight loss can reduce LDL cholesterol by 0.8 mg/dl.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Eating a diet with a high proportion of vegetables, fruit, dietary fibre, and low in fats results in a modest decrease in total cholesterol.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Eating dietary cholesterol causes a small rise in serum cholesterol, the magnitude of which can be predicted using the Keys and Hegsted equations. Dietary limits for cholesterol were proposed in United States, but not in Canada, United Kingdom, and Australia. However, in 2015 the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee in the United States removed its recommendation of limiting cholesterol intake.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: A 2020 Cochrane review found replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat resulted in a small decrease in cardiovascular disease by decreasing blood cholesterol. Other reviews have not found an effect from saturated fats on cardiovascular disease. Trans fats are recognized as a potential risk factor for cholesterol-related cardiovascular disease, and avoiding them in an adult diet is recommended.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: The National Lipid Association recommends that people with familial hypercholesterolemia restrict intakes of total fat to 25–35% of energy intake, saturated fat to less than 7% of energy intake, and cholesterol to less than 200 mg per day. Changes in total fat intake in low calorie diets do not appear to affect blood cholesterol.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Increasing soluble fiber consumption has been shown to reduce levels of LDL cholesterol, with each additional gram of soluble fiber reducing LDL by an average of 2.2 mg/dL (0.057 mmol/L). Increasing consumption of whole grains also reduces LDL cholesterol, with whole grain oats being particularly effective. Inclusion of 2 g per day of phytosterols and phytostanols and 10 to 20 g per day of soluble fiber decreases dietary cholesterol absorption. A diet high in fructose can raise LDL cholesterol levels in the blood.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Statins are the typically used medications, in addition to healthy lifestyle interventions. Statins can reduce total cholesterol by about 50% in the majority of people, and are effective in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease in both people with and without pre-existing cardiovascular disease. In people without cardiovascular disease, statins have been shown to reduce all-cause mortality, fatal and non-fatal coronary heart disease, and strokes. Greater benefit is observed with the use of high-intensity statin therapy. Statins may improve quality of life when used in people without existing cardiovascular disease (i.e. for primary prevention). Statins decrease cholesterol in children with hypercholesterolemia, but no studies as of 2010 show improved outcomes and diet is the mainstay of therapy in childhood.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Other agents that may be used include fibrates, nicotinic acid, and cholestyramine. These, however, are only recommended if statins are not tolerated or in pregnant women. Injectable antibodies against the protein PCSK9 (evolocumab, bococizumab, alirocumab) can reduce LDL cholesterol and have been shown to reduce mortality.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: In the US, guidelines exist from the National Cholesterol Education Program (2004) and a joint body of professional societies led by the American Heart Association.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: In the UK, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence has made recommendations for the treatment of elevated cholesterol levels, published in 2008, and a new guideline appeared in 2014 that covers the prevention of cardiovascular disease in general.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: The Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology and the European Atherosclerosis Society published guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias in 2011.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Among people whose life expectancy is relatively short, hypercholesterolemia is not a risk factor for death by any cause including coronary heart disease. Among people older than 70, hypercholesterolemia is not a risk factor for being hospitalized with myocardial infarction or angina. There are also increased risks in people older than 85 in the use of statin drugs. Because of this, medications which lower lipid levels should not be routinely used among people with limited life expectancy.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: According to a survey in 2002, alternative medicine was used in an attempt to treat cholesterol by 1.1% of U.S. adults. Consistent with previous surveys, this one found the majority of individuals (55%) used it in conjunction with conventional medicine. A systematic review of the effectiveness of herbal medicines utilized in traditional Chinese medicine had inconclusive results due to the poor methodological quality of the included studies.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: A review of trials of phytosterols and/or phytostanols, average dose 2.15 g/day, reported an average of 9% lowering of LDL-cholesterol. In 2000, the Food and Drug Administration approved the labeling of foods containing specified amounts of phytosterol esters or phytostanol esters as cholesterol-lowering; in 2003, an FDA Interim Health Claim Rule extended that label claim to foods or dietary supplements delivering more than 0.8 g/day of phytosterols or phytostanols. Some researchers, however, are concerned about diet supplementation with plant sterol esters and draw attention to lack of long-term safety data.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Rates of high total cholesterol in the United States in 2010 are just over 13%, down from 17% in 2000.


title: Hypercholesterolemia

text: Average total cholesterol in the United Kingdom is 5.9 mmol/L, while in rural China and Japan, average total cholesterol is 4 mmol/L. Rates of coronary artery disease are high in Great Britain, but low in rural China and Japan.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: An acoustic guitar is a musical instrument in the string family. When a string is plucked its vibration is transmitted from the bridge, resonating throughout the top of the guitar. It is also transmitted to the side and back of the instrument, resonating through the air in the body, and producing sound from the sound hole. The original, general term for this stringed instrument is "guitar", and the retronym 'acoustic guitar' distinguishes it from an electric guitar, which relies on electronic amplification. Typically, a guitar's body is a sound box, of which the top side serves as a sound board that enhances the vibration sounds of the strings. In standard tuning the guitar's six strings are tuned (low to high) E A D G B E.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Guitar strings may be plucked individually with a pick (plectrum) or fingertip, or strummed to play chords. Plucking a string causes it to vibrate at a fundamental pitch determined by the string's length, mass, and tension. (Overtones are also present, closely related to harmonics of the fundamental pitch.) The string causes the soundboard and the air enclosed by the sound box to vibrate. As these have their own resonances, they amplify some overtones more strongly than others, affecting the timbre of the resulting sound.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Gitterns, (small, plucked guitars) were the first small, guitar-like instruments created during the Spanish Middle Ages with a round back, like that of the lute. Modern guitar-shaped instruments were not seen until the Renaissance era, when the body and size began to take a guitar-like shape.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: The earliest string instruments related to the guitar and its structure were broadly known as vihuelas within Spanish musical culture. Vihuelas were string instruments that were commonly seen in the 16th century during the Renaissance. Later, Spanish writers distinguished these instruments into two categories of vihuelas. The vihuela de arco was an instrument that mimicked the violin, and the vihuela de Penola was played with a plectrum or by hand. When it was played by hand it was known as the vihuela de mano. Vihuela de mano shared extreme similarities with the Renaissance guitar as it used hand movement at the sound hole or sound chamber of the instrument to create music.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: By 1790 only six-course vihuela guitars (six unison-tuned pairs of strings) were being created and had become the main type and model of guitar used in Spain. Most of the older 5-course guitars were still in use but were also being modified to a six-coursed acoustical guitar. Fernando Ferandiere's book "Arte de tocar la Guitarra Española por Música" (Madrid, 1799) describes the standard Spanish guitar from his time as an instrument with seventeen frets and six courses with the first two 'gut' strings tuned in unison called the "terceras" and the tuning named to 'G' of the two strings. The acoustic guitar at this time began to take the shape familiar in the modern acoustic guitar. The coursed pairs of strings eventually became less common in favor of single strings.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Finally, circa 1850, the form and structure of the modern guitar are credited to Spanish guitar maker Antonio Torres Jurado, who increased the size of the guitar body, altered its proportions, and made use of fan bracing, which first appeared in guitars made by Francisco Sanguino in the late 18th century. The bracing pattern, which refers to the internal pattern of wood reinforcements used to secure the guitar's top and back to prevent the instrument from collapsing under tension, is an important factor in how the guitar sounds. Torres' design greatly improved the volume, tone, and projection of the instrument, and it has remained essentially unchanged since.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: The acoustic guitar's soundboard, or top, also has a strong effect on the loudness of the guitar. Woods that are good at transmitting sound, like spruce, are commonly used for the soundboard. No amplification occurs in this process, because musicians add no external energy to increase the loudness of the sound (as would be the case with an electronic amplifier). All the energy is provided by the plucking of the string. Without a soundboard, however, the string would just "cut" through the air without moving it much. The soundboard increases the surface of the vibrating area in a process called mechanical impedance matching. The soundboard can move the air much more easily than the string alone, because it is large and flat. This increases the entire system's energy transfer efficiency, and musicians emit a much louder sound.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: In addition, the acoustic guitar has a hollow body, and an additional coupling and resonance effect increases the efficiency of energy transmission in lower frequencies. The air in a guitar's cavity resonates with the vibrational modes of the string and soundboard. At low frequencies, which depend on the size of the box, the chamber acts like a Helmholtz resonator, increasing or decreasing the volume of the sound again depending on whether the air in the box moves in phase or out of phase with the strings. When in phase, the sound increases by about 3 decibels. In opposing phase, it decreases about 3 decibels. As a Helmholtz resonator, the air at the opening is vibrating in or out of phase with the air in the box and in or out of phase with the strings. These resonance interactions attenuate or amplify the sound at different frequencies, boosting or damping various harmonic tones. Ultimately, the cavity air vibrations couple to the outside air through the sound hole, though some variants of the acoustic guitar omit this hole, or have formula_1 holes, like a violin family instrument (a trait found in some electric guitars such as the ES-335 and ES-175 models from Gibson). This coupling is most efficient because here the impedance matching is perfect: it is air pushing air.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: A guitar has several sound coupling modes: string to soundboard, soundboard to cavity air, and both soundboard and cavity air to outside air. The back of the guitar also vibrates to some degree, driven by air in the cavity and mechanical coupling to the rest of the guitar. The guitar—as an acoustic system—colors the sound by the way it generates and emphasizes harmonics, and how it couples this energy to the surrounding air (which ultimately is what we perceive as loudness). Improved coupling, however, comes costing decay time, since the string's energy is more efficiently transmitted. Solid body electric guitars (with no soundboard at all) produce very low volume, but tend to have long sustain.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: All these complex air coupling interactions, and the resonant properties of the panels themselves, are a key reason that different guitars have different tonal qualities. The sound is a complex mixture of harmonics that give the guitar its distinctive sound.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Classical gut-string guitars lacked adequate projection, and were unable to displace banjos until innovations introduced helped to increase their volume. Two important innovations were introduced by United States firm C.F. Martin: steel strings and the increasing of the guitar top area; the popularity of Martin's larger "dreadnought" body size among acoustic performers is related to the greater sound volume produced. These innovations allowed guitars to compete with and often displace the banjos that had previously dominated jazz bands. The steel-strings increased tension on the neck; for stability, Martin reinforced the neck with a steel truss rod, which became standard in later steel-string guitars.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: An acoustic guitar can be amplified by using various types of pickups or microphones. However, amplification of acoustic guitars had many problems with audio feedback. In the 1960s, Ovation's parabolic bowls dramatically reduced feedback, allowing greater amplification of acoustic guitars. In the 1970s, Ovation developed thinner sound-boards with carbon-based composites laminating a thin layer of birch, in its Adamas model, which has been viewed as one of the most radical designs in the history of acoustic guitars. The Adamas model dissipated the sound-hole of the traditional soundboard among 22 small sound-holes in the upper chamber of the guitar, yielding greater volume and further reducing feedback during amplification. Another method for reducing feedback is to fit a rubber or plastic disc into the sound hole.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: The most common types of pickups used for acoustic guitar amplification are piezo and magnetic pickups. Piezo pickups are generally mounted under the bridge saddle of the acoustic guitar and can be plugged into a mixer or amplifier. A Piezo pickup made by Baldwin was incorporated in the body of Ovation guitars, rather than attached by drilling through the body; the combination of the Piezo pickup and parabolic ("roundback") body helped Ovation succeed in the market during the 1970s.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Magnetic pickups on acoustic guitars are generally mounted in the sound hole, and are similar to those in electric guitars. An acoustic guitar with pickups for electrical amplification is called an acoustic-electric guitar.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: In the 2000s, manufacturers introduced new types of pickups to try to amplify the full sound of these instruments. This includes body sensors, and systems that include an internal microphone along with body sensors or under-the-saddle pickups.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Historical and modern acoustic guitars are extremely varied in their design and construction. Some of the most important varieties are the classical guitar (Spanish Guitar/Nylon-stringed), steel-string acoustic guitar and lap steel guitar.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Range – The smallest common body shape, sometimes called a "mini jumbo", is three-quarters the size of a jumbo-shaped guitar. A range shape typically has a rounded back to improve projection for the smaller body. The smaller body and scale length make the range guitar an option for players who struggle with larger body guitars.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Parlor – Parlor guitars have small compact bodies and have been described as “punchy” sounding with a delicate tone. It normally has 12 open frets. The smaller body makes the parlor a more comfortable option for players who find large body guitars uncomfortable.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Grand Concert – This mid-sized body shape is not as deep as other full-size guitars, but has a full waist. Because of the smaller body, grand concert guitars have a more controlled overtone and are often used for their sound projection when recording.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Auditorium – Similar in dimensions to the dreadnought body shape, but with a much more pronounced waist. This general body shape is also sometimes referred to as an "Orchestra" style guitar depending on the manufacturer. The shifting of the waist provides different tones to stand out. The auditorium body shape is a newer body when compared to the other shapes such as dreadnought.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Dreadnought – This is the classic guitar body shape. The style was designed by Martin Guitars to produce a deeper sound than "classic"-style guitars, with very resonant bass. The body is large and the waist of the guitar is not as pronounced as the auditorium and grand concert bodies. There are many Dreadnought variants produced, one of the most notable being the Gibson J-45.


title: Acoustic guitar

text: Jumbo – The largest standard guitar body shape found on acoustic guitars. Jumbo is bigger than an Auditorium but similarly proportioned, and is generally designed to provide a deep tone similar to a dreadnought's. It was designed by Gibson to compete with the dreadnought, but with maximum resonant space for greater volume and sustain. The foremost example of the style is the Gibson J-200, but like the dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model.


title: Barsoom

text: Barsoom is a fictional representation of the planet Mars created by American pulp fiction author Edgar Rice Burroughs. The first Barsoom tale was serialized as "Under the Moons of Mars" in 1912 and published as a novel as "A Princess of Mars" in 1917. Ten sequels followed over the next three decades, further extending his vision of Barsoom and adding other characters.


title: Barsoom

text: The "Barsoom" series, where John Carter in the late 19th century is mysteriously transported from Earth to a Mars suffering from dwindling resources, has been cited by many well known science fiction writers as having inspired them. Elements of the books have been adapted by many writers in novels, short stories, comics, television, and film.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs began writing the Barsoom books in the second half of 1911 and produced one volume a year between 1911 and 1914; seven more were produced between 1921 and 1941. The first Barsoom tale was serialized in "The All-Story" magazine as "Under the Moons of Mars" (1911), and then published in hardcover as the complete novel "A Princess of Mars" (1917). The final Barsoom tale was a novella, "Skeleton Men of Jupiter", published in "Amazing Stories" in February 1943. The novel editions of "A Princess of Mars", "The Gods of Mars" and "Llana of Gathol" contain newly written forewords describing Edgar Rice Burroughs' interactions with John Carter, who is described as Burroughs' great-uncle.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs frequently invented words of the languages spoken by the people in his novels, and used these extensively in the narrative. In "Thuvia, Maid of Mars" he included a glossary of Barsoomian words used in the first four novels. The word "Barsoom", the native Martian word for Mars, is composed of the Martian name for planet, "soom", and the Martian word for eight, "bar". This reflects counting Mars as the eighth body in the inner solar system, by counting not just planets, but the Sun and the satellites of Earth and of Mars.


title: Barsoom

text: "A Princess of Mars", the first novel in the Barsoom series, with its sequels "The Gods of Mars" and "The Warlord of Mars", form a trilogy centered upon protagonist John Carter and damsel in distress Dejah Thoris. John Carter's and Dejah Thoris's son Carthoris is also introduced as a minor character in "The Gods of Mars", as is Thuvia.


title: Barsoom

text: Three other books focus on their descendants: Carthoris, in "Thuvia, Maid of Mars", his sister, Tara of Helium, in "The Chessmen of Mars", and Tara's daughter, Llana of Gathol, in "Llana of Gathol".


title: Barsoom

text: Ulysses Paxton, another Earth man transported to Mars, is the focus of "The Master Mind of Mars", and the rest of the books focus on John Carter's later adventures ("Swords of Mars" and "John Carter of Mars"), or on native Martian characters ("A Fighting Man of Mars" and "Synthetic Men of Mars").


title: Barsoom

text: Most of the Barsoom books are novels, but two are collections of shorter works: "Llana of Gathol" has four linked novelettes, originally published in "Amazing Stories" during 1941, and "John Carter of Mars" is composed of two novellas.


title: Barsoom

text: Most are first-person narratives. John Carter narrates "A Princess of Mars", "The Gods of Mars", "The Warlord of Mars", "Swords of Mars", the four novellas in "Llana of Gathol" and "Skeleton Men of Jupiter" in "John Carter of Mars". Ulysses Paxton narrates one, "The Master Mind of Mars". Martian guardsman Vor Daj narrates "Synthetic Men of Mars" and Martian navy officer Tan Hadron narrates "A Fighting Man of Mars". Two other novels, "Thuvia, Maid of Mars" and "The Chessmen of Mars", are written in the third person, as is "John Carter and the Giant of Mars" in "John Carter of Mars".


title: Barsoom

text: Beginning with "A Princess of Mars", Burroughs established a practice which continued in the four sequels of introducing the novel as if a factual account passed on to him personally, wherein John Carter appears as an avuncular figure known to his family for years. The same device appears in several sequels: "The Gods of Mars", "The Chessmen of Mars," "Swords of Mars," and "Llana of Gathol."


title: Barsoom

text: All the Barsoom tales were published under the name of Edgar Rice Burroughs, except "Under the Moons of Mars", the first publication of "A Princess of Mars", which was published under the pseudonym "Norman Bean". Burroughs had actually typed "Normal Bean" (meaning "not insane") on his submitted manuscript; but his publisher's typesetter changed it to "Norman". The first novella in "John Carter of Mars", "John Carter and the Giant of Mars", is thought to have been penned by Burroughs' son John "Jack" Coleman Burroughs, although allegedly revised by his father. It was recognized by fans, upon publication, as unlikely of being Burroughs' work, as the writing is of a juvenile quality compared with that of Burroughs' other stories.


title: Barsoom

text: The stories are science fantasy, belonging to the subgenre planetary romance, which has strong elements of both science fiction and fantasy. Planetary romance stories are similar to sword and sorcery tales, but include scientific aspects. They mostly take place on the surface of an alien world, frequently include sword fighting, monsters, supernatural elements such as telepathic abilities, and civilizations similar to Earth in pre-technological eras, particularly with the inclusion of dynastic or religious social structures. Spacecraft appear in the stories, but are not central to the story. The series can also be classified as the closely related genre sword and planet, which consists of what are essentially sword and sorcery stories that take place on another planet.


title: Barsoom

text: The stories also share a number of elements with westerns in that they feature desert landscapes, women taken captive and a final confrontation with the antagonist.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs' Barsoom stories are considered seminal planetary romances. While examples existed prior to the publication of his works, they are the principal influence on the many works of this type that followed. His style of planetary romance has ceased to be written and published in the mainstream, though his books remain in print.


title: Barsoom

text: Like most of Burroughs' fiction, the novels in the series are mostly travelogues, feature copious violence, and often depict civilized heroes captured by uncivilized cultures and mimicking their captors to survive.


title: Barsoom

text: Most Barsoom novels follow a familiar plot structure wherein a hero is forced to a far-off location in search of a woman kidnapped by an odious but powerful villain.


title: Barsoom

text: Female characters are likely to be virtuous and fight off amorous advances and other dangers until able to connect with the hero; who himself fights a variety of enemies and deposes petty rulers of severely repressed populations, usually with the assistance of a native.


title: Barsoom

text: The world of Barsoom is morally unambiguous: characters are either good or evil; there is no sense of moral relativity. A sense of honor transcends race or political affiliation, and characters fight alongside one another and against their adversaries because it is the right thing to do. Qualities of compassion, loyalty, and bravery are celebrated, and callousness, deception, and cowardice are frowned upon.


title: Barsoom

text: Typically the novels include descriptions of aspects of the Martian world such as the architecture, and the presence of desolate landscapes punctuated by abandoned cities, technological achievements, advanced medicine, cultural elements such as superstitious religious practices and eating habits, breeding practices, and methods of population control. Many lost cities and civilizations and journeys into forgotten underworlds appear across the series, and the environment beyond the cities is populated by a variety of ferocious beasts, many roughly equivalent with Earth creatures and most bearing multiple sets of limbs. There are numerous examples of striking coincidences and dei ex machina usually to the benefit of the protagonists.


title: Barsoom

text: Mad scientists also appear, Ras Thavas from "The Master Mind of Mars" and "Synthetic Men of Mars" being the principal example, although another plays a prominent role in "A Fighting Man of Mars". Incidences of the use of superstition by religious cults to control and manipulate others are also common.


title: Barsoom

text: "A Princess of Mars" was possibly the first fiction of the 20th century to feature a constructed language; although Barsoomian was not particularly developed, it did add verisimilitude to the narrative.


title: Barsoom

text: Most villains in the Barsoom series are implacably evil or are rulers or despots of major empires or of hidden fiefdoms. They are usually hated by their subjects and possess a voracious sexual appetite, usually directed towards the heroine. The pattern is established by Tharkian Jeddak Tal Hajus in the first novel, "A Princess of Mars". Further examples include the Salensus Oll of "The Warlord of Mars", Nutus of Dusar in "Thuvia, Maid of Mars", and Ul Vas, Jeddak of the Tarids in "Swords of Mars".


title: Barsoom

text: While Burroughs' Barsoom tales never aspired to anything other than escapism, his vision of Mars was loosely inspired by astronomical speculation of the time, especially that of Percival Lowell, that saw the planet as a formerly Earthlike world now becoming less hospitable to life due to its advanced age. Living on an aging planet, with dwindling resources, the inhabitants of Barsoom have become hardened and warlike, fighting one another to survive. Once a wet world with continents and oceans, Barsoom's seas gradually dried up, leaving it a dry planet of highlands interspersed with moss-covered dead sea bottoms. Abandoned cities line the former coasts. The last remnants of the former bodies of water are the Great Toonolian Marshes and the antarctic Lost Sea of Korus.


title: Barsoom

text: Barsoomians distribute their scarce water supplies via a worldwide system of canals, controlled by quarreling city-states at the junctures thereof. The idea of Martian "canals" stems from telescopic observations by 19th century astronomers who, beginning with Giovanni Schiaparelli in 1877, believed they saw networks of lines on the planet. Schiaparelli called them "canali", meaning "channels" but mistranslated in English as "canals". During the time Burroughs wrote his first Barsoom stories, the theory was put forward by a number of prominent scientists, notably Lowell, that these were huge engineering works constructed by an intelligent race. This view, though utterly false as is now known, inspired much science fiction. The thinning Barsoomian atmosphere is artificially replenished by an "atmosphere plant" on whose function all life on the planet is dependent.


title: Barsoom

text: The Martian year comprises 687 Martian days, each of which is 24 hours and 37 minutes long. (Burroughs presumably derived this from the figures published by Lowell, but erroneously substituted the number of 24-hour "Earth" days in the Martian year, rather than the number of 24.6-hour "Martian" days, which is only 669.) The days are hot (again known to be false) and the nights are cold, and there appears to be little variation in climate across the planet except at the poles.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs explained his ideas about the Martian environment in an article "A Dispatch on Mars" published in the "London Daily Express" in 1926. He assumed that Mars was formerly identical to the Earth; therefore a similar evolutionary development of fauna would have taken place. He referenced winds, snows, and marshes supposedly observed by astronomers, as evidence of an atmosphere, and that the wastes of the planet had been irrigated (probably referencing Lowell's "canals"), which suggested that an advanced civilization existed on the planet.


title: Barsoom

text: All Barsoomian races resemble Homo sapiens in most respects, except for being oviparous and having lifespans in excess of 1,000 years (though actual life expectancy is far shorter.) However, the Green Martians are much taller, have four arms, tusks, and antennae like ears. The traditional Martian lifespan of 1,000 is based on the customary pilgrimage down the River Iss, which is taken by virtually all Martians by that age, or those who feel tired of their long lives and expect to find a paradise at the end of their journey. None return from this pilgrimage, because it leads to almost certain death at the hands of ferocious creatures.


title: Barsoom

text: While the Martian females are egg-laying, Martians have inexplicably mammalian characteristics such as a navel and breasts. While they have skins of various colors, and their bodies differ in some cases from traditional humans, they are very similar to varieties of Earth humans and there is little examination of difference. There is only one spoken language across the entire planet, but a variety of writing systems.


title: Barsoom

text: All Martians are telepathic among one another, and also with domestic animals. Other telepathic abilities are demonstrated across the books. The Lotharians in "Thuvia, Maid of Mars", are able to project images of warfare that can kill by suggestion. In "The Warlord of Mars", the nations are described as bellicose and self-sufficient; but in "The Gods of Mars" inter-city state merchants are mentioned, and in "Thuvia, Maid of Mars", towering staging posts for inter-city liners are also described.


title: Barsoom

text: The Red Martians are the dominant culture on Barsoom. They are organized into a system of imperial city-states including Helium, Ptarth, and Zodanga, controlling the planetary canal system, as well as other more-isolated city-states in the hinterlands. The Red Martians are the interbred descendants of the ancient Yellow Martians, White Martians and Black Martians, remnants of which exist in isolated areas of the planet, particularly the poles. The Red Martians are said in "A Princess of Mars" to have been bred when the seas of Barsoom began to dry up, in hopes of creating a hardy race to survive in the new environment.


title: Barsoom

text: The Red Martians are highly civilized, respect the idea of private property, adhere to a code of honor and have a strong sense of fairness. Their culture is governed by law and is technologically advanced. They are capable of love and have families.


title: Barsoom

text: The Green Martians are tall (males) and tall (females), have two arms, two legs and two intermediary limbs that can be used as either arms or legs at will. Their eyes are mounted at the side of their heads and can move independently of each other in order to see in two directions at once. They are nomadic, warlike and barbaric, do not form families, have little concept of friendship or love and enjoy inflicting torture upon their victims. Their social structure is highly communal and rigidly hierarchical, consisting of various levels of chiefs, with the highest office of Jeddak obtained by mortal combat.


title: Barsoom

text: The Green Men are primitive, intellectually unadvanced, do not have any kind of art and are without a written language. While they manufacture edged weapons, any advanced technology they possess, such as 'radium pistols', is stolen from raids upon the Red Martians. They inhabit the ancient ruined cities left behind by civilizations which lived on Barsoom during a more advanced and hospitable era in the planet's history. They apparently arose from a biological experiment which went awry and as with all other Martians, they are an egg-laying species, concealing their eggs in incubators until hatching. Tars Tarkas, who befriends John Carter when he first arrives on Barsoom, is an unusual exception from the typical ruthless Green Martian, due to having known the love of his own mate and daughter.


title: Barsoom

text: In the novels, the Green Martians are often referred to by the names of their hordes, which in turn take their names from the abandoned cities they inhabit. Thus the followers of Tars Tarkas, based in the ruined ancient city of Thark, are known as "Tharks". Other hordes bear the names of Warhoon, Torquas, and Thurd.


title: Barsoom

text: Yellow Martians are supposedly extinct, but in "The Warlord of Mars" they are found hiding in secret domed cities at the North Pole of Mars. At the time John Carter arrives on Barsoom, the Yellow Race is known only in old wives' tales and campfire stories.


title: Barsoom

text: The only means of entrance to the Okarians' city is through The Carrion Caves, which are every bit as unpleasant as the name suggests. Air travel over the barrier is discouraged through the use of a great magnetic pillar called "The Guardian of the North," which draws fliers of all sizes inexorably to their doom as they collide with the massive structure.


title: Barsoom

text: Their cities are domed hothouses which keep out the cold, but outdoors they favor orluk furs and boots. Physically they are large and strong, and the men usually wear bristling black beards.


title: Barsoom

text: The White Martians, known as 'Orovars', were rulers of Mars for 500,000 years, with an empire of sophisticated cities with advanced technology. They were white-skinned, with blond or auburn hair. They were once a seafaring race, but when the oceans began to dry up they began to cooperate with the Yellow and Black Martians to breed the Red Martians, foreseeing the need for hardy stock to cope with the emerging harsher environment. They became decadent and 'overcivilized'. At the beginning of the series they are believed to be extinct, but three remaining populations - the Orovars, Therns and Lotharians – are still living in secret and are discovered as the books progress.


title: Barsoom

text: The Lotharians are a remnant population of the original White Martians, which appear only in "Thuvia, Maid of Mars". There are only 1000 of them remaining, all of them male. They are skilled in telepathy, able to project images that can kill, or provide sustenance. They live a reclusive existence in a remote area of Barsoom, debating philosophy amongst themselves.


title: Barsoom

text: Descendants of the original White Martians who live in a complex of caves and passages in the cliffs above the Valley Dor. This is the destination of the River Iss, on whose currents most Martians eventually travel, on a pilgrimage seeking final paradise, once tired of life or reaching 1000 years of age. The valley is actually populated by monsters who, overseen by Therns, attack all who enter the valley, killing and exsanguinating them for the Therns to cannibalize, only excepting those whom the directing Therns choose instead to enslave. They consider themselves a unique creation, different from other Martians. They maintain the Martian religion through a network of collaborators and spies across the planet. When they reach the age of 1000 years they make a pilgrimage to the Temple of Issus, unaware that they have been manipulated into doing so in order to be slaughtered by the Black Men of Mars in an analogous deception to that the Therns practice on other Martians. They are also the repeated target of raids by the Black Martians to capture their females as slaves. They are white-skinned (of a skin tone close enough to human Caucasians that John Carter was able to easily pose as one) and the males are bald but wear blond wigs.


title: Barsoom

text: Legend suggests that the Black Martians are inhabitants of one of the moons of Mars, when in fact they live in an underground stronghold near the south pole of the planet, around the submartian Sea of Omean, below the Lost Sea of Korus, where they keep a large aerial navy. They call themselves the 'First-Born', believing themselves to be a unique creation among Martian races, and worship Issus, a woman who styles herself as the God of the Martian religion but is no such thing. They frequently raid the White Martian Therns, who maintain the false Martian religion, carrying off people as slaves. John Carter defeats their navy in "The Gods of Mars".


title: Barsoom

text: "The Chessmen of Mars" introduces the Kaldanes of the region Bantoom, whose form is almost all head but for six spiderlike legs and a pair of chelae, and whose racial goal is to evolve even further towards pure intellect and away from bodily existence. In order to function in the physical realm, they have bred the Rykors, a complementary species composed of a body similar to that of a perfect specimen of Red Martian but lacking a head; when the Kaldane places itself upon the shoulders of the Rykor, a bundle of tentacles connects with the Rykor's spinal cord, allowing the brain of the Kaldane to interface with the body of the Rykor. Should the Rykor become damaged or die, the Kaldane merely climbs upon another as an earthling might change a horse.


title: Barsoom

text: A lesser people of Barsoom are the Kangaroo Men of Gooli, so called due to their large, kangaroo-like tails, ability to hop large distances and the rearing of their eggs in pouches. They are presented as a race of boastful, cowardly individuals. Their moral character is not highly developed; they are devout cowards and petty thieves, who value (aside from their lives) only a "treasure" consisting of pretty stones, sea shells, etc.


title: Barsoom

text: In addition to the naturally occurring races of Barsoom, Burroughs described the Hormads, artificial men created by the scientist Ras Thavas as slaves, workers, warriors, etc. in giant vats at his laboratory in the Toonolian Marsh in "Synthetic Men of Mars" and "John Carter and the Giant of Mars". Although the Hormads were generally recognizable as humanoid, the process was far from perfect, and generated monstrosities ranging from the occasional misplaced nose or eyeball to ""a great mass of living flesh with an eye somewhere and a single hand.""


title: Barsoom

text: When Burroughs wrote the first volume of the Barsoom series, aviation and radio technology was in its infancy and radioactivity was a fledgling science. Despite this, the series includes a range of technological developments including radium munitions, battles between fleets of aircraft, devices similar to faxes and televisions, genetic manipulation, elements of terraforming and other ideas. One notable device mentioned is the "directional compass"; this may be believed to be the precursor to the now-common "global positioning system", or GPS for short.


title: Barsoom

text: The Red Martians have flying machines, both civilian transports and fleets of heavily armed war craft. These stay aloft through some form of anti-gravity, which Burroughs explains as relating to the rays of the Sun. Fliers travel at approximately (450 Martian Haads per hour).


title: Barsoom

text: In "Thuvia, Maid of Mars", John Carter's son Carthoris invents what appears to be a partial precursor of the autopilot (several decades before it became a reality). The device, built upon existing Martian compass technology, allows the pilot to reach any programmed destination, having only to keep the craft pointed in the set direction. Upon arrival, the device automatically lowers the craft to the surface. He also includes a kind of collision detector, which uses radium rays to detect any obstacle and automatically steer the craft elsewhere until the obstacle is no longer detected. This device works in principle almost identically to the backscatter radiation detector used to fire the braking rockets on the Soyuz space capsule. In "Swords of Mars" a flier with some kind of mechanical brain is introduced. Controlled by thought, it can be remote-controlled in flight, or instructed to travel to any destination.


title: Barsoom

text: Firearms are common, and use 'Radium' bullets, which explode when exposed to sunlight. Some weapons are specific to races or inventors. The mysterious Yellow Martians, who live in secret glass-domed cities at the poles and appear in "The Warlord of Mars" have a form of magnet which allows them to attract flying craft and cause them to crash. Scientist Phor Tak, who appears in "A Fighting Man of Mars", has developed a disintegrator ray, and also a paste which renders vehicles such as fliers impervious to its effects. He also develops a missile which seeks out craft protected in this fashion, and a means of rendering fliers invisible which becomes a key plot device in the novel. However, while advanced weapons are available, most Martians seem to prefer melee combat — mostly with swords — and their level of skill is highly impressive. Warriors often are armed with four weapons (in descending order, pistol, long-sword, short sword and dagger) and it is considered unchivalrous to defend with any weapon but the one used in an attack (or a lesser one.) While technically it would easy to use firearms to kill an opponent armed with a sword, such conduct is socially unacceptable and even the villains in Barsoom books never resort to it.


title: Barsoom

text: There are many technological wonders in the novels, some colossal works of engineering. The failing air of the dying planet is maintained by an atmosphere plant, and the restoration of this is a plot component of "A Princess of Mars". It is described as being across with walls in depth, and telepathically operated entrance doors of steel.


title: Barsoom

text: Martian medicine is generally greatly in advance of that on Earth. Various "ointments" and "salves," particularly as ascribed to the Green Martian women, are capable of healing all but instantly deadly wounds in a matter of hours—as first seen in "A Princess of Mars". In "The Master Mind of Mars" aging genius Ras Thavas has perfected the means of transplanting organs, limbs and brains, which during his experiments he swaps between animals and humanoids, men and women and young and old. Later, in "Synthetic Men of Mars", he discovers the secret of life, and creates an army of artificial servants and warriors grown in giant vats filled with organic tissue. They frequently emerge deformed, are volatile and are difficult to control, later threatening to take over the planet.


title: Barsoom

text: The Martians wear no clothing other than jewelry and leather harnesses, which are designed to hold everything from the weaponry of a warrior to pouches containing toiletries and other useful items; the only instances where Barsoomians habitually wear clothing is for need of warmth, such as for travel in the northern polar regions described in "The Warlord of Mars".


title: Barsoom

text: This preference for near-nudity provides a stimulating subject for illustrators of the stories, though art for many mass-market editions of the books feature Carter and native Barsoomians wearing loincloths and other minimal coverings, or use strategically placed shadows and such to cover genitalia and female breasts.


title: Barsoom

text: It appears that most of Burrough's Martian creatures are roughly equivalent to those found on Earth, though most seem to have multiple legs (usually a total of six limbs, but sometimes as many as ten) and all are egg-laying.


title: Barsoom

text: The martian mammalian equivalents all have fur, and both domestic and wild varieties are described by Burroughs.


title: Barsoom

text: Barsoom might be seen as a kind of Martian Wild West. John Carter is himself an adventuring frontiersman. When he arrives on Barsoom he first compares it to the landscape of Arizona which he has left behind. He discovers a savage, frontier world where the civilized Red Martians are kept invigorated as a race by repelling the constant attacks of the Green Martians, a possible equivalent of Wild West ideals. Indeed, the Green Martians are a barbaric, nomadic, tribal culture with many parallels to stereotypes of American Indians. The desire to return to the frontier became common in the early 20th century America. As the United States become more urbanized, the world of the 19th century frontier America became romanticized as a lost world of freedom and noble qualities.


title: Barsoom

text: Race is a constant theme in the Barsoom novels and the world is clearly divided along racial lines. Red, Green, White, Black, and Yellow races all appear across the novels, each with particular traits and qualities which seem to define the characters of the individuals. In this respect, Burroughs' concept of race, as depicted in the novels, is more like a division between species. The Red and Green Martians are almost complete opposites of one another, with the Red Martians being civilized, lawful, capable of love and forming families, and the Green Martians being savage, cruel, tribal and without families or the ability to form romantic relationships. Yet, friendship between individuals of different nations and races is a frequent topic driving the stories.


title: Barsoom

text: The Barsoom series features a number of incidents of religious deception, or the use of superstition by those in power to control and manipulate others. Burroughs is particularly concerned about the hypocrisy of religious leaders. This is first established in "A Princess of Mars", but becomes particularly apparent in the sequel, "The Gods of Mars". Upon reaching 1,000 years of age almost all Martians undertake a pilgrimage on the River Iss, expecting to find a valley of mystical paradise; what they find is in fact a deathtrap, populated by ferocious creatures and overseen by a race of cruel, cannibal priests known as Therns, who perpetuate the Martian religion through a network of spies across the planet.


title: Barsoom

text: John Carter's battle to track down the remnants of the Therns and their masters continues in the sequel, "The Warlord of Mars". More deceitful priests in a nation controlled by such appear in "The Master Mind of Mars", on this occasion manipulating a temple idol to control followers.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs continued this theme in his many Tarzan novels. Burroughs was not anti-religious; however, he was concerned about followers placing their trust in religions and being abused and exploited, and saw this as a common feature of organized religion.


title: Barsoom

text: While Burroughs is generally seen as a writer who produced work of limited philosophical sophistication, he wrote two Barsoom novels which appear to explore or parody the limits of excessive intellectual development at the expense of bodily or physical existence. The first was "Thuvia, Maid of Mars", in which Thuvia and Carthoris discover a remnant of ancient White Martian civilization, the Lotharians. The Lotharians have mostly died out, but maintain the illusion of a functioning society through powerful telepathic projections. They have formed two factions which appear to portray the excesses of pointless intellectual debate. One faction, the realists, believes in imagining meals to provide sustenance; another, the etherealists, believes in surviving without eating.


title: Barsoom

text: "The Chessmen of Mars" is the second example of this trend. The Kaldanes have sacrificed their bodies to become pure brain, but although they can interface with Rykor bodies, their ability to function, compared with normal people of integrated mind and body, is ineffectual and clumsy. The Kaldanes, though highly intelligent, are ugly, ineffectual creatures when not interfaced with a Rykor body. Tara of Helium compares them to effete intellectuals from her home city, with a self-important sense of superiority; and Gahan of Gathol muses that it might be better to find a balance between the intellect and bodily passions.


title: Barsoom

text: Some of Barsoom's people, especially the Therns and First-Born, hold themselves as "superior" to the "lesser order" people on Barsoom. A paradox is established in that the Therns and First-Born, though they hold themselves in such high esteem, nonetheless are dependent on these lesser orders for their sustenance, labor, and goods. The Therns and First-Born are "non-productive" people and do not produce anything or invent, as such labor is seen as beneath them. This is punctuated by the fact that the Therns and First-Born are obliged to create strongholds in the south polar regions, to insulate themselves from the remainder of the planet dominated primarily by red and green Martians. A particular ironic twist is introduced by the fact that the white Therns think that they control and manipulate the entire planet, when they are in turn unknowingly exploited by the black First-Born.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs' concept of a dying Mars and the Martian canals follows the theories of Lowell and his predecessor Giovanni Schiaparelli. In 1878, Italian astronomer Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli observed geological features on Mars which he called "canali" (Italian: "channels"). This was mistranslated into the English as "canals" which, being artificial watercourses, fueled the belief that there was some sort of intelligent extraterrestrial life on the planet. This further influenced American astronomer Percival Lowell.


title: Barsoom

text: In 1895 Lowell published a book titled "Mars" which speculated about an arid, dying landscape, whose inhabitants had been forced to build canals thousands of miles long to bring water from the polar caps (now known to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide or "dry ice") to irrigate the remaining arable land. Lowell followed with "Mars and Its Canals" (1906) and "Mars as an Abode of Life" (1908). These books formed prominent scientific ideas about the conditions on the red planet in the early years of the 20th century. Burroughs does not seem to have based his vision of Mars on precise reading of Lowell's theories, however, as a number of errors in his books suggest he got most of his information from newspaper articles and other popular accounts of Lowell's Mars.


title: Barsoom

text: The concept of canals with flowing water and a world where life was possible were later proved erroneous by more accurate observation of the planet. Later landings by American probes such as the two Viking missions found a dead world too cold (and with far too thin an atmosphere) for water to exist in its fluid state.


title: Barsoom

text: The first science fiction to be set on Mars may be "Across the Zodiac", by Percy Greg, published in 1880, which concerned a civil war on Mars. Another Mars novel, dealing with benevolent Martians coming to Earth was published in 1897 by Kurd Lasswitz, "Auf Zwei Planeten". It was not translated until 1971, and was thus unlikely to have influenced Burroughs, although it did depict a Mars influenced by the ideas of Percival Lowell. Other examples are "Mr. Stranger's Sealed Packet" (1889), which took place on Mars; Gustavus W. Popes's "Journey to Mars" (1894); and Ellsworth Douglas's "Pharaoh's Broker", in which the protagonist encounters an Egyptian civilization on Mars which, while parallel to that of the Earth, has evolved somehow independently.


title: Barsoom

text: H.G. Wells' novel, "The War of the Worlds", most definitely influenced by Lowell and published in 1898, did however create the precedent for a number of enduring Martian tropes in science fiction writing. These include Mars being an ancient world, nearing the end of its life; being the home of a superior civilization, capable of advanced feats of science and engineering; and a source of invasion forces, keen to conquer the Earth. The first two tropes were prominent in Burroughs' Barsoom series. Burroughs, however, claimed never to have read any of H.G. Wells' books. Lowell was probably the greater direct influence on Burroughs.


title: Barsoom

text: Richard A. Lupoff claimed that Burroughs was influenced in writing his Martian stories by Edwin Lester Arnold's earlier novel "" (1905) (later retitled "Gulliver of Mars"). Gullivar Jones, who travels to Mars by flying carpet rather than via astral projection, encounters a civilization with similarities to those found on Barsoom, rescues a Martian Princess, and even undertakes a voyage down a river similar to the Iss in "The Gods of Mars". Lupoff also suggested that Burroughs derived characteristics of his main protagonist John Carter from Phra, hero of Arnold's "The Wonderful Adventures of Phra the Phoenician" (1890), who is also a swashbuckling adventurer and master swordsman for whom death is no obstacle. Lupoff's theories were disputed by numerous scholars of Burroughs' work; Lupoff countered, claiming that many of Burroughs' stories had antecedents in previous works and that this was not unusual for writers.


title: Barsoom

text: Burroughs' Barsoom series was popular with American readers and many scientists who grew up reading the novels and helped inspire public support for the US space program. Readers included some of the first space pioneers and those involved in the search for life on other planets.


title: Barsoom

text: Scientist Carl Sagan read the books as a young boy, and they continued to affect his imagination into his adult years. He remembered Barsoom as a "world of ruined cities, planet-girdling canals, immense pumping stations – a feudal technological society". For two decades, a map of the planet as imagined by Burroughs, hung in the hallway outside Sagan's office in Cornell University. The author so influenced real exploration of Mars that an impact crater was named after him.


title: Barsoom

text: Early science-fiction writers Ray Bradbury and Arthur C. Clarke both read and were inspired by the Barsoom books in their youth. The books were an inspiration for Bradbury's "The Martian Chronicles" (1950), in which he used the concept of a dying Mars.


title: Barsoom

text: Robert A. Heinlein also wrote fiction inspired by Burroughs' Barsoom series, and for many others the Barsoom series helped to establish Mars as an adventurous, enticing destination for the imagination.


title: Barsoom

text: The "Warriors of Mars" rules for miniature warfare by Gary Gygax and Brian Blume were controversial, and a legal dispute with the owners of the rights to the Barsoom series led to withdrawal of this title from the market.


title: Barsoom

text: Other games include the role-playing game published by Heritage Models, Inc. in 1978 and SPI's (Simulations Publications, Inc.) Boardgame: "" published in 1979.


title: Barsoom

text: Numerous novels and series by others were inspired by Burroughs' Mars books: the Radio Planet trilogy of Ralph Milne Farley; the Mars and Venus novels of Otis Adelbert Kline; "Almuric" by Robert E. Howard; "Warrior of Llarn" and "Thief of Llarn" by Gardner Fox; "Tarzan on Mars" by John Bloodstone; the Michael Kane trilogy of Michael Moorcock; "The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath", Through the Gates of the Silver Key by H.P. Lovecraft, the Gor series of John Norman; the Callisto series and Green Star series of Lin Carter; "The Goddess of Ganymede" and "Pursuit on Ganymede" by Mike Resnick; and the Dray Prescot series of Alan Burt Akers (Kenneth Bulmer). In addition, Leigh Brackett, Ray Bradbury, Andre Norton, Marion Zimmer Bradley, and Alan Dean Foster show Burroughs' influence in their development of alien cultures and worlds.


title: Barsoom

text: Robert A. Heinlein's novels "Glory Road" and "The Number of the Beast", and Alan Moore's graphic novels of "Allan and the Sundered Veil" and "The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II" directly reference Barsoom.


title: Barsoom

text: In Philip José Farmer's "World of Tiers" series (1965–1993) Kickaha, the series' adventurer protagonist, asks his friend The Creator of Universes to create for him a Barsoom. The latter agrees only to make an empty world, since "It would go too far for me to create all these fabulous creatures only for you to amuse yourself by running your sword through them." Kickaha visits from time to time the empty Barsoom, complete with beautiful palaces in which nobody ever lived, but goes away frustrated.


title: Barsoom

text: L. Sprague de Camp's story "Sir Harold of Zodanga" recasts and rationalizes Barsoom as a parallel world visited by his dimension-hopping hero Harold Shea. De Camp accounts for Burroughs' departures from physics or logic by portraying both Burroughs and Carter as having a tendency to exaggerate in their storytelling, and Barsoomian technology as less advanced than usually presented.


title: Barsoom

text: In 1989 Larry Niven and Steven Barnes published "The Barsoom Project", the second in the "Dream Park" series, where a Martian terraforming and colonization project is named after the "Barsoom" books.


title: Barsoom

text: The 2008 novel In the Courts of the Crimson Kings by S.F. writer S. M. Stirling is an alternate telling of the "Princess of Mars" story but this time the princess is a very powerful character indeed.


title: Barsoom

text: Richard Corben's "Den" series also appears to be inspired by the "Barsoom" series. It features a hero, Den, who mysteriously arrives naked on a (largely) desert planet where he becomes a great warrior and where the humanoids wear no clothes. Many of the creatures resemble the description of the white apes of the "Gods of Mars". Like John Carter, he also receives great physical prowess from arriving in Neverwhere, although Carter's prowess stems from gravity, whereas Den undergoes a complete physical transformation.


title: Barsoom

text: In "A Wizard of Mars" by Diane Duane, the main character Kit is a major fan of the Barsoom series and a long dormant wizard artifact recreates Barsoom as Kit imagines it to communicate with him.


title: Barsoom

text: "", a short story by George Alec Effinger, published in "", is a crossover between the Barsoom series and H. G. Wells' "The War of the Worlds" – with Wells' Martians being depicted as a malevolent additional Barsoomian race and John Carter fighting them to help foil their invasion of Earth.


title: Barsoom

text: In the first chapters of Gore Vidal's novel "Washington, D.C.", the character Peter Sanford – sixteen at the outset of the plot – indulges in vivid and detailed fantasies of being John Carter, and adds explicit erotic scenes not appearing in the original Burroughs books.


title: Barsoom

text: In Karl Schroeder's novel "Lockstep", set over 14,000 years in the future, Mars has been terraformed and is renamed Barsoom, with its human inhabitants no longer remembering that the world was ever named Mars. This Barsoom is covered in canals and ruins from the civilizations of previous millennia, and is also mentioned to be inhabited by genetically engineered Tharks. The ruler of Barsoom is also the son of a man named Carter.


title: Barsoom

text: The science fiction poems in Oscar Hurtado's book "" ("The Dead City of Korad", in Spanish) are full of intertextualities with the "Barsoom" series, as well as with the Sherlock Holmes novels by Arthur Conan Doyle, the Iliad, children folk tales, and other references.


title: Barsoom

text: "The Dead City of Korad" was published in 1964 and marks the beginning of the Science Fiction genre in Cuba.


title: Barsoom

text: With the "Tarzan" comic strip a popular success, newspapers began a comic strip adaptation of "A Princess of Mars" drawn by Edgar Rice Burroughs' son, John Coleman Burroughs. Never as popular as "Tarzan", the strip ran in only four Sunday newspapers, from December 7, 1941 to March 28, 1943 for a total of 73 installments.


title: Barsoom

text: Fifteen years later, the British tabloid paper "British Sun Weekly" ran a newspaper strip also based on the first Barsoom novel titled "The Martian". This adaptation was written by D.R. Morton and drawn by Robert Forest, the strip ran as a weekly serial from October 25, 1958 to May 23, 1959 for a total of 31 installments.


title: Barsoom

text: From October 16, 1994 to August 13, 1995, writer Don Kraar and artist Gray Morrow set an arc first in Pellucidar and then on Barsoom featuring Tarzan, David Innes, and John Carter in a crossover adventure through their respective worlds. This storyline was the last Sunday strip installment to feature Carter, Barsoom and the worlds outside of Tarzan.


title: Barsoom

text: "Princess of Mars" was a 2009 direct-to-video film produced by The Asylum and starring Antonio Sabato Jr. as John Carter and Traci Lords as Dejah Thoris. This adaptation starts with John Carter as a wounded present-day sniper in Afghanistan who is teleported to another world as part of a government experiment.


title: Barsoom

text: "John Carter", released on March 9, 2012, was a big-budget but critically mediocre and financially unsuccessful live-action film by The Walt Disney Company, directed by Andrew Stanton and starring Taylor Kitsch as John Carter and Lynn Collins as Dejah Thoris.


title: G1 Climax

text: The is a professional wrestling tournament held each August by the New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) promotion. Though it has sometimes been held as a single-elimination tournament, it is usually (and currently) held as a round-robin, with winners from two pools wrestling in the final to decide that year's winner. In its current format, the tournament lasts four weeks. The winner of each pool is determined by a points system; two points for a victory, one point for a draw (time limit only), and zero points for a loss, no contest or double decision.


title: G1 Climax

text: NJPW had an annual tournament since 1974 under various names: the (1974–1977, based on the World (Big) League tournament from the old Japanese Wrestling Association held between 1959 and 1972); the (1978–1982); the (1983–1988), "IWGP" is the acronym of NJPW's governing body, the International Wrestling Grand Prix (インターナショナル・レスリング・グラン・プリ, "intānashonaru resuringu guran puri"). Most of these tournaments were dominated by NJPW's founding top star Antonio Inoki.


title: G1 Climax

text: Although the 1983 winner, Hulk Hogan, was awarded a championship belt, this is not the beginning of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, but its early version that was defended annually against the winner of the IWGP League of the year. The current IWGP Heavyweight Championship arrived only in 1987, replacing the old version.


title: G1 Climax

text: In 1989, there was a , which included wrestlers from the then-Soviet Union. No tournament was held in 1990.


title: G1 Climax

text: With Inoki's dominance over NJPW gone, the promotion established the G1 Climax tournament in 1991 as a platform to showcase the company's top heavyweights and have them compete in round-robin matches where the winners of the two divisions would then square off in the tournament final. NJPW's then president Seiji Sakaguchi named the tournament after the G1 horse race. Though considered a continuation of the previous tournaments, officially NJPW does not recognize the earlier tournaments as part of the G1 Climax lineage. The first G1 was held from August 7 to August 11, 1991, at Tokyo's Ryōgoku Kokugikan. The winner of the tournament, assuming they are not already the champion, has traditionally earned a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. Since 2012, the winner has earned the "Tokyo Dome IWGP Heavyweight Championship challenge rights certificate", a contract for a title shot at NJPW's largest event, Wrestle Kingdom in Tokyo Dome, held annually on January 4. Much like WWE's Money in the Bank contract, the certificate is kept in a briefcase that the wrestler then has to defend until the end of the year. Since its inception, the contract has only changed hands one time, on November 7, 2020 at Power Struggle when Jay White defeated Kota Ibushi. In 2021, the now retired IWGP Heavyweight Championship belt was given to G1 winner Kazuchika Okada instead of a briefcase. In 2015, the tournament format was changed with NJPW reducing the number of G1 Climax matches per show, giving the participating wrestlers more time to rest between matches. This increased the tournament's length to four weeks. In 2016, Kenny Omega became the first non-Japanese wrestler to win the tournament.


title: G1 Climax

text: The G1 Climax tournament has often been used as a platform for NJPW to push their rising stars. Wins by young up-and-comers over Japanese legends would usually take their respective careers to new heights. The first tournament was specifically created to make stars out of Keiji Mutoh, Masahiro Chono and Shinya Hashimoto, three NJPW wrestlers who had just returned to the promotion from their overseas learning excursions. Past winners include Mutoh, Chono, Hashimoto, Yuji Nagata, Hiroshi Tanahashi, and others who have gone on to become wrestling superstars.


title: G1 Climax

text: Unlike the New Japan Cup, the G1 Climax features the then-reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion as one of the participants, except in 1992, 2001, 2004 and 2008, when then-champions Riki Choshu (in 1992), Kazuyuki Fujita (in 2001 and 2004), and Keiji Mutoh (in 2008), respectively, did not compete in the tournament. Often being labeled as a favorite to win the tournament, the IWGP Heavyweight Champion has reached the final five times, the first one being in 1995 when Keiji Mutoh won the tournament. Mutoh would repeat this feat again in 1999, but would lose the final to Manabu Nakanishi. Other then-reigning champions to reach the final include Kensuke Sasaki in 2000, Kazuyuki Fujita in 2005 and Yuji Nagata in 2007. Mutoh and Sasaki are the only two wrestlers to have won the G1 Climax while holding the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. Overall, Antonio Inoki holds the record for most tournament wins with ten, while Masahiro Chono with his five wins holds the record for most tournament wins under its G1 Climax name. Hiroyoshi Tenzan has taken part in the G1 Climax tournament a record 21 times.


title: G1 Climax

text: The opening night of the 2019 G1 Climax took place in Dallas, Texas, marking the first time the opening night took place outside Japan.


title: G1 Climax

text: The finals for the 2020 G1 Climax took place in October due to the Summer Olympics originally intended to be held in Tokyo when the tournament is usually held, making this the first time the tournament took place in the Autumn.


title: G1 Climax

text: The longest match in tournament history is Kota Ibushi vs. Sanada in the 2020 finals at 35 minutes and 12 seconds. The longest match with a decisive winner in the block stages of the tournament is Sanada vs. Kazuchika Okada in the 2019 tournament at 29 minutes and 47 seconds, 13 seconds shy of the 30-minute time limit. Conversely, the shortest match is Hirooki Goto vs. Toru Yano in the 2020 tournament at just 18 seconds.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1974 World League ran from April 5 to May 8, 1974. The tournament began with 16 wrestlers, eight Japanese and eight Internationals (called "gaijin," the Japanese term for foreigners), placed into groups accordingly. All first round matches featured the Japanese against the Internationals. The top four finishers from both groups advanced to a second round of round-robin competition.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1975 World League ran from April 4 to May 16, 1975. The tournament featured 16 wrestlers, but the Locals versus Internationals format was abolished. The top five finishers advanced to a knockout round, with the top finisher receiving a bye to the final.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1976 World League ran from April 2 to May 11, 1976. The tournament featured 14 wrestlers. The top finisher advanced to the final match of the tournament, to face the winner of a three-wrestler round-robin semifinal round.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1983 International Wrestling Grand Prix ran from May 6 to June 2, 1983. The tournament featured 10 wrestlers. The winner was awarded a championship belt (this was not the beginning of the current IWGP Heavyweight Championship, but an early version defended annually against the winner of the IWGP League of the year).


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1984 International Wrestling Grand Prix ran from May 11 to June 14, 1984. The tournament featured 12 wrestlers, and was the first time that the tournament featured no sort of final round.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1985 International Wrestling Grand Prix ran from May 10 to June 15, 1985. The tournament featured 13 wrestlers, and was single-elimination. This was the first time the tournament did not feature a points system.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1986 International Wrestling Grand Prix ran from May 16 to June 19, 1986. The tournament featured the return of the points system, with 14 wrestlers in two blocks of seven each. The top two from each block advanced to a knockout stage. The winner won the vacated IWGP Heavyweight Championship (original version).


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1987 International Wrestling Grand Prix ran from May 11 to June 12, 1987. The tournament featured 14 wrestlers in two blocks of seven each. The top finishers from each block advanced to the final, with the winner becoming the first IWGP Heavyweight Champion. Tatsumi Fujinami missed the tournament due to an injury he suffered on the "IWGP Champion Series" tour, but acted as a commentator for the final match.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1988 International Wrestling Grand Prix ran from July 15 to July 29, 1988. The tournament featured five wrestlers in a single block, with the winner becoming the number one contender to IWGP Heavyweight Champion Tatsumi Fujinami for August 8.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1989 World Cup Tournament was held from November 24 to December 7, 1989. The tournament featured 20 wrestlers in four blocks of five each.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1991 G1 Climax was a round-robin tournament consisting of two four-man blocks, and running from August 7 to August 11, 1991.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1992 G1 Climax was a 16-man single-elimination tournament, and was also for the vacant NWA World Heavyweight Championship. It ran from August 6 to August 12, 1992. Terry Taylor advanced to the quarterfinals, due to a shoulder injury suffered by his scheduled opponent Hiroshi Hase on August 3.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1993 G1 Climax was once again a 16-man single-elimination tournament, held from August 3 to August 7, 1993. NJPW invited several non-NJPW wrestlers to participate in the 1993 tournament, including Hiromichi Fuyuki, Ashura Hara, Takashi Ishikawa and The Great Kabuki from WAR, and Yoshiaki Fujiwara from Pro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1994 G1 Climax returned to the round-robin format, this time with two blocks of six. It was held from August 3 to August 7, 1994. Guest natives included Yoshiaki Fujiwara from Pro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi and Yoshiaki Yatsu from Social Progress Wrestling Federation (SPWF).


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1995 G1 Climax was another eight-man round-robin tournament held August 11 to August 15, with the addition that the top two scorers from each block would advance to a four-man mini-tournament to decide the winner.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1996 G1 Climax was held from August 2 to August 6, 1996, and was a round-robin tournament featuring two blocks of five. Junji Hirata suffered an injury during his match with Kensuke Sasaki, which caused him to forfeit his remaining matches.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1997 G1 Climax was a 14-man single-elimination tournament, with Kensuke Sasaki and Buff Bagwell receiving byes to the quarterfinals. The tournament was held from August 1 to August 3.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 1998 G1 Climax was another 16-man single-elimination tournament, held between July 31 and August 2. Genichiro Tenryu, who had separated from his own WAR promotion to become a freelancer since early in the year, was invited.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2000 G1 Climax was a round-robin tournament, featuring four blocks of five, with each block champion advancing to a four-man tournament to decide that year's winner; it was held from August 7 to August 13. Also note that the points system was modified from the original: 1 point for a victory, and zero points for a draw or loss. This was the first time that two recognized junior heavyweights; IWGP titleholder Tatsuhito Takaiwa and previous champion Jyushin Thunder Liger, were invited to compete in the heavyweight tournament.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2001 G1 Climax was a two-block, twelve-man round-robin tournament held from August 4 to August 12. It returned to the original method of scoring, and also reintroduced the 1995 G1's format of each block's top two scorers advancing to the final four. Jyushin Thunder Liger and Minoru Tanaka were the junior heavyweight invitees.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2002 G1 Climax was identical in structure to the previous year's, and was held from August 3 to August 11.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2003 G1 Climax was another 12-man round-robin tournament, held from August 10 to August 17. Jun Akiyama from Pro Wrestling Noah, along with freelancer Yoshihiro Takayama were invitees.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2004 G1 Climax was a two-block, sixteen-man tournament held from August 7 to August 15. As well as the increased number of participants, it introduced a format in which the second and third runners-up from each block would advance to a four-man tournament, the two finalists of which would advance to a second four-man tournament also featuring each block winner; the eventual winner of this tournament would win the G1 Climax. Also, it would seem that, for this particular year, matches which ended in a double countout or double disqualification would result in zero points for both competitors.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2005 G1 Climax was another 16-man round-robin tournament, held from August 4 to August 14. It returned to the format of 2003, eliminating the "quarterfinals" seen in 2004, and simply bringing each block's top two scorers into the final four.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2008 G1 Climax, featuring fourteen men in two blocks, was held from August 9 to August 17 over seven shows.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2009 G1 Climax, featuring fourteen men in two blocks, was held from August 7 to August 16 over eight shows. In a tournament first, the exact tie for first place in Block A between Togi Makabe and Hiroshi Tanahashi was decided by a coin toss.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2010 version of the G1 Climax tournament was announced in late May 2010 and was the 20th anniversary of the G1 Climax tournament. The tournament took place over eight shows between August 6 and August 15, 2010. Naomichi Marufuji was scheduled to participate in the tournament, but was forced to pull out after suffering an arm injury on July 25. On August 5, NJPW announced that Prince Devitt would replace Marufuji in the tournament. With his victory, freelancer Satoshi Kojima became the third man to have won both the G1 Climax and All Japan Pro Wrestling's Champion Carnival.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2011 version of the G1 Climax tournament was announced on May 3, 2011. It took place over ten shows between August 1 and August 14 and included 20 participants, making it at the time the largest G1 Climax in history.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2012 version of the G1 Climax tournament took place over nine shows between August 1 and August 12 and included 18 participants. The 24-year-old Kazuchika Okada went on to become the youngest G1 Climax winner in history, breaking the previous record held by the then 27-year-old Masahiro Chono. Okada also became the first winner since Hirooki Goto to win the tournament in his first attempt. Karl Anderson became the first foreigner to make it to the final of the tournament since Rick Rude in 1992.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2013 version of the G1 Climax tournament took place over nine shows between August 1 and August 11 and included 20 participants. In an unprecedented move, NJPW broadcast all nine events live on internet pay-per-view (iPPV) through Niconico and Ustream. On August 8, NJPW announced that Hirooki Goto and Hiroyoshi Tenzan had suffered jaw and rib fractures respectively and would both miss the rest of the tournament.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2014 version of the G1 Climax tournament took place between July 21 and August 10 with the final taking place in Tokorozawa, Saitama at the Seibu Dome for the first time departing Ryōgoku Kokugikan, which housed the final from every year since the tournament began. With 22 participants, the tournament marked the largest G1 Climax in history. Like the previous year, all events in the tournament were made available on iPPV through Niconico and Ustream. Kota Ibushi was scheduled to take part in the tournament, but on July 18 NJPW announced that he would have to pull out due to a concussion suffered at the beginning of the month. The following day, Tomoaki Honma was named Ibushi's replacement in the tournament.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2015 version of the G1 Climax tournament took place between July 20 and August 16. Taking place over 19 shows, it was the longest G1 Climax in history. The final three days took place back at Ryōgoku Kokugikan. Participants in the tournament were announced on June 7. For the tournament, NJPW introduced a new format, where each show would only include five tournament matches all from the same block, giving the other participants more time to rest. Shinsuke Nakamura injured his left elbow in his second match, forcing him to forfeit his third match against Michael Elgin.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2016 version of the G1 Climax tournament took place between July 18 and August 14. On June 27, NJPW announced the participants, which included two outsiders; Pro Wrestling Noah's Katsuhiko Nakajima and Naomichi Marufuji. Originally, former three-time G1 Climax winner and the wrestler with the most G1 Climax appearances, Hiroyoshi Tenzan, was left out of the tournament. However, on July 3, Tenzan's longtime tag team partner Satoshi Kojima gave him his spot in the tournament. Afterwards, Tenzan confirmed this would be his last G1 Climax. In the final, Canadian Kenny Omega made history, becoming the first non-Japanese winner of the tournament under its G1 Climax name as well as the first man in four years to win the tournament in his first attempt.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2017 version of the G1 Climax tournament took place between July 17 and August 13. Prior to the tournament, NJPW held two "G1 Special" shows in Long Beach, California on July 1 and 2. On June 20, NJPW announced the participants in the tournament, which included one outsider: freelancer Kota Ibushi, competing in his third G1. Juice Robinson and Zack Sabre Jr. took part in their first G1 Climax tournament, while Yuji Nagata took part in his 19th and final tournament. The final match between Kenny Omega and Tetsuya Naito became the longest match in G1 Climax history, breaking the previous record from 2015. Following its conclusion, Dave Meltzer of the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" called the 2017 G1 Climax "the best in history".


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2018 version of the G1 Climax took place from July 14 until August 12. Due to renovations at Ryōgoku Kokugikan, the final three shows for the tournament took place at Nippon Budokan, representing New Japan's first shows at that arena since 2003. The announcement of the participants, blocks and schedule took place during the 2018 Kizuna Road shows. Hiroshi Tanahashi set a then record for most points set by a wrestler in a 20-man G1 Climax with 15 points. The final match was the longest match in G1 history until it was beaten in 2020.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2020 edition of the G1 Climax took place from September 19 until October 18 with the final three days being held at Ryōgoku Kokugikan. This is the first time the tournament will not be held in the summer but in the autumn. This was due to the 2020 Summer Olympics, which were originally scheduled to be held at the same time when the tournament is usually held prior to the postponement of the Olympics due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The final match became the longest match in G1 Climax history surpassing the previous record in 2018. Kota Ibushi became the third wrestler along with Masahiro Chono and Hiroyoshi Tenzan to win two consecutive G1 Climax tournaments and the first wrestler to reach the finals for the third time in a row.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2021 edition of the G1 Climax was announced on July 8 and took place from September 18 until October 21 with the finals taking place at Nippon Budokan. Kazuchika Okada and Jeff Cobb set the record for the most points in a 20-man G1 with 16 points each, Cobb also set the record for most consecutive wins in a single G1 Climax with 8 wins in a row. Kota Ibushi also made his fourth consecutive appearance in a G1 final. Okada would win the G1, defeating Kota Ibushi on the tournament final by referee stoppage.


title: G1 Climax

text: The 2022 edition of the G1 Climax was announced on April 9 at Hyper Battle and took place from July 16 until August 18, returning the G1 to the summer. This edition consisted of 28 participants across 4 blocks.


title: G1 Climax

text: The Final match was between Kazuchika Okada and Will Ospreay, which Okada won by pinfall, marking Okada's 4th G1 Climax victory and becoming the 4th wrestler to win two consecutive G1 Climax tournaments, alongside Masahiro Chono, Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Kota Ibushi.


title: Phossy jaw

text: Phossy jaw, formally known as phosphorus necrosis of the jaw, was an occupational disease affecting those who worked with white phosphorus (also known as "yellow phosphorus") without proper safeguards. It was most commonly seen in workers in the matchstick industry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was caused by white phosphorus vapor, which destroys the bones of the jaw. Modern occupational hygiene practices have since eliminated the working conditions that caused this disease.


title: Phossy jaw

text: Those with phossy jaw would usually begin suffering painful toothaches and swelling of the gums. The pain was characterized as "persistent yet progressive ... spreading to neighboring teeth and jawbone". Over time, pus formation developed penetrating the oral mucosa with the formation of fistula, tooth loss, and recurrent abscesses. Further progression led to the formation of sequestrum (dead bone that has separated from living bone) after three months and necrosis of the jaw within six months. The distinguishing feature of this disease was the eventual separation of the sequestrum which was described as porous and light in weight. The lower jaw was more commonly affected than the upper jaw. Affected bones glowed a greenish-white colour in the dark. The condition also affected the brain, provoking seizures in some chronic cases.


title: Phossy jaw

text: Treatments included topical antimicrobials, conservative debridement of sequestra and surgery. Surgical removal of the afflicted jaw bones could save the patient; otherwise, death from organ failure would follow. The disease was extremely painful and disfiguring to the patient, with dying bone tissue rotting away accompanied by a foul-smelling discharge. Removal of the jaw bone also had serious effects on patients' ability to eat, leading to further health concerns including malnutrition.


title: Phossy jaw

text: The clinical features appear first, pain in the teeth and jaw, abscesses, etc. as described above. Once the clinical changes occur, and the problem is made known, a doctor or dentist could see changes in the jaw bones through radiographs or X-rays. The sequestra, the part or parts of the bone that dies and breaks off are light in terms of weight and yellow to brown in color. Thus phossy jaw can be clearly demarcated from similar entities by radiographs. In radiographs, the sequestra present as a typical worm-eaten appearance similar to a pumice stone. Sequestra appear osteoporotic and decalcified. Separation of the dead bone from the surrounding bone appears clearly demarcated in the radiographs.


title: Phossy jaw

text: The first case of phossy jaw was diagnosed by Friedrich Wilhelm Lorinser, a doctor of Vienna in 1839. The patient was a female Viennese matchstick maker who had been exposed to the phosphorus vapors over a five-year period. He named the disease "Phosphorimus chronicus". In 1844, Lorinser reported 22 cases of phossy jaw, and established the toxic effects of white phosphorus in matchsticks.


title: Phossy jaw

text: The Grand Duchy of Finland, part of the Russian Empire, in 1872, was the first country to place an absolute ban on the manufacture, use, and sale of white phosphorus in matches, followed by Denmark in 1874 and France in 1897. In Great Britain, a ban on white phosphorus matches became effective on January 1, 1910. The international association for labor legislation, an international conference, met at Berne, Switzerland, in 1906 and pledged to prohibit the manufacture, importation, and sale of white phosphorus matches. This treaty was signed by Finland, Denmark, France, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Italy, the Netherlands, and Germany, in what is considered as the first international attempt to ban an industrial product.


title: Phossy jaw

text: Phossy jaw was publicized by the American Association for Labor Legislation, whose secretary, John B. Andrews, began investigating the disease in 1909 and found more than 100 cases. This report was published in the "Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor". The White Phosphorus Match Act of 1912, signed by President William Howard Taft on April 9, 1912, required manufacturers who used white phosphorus to register with district collectors of internal revenue and to file periodic notices and returns; levied a tax of two cents per hundred matches; and required makers of white-phosphorus matches to affix revenue stamps to the matchboxes.


title: Phossy jaw

text: Russia placed a heavy tax on white phosphorus matches in 1892 which was doubled in 1905. By 1906 the production of white phosphorus matches had been reduced to one match in every fifty. India and Japan banned the use of white phosphorus in 1919 after the United States, followed by China's ban on white phosphorus usage in match production in 1925.


title: Phossy jaw

text: White phosphorus was the active ingredient of most matches from the 1840s to the 1910s. Concern over phossy jaw contributed to the London matchgirls strike of 1888, and although this strike did not end the use of white phosphorus, William Booth and The Salvation Army opened a match-making factory in 1891 which used the much safer, though more expensive, red phosphorus. The Salvation Army also campaigned with local retailers to get them to sell only red phosphorus matches.


title: Phossy jaw

text: However, it was not until the use of white phosphorus was prohibited by the international Berne Convention in 1906, and these provisions were implemented in national laws over the next few years, that industrial use ceased.


title: Phossy jaw

text: In phossy jaw patients, the forensic evidence suggested the conversion of yellow phosphorus to potent amino bisphosphonates by natural chemical reactions in the human body. Yellow phosphorus has a simple chemistry; when combined with HO and molecules from respiration and some amino acids such as lysine, bisphosphonates result.


title: Phossy jaw

text: A related condition, bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw (BON), has been described as a side-effect of amino-bisphosphonates, a class of phosphorus-based drugs that inhibit bone resorption and are used widely for treating osteoporosis, bone disease in cancer and some other conditions. BON, sometimes called "bis-phossy jaw", is primarily associated with the use of intravenous bisphosphonates in the treatment of cancer. The percentage incidence of BON from this use is approximately 1000 times higher than the incidence of BON caused by the use of oral bisphosphonates.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: Carrier-based aircraft, sometimes known as carrier-capable aircraft or carrier-borne aircraft, are naval aircraft designed for operations from aircraft carriers. They must be able to launch in a short distance and be sturdy enough to withstand the abrupt forces of launching from and recovering on a pitching deck. In addition, their wings are generally able to fold up, easing operations in tight quarters.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: Such aircraft are designed for many purposes including air-to-air combat, surface attack, anti-submarine warfare (ASW), search and rescue (SAR), transport (COD), weather observation, reconnaissance and airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) duties.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: The term is generally applied only to fixed-wing aircraft, as naval helicopters are able to operate from a wider variety of ships, including helicopter carriers, destroyers, frigates and container ships.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: The 1903 advent of fixed-wing aircraft was followed in 1910 by the first flight of an aircraft from the deck of an anchored warship (the United States Navy's ), and in 1912, by the first flight of an aircraft from the deck of a warship underway (the Royal Navy's ). Seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, such as , followed. This evolution was well underway by the early 1920s, resulting in ships such as (1918), (1922), (1922), and (1927). With these developments, the need for specialized aircraft adapted for take-offs and landings from the flight decks of those ships became recognized.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: The significance of air power grew between the wars, driven by the increased range, carrying power, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft, until it became impossible to disregard its importance during World War II, following the loss of many warships to aircraft, including the sinking of "Prince of Wales" and "Repulse", the Battle of Taranto, the Attack on Pearl Harbor and numerous other incidents. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: Modern carrier-based aircraft are built in mainly three different versions to suit the needs of its various users.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: CATOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. Under this technique, aircraft are launched using a catapult-assisted take-off and landing on the ship using arresting wires. Although this system is more costly than alternative methods, it provides greater flexibility in carrier operations, since it allows the aircraft to operate with higher payloads. Ships with CATOBAR currently include the U.S. , the U.S. "Gerald R. Ford"-class, and France's .


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: The use of catapults allows an aircraft carrier to launch large fixed-wing aircraft. For example, the U.S. Navy launches its E-2 Hawkeye AEW aircraft and C-2A Greyhound cargo aircraft with catapults.


title: Carrier-based aircraft

text: STOVL take-offs are accomplished with "ski-jumps", instead of a catapult. STOVL use usually allows aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, while avoiding the complexity of a catapult. The best known example is the Hawker Siddeley Harrier Jump Jet, despite being capable of VTOL take-offs, is usually operated as a STOVL aircraft to increase its fuel and weapons load.