title: Roman Curia

text: The Section for Education collaborates with the diocesan/episcopal Bishops, the Bishops' Conferences and the Oriental Hierarchical Structures so that the fundamental principles of education, especially Catholic Education, may be received and deepened so that they may be implemented contextually and culturally. It is competent to carry out the formalities necessary for the recognition by States of academic degrees granted in the name of the Holy See and to approve and erect Institutes of Higher Studies and other ecclesiastical academic institutions.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Work for Ecclesiastical Vocations is tasked to promotes vocations to the priesthood of the Catholic Church. It is responsible to intensify the desire for promoting, safeguarding, and assisting ecclesiastical vocations; to disseminate an accurate notion of the dignity and necessity of the Catholic priesthood; and to call the faithful of the whole world into a close union of prayers and pious exercises. The President of the Commission is the "ex officio" Prefect of the Dicastery.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Dicastery for Culture and Education also coordinates the activity of some Pontifical Academies, some of which are of ancient foundation, in which the major international personalities of the theological and humanistic sciences are co-opted, chosen from among believers and non- believers. These are currently the:


title: Roman Curia

text: The Dicastery for the Service of Integral Human Development has the task of promoting the human person and his or her God-given dignity, human rights, health, justice and peace. It is primarily concerned with issues related to the economy and work, care for creation and the earth as "common home," migration and humanitarian emergencies. It deepens and disseminates the Church's social teaching on integral human development and recognizes and interprets in the light of the Gospel the needs and concerns of humankind in its own time and in the future. The Dicastery collaborates with the works of the Holy See for humanitarian aid in crisis areas, cooperating with ecclesial humanitarian intervention and development agencies. The current Prefect is Michael Cardinal Czerny, S.J.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Vatican COVID-19 Commission was created to express the Church's solicitude and care for the whole human family facing the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on a wealth of expertise from local communities, global platforms, and academic experts, the Commission seeks bold, broad changes: dignity in work, new structures for the common good, solidarity at the heart of governance, and nature in harmony with social systems. The President of the commission is the "ex officio" Prefect of the Dicastery.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Dicastery for Legislative Texts promotes and spreads within the Church the knowledge and acceptance of the canon law of the Latin Church and that of the Eastern Churches and offers assistance in its correct application. It carries out its duties in the service of the Roman Pontiff, of the curial institutions and offices, of the diocesan/eparchal Bishops, of the Episcopal Conferences, of the Eastern hierarchical structures, and also of the supreme moderators of the Institutes of Consecrated Life and of the Societies of Apostolic Life of pontifical right. In carrying out its tasks, it avails itself of the collaboration of canonists belonging to different cultures and working on different continents. It promotes the study of the Canon Law of the Latin Church and of the Eastern Churches and of other legislative texts by organizing interdicasterial meetings, conferences and by promoting associations of international and national canonists. The current Prefect is Archbishop Filippo Iannone, O. Carm.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Dicastery for Communication deals with the entire communication system of the Apostolic See and, in structural unity and with respect for the relative operational characteristics, unifies all the realities of the Holy See in the field of communication, so that the entire system responds coherently to the needs of the Church's evangelizing mission in a context characterized by the presence and development of digital media, by the factors of convergence and interactivity. The Dicastery provides for the needs of the Church's evangelizing mission using the production models, technological innovations and forms of communication currently available and those that may develop in the time to come. In addition to the expressly operative functions assigned to it, also deepens anddevelops the theological and pastoral aspects of the Church's communicative activity. The current Prefect is Dr. Paolo Ruffini.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Vatican press operates in the technological and productive sector, taking forward carrying out all the activities related to the printing and the packaging of the Pontifical documents, and the official documents of the various dicasteries and offices of the Holy See and the Vatican City State. In addition, it also prints the Vatican Newspaper "L’Osservatore Romano", and it takes care of other editorial products publications of the entities connected to the Holy See.


title: Roman Curia

text: The "Osservatore Romano" is the daily newspaper of Vatican City State which reports on the activities of the Holy See and events taking place in the Church and the world. The current Director Manager is Professor Andrea Monda.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Holy See Press Office publishes the official news of the activities of the Holy Father and of the various departments of the Holy See. This includes speeches, messages, and other documents, as well as statements issued by the Director of the Press Office. The current Director is Matteo Bruni.


title: Roman Curia

text: The service of the Tribunals is one of the essential functions in the government of the Church. The objective of this service, pursued by each of the Bodies for the forum of its own competence, is that of the mission proper to the Church: to announce and inaugurate the Kingdom of God and to work, through the order of justice applied with canonical equity, for the salvation of souls, which in the Church is always the supreme law.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Apostolic Penitentiary, more formally the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Penitentiary, is one of the three tribunals of the Roman Curia. The Apostolic Penitentiary is responsible for issues relating to the forgiveness of sins in the Roman Catholic Church. The Apostolic Penitentiary has jurisdiction only over matters in the internal forum. Its work falls mainly into these categories:


title: Roman Curia

text: The Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura is the highest judicial authority in the Catholic Church besides the Pope himself, who is the supreme ecclesiastical judge. In addition, it is an administrative office for matters pertaining to the judicial activity of the whole church.


title: Roman Curia

text: Appeals in standard judicial processes, if appealed to the Apostolic See, normally are not handled by the Signatura. Those go to the Roman Rota, which is the ordinary appellate tribunal of the Apostolic See. The Supreme Tribunal handles some of the more specialized kinds of cases, including the following:


title: Roman Curia

text: Although a Rotal decision can be appealed, if not "res judicata", to a different panel ("turnus") of the Rota, there is no right of appeal from a decision of the Signatura, although a complaint of nullity on formal grounds is possible. As an administrative office, it exercises jurisdiction (vigilance) over all the tribunals of the Catholic Church. It can also extend the jurisdiction of tribunals, grant dispensations for procedural laws, establish interdiocesan tribunals, and correct advocates.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Tribunal of the Roman Rota is the highest appellate tribunal. While usually trying cases in appeal in third instance (as is normally the case in the Eastern Catholic Churches), or even in second instance if appeal is made to it directly from the sentence of a tribunal of first instance, it is also a court of first instance for cases specified in the law and for others committed to the Rota by the Roman Pontiff. It fosters the unity of jurisprudence and, through its own sentences, is a help to lower tribunals.


title: Roman Curia

text: The greater part of its decisions concern the nullity of marriage. In such cases its competence includes marriages between two Catholics, between a Catholic and non-Catholic, and between two non-Catholic parties whether one or both of the baptized parties belongs to the Latin or an Eastern Rite.


title: Roman Curia

text: The court is named "Rota" (Latin for: wheel) because the judges, called "auditors", originally met in a round room to hear cases.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Council for the Economy has the task of supervising the structures and the administrative and financial activities of the Curial Institutions and of the Offices and Institutions connected with the Holy See or which refer to it, indicated in the list attached to its Statute. The Council for Economic Affairs shall exercise its functions in the light of the Church's social doctrine and in accordance with internationally recognized best practices in public administration, with a view to ethical and efficient administrative and financial management. The Council consists of eight Cardinals or Bishops, representing the universality of the Church, and seven lay persons, chosen from among experts of various nationalities. The fifteen members are appointed for five years by the Roman Pontiff.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Council submits for the approval of the Roman Pontiff guidelines and norms aimed at ensuring that:


title: Roman Curia

text: The Council examines the proposals put forward by the Secretariat for the Economy, as well as any suggestions presented by the various Administrations of the Holy See, the Authority for Supervisionand Financial Information and other entities indicated in its own Statutes.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Secretariat for the Economy performs the function of Papal Secretariat for economic and financial matters. It exercises control and vigilance in administrative, economic and financial matters over curial institutions, offices and institutions connected with the Holy See or which refer to it, as indicated in the list attached to the Statute of the Council for the Economy. It also exercises special control over Peter's Pence and over the other Papal Funds.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Body is divided into two functional areas: one for regulation, control and supervision in economic and financial matters, and the other for regulation, control and supervision in administrative matters. The Secretariat for the Economy:


title: Roman Curia

text: The Directorate for Human Resources of the Holy See is established in the Secretariat for the Economy. This office, in dialogue and cooperation with the Institutions concerned, deals with all matters concerning the position and working management of personnel and collaborators of the Institutions subject to the legislation of the Holy See. Among other responsibilities, through this Directorate, the Secretariat for Economic Affairs authorizes hiring, verifying all requirements, and approves the establishment plans of the Entities. The President of the Directorate is the "ex officio" Prefect of the Secretariat.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See deals with the "properties owned by the Holy See in order to provide the funds necessary for the Roman Curia to function". It was established by Pope Paul VI on 15 August 1967.


title: Roman Curia

text: It is responsible for the administration and management of the real and movable patrimony of the Holy See, intended to provide the resources necessary for the fulfillment of the function proper to the Roman Curia for the good and at the service of the particular Churches. The Holy See is responsible for administering the real and movable patrimony of those entities that have entrusted their assets to the Holy See, in accordance with the specific purpose for which the patrimony has been constituted and with the general policies and guidelines approved by the competent bodies. It also provides whatever is necessary for the ordinary activity of the Roman Curia, taking care of the treasury, accounting, purchases and other services. The internal organization of the Body is divided into three functional areas, which deal with property management, financial affairs and services. The current President is Bishop Nunzio Galantino.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Office of the Auditor General is entrusted with the task of auditing the consolidated financial statements of the Holy See. The Office shall have the task, according to the annual audit program approved by the Council for the Economy, of auditing the annual financial statements of the individual Curial Institutions and of the Offices and Institutions connected with the Holy See or which refer to it, which shall be included in the above-mentioned consolidated financial statements.


title: Roman Curia

text: At the request of the Council for the Economy, or of the Secretariat for the Economy, or of the Heads of the Entities and Administrations, it shall conduct audits on particular situations related to:


title: Roman Curia

text: The same audits may be initiated autonomously by the Auditor General, who shall inform the Cardinal Coordinator of the Council for the Economy in advance, stating the reasons for the audit. The current Auditor-General is Dr. Alessandro Cassinis Righini.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Commission, according to its own statute, is composed of several Members appointed for five years by the Roman Pontiff. The current President is Kevin Joseph Cardinal Farrell.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Investment Committee, a consultative body, is responsible for ensuring the ethical nature of the Holy See's investments in movable assets according to the Church's social doctrine and, at the same time, their profitability, adequacy and risk. The committee is composed, according to its own statute, of members and of high-profile professionals appointed for five years by the Roman Pontiff. The current President is Kevin Joseph Cardinal Farrell.


title: Roman Curia

text: The "Praedicate evangelium" reorganizes the Offices of the Roman Curia, comprising three main bodies.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Prefecture is responsible for internal order in the Pontifical Household and directs, with regard to discipline and service, all those who constitute the Chapel and the Pontifical Family. It is headed by a Prefect, assisted by the Regent, appointed for five years by the Roman Pontiff.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Prefecture of the Papal Household is responsible for the organization and conduct of pontifical ceremonies, excluding the strictly liturgical part, and establishes the order of precedence. It is his duty to order the service of the antechamber and to arrange for public, special and private audiences of the Roman Pontiff and visits to persons, in consultation, as often as circumstances require, with the Secretariat of State. He arranges everything that must be done when Heads of State, Heads of Government, Ministers of States, Public Authorities and other eminent persons, as well as Ambassadors, are received in solemn audience by the Pope himself.


title: Roman Curia

text: It deals with all that is related to the Spiritual Exercises of the Roman Pontiff, the College of Cardinals and the Roman Curia. It is the responsibility of the Prefecture to make preparations whenever the Roman Pontiff visits Vatican territory, Rome or travels in Italy. The Prefect assists him only on the occasion of meetings and visits in Vatican territory. The current Prefect is Archbishop Georg Gänswein.


title: Roman Curia

text: It is the responsibility of the Office for the Liturgical Celebrations of the Supreme Pontiff to prepare all that is necessary for liturgical celebrations and other sacred celebrations in the Vatican at which the Roman Pontiff, or – in his name or by his mandate – a Cardinal or Prelate, presides, participates or assists, and to direct them in accordance with the liturgical prescriptions in force, preparing all that is necessary or useful for their worthy conduct and for the active participation of the faithful. The Office shall also take care of the preparation and conduct of all the papal liturgical celebrations taking place during the pastoral visits of the Roman Pontiff on his apostolic journeys.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Office is headed by the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, appointed for five years by the Roman Pontiff. He is assisted in sacred celebrations by the Pontifical Masters of Ceremonies, appointed for five years by the Roman Pontiff. The Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations is also responsible for the Papal Sacristy and the Chapels of the Apostolic Palace. The current Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations is Monsignor Diego Giovanni Ravelli.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Musical Chorus of the Sistine Chapel is responsible for the task of guiding all the liturgical, pastoral, spiritual, artistic and educational activities and areas of the same Chapel, which is included in the Office as a specific place of service to the papal liturgical functions and at the same time for the custody and promotion of the prestigious artistic-musical heritage produced over the centuries by the Chapel itself for the solemn liturgies of the Popes. The Head of Pontifical Musical Chorus of the Sistine Chapel is the "ex officio" Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Cardinal Camerlengo of Holy Roman Church carries out the functions assigned to him by the special law concerning the vacant Apostolic See and the election of the Roman Pontiff. The Cardinal Camerlengo of Holy Roman Church and the Vice Camerlengo are appointed by the Roman Pontiff.


title: Roman Curia

text: The task of caring for and administering the goods and temporal rights of the Apostolic See during the time it is vacant is entrusted to the Cardinal Camerlengo of Holy Roman Church. Should he be impeded, the function will be assumed by the Vice Camerlengo. When the Apostolic See is vacant, it is the right and duty of the Cardinal Camerlengo of Holy Roman Church:


title: Roman Curia

text: There are some Institutes, both of ancient origin and of new constitution, which, although not properly part of the Roman Curia and having their own juridical personality, nevertheless provide various services necessary or useful to the Roman Pontiff himself, to the Roman Curia and to the universal Church, and are in some way connected with the Curia itself.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Labour Office of the Apostolic See is responsible for labor relations of the Holy See with its employees. The office also settles labor issues which arise. It was instituted by Pope John Paul II on 1 January 1989 by an apostolic letter in the form of a motu proprio. The activity of the Office relates to the labour, in all its forms and expressions, provided by personnel in the employ of the Roman Curia, of the Governorate of the Vatican City State, and of the Bodies or Institutions administratively managed directly by the Apostolic See. The current President is Bishop Giuseppe Sciacca.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Vatican Apostolic Archives is the institute that carries out its specific activity of safeguarding and enhancing the value of the acts and documents that concern the government of the universal Church, so that they may be available first of all to the Holy See and the Roman Curia in the performance of their activities and, secondly, by pontifical concession, they may represent for all scholars, without distinction of country or religion, sources for the knowledge, even secular, of the events that over time have been closely connected with the life of the Church. The current Archivist is José Tolentino Cardinal de Mendonça.


title: Roman Curia

text: An institution of ancient origin, the Vatican Library is a distinguished instrument of the Church for the development and dissemination of culture, in support of the activities of the Apostolic See. It has the task, through its various sections, of collecting and preserving an extremely rich patrimony of science and art and of making it available to scholars. The current Librarian is José Tolentino Cardinal de Mendonça.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Fabric of Saint Peter is responsible for all matters pertaining to the Papal Basilica of Saint Peter's, which houses the memory of the martyrdom and the tomb of the Apostle, both for the preservation and decorum of the building and for the internal discipline of the custodians and of pilgrims and visitors, according to its own norms. In necessary cases, the President and the Secretary of the Fabric act in agreement with the Chapter of the Basilica itself. The current President is Mauro Cardinal Gambetti, O.F.M. Conv.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Commission for Sacred Archaeology has the task of studying, preserving, protecting and enhancing the Christian catacombs of Italy, in which the testimonies of faith and art of the first Christian communities continue to transmit their profound message to pilgrims and visitors. The current President is Gianfranco Cardinal Ravasi.


title: Roman Curia

text: For the search for and dissemination of truth in the various fields of divine and human science, several Academies have arisen within the Catholic Church, among which the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences and the Pontifical Academy for Life stand out.


title: Roman Curia

text: In order to promote and develop a culture of quality within the academic institutions directly dependent on the Holy See and to assure them internationally valid criteria of quality, the Agency for the Evaluation and Promotion of Quality in Ecclesiastical Faculties is established. The current President is Father Andrzej Stefan Wodka, C.Ss.R.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Supervisory and Financial Information Authority is the institution which, in the manner provided for by law and by its own Statute, performs the functions of: supervision for the purposes of preventing and combating money laundering and the financing of terrorism with respect to entities and subjects subjected to its supervision; prudential supervision of entities that professionally carry out activities of a financial nature; prudential regulation of entities that professionally carry out activities of a financial nature and, in the cases provided for by law, in matters concerning the prevention of and fight against money laundering and terrorist financing. In this capacity it also carries out the financial information function. The current President is Dr. Carmelo Barbagallo.


title: Roman Curia

text: Domus Vaticanae is a merger of the four foundations dedicated to hospitality in the Vatican. It has merged the "Domus Sanctae Marthae", "Domus Romana Sacerdotalis", "Domus Internationalis Paulus VI", and "Casa San Benedetto" foundations into the new institution, which the pope established as a public canonical juridic person based in the Vatican City State.


title: Roman Curia

text: An interdicasterial commission is established to deal with matters involving the works of several institutions and dicasteries of the Roman Curia.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Permanent Interdicasterial Commission on Particular Churches is responsible for managing and taking care of the relationship and communication between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches. The President of the Commission is the "ex officio" Secretary of the State.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Permanent Interdicasterial Commission on Particular Churches is responsible to better deal with the rapidly changing situations in the early 1990s on Eastern Europe. The President of the Commission is the "ex officio" Secretary of the State.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Permanent Interdicasterial Commission on Particular Churches is responsible to better handle consecrated religious in missionary areas, mostly in Africa and Asia. The President of the Commission is the "ex officio" Pro-prefect for the Section of First Evangelization of the Dicastery for Evangelization.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Permanent Interdicasterial Commission for Candidates to Sacred Order is responsible for the selection of candidates for Holy Orders, including their human, spiritual, doctrinal and pastoral training in seminaries. The President of the Commission is the "ex officio" Prefect of the Dicastery for the Clergy.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Interdicasterial Commission for the Revision of the General Regulations of the Roman Curia is a temporary commission with the goal of preparing the implementation of the norms related to the new Apostolic Constitution "Praedicate evangelium", which was made public on 19 March 2022 and took effect on 5 June 2022. The President of the Commission is Archbishop Filippo Iannone, O. Carm.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Committee for International Eucharistic Congresses is responsible "to make ever better known, loved and served, Our Lord Jesus Christ in his Eucharistic Mystery, as centre of the life of the Church and of its mission for the salvation of the world” through the celebration of International Eucharistic Congresses. It also ensures the adequate pastoral preparation of these International Eucharistic Congresses and requests the Episcopal Conferences and Patriarchal Synods to appoint National Delegates, who will be committed to work for the preparation of the Congresses and, where necessary, set up National Eucharistic Committees with the approval and collaboration of the local ecclesiastical authority. The current President is Father Corrado Maggioni, S.M.M.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Committee for Historical Sciences is charged with promoting the use of ecclesiastical archives for historical research and fostering cooperation with ecclesiastical and extra-ecclesial institutions and associations, particularly at the international level. It sponsors seminars and conferences, both independently and in concert with peer organizations; reviews the historical data presented in the Pontifical Yearbook; collaborates with multinational scientific initiatives (UNESCO); and sponsors internships for the study of Latin and Greek. The current President is Father Bernard Ardura, O. Praem.


title: Roman Curia

text: The body called "Advocates of the Holy See" is composed mainly of advocates listed in the roster of advocates, and its members are able to undertake the representation of cases in civil or ecclesiastical tribunals in the name of the Holy See or the dicasteries of the Roman Curia. The President of the Commission is the "ex officio" prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Swiss Guards is a minor armed force and honour guard unit maintained by the Holy See that protects the pope and the Apostolic Palace within the territory of the Vatican City. Established in 1506 under Pope Julius II, the Pontifical Swiss Guard is among the oldest military units in continuous operation.They serve as personal escorts to the pontiff and as watchmen for Vatican City and the pontifical villa of Castel Gandolfo. The guards, who are independent of the Swiss armed forces, are employed by the Roman Catholic Church under the leadership of the pope, to whom they swear fealty in a ceremony at Belvedere Court.


title: Roman Curia

text: Established by John Paul II in 1981, the Disciplinary Commission of the Roman Curia rules whether an administrative sanction – i.e., suspension or firing – can be imposed on a Roman Curia official is pertinent or not. The current President is Prof. Vincenzo Buonomo.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Financial Security Committee is established for the purpose of coordinating the competent authorities of the Holy See and of Vatican City State for the prevention and countering of money laundering, the financing of terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Commission of Cardinals overseeing the Institute for Works of Religion is a body composed of a President and four member cardinals that oversees the Institute for Works of Religion, commonly known as the Vatican Bank, a financial institution situated inside Vatican City and run by a Board of Superintendence which reports to a Commission of Cardinals and the Pope. It is not a private bank, as there are no owners or shareholders, but it has been established in the form of a juridical canonical foundation, pursuant to its Statutes. The current President of the Commission is Santos Cardinal Abril y Castelló.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Commission for the Activities of Public Juridical Persons of the Church in the Healthcare Sector was designed as an organ of the Roman Curia, attached to the Secretariat of State and its regulations with the responsibility to control and supervise how the health facilities managed by religious congregations manage money and assets and to stay true to their founding mission and spirit. The current President of the Commission is Pietro Cardinal Parolin.


title: Roman Curia

text: The Pontifical Commission for the Verification and Application of "Mitis Iudex" in the Churches of Italy directly support the Churches that are in Italy in receiving the reform of the canonical process for the cases of declaration of nullity of marriage, giving new impetus to the application of the motu proprio "Mitis Iudex". A declaration of nullity – often referred to as an “annulment” – is a ruling by a tribunal that a marriage did not meet the conditions required to make it valid according to Church law.


title: Roman Curia

text: "Mitis Iudex Dominus Iesus", issued in 2015, made changes to canon law intended to streamline the process by which Church tribunals assess requests for declarations of the nullity of marriages. The text also emphasized the local bishop's role in the process. The current President is Monsignor Alejandro Arellano Cedillo, C.O.R.C.


title: Color mixing

text: There are three types of color mixing: "additive", "subtractive", and "average". In first two cases, mixing is typically described in terms of three primary colors and three secondary colors (colors made by mixing two of the three primary colors in equal amounts). Subtractive mixing with all three primaries will result in black, while additive mixing with all three primaries will result in white.


title: Color mixing

text: The additive mixing of colors is not commonly taught to children, as it does not correspond to the mixing of physical substances (such as paint) which would correspond to subtractive mixing. Two beams of light that are superimposed mix their colors additively.


title: Color mixing

text: By convention, the three primary colors in additive mixing are red, green, and blue. In the absence of light of any color, the result is black. If all three primary colors of light are mixed in equal proportions, the result is neutral (gray or white). When the red and green lights mix, the result is yellow. When green and blue lights mix, the result is cyan. When the blue and red lights mix, the result is magenta.


title: Color mixing

text: Red-green–blue additive mixing is used in television and computer monitors, including smartphone displays, to produce a wide range of colors. A screen pixel uses a juxtaposition of these three primary colors. Projection televisions sometimes have three projectors, one for each primary color.


title: Color mixing

text: The mixing of colored physical substances corresponds to subtractive color mixing, hence it corresponds to our intuition about mixing colors. To explain the mechanism, consider paint. Red paint is red because, when the ambient light strikes it, the composition of the material is such that it absorbs all other colors in the visible spectrum except for red. The red light, not being absorbed, is reflected by the paint and seen by our eyes. This same mechanism describes the color of material objects – note that light is not a material object – and so applies to the yellow paint as well. Making recourse to the figure above demonstrating additive color mixing, one sees that yellow light is composed of an (additive) mixture of red and green light. When we mix the two paints, the resulting substance has red paint and yellow paint. The yellow paint absorbs all colors except for red and green. However, the red paint will absorb the green reflected by the yellow paint. The red paint can be said to subtract the green from the yellow paint. The resulting paint reflects only red light and so appears red to our eyes. Note however that this description is theoretical and that the mixing of pigments does not correspond to ideal subtractive color mixing because some light from the subtracted color is still being reflected by one component of the original paint. This results in a darker and desaturated color compared to the color that would be achieved with ideal filters.


title: Color mixing

text: The three primary colors typically used in subtractive color mixing systems are cyan, magenta, and yellow, corresponding to the CMY color model and CMYK color model widely used in color printing. In subtractive mixing of color, the absence of color is white and the presence of all three primary colors makes a neutral dark gray or black. The secondary colors are the same as the primary colors from additive mixing and vice versa. Subtractive mixing is used to create a variety of colors when printing or painting on paper or other white substrates, by combining a small number of ink or paint colors. Red is created by mixing magenta and yellow (removing green and blue). Green is created by mixing cyan and yellow (removing red and blue respectively). Blue is created by mixing cyan and magenta (removing red and green). Black can be approximated by mixing cyan, magenta, and yellow, although real pigments are not ideal and so pure black is nearly impossible to achieve.


title: Color mixing

text: Average mixing obtains a new color out of two component colors, with brightness equal to the average of the two components. This is different from additive mixing, which results in a color lighter than the colors being mixed; and from subtractive mixing, which results in a color darker than the colors being mixed. Some examples of average mixing are: black and white averages to gray, and blue and red averages to purple. Average mixing has eight primary colors: white, cyan, magenta, yellow, red, green, blue, and black, and a maximum of four of those colors would be needed to archive a particular color, for example, using two colors that are part of a color wheel, along with white and black.


title: Color mixing

text: Another example of average mixing is different colors on a disk, which results in an average color when the disk spins fast enough.


title: Color mixing

text: Average mixing can be confused with subtractive mixing. For example, even though red and blue averages to purple, an attempt to make a particular shade of purple by mixing red and blue paint may fail, since there is no purple spectrum between the red and blue spectra.


title: Color mixing

text: In some case, paint mixing can result in average wavelength. For example, mixing blue and yellow usually results in some shade of green despite them being complementary colors, because there is a green spectrum between yellow spectrum and blue spectrum. It's also one reason why mixing red and blue along with white can result in gray, because red and blue averages to purple, but the average wavelength is green which is a complementary color of purple.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: Thaumaturgy is the purported capability of a magician to work magic or other paranormal events or a saint to perform miracles. It is sometimes translated into English as wonderworking.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: A practitioner of thaumaturgy is a "thaumaturge", "thaumaturgist", "thaumaturgus", "miracle worker", or "wonderworker". A 'saint', being one who is variably defined as having an exceptional degree of holiness, enlightenment, or likeness or closeness to God, may be claimed to have performed miracles; these generally being defined as exceptional events or deeds not within the normative means of natural or human power, instead being of some supernatural or preternatural manner. Although the definition of a 'miracle', like the definition of a 'saint', will vary yet further among separate religions, sects, and schools.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: The word "thaumaturgy" () derives from Greek "thaûma", meaning "miracle" or "marvel" (final "t" from genitive "thaûmatos") and "érgon", meaning "work".


title: Thaumaturgy

text: In the introduction of his translation of the "Spiritual Powers (神通 "Jinzū")" chapter of Dōgen's "Shōbōgenzō", Carl Bielefel refers to the powers developed by adepts of Buddhist meditation as belonging to the "thaumaturgical tradition". These powers, known as siddhi or abhijñā, were ascribed to the Buddha and subsequent disciples. Legendary monks like Bodhidharma, Upagupta, Padmasambhava, and others were depicted in popular legends and hagiographical accounts as wielding various supernatural powers.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: In Greek writings, the term "thaumaturge" referred to several Christian saints. The word is usually translated into English as "wonderworker": a saint through whom God works miracles, not just occasionally, but as a matter of course. Famous ancient Christian thaumaturges include Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 213–270), Saint Menas of Egypt (285–c. 309), Saint Nicholas (270–343), Anthony of Padua (1195–1231), Philomena ( 300 (?)), Ambrose of Optina (1812–1891), Gerard Majella (1726–1755) and John of Kronstadt (1829–1908). The Bishop of Fiesole, Andrew Corsini of the Carmelites (1302–1373), was also called a thaumaturge during his lifetime. The seventeenth-century Irish Franciscan editor, John Colgan, called the three early Irish saints, Patrick, Brigid, and Columba, thaumaturges in his "Acta Triadis Thaumaturgae" (Louvain, 1647).


title: Thaumaturgy

text: Godman is a colloquial term used in India for a type of charismatic guru. They usually have a high-profile presence, and are capable of attracting attention and support from large sections of the society. Godmen also sometimes claim to possess paranormal powers, such as the ability to heal, the ability to see or influence future events, and the ability to read minds.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: Miracles in the Qur'an can be defined as supernatural interventions in the life of human beings. According to this definition, miracles are present "in a threefold sense: in sacred history, in connection with the Islamic prophet Muhammad himself and in relation to revelation". The Qur'an does not use the technical Arabic word for miracle ("muʿjiza"), literally meaning "that by means of which [the Prophet] confounds, overwhelms, his opponents". It rather uses the term "āyah" "sign". The term "Ayah" is used in the Qur'an in the above mentioned threefold sense: it refers to the "verses" of the Qur'an (believed to be the divine speech in human language, presented by Muhammad as his chief miracle); as well as to miracles of it and the signs (particularly those of creation).


title: Thaumaturgy

text: In the Hermetic Qabalah mystical tradition, a person titled a magician has the power to make subtle changes in higher realms, which in turn produce physical results. For instance, if a Magician made slight changes in the world of formation ("Olam Yetzirah"), such as within the sephiroth of Yesod upon which Malkuth (the material realm) is based and within which all former sephiroth (Sefirot) are brought together, then these alterations would appear in the world of action ("Olam Assiah").


title: Thaumaturgy

text: In the 16th century, the word "thaumaturgy" entered the English language meaning miraculous or magical powers. The word was first anglicized and used in the magical sense in John Dee's book "Mathematicall Praeface to Euclid's Elements" (1570). He mentions an "art mathematical" called "thaumaturgy... which giveth certain order to make strange works, of the sense to be perceived and of men greatly to be wondered at".


title: Thaumaturgy

text: In Dee's time, "the Mathematicks" referred not merely to the abstract computations associated with the term today, but to physical mechanical devices which employed mathematical principles in their design. These devices, operated by means of compressed air, springs, strings, pulleys or levers, were seen by unsophisticated people (who did not understand their working principles) as magical devices which could only have been made with the aid of demons and devils.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: By building such mechanical devices, Dee earned a reputation as a conjurer "dreaded" by neighborhood children. He complained of this assessment in his "Mathematicall Praeface":


title: Thaumaturgy

text: In his book entitled, "The Gift of Death", deconstructionist philosopher Jacques Derrida refers to philosophy as thaumaturgy. The idea is taken from the fifth essay of Jan Patočka's work, "Heretical Essays in the History of Philosophy" Derrida's reading is based on a deconstruction of the origin of the concepts of responsibility, faith, and gift.


title: Thaumaturgy

text: The term thaumaturgy is used in various novels and games as a synonym for magic, a particular sub-school (often mechanical) of magic, or as the "science" of magic.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The history of video game consoles, both home and handheld, had their origins in the 1970s. The concept of home consoles used to play games on a television set was founded by the 1972 Magnavox Odyssey, first conceived by Ralph H. Baer in 1966. Handheld consoles bore out from electro-mechanical games that had used mechanical controls and light-emitting diodes (LED) as visual indicators. Handheld electronic games had replaced the mechanical controls with electronic and digital components, and with the introduction of Liquid-crystal display (LCD) to create video-like screens with programmable pixels, systems like the Microvision and the Game & Watch became the first handheld video game consoles, and fully realized by the Game Boy system.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Since then, home game consoles have progressed through technology cycles typically referred to as generations, each lasting approximately five years, during which competing manufacturers have produced consoles with similar specifications. With underlying improvements to technology such as smaller and faster microprocessors, digital communications, and changes to business models, a new generation of consoles is evolved from the previous one. This has led to a shifting landscape of console manufacturers in the marketplace; while early generations were led by manufacturers like Atari and Sega, the current modern generations have come down to three major competitors, Nintendo, Sony Interactive Entertainment, and Microsoft. Handheld consoles have seen similar advances, though typically are grouped into the same generations as home consoles. While there were larger numbers of manufacturers in the earlier generations for handhelds which included Nintendo, Atari, Sega, and Sony, the handheld market has waned since the introduction of mobile gaming in the mid-2000s, and as of today, the only major manufacturer in handheld gaming is Nintendo.


title: History of video game consoles

text: While both home and handheld game consoles strive to allow consumers to play video games on personal devices, their points of origin came from different fields, and only more recently can be seen as deriving from common principles.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The first video games were created on mainframe computers in the 1950s, typically with text-only displays or computer printouts, and limited to simple games like Tic Tac Toe or Nim. Eventually displays with rudimentary vector displays for graphics were available, leading to titles like "Spacewar!" in 1962. "Spacewar!" directly influenced Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney to create "Computer Space" in 1971, the first recognized arcade game.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Separately, while at Sanders Associates in 1966, Ralph H. Baer conceived of the idea of an electronic device that could be connected to a standard television to play games. With Sanders' permission, he brought this design to practice, creating the prototype "Brown Box" which was able to play a limited number of games, including a version of table tennis and a simple light gun game. Sanders patented the unit and licensed the patents to Magnavox, where it was manufactured as the first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, in 1972. Bushnell, after seeing the Odyssey and its table tennis game, believed he could make something better. He and Dabney formed Atari, Inc., and with Allan Alcorn, created their second arcade game "Pong", first released in 1972 which was more successful than "Computer Space". Atari released a "Pong" console of its own design through Sears in 1975.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The origins of handheld game consoles are found in handheld and tabletop electronic game devices of the 1970s and early 1980s. These electronic devices are capable of playing only pre-defined built-in games, they fit in the palm of the hand or on a tabletop, and they may make use of a variety of video display technologies such as LED, VFD, or LCD. Handheld electronic games, in turn, were derived from the emerging optoelectronic-display-driven calculator market of the early 1970s.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The first such handheld electronic game was released by Mattel in 1977, where Michael Katz, Mattel's new product category marketing director, told the engineers in the electronics group to design a game the size of a calculator, using LED technology." This effort lead to the 1977 games "Auto Race" and "Football". The two games were so successful that according to Katz, "these simple electronic handheld games turned into a '$400 million category.'" Another Ralph Baer invention, "Simon", published by Milton Bradley in 1978, followed, which further popularized such electronic games and remained an enduring property by Milton Bradley (later Hasbro) that brought a number of copycats to the market. Soon, other manufacturers including Coleco, Parker Brothers, Entex, and Bandai began following up with their own tabletop and handheld electronic games.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The transition from handheld electronic games to handheld video games came with the introduction of LCD screens which today have the capability to present a large number of pixels across a display, approaching the video format used by home consoles, and giving the unit more flexibility in playing a range of games. Milton Bradley's Microvision, released in 1979, is often considered the first such handheld video game console, as well as the first handheld to use interchangeable games, though the unit never caught on due to short-term technical struggles. Revolutionary at the time, the Microvision featured a 16x16 pixel LCD that a variety of games could be played by swapping out its faceplate, which contained the game's ROM data and controls.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo's line of "Game & Watch" titles, first introduced in 1980, was based on inspiration from Gunpei Yokoi after seeing a man playing on an LCD calculation while passing time on a bullet train, and had devised the idea of an electronic game that doubled as a watch. Taking advantage of the technology used in the credit-card-sized calculators that had appeared on the market, Yokoi designed the series of LCD-based games to include a digital time display in the corner of the screen. While the "Game & Watch" series were considered handheld electronic games rather than handheld video game consoles, their success led Nintendo, through Yokoi's design lead, to produce the Game Boy in 1989, considered to be the defining basis of the current handheld game console.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The history of video game consoles are typically segmented into "generations" which are used to group consoles that have shared a competitive market. These console generations typically last about five years, following a Moore's law progression where a rough aggregrate measure of processing power doubles every 18 months or increases ten-fold after five years. This cyclic market has resulted in an industry-wide adoption of the razorblade model in selling consoles at minimal profit margin while making revenue from the sale of games produced for that console, and then transitioning users to the next console model at the fifth year of the generation as the new generation comes on line, and thus incorporate planned obsolescence into the products to continue to bring consumers into the newer generations.


title: History of video game consoles

text: However, the exact definition and delineation of console generations has not been consistently defined in the literature. Some schemes have been based on direct market data (including a seminal work published in an IEEE journal in 2002), while others are based on technology shifts. Wikipedia itself has been noted for creating its own version of console generation definitions that differ from other academic sources, the definitions from Wikipedia has been adopted by other sources but without having any true rationale behind it. The discrepancies between how consoles are grouped into generations and how these generations are named have caused confusion when trying to compare shifts in the video game marketplace compared to other consumer markets. Kemerer "et al." (2017) provide a comparative analysis of these different generations through systems released up to 2010 as shown below.


title: History of video game consoles

text: For purposes of organization, the generations described here and subsequent pages maintain the Wikipedia breakdown of generation, generally breaking consoles apart by technology features whenever possible and with other consoles released in that same period incorporated within that same generation, and starting with the Odyssey and "Pong"-style home consoles as the first generation, an approach that has generally been adopted and extended by video game journalism. In this approach the generation "starts" with the release of the first console considered to have those features, and considered to end with the known last discontinuation of a console in that generation. For example, the third generation is considered to end in 2003 with the formal discontinuation of the Nintendo Entertainment System that year. This can create years with overlaps between multiple generations, as shown.


title: History of video game consoles

text: This approach uses the concepts of "bits", or the size of individual word length handled by the processors on the console, for the earlier console generations. Longer word lengths generally led to improved gameplay concepts, graphics, and audio capabilities than shorter ones. The use of bits to market consoles to consumers started with the TurboGrafx 16, a console that used an 8-bit central processing unit similar to the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), but included a 16-bit graphical processing unit. NEC, the console's manufacturer, took to market the console as a "16-bit" system over the NES' "8-bit" to establish it as a superior system. Other advertisers followed suit, creating a period known as the "bit wars" that lasted through the fifth generation, where console manufactures tried to outsell each other simply on the bit-count of their system. Aside from some "128 Bit" advertising slogans at the beginning of the sixth generation, marketing with bits largely stopped after the fifth generation. Though the bit terminology was no longer used in newer generations, the use of bit-count helped to establish the idea of console generations, and the earlier generations gained alternate names based on the dominant bit-count of the major systems of that era, such as the third generation being the 8-bit era or generation.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Later console generations are based on groupings of release dates rather than common hardware as base hardware configurations between consoles have greatly diverged, generally following trends in generation definition given by video game and mainstream journalism. Handheld consoles and other gaming systems and innovations are frequently grouped within the release years associated with the home console generations; for example the growth of digital distribution is associated with the seventh generation.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The development of video game consoles primarily follows the history of video gaming in the North American and Japanese markets. Few other markets saw any significant console development on their own, such as in Europe where personal computers tended to be favored alongside imports of video game consoles. The clones of video game consoles in less-developed markets like China and Russia are not considered here.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The first generation of home consoles were generally limited to dedicated consoles with just one or two games pre-built into the console hardware, with a limited means to alter gameplay factors. In the case of the Odyssey, while it did ship with "game cards", these did not have any programmed games on them but instead acted as jumpers to alter the existing circuitry pathway, and did not extend the capabilities of the console. Unlike most other future console generations, the first generation of consoles were typically built in limited runs rather than as an ongoing product line.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The first home console was the Magnavox Odyssey in September 1972 based on Baer's "Brown Box" design. Originally built from discrete transistors, Magnavox transitioned to integrated circuit chips that were inexpensive, and developed a new line of consoles in the Odyssey series from 1975 to 1977. At the same, Atari had successfully launched "Pong" as an arcade game in 1972, and began work to make a home console version in late 1974, which they eventually partnered with Sears to the new home "Pong" console by the 1975 Christmas season. "Pong" several technology advantages over the Odyssey, including an internal sound chip and the ability to track score. Coleco developed the first Telstar console in 1976. With Magnavox, Atari and Coleco all vying in the console space by 1976 and further cost reductions in key processing chips from General Instruments, numerous third-party manufacturers entered the console market by 1977 with ball-and-paddle games. This led to market saturation by 1977, and the industry's first market crash. Atari and Coleco attempted to make dedicated consoles with wholly new games to remain competitive, including Atari's Video Pinball series and Coleco's Telstar Arcade, but by this point, the first steps of the market's transition to the second generation of consoles had begun, making these units obsolete near release.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The Japanese market for gaming consoles followed a similar path at this point. Nintendo had already been a business partner with Magnovox by 1971 and helped to design the early light guns for the console. Dedicated home game consoles in Japan appeared in 1975 with Epoch Co.'s TV Tennis Electrotennis. As in the United States, numerous clones of these dedicated consoles began to appear, most made by the large television manufacturers like Toshiba and Sharp, and these games would be called "TV geemu" or "terebi geemu" (TV game) as the designation for "video games" in Japan. Nintendo became a major player when Mitsubishi, having lost their manufacturer Systek due to bankruptcy, turned to the company to help continue to build their Color TV-Game line, which went on to sell about 3 million units across four different units between 1977 and 1980.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The second generation of home consoles was distinguished by the introduction of the game cartridge, where the game's code is stored in read-only memory (ROM) within the cartridge. When the cartridge is slotted into the console, the electrical connections allow the main console's processors to read the game's code from the ROM. While ROM cartridges had been used in other computer applications prior, the ROM game cartridge was first implemented in the Fairchild Video Entertainment System (VES) in November 1976. Additional consoles during this generation, all which used cartridge-based systems, included the Atari 2600 (known as the Atari Video Computer System (VCS) at launch), the Magnavox Odyssey 2, Mattel Electronics' Intellivision, and the ColecoVision. In addition to consoles, newer processor technology allowed games to support up to 8 colors and up to 3-channel audio effects.


title: History of video game consoles

text: With the introduction of cartridge-based consoles came the need to develop a wide array of games for them. Atari was one of the forefronts in development for its Atari 2600. Atari marketed the console across multiple regions including into Japan, and retained control of all development aspects of the games. Game developments coincided with the Golden age of arcade video games that started in 1978–1979 with the releases of "Space Invaders" and "Asteroids", and home versions of these arcade games were ideal targets. The Atari 2600 version of "Space Invaders", released in 1980, was considered the killer app for home video game consoles, helping to quadruple the console's sales that year. Similarly, Coleco had beaten Atari to a key licensing deal with Nintendo to bring "Donkey Kong" as a pack-in game for the Colecovision, helping to drive its sales.


title: History of video game consoles

text: At the same time, Atari has been acquired by Warner Communications, and internal policies led to the departure of four key programmers David Crane, Larry Kaplan, Alan Miller, and Bob Whitehead, who went and formed Activision. Activision proceeded to develop their own Atari 2600 games as well as games for other systems. Atari attempted legal action to stop this practice but ended up settling out of court, with Activision agreeing to pay royalties but otherwise able to continue game development, making Activision the first third-party game developer. Activision quickly found success and were able to generate in revenue from about in startup funds within 18 months. Numerous other companies saw Activision's success and jumped into game development to try to make fast money on the rapidly expanding North America video game market. This led to a loss of publishing control and dilution of the game market by the early 1980s. Additionally, in following on the success of "Space Invaders", Atari and other companies had remained eager for licensed video game possibilities. Atari had banked heavily on commercial sales of "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" in 1982, but it was rushed to market and poorly-received, and failed to make Atari's sales estimates. Along with competition from inexpensive home computers, the North American home console market crashed in 1983.


title: History of video game consoles

text: For the most part, the 1983 crash signaled the end of this generation as Nintendo's introduction of the Famicom the same year brought the start of the third generation. When Nintendo brought the Famicom to North America under the name "Nintendo Entertainment System", it helped to revitalize the industry, and Atari, now owned by Jack Tramiel, pushed on sales of the previously-successful Atari 2600 under new branding to keep the company afloat for many more years while he transitioned the company more towards the personal computer market. The Atari 2600 stayed in production until 1992, marking the end of the second generation.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Handheld electronic games had already been introduced on the market, such as "Mattel Auto Race" in 1977 and "Simon" in 1978. While not considered video games as lacking the typical video screen element, instead using LED lights as game indicators, they still established a market for portable video games.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The first handheld game console emerged during the second home console generation, using simple LC displays. Early attempts at cartridge-based handheld systems included the Microvision by Milton-Bradley and the Epoch Game Pocket Computer, but neither gained significant traction. Nintendo, on the other hand, introduced its line of "Game & Watch" portable games, each with a single dedicated game, as its first venture into the video game market. First introduced in 1980, the "Game & Watch" series ran for over a decade and sold more than 40 million units.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Frequently called the "8-bit generation", the third generation's consoles used 8-bit processors, five audio channels, and more advanced graphics capability including sprites and tiles rather than block-based graphics of the second generation. Further, the third console saw the market dominance shift from the United States to Japan as a result of the 1983 crash.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Both the Sega SG-1000 and the Nintendo Famicom launched near simultaneously in Japan in 1983. The Famicom, after some initial technical recalls, soon gained traction and became the best selling console in Japan by the end of 1984. By that point Nintendo wanted to bring the console to North America but recognized the faults that the video game crash had caused. It took several steps to redesign the console to make it look less like a game console and rebranded it as the "Nintendo Entertainment System" (NES) for North America to avoid the "video game" label stigma. The company also wanted to avoid the loss of publishing control that had occurred both in North America as well as in Asia after the Famicom's release, and created a lockout system that required all game cartridges to be manufactured by Nintendo to include a special chip. If this chip was not present, the console would fail to play the game. This further gave Nintendo direct control on the titles published for the system, rejecting those it felt were too mature. The NES launched in North America in 1985, and helped to revitalize the video game market there.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Sega attempted to compete with the NES with its own Master System, released later in 1985 in both the US and Japan, but did not gain traction to compete. Similarly, Atari's attempts to compete with the NES via the Atari 7800 in 1987 failed to knock the NES from its dominant position. The NES remained in production until 2003, when it was discontinued along with its successor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The fourth generation of consoles, also known as the "16-bit generation", further advanced core console technology with 16-bit processors, improving the available graphics and audio capabilities of games.


title: History of video game consoles

text: NEC's TurboGrafx-16 (or PC Engine as released in Japan), first released in 1987, is considered the first fourth generation console even though it still had an 8-bit CPU. The console's 16-bit graphics processor gave it capabilities comparable to the other fourth generation systems, and NEC's marketing had pushed the console being an advancement over the NES as a "16-bit" system. Both Sega and Nintendo entered the fourth generation with true 16-bit systems in the 1988 Sega Genesis (Mega Drive in Japan) and the 1990 Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES, Super Famicom in Japan). SNK also entered the competition with a modified version of their Neo Geo MVS arcade system into the Neo Geo, released in 1990, which attempted to bridge the gap between arcade and home console systems with the shared use of common game cartridges and memory cards. This generation was notable for the so-called "console wars" between Nintendo and Sega primarily in North America. Sega, to try to challenge Nintendo's dominant position, created the mascot character Sonic the Hedgehog, who exhibited cool personality to appeal to the Western youth in contrast to Nintendo's Mario, and bundled the Genesis with the game of the same name. The strategy succeeded with Sega becoming the dominant player in North America until the mid-1990s.


title: History of video game consoles

text: During this generation, the technology costs of using optical discs in the form of CD-ROMs has dropped sufficiently to make them desirable to be used for shipping computer software, including for video games for personal computers. CD-ROMs offered more storage space than game cartridges and could allow for full-motion video and other detailed audio-video works to be used in games. Console manufacturers adapted by created hardware add-ons to their consoles that could read and play CD-ROMs, including NEC's TurboGrafx-CD add-on (as well as the integrated TurboDuo system) in 1988, and the Sega CD add-on for the Genesis in 1991, and the Neo Geo CD in 1994. Costs of these add-ons were generally high, nearing the same price as the console itself, and with the introduction of disc-based consoles in the fifth generation starting in 1993, these fell by the wayside. Nintendo had initially worked with Sony to develop a similar add-on for the SNES, the Super NES CD-ROM, but just before its introduction, business relationships between Nintendo and Sony broke down, and Sony would take its idea on to develop the fifth generation PlayStation. Additionally, Philips attempted to enter the market with a dedicated CD-ROM format, the CD-i, also released in 1990, that included other uses for the CD-ROM media beyond video games but the console never gained traction.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The fourth generation had a long tail that overlapped with the fifth generation, with the SNES's discontinuation in 2003 marking the end of the generation. To keep their console competitive with the new fifth generation ones, Nintendo took to the use of coprocessors manufactured into the game cartridges to enhance the capabilities of the SNES. This included the Super FX chip, which was first used in the game "Star Fox" in 1993, generally considered one of the first games to use real-time polygon-based 3D rendering on consoles.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo brought its experience from the "Game & Watch" series to develop the Game Boy system in 1989, with subsequent iterations through the years. The unit included a LCD screen that supported a 4-shade monochrome pixel display, the use of a cartridge-based system, and the means to link up two units to play head-to-head games. One of the early packages included "Tetris" bundled with the unit, which became the Game Boy's killer app and led the unit to dominate handheld sales at the time. The Game Boy also introduced the "Pokémon" franchise to the world, which became a staple of Nintendo's handheld consoles.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The Atari Lynx was also introduced in 1989 and included a color-LED screen, but its small game library and low battery life failed to make it competitive with the Game Boy. Both Sega and NEC also attempted to compete with the Game Boy with the Game Gear and the TurboExpress, respectively, both released in 1990. Each were attempts to bring the respective home console games to handheld systems, but struggled against the staying power of the Game Boy.


title: History of video game consoles

text: During this time home computers gained greater prominence as a way of playing video games. The video game console industry nonetheless continued to thrive alongside home computers, due to the advantages of much lower prices, easier portability, circuitry specifically dedicated towards video games, the ability to be played on a television set (which PCs of the time could not do in most cases), and intensive first party software support from manufacturers who were essentially banking their entire future on their consoles.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Besides the shift to 32-bit processors, the fifth generation of consoles also saw most companies excluding Nintendo shift to dedicated optical media formats instead of game cartridges, given their lower cost of production and higher storage capacity. Initial consoles of the fifth generation attempted to capitalize on the potential power of CD-ROMs, which included the Amiga CD32, 3DO and the Atari Jaguar in 1993. However, early in the cycle, these systems were far more expensive than existing fourth-generation models and has much smaller game libraries. Further, Nintendo's use of co-processors in late SNES games further kept the SNES as one of the best selling systems over new fifth generation ones.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Two of the key consoles of the fifth generation were introduced in 1995: the Sega Saturn, and the Sony PlayStation, both which challenged the SNES' ongoing dominance. While the Saturn sold well, it did have a number of technical flaws, but established Sega for a number of key game series going forward. The PlayStation, in addition to using optical media, also introduced the use of memory cards as to save the state of a game. Though memories cards had been used by Neo Geo to allow players to transfer game information between home and arcade systems, the PlayStation's approach allowed games to have much longer gameplay and narrative elements, leading to highly-successful role-playing games like "Final Fantasy VII". By 1996, the PlayStation became the best-selling console over the SNES.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo released their next console, the Nintendo 64 in late 1996. Unlike other fifth generation units, it still used game cartridges, as Nintendo believed the load-time advantages of cartridges over CD-ROMs was still essential, as well as their ability to continue to use lockout mechanisms to protect copyrights. The system also included support for memory cards as well, and Nintendo developed a strong library of first-party titles for the game, including "Super Mario 64" and "" that helped to drive its sales. While the Nintendo 64 did not match the PlayStation's sales, it kept Nintendo a key competitor in the home console market alongside Sony and Sega.


title: History of video game consoles

text: As with the transition from the fourth to fifth generation, the fifth generation has a long overlap with the sixth console generation, with the PlayStation remaining in production until 2006.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo released the Virtual Boy, an early attempt at virtual reality, in 1995. The unit required the player to play a game through a stereoscopic viewerfinder, which was awkward and difficult, and did not lend well to portable gaming. Nintendo instead returned to focus on incremental improvements to the Game Boy, including the Game Boy Pocket and the Game Boy Color.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Sega also released the Genesis Nomad, a handheld unit that played Sega Genesis games, in 1995 in North America only. The unit had been developed through Sega of America with little oversight from Sega's main headquarters, and as Sega moved forward, the company as a whole decided to put more focus on the Sega Saturn to stay competitive and drop support for all other ongoing systems, including the Nomad.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Despite Nintendo's domination of handheld console market, some competing consoles such as Neo Geo Pocket, WonderSwan, Neo Geo Pocket Color, and WonderSwan Color appeared in the late 1990s and discontinued several years later after their appearance in handheld console market.


title: History of video game consoles

text: By the sixth generation, console technology began to catch up to performance of personal computers of the time, and the use of bits as their selling point fell by the wayside. The console manufactures focused on the individual strengths of their game libraries as marketing instead. The consoles of the sixth generation saw further adoption of optical media, expanding into the DVD format for even greater data storage capacity, additional internal storage solutions to function as memory cards, as well as adding support either directly or through add-ons to connect to the Internet for online gameplay. Consoles began to move towards a convergence of features of other electronic living room devices and moving away from single-feature systems.


title: History of video game consoles

text: By this point, there were only three major players in the market: Sega, Sony, and Nintendo. Sega got an early lead with the Dreamcast first released in Japan in 1998. It was the first home console to include a modem to allow players to connect to the Sega network and play online games. However, Sega found several technical issues that had to be resolved before its Western launch in 1999. Though its Western release was more successful than in Japan, the console was soon outperformed by Sony's PlayStation 2 released in 2000. The PlayStation 2 was the first console to add support for DVD playback in addition to CD-ROM, as well as maintaining backward compatibility with games from the PlayStation library, which helped to draw consumers that remained on the long-tail of the PlayStation. While other consoles of the sixth generation had not anticipated this step, the PlayStation 2's introduction of backwards compatibility became a major design consideration of future generations. Along with a strong game library, the PlayStation 2 went on to sell 155 million units before it was discontinued in 2013, and , remains the best selling home console of all time. Unable to compete with Sony, Sega discontinued the Dreamcast in 2001 and left the hardware market, instead focusing on its software properties. Nintendo's entry in the sixth generation was the GameCube in 2001, its first system to use optical discs based on the miniDVD format. A special Game Boy Player attachment allowed the GameCube to use any of the Game Boy cartridges as well, and adapters were available to allow the console to connect to the Internet via broadband or modem.


title: History of video game consoles

text: At this point Microsoft also entered the console market with its first Xbox system, released in 2001. Microsoft considered the PlayStation 2's success as a threat to the personal computer in the living room space, and had developed the Xbox to compete. As such, the Xbox was designed based more on Microsoft's experience from personal computers, using an operating system built out from its Microsoft Windows and DirectX features, utilizing a hard disk for save game store, built-in Ethernet functionality, and created the first console online service, Xbox Live to support multiplayer games. While the original Xbox had modest sales compared to the PlayStation 2 and was not profitable for the company, Microsoft considered the Xbox to have successfully demonstrated their abilities to participate in the console market.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo continued to refine its Game Boy design with the Game Boy Advance in 2001, including its Game Boy Advance SP in 2003 and Game Boy Micro in 2005, all with the ability to link to the GameCube to extend the functionality of certain games. Also introduced were the Neo Geo Pocket Color in 1998 and Bandai's WonderSwan Color, launched in Japan in 1999. South Korean company Game Park introduced its GP32 handheld in 2001, and with it came the dawn of open source handheld consoles.


title: History of video game consoles

text: During the sixth generation, a new type of market for gaming came from the growing mobile phone arena, where advanced smart phones and other portable devices could be loaded with games. Nokia's N-Gage was one of the first devices marketed as a mobile phone and game system, first released in 2003 and later redesigned as the N-Gage QD.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Video game consoles had become an important part of the global IT infrastructure by the mid-2000s. It was estimated that video game consoles represented 25% of the world's general-purpose computational power in the year 2007.


title: History of video game consoles

text: By the seventh generation, Sony, Microsoft, and Nintendo had all developed consoles designed to interface with the Internet, adding networking support for either wired and wireless connections, online services to support multiplayer games, digital storefronts for digital purchases of games, and both internal storage and support for external storage on the console for these games. With the start and transition to the HD-era, these consoles also added support for digital television resolutions through HDMI interfaces, but as the generation occurred in the midst of the High-definition optical disc format war between Blu-ray and HD-DVD, a standard for high-definition playback was yet to be fixed. A further innovation came by the use of motion controllers, either built into the console or offered as an add-on afterwards. Consoles in this generation started using custom CPUs based on the PowerPC instruction set, and were increasingly sharing similarities with the personal computer in game development, although with challenges due to the more complex nature of porting between the differences in architectures.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Microsoft entered the seventh generation first with the Xbox 360 in 2005. The Xbox 360 saw several hardware revisions over its lifetime which became a standard practice for Microsoft going forward; these revisions offered different features such as a larger internal hard drive or a fast processor at a higher price point. As shipped, the Xbox 360 supported DVD discs and Microsoft had opted to support the HD-DVD format with an add-on for playback of HD-DVD films. However, this format ended up as deprecated compared to Blu-ray. The Xbox 360 was backward compatible with about half of the original Xbox library. Through its lifetime, the Xbox 360 was troubled by a consistent hardware fault known as "the Red Ring of Death" (RROD), and Microsoft spent over $1 billion correcting the problem.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Sony's PlayStation 3 was released in 2006. The PlayStation 3 represented a shift of the internal hardware from Sony's custom Emotion Engine to a PowerPC-based system. Initial PlayStation 3 units shipped with a special Emotion Engine daughterboard that allowed for backwards compatibility of PlayStation 2 games, but later revisions of the unit removed this, leaving only software-based emulation for PlayStation games available. Sony banked on the Blu-ray format, which was included from the start, and partially helped spur the adoption of Blu-Ray as the favoured format for high-definition optical media. With the PlayStation 3, Sony introduced the PlayStation Network for its online services and storefront. While the system would initially have a slow start in the market in part, due to its high price, complex game development environment and initial lack of quality games, the PlayStation 3 eventually became more well received over time following gradual price cuts, improved marketing campaigns, new hardware revisions particularly the Slim models, and key critically-acclaimed exclusives.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo introduced the Wii in 2006 around the same time as the PlayStation 3. Nintendo lacked the same manufacturing capabilities and relationships with major hardware supplies as Sony and Microsoft, and to compete, diverged on a feature-for-feature approach and instead developed the Wii around the novel use of motion controls in the Wii Remote. This "blue ocean strategy", releasing a product where there was no competition, was considered part of the unit's success, and which drove Microsoft and Sony to develop their own motion control accessors to compete. Nintendo provided various online services that the Wii could connect to, including the Virtual Console where players could purchase emulated games from Nintendo's past consoles as well as games for the Wii. The Wii used regular sized DVDs for its game medium but also directly supported GameCube discs. The Wii was generally considered a surprising success that many developers had initially overlooked.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nintendo introduced the new Nintendo DS system in 2004, a game cartridge-based unit that support two screens including one being touch-sensitive. The DS also included built-in wireless connectivity to the Internet to purchase new DS games or Virtual Console titles, as well as the ability to connect to each other or to a Wii system in an ad hoc manner for certain multiplayer titles. Sony entered the handheld market in 2004 with the PlayStation Portable (PSP), with a reduced design based on the PlayStation 3. Like the DS, the PSP also supported wireless connectivity to the Internet to download new games, and ad hoc connectivity to other PSP or to a PlayStation 3. The PSP used a new format called Universal Media Disc (UMD) for game and other media.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Nokia revived its N-Gage platform in the form of a service for selected S60 devices. This new service launched on April 3, 2008. Other less-popular handheld systems released during this generation include the Gizmondo (launched on March 19, 2005 and discontinued in February 2006) and the GP2X (launched on November 10, 2005 and discontinued in August 2008). The GP2X Wiz, Pandora, and Gizmondo 2 were scheduled for release in 2009.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Another aspect of the seventh generation was the beginning of direct competition between dedicated handheld video game devices, and increasingly powerful PDA/cell phone devices such as the iPhone and iPod Touch, and the latter being aggressively marketed for gaming purposes. Simple games such as "Tetris" and "Solitaire" had existed for PDA devices since their introduction, but by 2009 PDAs and phones had grown sufficiently powerful to where complex graphical games could be implemented, with the advantage of distribution over wireless broadband. Apple had launched its App Store in 2008 that allowed developers to publish and sell games for iPhones and similar devices, beginning the rise of mobile gaming.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Based on the success of the Wii Remote controller, both Microsoft and Sony released similar motion detection controllers for their consoles. Microsoft introduced the Kinect motion controller device for the Xbox 360, which served as both a camera, microphone, and motion sensor for numerous games. Sony released the PlayStation Move, a system consisting of a camera and lit handheld controllers, which worked with its PlayStation 3.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Aside from the usual hardware enhancements, consoles of the eighth generation focus on further integration with other media and increased connectivity. Consoles at this point had also standardized on CPUs using the x86 instruction set, the same as in personal computers, and there was a convergence of the individual hardware components between consoles and personal computers, making the porting of games between these systems much easier. Later hardware improvements pushed for higher frame rates at up to 4K resolutions. Digital distribution increased in popularity, while the addition and improvements to remote play capabilities became standard, and second screen experiences via companion apps added more interactivity to games.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The Wii U, introduced in 2012, was considered by Nintendo to be a successor to the Wii but geared to more serious players. The console supported backward compatibility with the Wii, including its motion controls, and introduced the Wii U GamePad, a tablet/controller hybrid that acted as a second screen. Nintendo further refined its network offerings to develop the Nintendo Network service to combine storefront and online connectivity services. The Wii U did not sell as well as Nintendo had planned, as they found people mistook the GamePad to be a tablet they could take with them away from the console, and the console struggled to draw the third-party developers as the Wii had.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Both the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One came out in 2013. Both were similar improvements over the previous generation's respective consoles, providing more computational power to support up to 60 frames per second at 1080p resolutions for some games. Each unit also saw a similar set of revisions and repackaging to develop high- and low-end cost versions. In the case of the Xbox One, the console's initial launch had included the Kinect device but this became highly controversial in terms of potential privacy violations and lack of developer support, and by its mid-generation refresh, the Kinect had been dropped and discontinued as a game device. Both consoles eventually released upgraded hardware during their mid-cycle refresh, with Sony releasing the PlayStation 4 Pro and Microsoft releasing the Xbox One X, which allowed for higher frame rates and up to 4K resolution, in addition to Slim models, marking a departure from previous generations, while adding considerable longevity to this generation cycle.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Later in the eighth generation, Nintendo released the Nintendo Switch in 2017. The Switch is considered the first hybrid game console. It uses a special CPU/GPU combination that can run at different clock frequencies depending on how it is used. It can be placed into a special docking unit that is hooked to a television and a permanent power supply, allowing faster clock frequencies to be used to be played at higher resolutions and frame rates, and thus more comparable to a home console. Alternatively, it can be removed and used either with the attached Joy-Con controllers as a handheld unit, or can be even played as a tablet-like system via its touchscreen. In these modes, the CPU/GPU run at lower clock speeds to conserve battery power, and the graphics are not as robust as in the docked version. A larger suite of online services was added through the Nintendo Switch Online subscription, including several free NES and SNES titles, replacing the past Virtual Console system. The Switch was designed to addressed many of the hardware and marketing faults around the Wii U's launch, and has become one of the company's fastest-selling consoles after the Wii.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Game systems in the eighth generation also faced increasing competition from mobile device platforms such as Apple's iOS and Google's Android operating systems. Smartphone ownership was estimated to reach roughly a quarter of the world's population by the end of 2014. The proliferation of low-cost games for these devices, such as "Angry Birds" with over 2 billion downloads worldwide, presents a new challenge to classic video game systems. Microconsoles, cheaper stand-alone devices designed to play games from previously established platforms, also increased options for consumers. Many of these projects were spurred on by the use of new crowdfunding techniques through sites such as Kickstarter. Notable competitors include the GamePop, OUYA, GameStick Android-based systems, the PlayStation TV, the NVIDIA SHIELD, the Apple TV and Steam Machines.


title: History of video game consoles

text: The Nintendo 3DS released in 2011 expanded on the Nintendo DS design and added support for an autostereoscopic screen to project stereoscopic 3D effects without the use of 3D glasses. The console was otherwise remained backward compatible with all of the DS titles. Sony introduced its PlayStation Vita in 2011, a revised version of the PSP but eliminating the use of external media and focusing on digital acquisition of games, as well as incorporating a touchscreen. and was released in Europe and North America on February 22, 2012.


title: History of video game consoles

text: As noted above, the Nintendo Switch is a hybrid console, capable of both being used as a home console in its docked mode and as a handheld. The Nintendo Switch Lite revision was released in 2019, which reduced some of the features of the system and its size, including eliminating the ability to dock the unit, making the Switch Lite primarily a handheld system, but otherwise compatible with most of the Switch's library of games.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Virtual reality systems appeared during the eighth generation, with three main systems: the PlayStation VR headset that worked with PlayStation 4 hardware, the Oculus Rift and the HTC Vive which ran off a personal computer.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Both Microsoft and Sony released successors to their home consoles in November 2020. Consoles in this generation also launched with lower-cost models lacking optical disc drives, targeting those who would prefer to purchase games exclusively through digital downloads. Both console families target 4K and 8K resolution televisions at high frame rates, support for real-time ray tracing rendering, 3D spatial audio, variable refresh rates, the use of high-performance solid-state drives (SSD) as internal high-speed memory to make delivering game content much faster than reading from optical disc or standard hard drives, which can eliminate loading times and support in-game streaming. With features that were commonly standard in PCs, and the move to higher performance APUs, consoles in the ninth generation now have capabilities comparable to high-end personal computers, often making cross-platform development easier and more widely available than previously, further converging and blurring the line between video game consoles and personal computers.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Microsoft released the fourth generation of Xbox with the Xbox Series X and Series S on November 10, 2020. The Series X has a base performance target of 60 frames per second at 4K resolution to be four times as powerful as the Xbox One X. One of Microsoft's goals with both units was to assure backward compatibility with all games supported by the Xbox One, including those original Xbox and Xbox 360 titles that are backward compatible with the Xbox One, allowing the Xbox Series X and Series S to support four generations of games.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Sony's PlayStation 5 was released on November 12, 2020, and also is a similar performance boost over the PlayStation 4. The PlayStation 5 uses a custom SSD solution with much higher input/output rates that are almost comparable to RAM chip speeds, significantly improving rendering and data streaming speeds. The chip architecture is comparable to the PlayStation 4, allowing backwards compatible with most of the PlayStation 4 library while select games will need chip timing tweaking to make them compatible.


title: History of video game consoles

text: In terms of handhelds, Sony has announced no further plans for handhelds after discontinuing the Vita, while Nintendo continues to offer the Nintendo Switch and Switch Lite. The market here still continues to compete with the growing mobile gaming market, but developers have taken advantage of new opportunities in cross-platform play support, in part due to the popularity of "Fortnite" in 2018, to make games that are compatible on consoles, computers, and mobile devices. Cross platform is now used widely in various games. Cloud gaming also is seen as a potential replacement of handheld gaming. While earlier cloud gaming platforms have gone by the wayside, newer approaches including PlayStation Now, Microsoft's xCloud, Google's Stadia and Amazon Luna can deliver computer and console-quality gameplay to nearly any platform including mobile devices, limited by bandwidth quality.


title: History of video game consoles

text: Below is a timeline of each generation with the top three home video consoles of each generation based on worldwide sales.


title: American International Pictures

text: American International Pictures (AIP) is an American motion picture production label of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In its original operating period, AIP was an independent film production and distribution company known for producing and releasing films from 1955 until 1980, a year after its acquisition by Filmways in 1979.


title: American International Pictures

text: It was formed on April 2, 1954 as American Releasing Corporation (ARC) by former Realart Pictures Inc. sales manager James H. Nicholson and entertainment lawyer Samuel Z. Arkoff and their first release was the 1953 UK documentary film "Operation Malaya". It was dedicated to releasing low-budget films packaged as double features, primarily of interest to the teenagers of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.


title: American International Pictures

text: The company eventually became a part of Orion Pictures, which in turn, became a division of MGM. On October 7, 2020, four decades after the original closure, MGM revived AIP as a label for acquired films for digital and theatrical releases, with MGM overseeing across streaming platforms and United Artists Releasing handling theatrical distribution in North America.


title: American International Pictures

text: Nicholson and Arkoff served as executive producers while Roger Corman and Alex Gordon were the principal film producers and, sometimes, directors. Writer Charles B. Griffith wrote many of the early films, along with Arkoff's brother-in-law, Lou Rusoff, who later produced many of the films he had written. Other writers included Ray Russell, Richard Matheson and Charles Beaumont. Floyd Crosby, A.S.C. famous for his camera work on a number of exotic documentaries and the Oscar winner, "High Noon", was chief cinematographer. His innovative use of surreal color and odd lenses and angles gave AIP films a signature look. The early rubber monster suits and miniatures of Paul Blaisdell were used in AIP's science fiction films. The company also hired Les Baxter and Ronald Stein to compose many of its film scores.


title: American International Pictures

text: In the 1950s, the company had a number of actors under contract, including John Ashley, Fay Spain and Steve Terrell.


title: American International Pictures

text: When many of ARC/AIP's first releases failed to earn a profit, Arkoff quizzed film exhibitors who told him of the value of the teenage market as adults were watching television. AIP stopped making Westerns with Arkoff explaining: "To compete with television westerns you have to have color, big stars and $2,000,000".


title: American International Pictures

text: AIP was the first company to use focus groups, polling American teenagers about what they would like to see and using their responses to determine titles, stars, and story content. AIP would question their exhibitors (who often provided 20% of AIP's financing) what they thought of the success of a title, then would have a writer create a script for it. A sequence of tasks in a typical production involved creating a great title, getting an artist such as Albert Kallis who supervised all AIP artwork from 1955–73 to create a dynamic, eye-catching poster, then raising the cash, and finally writing and casting the film.


title: American International Pictures

text: Samuel Z. Arkoff related his tried-and-true "ARKOFF formula" for producing a successful low-budget movie years later, during a 1980s talk show appearance. His ideas for a movie included:


title: American International Pictures

text: AIP began as the American Releasing Corporation, a new distribution company formed in 1954 by James H. Nicholson and Samuel Z. Arkoff.


title: American International Pictures

text: They were interested in distributing a car chase movie produced by Roger Corman for his Palo Alto Productions, "The Fast and the Furious" (1955). Corman had received offers from other companies for the film, but ARC offered to advance money to enable Corman to make two other films. Corman agreed, "The Fast and the Furious" performed well at the box office and the company was launched.


title: American International Pictures

text: Corman's next two films for the company were a Western, "Five Guns West" (1955), which Corman directed, and a science fiction film, "The Beast with a Million Eyes" (1955). The title from the latter had come from Nicholson.


title: American International Pictures

text: ARC got Corman to direct another Western and science fiction double bill "Apache Woman" (1955) and "Day the World Ended" (1955). Both scripts were written by Arkoff's brother-in-law Lou Rusoff, who would become the company's leading writer in its early days. "Apache Woman" was produced by Alex Gordon, an associate of Arkoff's, "Day" was produced by Corman. Both were made by Golden State Productions, ARC's production arm.


title: American International Pictures

text: Normally, B movies were made for the second part of a bill and received a flat rate. As television was encroaching on the B movie market, Nicholson and Arkoff felt it would be more profitable to make two low budget films and distribute them together on a double feature. Nicholson came up with a title for a film to support "Day the World Ended", "The Phantom from 10,000 Leagues" (1955), but lacked the money to make both films. They split the costs with Dan and Jack Milner, film editors who wanted to get into production. The resulting double bill was very successful at the box office.


title: American International Pictures

text: Gordon also produced "The Oklahoma Woman" (1955), a Western by Corman, made through Sunset Productions. It was put on a double feature with "Female Jungle" (1955), a film noir.


title: American International Pictures

text: Other films released under the ARC banner include a British documentary "Operation Malaya" (1955) and Corman's "Gunslinger" (1956).


title: American International Pictures

text: Arkoff and Nicholson had always wanted to name their company "American International Pictures", but the name was unavailable. When the name became available, they changed over.