title: The Big Boss

text: While in Thailand, Bruce wrote to Linda regularly, telling her he missed her and the children, and was looking forward to seeing them in Hong Kong once filming had been completed. In return for their air fare (from their home in Los Angeles to Hong Kong), Golden Harvest wanted Bruce to make a short film for them called "Bruce Lee and Jeet Kune Do", which would run for approximately 15 minutes and be narrated by actress Nora Miao. According to Hong Kong press reports, Golden Harvest had originally planned for the short film to accompany the release of another upcoming film of theirs called "The Hurricane" (a.k.a. "Gold Cyclone Whirlwind"), starring Nora and written and directed by Lo Wei. This would promote Nora and introduce Lee's skills to the Hong Kong public prior to the release of "The Big Boss". Nora, who was already in Thailand on vacation, joined the film crew in Bangkok in late August 1971, but the short film was not made, presumably because there was not enough time; she did however film a few brief scenes for "The Big Boss" in a cameo role as a roadside refreshment vendor.


title: The Big Boss

text: On 23 October 1971, the film premiered at the Queen's Theatre in Hong Kong's Central district for a now legendary midnight screening. Linda recalled in her 1975 book "Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew": "Every dream that Bruce had ever possessed came true that night. The audience rose to its feet, yelling, clapping, cheering. It was almost impossible to leave the theatre; we were absolutely mobbed." The Lees also attended the official gala premiere on 3 November, which was a charity screening for the Scout Association of Hong Kong. The film was an instant success, taking just 3 days to reach , and a week to reach . By the end of its relatively brief run (ending on 18 November), "The Big Boss" had made , breaking the previous record held by "The Sound of Music" by more than HK$800,000. An estimated people in Hong Kong, out of a population of four million, had paid to watch the film. It remained the highest-grossing film of all time in Hong Kong until Lee's second film, "Fist of Fury", was released in March 1972.


title: The Big Boss

text: Shortly after the Hong Kong run, "The Big Boss" was released in Singapore, and enjoyed similar success there, where it played for a total of 45 days at five theatres. There was chaos at a midnight preview screening (27 November 1971) at Cathay's Jurong Drive-in cinema; police were called as hundreds of cars caused huge jams, and the film had to be delayed for 45 minutes. It went on general release on 8 December, and by the end of its run on 21 January 1972, it had broken box office records with just over , about S$240,000 more than previous record-holder "The Ten Commandments". The film also played to packed cinemas in Malaysia, the third territory to show the film. By September 1972, it had grossed in the Malaysian capital city of Kuala Lumpur. During its initial run, the film grossed more than in Southeast Asia alone and across Asia.


title: The Big Boss

text: Despite the enormous success of "The Big Boss" in the Far East, overseas distributors were initially reluctant as they didn't think it had potential outside Asia. It was only when the film suddenly became a surprise hit in Beirut (Lebanon) in 1972 that they began to take notice. Suddenly buyers from all over the world were arriving in Hong Kong to buy the film, which was soon opening in new markets for Chinese films such as South America, Africa and southern Europe. The film became a major box office hit in Europe between 1972 and early 1973. In the UK, however, the release of the English-dubbed version was delayed as distributors Crest Films withdrew their application for a BBFC certificate, while they waited for the current storm surrounding film censorship in Britain to pass (the Mandarin version was shown in Chinese cinema clubs in Britain in June 1972).


title: The Big Boss

text: There was also a delay in the US, as distributors National General Pictures disliked the dubbing, and spent a lot of money on a new soundtrack featuring new music and rewritten, redubbed English dialogue. This new version was eventually released in the US in April 1973 with the title "Fists of Fury", about 18 months after the Hong Kong premiere and after "Fist of Fury" (retitled "The Chinese Connection" in the US), Lee's second major role, had a limited run in New York. It was an instant hit, with opening day earnings of from 53 theaters in the New Jersey and New York areas. It topped the North American box office in May 1973, above two other Hong Kong martial arts films in the second and third spots, "Lady Whirlwind" ("Deep Thrust") and "King Boxer" ("Five Fingers of Death"). Its success was surprising given that the film was only originally intended for the Mandarin circuit. The film earned in distributor rentals at the American and Canadian box office during its initial run in 1973. "The Big Boss" went on to gross a total revenue of in the United States (equivalent to adjusted for inflation in 2020), where it sold approximately tickets and was one of the top 20 films released in 1973.


title: The Big Boss

text: In France, the film became one of the top ten highest-grossing films of 1973, with 2,519,063 ticket sales. In Spain, the film sold 2,211,383 tickets. Upon its October 1973 release in South Korea, the film sold 209,551 tickets in the capital city of Seoul. In Lebanon, the film had a packed six-week first run in Beirut and then a second run that outperformed "The Godfather" (1972). The UK and Japan were among the last countries to release the film, in April 1974. In Japan, it was the year's seventh highest-grossing film, with in distributor rental earnings.


title: The Big Boss

text: Against a tight budget of , the film grossed nearly worldwide (equivalent to approximately adjusted for inflation), earning nearly times its budget.


title: The Big Boss

text: When the film was released in the United States, the death of Hsiao Mi, "The Boss", was cut down to him simply being stabbed in the chest with a knife in order to receive an "R" rating. The original version of his death, which not only shows an explicit close-up of the knife in his chest but Cheng Chao-an's fingers piercing his rib cage and blood flowing from under his shirt, would have given the film an "X" rating. The first time this scene was shown in the US was when it played on cable channel AMC in July 2004.


title: The Big Boss

text: Columbia Pictures released the film as a re-issue in 1978 and again re-issued it with "Fist of Fury" as a studio sanctioned double feature in February 1981. Miramax distributed "The Big Boss" on television & streaming (Hulu & Netflix) along with "Bruce Lee, the Legend" (1984), "Game of Death", "Way of the Dragon" and "Fist of Fury".


title: The Big Boss

text: In the United Kingdom, the film was watched by 300,000 viewers on Channel 5 in 2008, making it the year's most-watched foreign-language film on Channel 5.


title: The Big Boss

text: On July 14, 2020, The Criterion Collection released a Blu-ray box set featuring "The Big Boss, Fist of Fury, The Way of the Dragon, Enter the Dragon, Game of Death," and "Game of Death II" titled "Bruce Lee: His Greatest Hits."


title: The Big Boss

text: "The Big Boss" received mixed reviews from critics upon release. From the "South China Morning Post" during the film's original Hong Kong run: "This is probably the biggest thing to hit the Mandarin film business since the invention of fake blood ... Every cinema showing this film is packed to the fire exits." In a positive review for Singapore newspaper "The Straits Times", Arthur Richards wrote, "It is a delightful study of Chinese martial arts mixed with karate and lightning kicks, Western-style ... An acceptable thriller of the James Bond calibre."


title: The Big Boss

text: Conversely, a negative review by Edgar Koh had appeared in another Singapore newspaper, New Nation, a few days earlier: "Bruce Lee is certainly skilled in his job, not as an actor but as an exponent of his particular brand of fighting with fists and legs ... There are the stereotype good and bad, and the by now redundant theme of revenge. On top of this, it doesn't flow smoothly; the emotional mood, shallow though it is, is sometimes left out on a limb."


title: The Big Boss

text: Reviews were also mixed when the film was released (as "Fists of Fury") in the US in spring 1973. J. Oliver Prescott of the "Tampa Bay Times" wrote, "Bruce Lee is the fastest foot in the East ... Now back in Hong Kong, he has become the hottest international movie star since Clint Eastwood. Unlike Eastwood’s anti-hero, Bruce Lee is giving the American audiences what they apparently want now: a hero. Lee is Rex Allen, Lash Larue, Tom Mix, Roy Rogers and Gene Autry all rolled into one ... The characters are certainly simple: these are just plain Chinese country folk whose little disagreements develop overnight into Oriental rumbles equivalent to the Sharks and Jets in West Side Story."


title: The Big Boss

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" wrote, "Kung fu movies began as a local phenomenon in Hong Kong a couple of years ago. The two I’ve just seen, "Fists of Fury" (a.k.a. "The Big Boss") and "Deep Thrust" (a.k.a. "Lady Whirlwind"), make the worst Italian Westerns look like the most solemn and noble achievements of the early Soviet cinema." "Variety" stated, "Despite the silly plot, dreadful supporting cast and prim morality (or perhaps because of them), "Fists of Fury" is sometimes entertaining, with most of the credit due to Lee."


title: The Big Boss

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a score of 69% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1/10.


title: The Big Boss

text: "The Big Boss" has quite a long and complicated history of censorship and editing, with many scenes being trimmed or removed completely for various reasons, for different markets. The notorious "handsaw in the split head" shot was cut by the censors in Hong Kong shortly before the film was released there in October 1971. It was only shown in a private screening at Golden Harvest for the press, cinema owners and prospective buyers on 17 October, but has not been seen since; all that survives are a few stills.


title: The Big Boss

text: Further scenes were cut for the first overseas prints released in some territories in late 1971 and early 1972. The nudity and bloodshed was toned down, along with a few seemingly innocuous scenes, including the final one filmed (in a studio in Hong Kong), where Cheng Chao-An (Bruce Lee) and Hsu Chien (James Tien) are walking home after the fight near the gambling den; they enter a narrow alleyway and have to grab hands and leap onto a wall to avoid a cart which is hurled towards them. The only logical explanation for the cutting of this scene was that it was done to increase the pacing of the early part of the film, which placed more emphasis on James Tien than on Bruce Lee.


title: The Big Boss

text: There was a reduction to the gruesome sequence in which the body of cousin Ah Wong is cut apart by the electric saw, and body parts are placed into the ice container.


title: The Big Boss

text: A small edit was made to the dinner party scene, where a drunken Cheng approaches the prostitute Wu Man (played by Malarin Boonak), and imagines her topless.


title: The Big Boss

text: The scene where Cheng is sitting by the riverside following his discovery of the bodies at the family home, was shortened. When he stands and throws his bundle of belongings into the river, there were then shots of his murdered friends, followed by him angrily shaking his fist and shouting, "Revenge!"


title: The Big Boss

text: The next cut is another entirely deleted scene, and another popular one alongside of the "saw-in-the-head" scene. After Cheng runs down the road from the creek, rather than cutting to him arriving at the Big Boss's mansion like the mainstream cuts, he returns to the Thai brothel for a third time. Here, he picks up the prostitute in a red sweater-type dress (seen in the background the second time Cheng visits the brothel). Cheng and the prostitute go to her room; Cheng pushes her onto the bed, and the two begin to strip. Cheng stands behind the bed, completely nude, but also completely emotionless. The woman lies on the bed and Cheng walks (waist-high shot) towards the camera, blurring out the scene. Next, Cheng is shown putting on his shirt, while the woman remains in bed. He lays his remaining money on her stomach, even though he already paid to be with her. He then picks up a bag of crisps from the bedside table; he tries one, then leaves. This scene is symbolic and quite important, as in the previous scene Cheng discards his belongings in the river, and here he gives away his money and enjoys his final pleasures and one last meal before either being killed or arrested, a message which is now partially lost. A few seconds of this scene (including a shot of an apparently naked Bruce standing behind the bed) can be seen in the original trailer.


title: The Big Boss

text: Other missing scenes briefly visible in the same trailer show Hsu Chien re-enacting a fight for his co-workers in the family home; Cheng walking towards the Drinkstand Girl's (Nora Miao) roadside refreshment stall (the camera zooms in to show her smiling at him); a different head visible in the block of ice when Cheng is investigating the ice house; blood pouring from Hsu Chien's head after being stabbed by the boss's son. It is not known if these four scenes were in any print of the film.


title: The Big Boss

text: Further quick shots of violence – mostly involving weapons such as iron chains, sticks, knives and an ice pick – were cut from the prints in the UK and a few other European countries. These cuts were inexplicably maintained for the "pan and scan" videos released in the 1980s and 1990s but waived for the UK DVD release by Hong Kong Legends in late 2000. Also restored, surprisingly, was the bloodier death scene of the big boss. However, the material cut in 1971 in Hong Kong has never been restored, and remains missing. It was last seen in December 1979 at a Bruce Lee film festival in Kilburn, London, organised by Kung-Fu Monthly poster magazine. The Mandarin print screened for over 1,700 fans came from Golden Harvest's London office, and was complete with the exception of the censored "saw in the head" shot.


title: The Big Boss

text: An early Mandarin print containing some extra footage is rumoured to still exist, and is thought to be in the hands of a private collector. A DVD was to be released in 2004 called "The Big Boss": "The Version You've Never Seen" but release was cancelled due to copyright issues.


title: The Big Boss

text: When "The Big Boss" was being prepared for American distribution, the U.S. release was to be re-titled "The Chinese Connection", a play on the popular "The French Connection", since both dealt with drug trafficking. The U.S. title of Lee's second film, "Fist of Fury", was to be kept nearly the same, except using the plural "Fists". However, the titles were accidentally reversed. "The Big Boss" was released as "Fists of Fury" and "Fist of Fury" became "The Chinese Connection". Recent American TV showings and the official US DVD release from 20th Century Fox have restored the original titles of all Bruce Lee films, though the descriptions do not match in some cases.


title: The Big Boss

text: Unlike other Lee films, "The Big Boss" is unique in having not only two, but three completely different music scores. "Fist of Fury", "Way of the Dragon", "Enter the Dragon", and "Game of Death" all only feature one score with minor alterations.


title: The Big Boss

text: The first music score for it was composed by Wang Fu-ling, who worked on films such as "The Chinese Boxer" and "One-Armed Swordsman". This was made for the original Mandarin language version, and was also used in the English export version, in addition to the theatrical French and Turkish versions. Wang was the only one to receive credit, but it is also believed composer Chen Yung-yu assisted with the score. At least one cue from Japanese composer Akira Ifukube's scores for the "Daimajin" trilogy of films was also utilised as stock music.


title: The Big Boss

text: The second and most widespread of the music scores was by German composer Peter Thomas. This did not become widely known until 2005, when most of the music he composed for the film was published on iTunes. Thomas's involvement stems from a complete reworking of the English version of the film. The early version featured the expatriate voice actors living in Hong Kong who worked on the Shaw Brothers' films, and used Wang Fu-ling's score. It was decided to make a new English version that would stand out from the ones of other martial arts films. New actors were brought in to re-dub the film, and Thomas re-scored the film, abandoning Wang Fu-ling's music. The German dubbed version (German: Die Todesfaust des Cheng Li, English: The Deadly Fist of Cheng Li), premiering before the reworked English version, features his score.


title: The Big Boss

text: The third score is the 1982 Cantonese release score, which primarily features music from Golden Harvest composer Joseph Koo. However, a good portion of Koo's music in the Cantonese version was originally created in 1974 for the Japanese theatrical release of "The Big Boss", which was half Koo's music and half Peter Thomas's. Golden Harvest simply took Koo's music from the Japanese version and added it to the Cantonese version. Aside from this, this version is most infamous for its use of the Pink Floyd music cues from "The Grand Vizier's Garden Party, Part 2", "Time" and "Obscured by Clouds", as well as King Crimson's "Larks' Tongues in Aspic, Part Two". Other music cues were taken from old horror films and B-movies, including "I Was A Teenage Werewolf" and "How To Make A Monster".


title: The Big Boss

text: In 1976, an unofficial sequel to "The Big Boss" was made called "The Big Boss Part II", starring Bruce Le (Huang Kin Lung) as Cheng Chao-an and Lo Lieh as Cheng's brother, who wants revenge for their father's murder. The film was directed by Chan Chue, who was an assistant director on the original film and also reprises his role as the villainous ice factory manager. "The Big Boss Part II" (not to be confused with "Big Boss 2" starring Dragon Lee and Bolo Yeung) was partly filmed at some of the Pak Chong locations used in the original film, including the ice factory and the Buddhist temple which is used as the villain's lair. The elusive film still exists, but has never been officially released on home media.


title: The Big Boss

text: Various Bruce Lee biopics have been filmed over the years, with the two most famous being "" and "". Both of these films feature their respective actors, Bruce Li and Jason Scott Lee, at one point acting as Lee on the set of "The Big Boss". Both films feature a variation of the rumour that Lee was challenged on the set by a Thai boxer. In "Myth", Lee was challenged on set and was caught in the middle of an ambush later on off the set. In "Dragon", Lee is challenged during an actual take during filming of "The Big Boss", wearing the trademark rolled up long sleeve white T-shirt, white sash, and black pants. Both of these are highly exaggerated accounts (not to mention that "Dragon" makes the mistake of saying that filming for "The Big Boss" began in July 1970 rather than in July 1971), as the story told is that Lee merely discusses martial arts with a Thai fighter on the set. Besides these two examples, a third Bruce Lee biopic, "The Legend of Bruce Lee", this time with Danny Chan Kwok-kwan as Lee and filmed in mini-series form, was shown in Hong Kong in 2008 as part of China's hosting of the summer Olympics. Once again, this biopic shows Lee encountering a Thai boxer on the set of "The Big Boss", this time with the challenger being played by martial arts film veteran Mark Dacascos. Photos and behind-the-scenes video of this scene have appeared on various websites, including Dacascos's official site.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry, officially known as Rajamahendravaram, is a city in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh and District headquarters of East Godavari district. It is the sixth most populated city in the state. During British rule, the District of Rajahmundry was created in the Madras Presidency in 1823. It was reorganised in 1859 and bifurcated into the Godavari and Krishna districts. Rajahmundry was the headquarters of Godavari district, which was further bifurcated into East Godavari and West Godavari districts in 1925. When the Godavari district was bifurcated, Kakinada became the headquarters of East Godavari and Eluru became the headquarters of West Godavari. It is administered under Rajahmundry revenue division of the East Godavari district. The city is known for its floriculture, history, culture, agriculture, economy, tourism, and its heritage. It is known as the "Cultural Capital of Andhra Pradesh".


title: Rajahmundry

text: The city's name was derived from Rajaraja Narendra, the ruler of Chalukya dynasty of 11th century who ruled over the city. In 2015, the city was renamed to Rajamahendravaram from the earlier name of Rajahmundry.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The city earlier was called "Rajamahendravaram", derived from the Sanskrit name "Rajamahendrapuram" (The city of King Mahendra). Carrying the same meaning, it is also referred to as "Rajamahendri". During Qutb Shahi, Mughal and Nizam rule it was referred in official records with name Rājmandrī and same name was anglicized in the British colonial era as "Rajahmundry" or "Rajamundry". On 10 October 2015, the State Government of Andhra Pradesh officially renamed the city with its original name.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry was established by Ammaraja Vishnuvardhana the First (919–934 AD). The city as a prominent settlement can be traced back to the rule of the Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra, who reigned around 1022 AD. Remains of 11th-century palaces and forts still exist.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry was under Dutch rule for some time. In 1602, the Dutch constructed a fort here. In 1857, the British conquered the Dutch. They converted it into a jail in 1864 and elevated it into a central jail in 1870. The jail is spread over 196 acres (79 ha) out of which the buildings occupy 37.24 acres (15.07 ha).


title: Rajahmundry

text: In the Madras Presidency, the District of Rajahmundry was created in 1823. It was reorganised in 1859 and was bifurcated into Godavari and Krishna districts. During British rule, Rajahmundry was the headquarters of Godavari district, which was further bifurcated into East Godavari and West Godavari districts in 1925. When the Godavari district was split, Kakinada became the headquarters of East Godavari and Eluru became headquarters of West Godavari.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry was the hotbed of several movements during India's freedom struggle and acted as a base for many key leaders. When the Indian National Congress had its first meeting in Bombay (Mumbai), two leaders from Rajahmundry, Nyapathi Subba Rao and Kandukuri Veeresalingam, participated in it. Subba Rao, founder of Hindu Samaj in Rajahmundry, was also one of the six founders of India's noted English daily, "The Hindu".


title: Rajahmundry

text: The Renaissance of Andhra Pradesh started in Rajahmundry. Kandukuri Veeresalingam is known as the Father of reforms in Andhra Pradesh. He started a monthly magazine Vivekavardhini, and a school for girls at Dowleswaram in 1874. The first widow remarriage took place on 11 December 1881. A society with 16 members was started on 22 June 1884, which used to look after widow remarriages in Rajahmundry. The town hall was established in 1890 by Veeresalingam. Bipin Chandra Pal visited Rajahmundry in April 1905 during the Vandemataram Movement. During his visits, he used to address the public in "Pal Chowk" (the present-day Kotipalli Bus Stand). Annie Besant visited Rajahmundry twice. First, she came during the foundations of a branch of the Divya Gyan Samaj at Alcot Gardens were being laid. She came again during the opening ceremony. Ramakrishna Mission was established in the city during 1950–51 near Kambal tank. The place is now the Ayakar Bhavan.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is acclaimed as the birthplace of the Telugu language—its grammar and script evolved from the pen of the city-born poet Nannayya. Also known as 'Ādi Kavi' (the first poet) of Telugu, Nannayya, along with Tikkana and Yerrana, translated the Sanskrit version of Mahabharata into Telugu. Kandukuri Veeresalingam – a social reformer and the author of Rajashekhara Charithra, the first Telugu novel – was also from Rajahmundry.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is located at . with an average elevation of . It is geographically located at centre of Godavari Districts.There is paddy, sugarcane and various varieties of flowers cultivation in the area. River Godavari flows through the west of Rajahmundry.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The Rajahmundry traps, part of the Deccan Traps, are located on the Godavari river and are of particular interest to geologists.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The weather is hot and humid, with a tropical climate and, therefore, no distinct seasons. The mean maximum temperature is . The hottest season is from April to June, with temperature ranging from to with maximum of recorded in May 2002 and May 2007. The coolest months are December and January, when it is pleasant at to . There is heavy monsoon rain at the end of summer, with depressions in the Bay of Bengal.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Census of India, the city had a population 341,831. 29,883 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, of which 15,152 are boys and 14,731 are girls—a sex ratio of 972 per 1000. The average literacy rate stands at 84.28% (male 88.14%; female 80.54%) with 264,653 literates, significantly higher than the national average of 73.00%.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is spread over an area of and metro area of The Government is constructing an underground drainage system in the city. The Government has merged 23 surrounding villages from Korukonda, Rajanagaram, Rajahmundry Rural and Kadiam mandals into Rajamahendravaram Municipal Corporation and upgraded to Greater Rajamahendravaram Municipal Corporation (GRMC). AP govt issued GO no:85 on 28 Jan 2020 and published it in the Gazette on 31.01.2020. Godavari Urban Development Authority (GUDA) is also working for the progress of new master plan.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is also famous for flowers. Various varieties of flowers are cultivated here. Nurseries here are spread more than 3,500 acres in Kadiam, Rajahmundry Rural mandals of the city. Floriculture is expanding to Mandapeta town. Central Floriculture Institute and Research Centre is under construction at Vemagiri in the city. Government is exporting these flowers from Rajahmundry Airport through cargo planes.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is a commercial hub for East Godavari and West Godavari Districts. Nurseries in Kadiam mandal generates huge revenue to Rajahmundry revenue division. A floriculture research centre is in construction at Vemagiri to give a major boost to the nurseries in Godavari districts. Floriculture is expanding to Mandapeta, Alamuru and Atreyapuram mandals. Main Road and Tadithota are main marketing places in the city. Many shopping complexes, multiplexes, hotels and convention halls are in construction near NH 216A (old NH 16) and it is becoming another shopping centre. Tourism also generates revenue to this region. It is one of the largest bullion markets in India which consists hundreds of gold, silver and platinum shops throughout the city.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is an industrial hub with huge industries generating employment. The city is the headquarters for ONGC, GAIL in K.G. Basin. Godavari districts are one of the largest petrochemical hubs in India. There are two huge paper mills in the city located at Luthergiri and Kadiam. There are two power plants in city i.e., GMR Power Plant and Vijjeswaram Hydel Power Plant. The Government has set up industrial parks and industrial clusters at Nidigatla, Pallakadiam, Rajanagaram, Kadiyam, Jegurapadu areas in the city. The present five-year plan of district consists of making the city as an IT Hub.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Damerla Rama Rao Art Gallery is dedicated to the works of the artist Damerla Rama Rao of the city and showcases various paintings by him such as "Krishna Leela", "Godavari of Eastern Ghats" and "Milkmaids of Kathiawar".


title: Rajahmundry

text: Ratnam pens are the first handcrafted pens in India since 1932. The pens are made from ebonite with gold or silver plated nibs. Ratnamson is a brand name of the K.V.Ratnam and sons, Ratnam Ball pen works at Fort Gate, Rajahmudry.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Nannayya is the earliest known Telugu poet, and the author of the first third of the Andhra Mahabharatam, a Telugu retelling of the Mahabharata. Sri Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848–1919), a renowned social reformer, is widely considered as the man who first brought about a renaissance in Telugu literature and Telugu people; he is also known to have fought for women's issues. General Sir Arthur Thomas Cotton, (15 May 1803 – 24 July 1899) was a British General and an Irrigation engineer. Adurthi Subba Rao, prominent old-time Director and Producer of Telugu Films. Julia Maitland, a campaigner for "native" education, founded a multilingual school and reading room in the town in 1837.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Durga Cinetone was the first South Indian film studio, to be built in Rajahmundry in the year 1936 by Nidamarthi Surayya. Many other films are being shot in the city.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The city has produced many well-known artists in the Telugu film industry such as Adurthi Subba Rao, S. V. Ranga Rao, Ali, Raja Babu, Jaya Prada, Sameera Reddy, Bhanupriya, Sriman, Meghna Reddy, Thotakura Venkata Raju, Uma Pemmaraju, Ramesh, Sira Sri, Bhaskarabhatla Ravi Kumar, Ali and J. D. Chakravarthy.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The river Godavari and its bridges and the Sir Arthur Cotton Museum are some of the attractions in the city. Rajahmundry is a tourist destination in the state. Daily tourist boats are availed from Pushkar Ghat to Papikondalu and Bhadrachalam. Nurseries in Kadiam mandal is another tourist destination.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Government of Andhra Pradesh is rehabilitating the old Godavari bridge (Havelock Bridge) and constructing resorts, convention centers, film studios, hotels, recreational places at Pichukalanka and other islands on River Godavari and eco-tourism centre at Kadiyapulanka, Zoological Park. Government of Andhra Pradesh is constructing Rajahmundry International Cricket Stadium on PPP mode to host international matches. Greater Rajamahendravaram Municipal Corporation (GRMC), Godavari Urban Development Authority (GUDA) and Andhra Pradesh Tourism Development Corporation (APTDC) is planning River Front Development on stretch of river Godavari from Venkatanagaram to Vemagiri. The Government is signing MoUs with private agencies for Malls, Multiplexes, Hotels, Convention Centers and Recreational places on PPP mode as a part of tourism development. Rajahmundry Airport is being developed as an international airport for giving a major boost to tourism in Godavari districts. Polavaram Project, which is away from city will become another major tourist site near the city.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The bridges across Godavari river are an important transport infrastructure for connectivity such as, the Godavari Bridge, which is the third longest railroad bridge in India; and the Godavari Arch Bridge, commissioned on 14 March 1997 for Howrah–Chennai main line. While, the Old Godavari Bridge (The Havelock Bridge) was the earliest of all, built in 1897 and was decommissioned in 1997. The city also has Dowleswaram Cotton Barrage bridge and fourth bridge on either side of the main city that connects the highways of East Godavari and West Godavari districts.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry is very well connected to the state and the rest of India with a network of state and national highways. NH 16 passes through the city. NH 365BB, NH 516D connects the city with Khammam, Suryapet and Hyderabad. NH 216A which is a spur road to NH-16 connects the city with Ravulapalem, Tanuku, Tadepalligudem and Eluru. NH 516E connects the city with Vizianagaram via Rampachodavaram, Narsipatnam and Araku.


title: Rajahmundry

text: ADB Road and SH 40 (Canal Road) connects the city with Kakinada and SH 41 is connected with Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Telangana borders with Andhra Pradesh and Bhadrachalam. SH 104 connects the city with Amalapuram. SH 172 is connected to Purushottampatnam and Polavaram Project. SH 72 connects the city to Nidadavolu, Palakollu and Narasapuram, Bhimavaram.


title: Rajahmundry

text: NHAI is constructing flyovers on NH 16 and NH 216A at Diwancheruvu, Lalacheruvu, Morampudi, Vemagiri and Kadiyapulanka junctions in the city to ease traffic. Trumpet Bridge is being constructed at ADB road on NH 16 in Rajanagaram. An ROB was proposed from Morampudi to Kotipalli Bus stand. Godavari Urban Development Authority (GUDA), Greater Rajamahendravaram Municipal Corporation (GRMC) are constructing an outer ring road (ORR) for the city to ease traffic in the city.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry railway station is classified as an "A category" station. It is located on the Howrah-Chennai main line of South Central Railway zone. The new platforms 4 and 5 will be operational in the year 2023. , , and are other railway stations serving the city region. A second railway line is proposed on the Godavari Arch Bridge. A new railway line to Raipur from the city connecting Rampachodavaram and other East agency areas is in the proposal. The frequency of trains will be increased after the completion of Kovvur-Bhadrachalam railway line and the distance to will be decreased.


title: Rajahmundry

text: National Waterway 4 was declared on 24 November 2008, which connects the Indian states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and the union territory of Puducherry. It passes through Kakinada, Rajahmundry, Tadepalligudem, Eluru, Commanur, Buckingham Canal and also part of Krishna and Godavari rivers. Kakinada Port is the nearest port to the city. A new commercial port is under construction at Kakinada City by GMR on PPP mode. Narasapuram Port is proposed according to AP State Reorganisation Act. It is being developed by Inland Waterways Authority of India.Inland water port is proposed at Bobbillanka. APTDC and other private agencies' boats and launches are available daily from Pushakar Ghat to Papikondalu and Bhadrachalam.


title: Rajahmundry

text: Rajahmundry Airport is situated at Madhurapudi in the north of Rajamahendravaram. The airport serves the people of godavari districts in Andhra Pradesh. Indigo airline has been operating non-stop flights to and fro the cities namely Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Tirupati, and Visakhapatnam. The direct flight services to Mumbai and Delhi are expected in the near future. The airport's runway was expanded from 1,749 m to 3,165 m and it is the second longest runway in the state of Andhra Pradesh. A new integrated domestic terminal will come up at Rajahmundry airport as part of its expansion and upgradation plans. The new terminal building, which will be built at a cost of Rs 135 crore, will have all modern facilities including aero bridges, and will be able to handle 1,400 passengers (700 arrivals and 700 departures) at a time. The airport has also obtained a DGCA license for handling wide-bodied aircraft such as Airbus A321 and Boeing 737. The airport has a dedicated cargo terminal. The government of AP is keen on exporting flowers through this airport from the nurseries in Kadiyam mandal of East Godavari district.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the "School Education Department" of the state. As per the school information report for the academic year 2016–17, the city has 55,501 students enrolled in 244 schools. The medium of instruction followed by schools are Telugu and English. The "Railway High School" in the city has a history of more than hundred years, established in the year 1909.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The city has one of the thirteen regional offices of the Board of Intermediate Education, which administers Intermediate education (10+2) education. The Government Junior College is the only government run junior college, established in 1974 and there are four private-aided, twenty private-unaided colleges in the city.


title: Rajahmundry

text: The Government Arts College was founded more than 150 years ago by the reformer, Kandukuri Veeresalingam Panthulu. The BEd Training Institute is one of the oldest in India. Adikavi Nannaya University was established in March 2006, named after an 11th-century poet, Nannayya. Other major universities in the city include Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Study Center. Andhra Pradesh State Forest Academy is located in the city for Forest skills training.


title: Rajahmundry

text: "Central Floriculture Institute and Research Centre" is in construction at Vemagiri. "Science City" is in construction at Bommuru.


title: Rajahmundry

text: After the Reorganization of Andhra Pradesh State the following institutes are sanctioned for the city:


title: Guédelon Castle

text: Guédelon Castle ( ) is a castle currently under construction near Treigny, France. The castle is the focus of an experimental archaeology project aimed at recreating a 13th-century castle and its environment using period techniques, dress, and materials.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: In order to fully investigate the technology required in the past, the project is using only period construction techniques, tools, and costumes. Materials, including wood and stone, are all obtained locally. Jacques Moulin, chief architect for the project, designed the castle according to the architectural model developed during the 12th and 13th centuries by Philip II of France.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: Construction started in 1997 under Michel Guyot, owner of Château de Saint-Fargeau, a castle in Saint-Fargeau 13 kilometres away. The site was chosen according to the availability of construction materials: an abandoned stone quarry, in a large forest, with a nearby pond. The site is in a rural woodland area and the nearest town is Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye, about to the northeast.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: In 1979, French entrepreneur Michel Guyot purchased the ruins of the Château de Saint-Fargeau and began restoring it with profits raised on-site.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: In late 1995, a study by Guyot's staff revealed the medieval foundations beneath the current, brick ruins, complete with a hypothesized plan of the original castle. After some consideration, Guyot rebuilt the existing castle, but began assembling funds and experts – and opening negotiations with the French government – to build a new castle.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: Over five months in 1997, Guyot raised €400,000 from the European Union, local and the central French governments, and commercial entities.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: A former sandstone quarry was chosen as the site of Guédelon Castle because of its relative elevation and abundance of local natural resources, which would have been expensive to transport in the Middle Ages.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: The castle location is in a woodland, two hours south of Paris, near Treigny. The ceremonial first stone was laid on 20 June 1997,


title: Guédelon Castle

text: After ground-breaking mid-1997 through early 1998, the site was cleared and the first workshops erected.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: By 1998 the castle perimeter had been built up to a metre (3 ¼ feet) in height, following which Guédelon was opened to the public.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: The techniques redeveloped for Guédelon Castle are being used in the reconstruction of Notre-Dame cathedral after its catastrophic 2019 fire.


title: Guédelon Castle

text: In November 2014 the castle was featured in the series, "Secrets of the Castle", in which the project was described as "the world's biggest archaeological experiment".


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Lawrence is a US-based soul-pop group founded by New York City-raised sibling duo Clyde and Gracie Lawrence, who have been singing, performing, and writing songs together since their early childhood. Today, Lawrence is an eight-piece band that has released three studio albums, plus several live and acoustic albums.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: In July 2021, Lawrence released their new album, Hotel TV, and became the first band to release music under Beautiful Mind Records, the label of Grammy-winning producer/songwriter/artist Jon Bellion, who co-produced and co-wrote the songs on the album along with Clyde, Gracie and their bandmates Jordan Cohen and Jonny Koh. Most recently, the album's lead single, "Don't Lose Sight," was featured in an international Microsoft commercial, which propelled it into the Top 20 on the USA Shazam Pop Charts. The single also hit #33 on Top 40 radio and was played on over 100 multi-format stations across the country. The band performed "Don't Lose Sight" on Jimmy Kimmel Live], did a performance of it for The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, and closed both of their sets at Coachella with it.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Touring has been a key component of the group's rise to success: The release of Hotel TV was supported by the Hotel TV Tour, a 53-city tour across major cities in North America, including sold out shows at Terminal 5 in New York City, House of Blues in Chicago, and two nights at the Royale in Boston, among others. Following that, the band completed a co-headline tour with MisterWives. The group has toured with acts such as Lake Street Dive, Vulfpeck, Jon Bellion, Jacob Collier, Soulive, O.A.R., and Bernhoft, and has appeared at major festivals including Coachella, Bonnaroo, Outside Lands, Firefly, Okeechobee, Hangout, and Summerfest.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Clyde and Gracie Lawrence, siblings aged three and a half years apart, have created music and performed together since childhood. Their father, Marc Lawrence, is a filmmaker, screenwriter, and director, best known for movies such as "Miss Congeniality" and "Music and Lyrics." Their younger brother, Linus has also featured in songs such as "Come On, Brother" on their album "Breakfast." He has also appeared in Lawrence music videos.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Clyde is a singer, pianist, and songwriter. He began writing music soon after he started playing the piano at age 4. In the band he plays guitar, organ, and keyboard. He graduated from the Dalton School in 2011 and completed an undergraduate degree at Brown University in 2015.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: When Marc Lawrence was working on the 2000 film "Miss Congeniality" and was not pleased with his options for the Miss United States pageant theme song, he turned to Clyde to see what he thought was wrong. At only 5, Clyde wrote his own version, and the film's other producers chose it without knowing its writer. The Miss United States pageant anthem that Clyde composed is prominently featured in the film, and his composition led him to become the youngest member of the Songwriters Guild of America.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: While attending high school at Dalton, Clyde continued to compose music for major motion pictures. He wrote parts of the original score for the 2007 film "Music & Lyrics" as well as "Dance With Me Tonight", a song that Hugh Grant performs. He wrote two tracks, one of which he performed himself, for 2009 movie "Did You Hear About the Morgans?" Clyde has written songs for additional films including "The Rewrite" (2015) and "Landline" (2017). He also composed the songs featured in the Season 2 episode of "Instinct" entitled "Broken Record" which aired on July 7, 2019. Clyde, along with Cody Fitzgerald, composed the entire score for the 2019 Disney+ film, "Noelle," starring Bill Hader and Anna Kendrick.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Gracie is a singer and actress. She attended Dalton School, graduating in 2015. She attended Brown after taking a gap year to tour with the band. Gracie was set to graduate from Brown in 2020 but has since left college to play with Lawrence full time.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Beyond music, she has acted on Broadway, television, and films for over a decade. In 2009, she acted in the Broadway show "Brighton Beach Memoirs" and also played Lucy Granger in the film "Did You Hear About The Morgans?". She has also acted in the 2011 film "The Sitter" as well as TV shows such as "The Good Wife," "The Americans," "Younger," and "Billions." In 2018, she played Julie Gardner on the main cast of thriller CBS-All Access series "One Dollar", which also featured Leslie Odom Jr. and John Carroll Lynch. She was featured in "Town & Country" magazine's "Modern Swans" September 2018 issue.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: While studying at Brown University, Clyde started a band originally called The Clyde Lawrence Band for which he sang lead vocals and played keyboard. The band featured a rotating crew of Brown students as members. Gracie, still in high school, also travelled to perform with the band. The Clyde Lawrence Band played events on campus as well as at colleges and venues across the Northeast.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: The Clyde Lawrence Band performed on Clyde's 2013 album, "Homesick". When Gracie became co-lead singer after many years playing together the band's name was changed to Lawrence.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Lawrence released its first full-length album, "Breakfast", in 2016, which reached #6 on the iTunes R&B charts on its first day of release. Produced by Grammy winner Eric Krasno, "Breakfast" includes musical appearances from members of Snarky Puppy and Lettuce.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: Their sophomore album, "Living Room", was released in September 2018. "Living Room" reached #2 on the iTunes R&B/Soul chart, earned a featured placement on Spotify's "New Music Friday" playlist, and led the band to its late-night television debut on NBC's "Last Call with Carson Daly". The album, which combines elements of Lawrence's old and new influences while featuring themes of childhood and family issues, was co-produced by bandmates Jordan Cohen (tenor/baritone saxophone) and Jonny Koh (guitar), Brooklyn-based producer Eli Crews, and Clyde and Gracie themselves.


title: Lawrence (band)

text: In February 2019, Lawrence announced via social media that the band would be an opener for Jon Bellion on his summer 2019 national tour, the "Glory Sound Prep" Tour. In June, Lawrence released its first of many Jon Bellion-produced singles, "Casualty". In July, Bellion and Lawrence announced that Bellion had launched his own record label, Beautiful Mind Records and had signed Lawrence as its first artist. Bellion has stated that his intention with this new label is to "take care of artists for the rest of their careers" and to create a family of musical creators who he supports and with whom he collaborates.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: The division of human rights into three generations was initially proposed in 1979 by the Czech jurist Karel Vasak at the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg. He used the term at least as early as November 1977. Vasak's theories have primarily taken root in European law.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: His divisions follow the three watchwords of the French Revolution: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". The three generations are reflected in some of the rubrics of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. While the Universal Declaration of Human Rights lists first- and second-generation rights, the document itself does not specifically order them in accordance with Vasak's framework.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: First-generation human rights, sometimes called "blue rights", deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political in nature: They serve negatively to protect the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, the right to life, equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, property rights, the right to a fair trial, and voting rights. Some of these rights and the right to due process date back to the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Rights of Englishmen, which were expressed in the English Bill of Rights in 1689. A more full set of first-generation human rights was pioneered in France by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789, and by the United States Bill of Rights in 1791.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: They were enshrined at the global level and given status in international law first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Second-generation human rights are related to equality and began to be recognized by governments after World War II. They are fundamentally economic, social, and cultural in nature. They guarantee different members of the citizenry equal conditions and treatment. Secondary rights would include a right to be employed in just and favorable condition, rights to food, housing and health care, as well as social security and unemployment benefits. Like first-generation rights, they were also covered by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and further embodied in Articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: In the United States of America, President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a Second Bill of Rights, covering much the same grounds, during his State of the Union Address on January 11, 1944. Today, many nations, states, or groups of nations have developed legally binding declarations guaranteeing comprehensive sets of human rights, e.g. the European Social Charter.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Some U.S. states have enacted some of these economic rights; for example, the state of New York has enshrined the right to a free education, as well as "the right to organize and to bargain collectively", and workers' compensation, in its constitutional law.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: These rights are sometimes referred to as "red" rights. They impose upon the government the duty to respect and promote and fulfill them, but this depends on the availability of resources. The duty is imposed on the state because it controls its own resources. No one has the direct right to housing and right to education. (In South Africa, for instance, the right is not, "per se", to housing, but rather "to have access to adequate housing", realised on a progressive basis.)


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Third-generation human rights are those rights that go beyond the mere civil and social, as expressed in many progressive documents of international law, including the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and other pieces of generally aspirational "soft law".


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Also known as Solidarity human rights, they are rights that try to go beyond the framework of individual rights to focus on collective concepts, such as community or people. However, the term remains largely unofficial, just as the also-used moniker of "green" rights, and thus houses an extremely broad spectrum of rights, including:


title: Three generations of human rights

text: The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights ensures many of those: the right to self-determination, right to development, right to natural resources and right to satisfactory environment. Some countries also have constitutional mechanisms for safeguarding third-generation rights. For example, the Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations, the Parliament of Finland's , and the erstwhile Commission for Future Generations in the Israeli Knesset.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Some international organizations have offices for safeguarding such rights. An example is the High Commissioner on National Minorities of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. The Directorate-General for the Environment of the European Commission has as its mission "protecting, preserving and improving the environment for present and future generations, and promoting sustainable development".


title: Three generations of human rights

text: A few jurisdictions have enacted provisions for environmental protection, e.g. New York's "forever wild" constitutional article, which is enforceable by action of the New York State Attorney General or by any citizen "ex rel." with the consent of the Appellate Division.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Several analysts claim that a fourth generation of human rights is emerging, which would include rights that cannot be included in the third generation, future claims of first and second generation rights and new rights, especially in relation to technological development and information and communication technologies and cyberspace.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: However, the content of it is not clear, and these analysts do not present a unique proposal. They normally take some rights from the third generation and include them in the fourth, such as the right to a healthy environment or aspects related to bioethics. Some of those analysts believe that the fourth generation is given by human rights in relation to new technologies, while others prefer to talk about digital rights, where a new range of rights would be found, such as:


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Others point out that the differentiating element would be that, while the first three generations refer to the human being as a member of society, the rights of the fourth would refer to the human being as a species.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Maurice Cranston argued that scarcity means that supposed second-generation and third-generation rights are not really rights at all. If one person has a right, others have a duty to respect that right, but governments lack the resources necessary to fulfill the duties implied by citizens' supposed second- and third-generation rights.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Charles Kesler, a professor of government at Claremont McKenna College and senior fellow of the Claremont Institute, has argued that second- and third-generation human rights serve as an attempt to cloak political goals, which the majority may well agree are good things in and of themselves, in the language of rights, and thus grant those political goals inappropriate connotations. In his opinion, calling socio-economic goods "rights" inherently creates a related concept of "duties", so that other citizens have to be coerced by the government to give things to other people in order to fulfill these new rights. He also has stated that, in the U.S., the new rights create a "nationalization" of political decision-making at the federal level in violation of federalism. In his book "Soft Despotism, Democracy's Drift", Paul Rahe, professor at Hillsdale College, wrote that focusing on equality-based rights leads to a subordination of the initial civil rights to an ever-expanding government, which would be too incompetent to provide for its citizens correctly and would merely seek to subordinate more rights.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: 19th century philosopher Frederic Bastiat summarized the conflict between these negative and positive rights by saying:


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Economist Friedrich Hayek has argued that the second generation concept of "social justice" cannot have any practical political meaning:


title: Three generations of human rights

text: New York University School of Law professor of law Jeremy Waldron has written in response to critics of the second-generation rights:


title: Three generations of human rights

text: Hungarian socialist and political economist Karl Polanyi made the antithetical argument to Hayek in the book "The Great Transformation". Polanyi wrote that an uncontrolled free market would lead to repressive economic concentration and then to a co-opting of democratic governance that degrades civil rights.


title: Three generations of human rights

text: The World Conference on Human Rights in 1993 opposed the distinction between civil and political rights (negative rights) and economic, social and cultural rights (positive rights) that resulted in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action proclaiming that "all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated".


title: Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C

text: The Wärtsilä RT-flex96C is a two-stroke turbocharged low-speed diesel engine designed by the Finnish manufacturer Wärtsilä. It is designed for large container ships that run on heavy fuel oil. Its largest 14-cylinder version is 13.5 meters high, 26.59 meters long, weighs over 2,300 tonnes, and produces 80.08 megawatts. The engine is the largest reciprocating engine in the world.


title: Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C

text: The 14-cylinder version first entered commercial service in September 2006 aboard the "Emma Mærsk". The design is similar to the older RTA96C engine, but with common rail technology (in place of traditional camshaft, chain gear, fuel pump and hydraulic actuator systems). This provides maximum performance at lower revolutions per minute (rpm), reduces fuel consumption and emits lower levels of harmful emissions.


title: Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C

text: The engine has crosshead bearings so the always-vertical piston rods create a tight seal under the pistons. Consequently, the lubrication of the engine is split: the cylinders and the crankcase use different lubricants, each being specialised for its designated role. The cylinders are lubricated by continuous timed injection of consumable lubricant, formulated to protect the cylinders from wear and to neutralise the acids formed during combustion of the high-sulfur fuels commonly used. The crosshead design reduces sideways forces on the piston, keeping diametral cylinder liner wear down to about 30 μm per 1000 hours.


title: Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C

text: As a piston descends, it compresses incoming combustion air for the adjacent cylinders. This also serves to cushion the piston as it approaches bottom dead centre, thereby removing some load from the bearings. The engine is uniflow-scavenged by way of exhaust valves that are operated by electronically controlled hydraulics, thus eliminating the camshaft.


title: Max Yasgur

text: Max B. Yasgur (December 15, 1919 – February 9, 1973) was an American farmer who was the owner of a dairy farm in Bethel, New York, where the 1969 Woodstock musical festival was held from August 15–18, 1969. He sold his farm in 1971 and retired to Florida, where he died in 1973.


title: Max Yasgur

text: Yasgur was born in New York City to Russian Jewish immigrants Samuel and Bella Yasgur. He was raised with his brother Isidore (1926–2010) on the family's farm (where his parents also ran a small hotel) and attended New York University, studying real estate law. By the late 1960s, he was the largest milk producer in Sullivan County, New York. His farm had 650 cows, mostly Guernseys.


title: Max Yasgur

text: At the time of the festival in 1969, Yasgur was married to Miriam (Mimi) Gertrude Miller Yasgur (1920–2014) and had a son, Sam (1942–2016) and daughter, Lois (1944–1977). His son was an assistant district attorney in New York City at the time.


title: Max Yasgur

text: In later years, it was revealed that Yasgur was in fact a conservative Republican who supported the Vietnam War. Nevertheless, he felt that the Woodstock festival could help business at his farm and also tame the generation gap. Despite claims that he showed disapproval towards the treatment of the counterculture movement, this has not been confirmed. Woodstock promoter Michael Lang, who considered Yasgur to be his "hero," stated that Yasgur was "the antithesis" of what the Woodstock festival stood for. Yasgur's early death prevented him from answering questions about why the festival took place.


title: Max Yasgur

text: After area villages Saugerties (located about from Yasgur's farm) and Wallkill declined to provide a venue for the festival, Yasgur leased one of his farm's fields for a fee that festival sponsors said was $10,000. Soon afterward he began to receive both threatening and supporting phone calls (which could not be placed without the assistance of an operator because the community of White Lake, New York, where the telephone exchange was located, still utilized manual switching). Some of the calls threatened to burn him out. However, the helpful calls outnumbered the threatening ones.


title: Max Yasgur

text: Opposition to the festival began soon after the festival's relocation to Bethel was announced. Signs were erected around town, saying, "Local People Speak Out Stop Max's Hippie Music Festival. No 150,000 hippies here" and "Buy no milk".


title: Max Yasgur

text: Yasgur was 49 at the time of the festival and had a heart condition. He said at the time that he never expected the festival to be so large, but that "if the generation gap is to be closed, we older people have to do more than we have done."


title: Max Yasgur

text: Yasgur quickly established a rapport with the concert-goers, providing food at cost or for free. When he heard that some local residents were reportedly selling water to people coming to the concert, he put up a big sign at his barn on New York State Route 17B reading "Free Water." "The New York Times" reported that Yasgur "slammed a work-hardened fist on the table and demanded of some friends, 'How can anyone ask money for water? His son Sam recalled his father telling his children to "take every empty milk bottle from the plant, fill them with water and give them to the kids, and give away all the milk and milk products we had at the dairy."


title: Max Yasgur

text: At the time of the concert, friends described Yasgur as an individualist who was motivated as much by his principles as by the money. According to Sam Yasgur, his father agreed to rent the field to the festival organizers because it was a very wet year, which curtailed hay production. The income from the rental would offset the cost of purchasing thousands of bales of hay.


title: Max Yasgur

text: Yasgur also believed strongly in freedom of expression, and was angered by the hostility of some townspeople toward "anti-war hippies". Hosting the festival became, for him, a "cause".


title: Max Yasgur

text: On the third day of the festival, just before Joe Cocker's early afternoon set, Yasgur addressed the crowd:


title: Max Yasgur

text: Several of the performers at the festival had arranged to send thank you gifts, flowers, and letters to Yasgur for allowing use of the farm.


title: Max Yasgur

text: Many of Yasgur's neighbors turned against him after the festival, and he was no longer welcome at the town general store, but he never regretted his decision to allow the concert on his farm. The local postmaster reportedly turned against the Yasgurs, so they opted to change their address from Bethel to Cochecton, another nearby town. On January 7, 1970, he was sued by his neighbors for property damage caused by the concert attendees. However, the damage to his own property was far more extensive and, over a year later, he received a $50,000 settlement to pay for the near-destruction of his dairy farm. He refused to rent out his farm for a 1970 revival of the festival, saying, "As far as I know, I'm going back to running a dairy farm".


title: Max Yasgur

text: In 1971, Yasgur sold the farm, and moved to Marathon, Florida, where, a year and a half later, he died of a heart attack at the age of 53. He was given a full-page obituary in "Rolling Stone" magazine, one of the few non-musicians to have received such an honor.


title: Max Yasgur

text: In 1997, the site of the concert and surrounding it was purchased by Alan Gerry for the purpose of creating the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts. In August 2007, the parcel that contains Yasgur's former homestead, about from the festival site, was placed on the market for $8 million by its owner, Roy Howard.


title: Max Yasgur

text: Sam Yasgur wrote a book about his father, "Max B. Yasgur: The Woodstock Festival's Famous Farmer", in August 2009.


title: Knee pain

text: The knee joint consists of an articulation between four bones: the femur, tibia, fibula and patella. There are four compartments to the knee. These are the medial and lateral tibiofemoral compartments, the patellofemoral compartment and the superior tibiofibular joint. The components of each of these compartments can experience repetitive strain, injury or disease.


title: Knee pain

text: Knee pain is more common among people working in the cold than in those in normal temperature. Cold-induced knee pain may also be due to tenosynovitis of the tendons around the knee, in which cold exposure has a specific role, either as a causative or a contributing factor. Frank arthritis has been reported in children due to frostbite from extreme cold causing direct chondrocyte injury.


title: Knee pain

text: There is also a hereditary disease, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS), which often features knee pain, in addition to hives, fever and pain in other joints, following general exposure to cold.


title: Knee pain

text: A lower level of physical activity and a work environment where one is required to sit in a chair during the work day is one reason for developing knee joint pain, as the lower degree of physical movement tends to weaken the knee muscles. Blood vessels also can be affected, leading to development of painful conditions. Working on building strength through a full range of motion is crucial for rebuilding strength and getting rid of knee pain.


title: Knee pain

text: As age progresses the movement of the knee joint involves higher friction with adjacent tissue and cartilages.


title: Knee pain

text: Referred pain is that pain perceived at a site different from its point of origin but innervated by the same spinal segment. Sometimes knee pain may be related to another area from body. For example, knee pain can come from ankle, foot, hip joints or lumbar spine.


title: Knee pain

text: Knee MRIs should be avoided for knee pain without symptoms or effusion, unless there are non-successful results from a functional rehabilitation program.


title: Knee pain

text: In some diagnosis, such as in knee osteoarthritis, magnetic resonance imaging does not prove to be clear for its determination.


title: Knee pain

text: Although surgery has a role in repairing traumatic injuries and broken bones, surgeries such as arthroscopic lavage do not provide significant or lasting improvements to either pain or function to people with knee pain, and therefore should almost never be performed. Knee pain is pain caused by wear and tear, such as osteoarthritis or a meniscal tear. Effective treatments for knee pain include physical therapy exercises, pain-reducing drugs such as ibuprofen, joint stretching, knee replacement surgery, and weight loss in people who are overweight.


title: Knee pain

text: Overall, a combination of interventions seems to be the best choice when treating knee pain. Interventions such as exercises that target both the knee and the hip, foot bracing, and patellar taping are all recommended for use with patients who have knee pain.


title: Knee pain

text: Current evidence suggests that psychological factors are elevated in individuals with patellofemoral pain. Non-physical factors such as anxiety, depression, fear of movement, and catastrophizing are thought to have a linear correlation with increased pain experience and decreased physical function. Catastrophizing is defined as imagining the worst possible outcome of an action or event. The psychosocial factors may have either a positive or negative impact on adherence to rehabilitation programs for managing knee pain. Furthermore, studies have found knee pain to be negatively associated with health-related quality of life, and an increase in knee pain to be associated with a reduction in patient-reported quality of life, as compared to those with no or stable knee pain, even in the relatively younger middle-aged population.


title: Knee pain

text: In the United States, more than US$3 billion is spent each year on arthroscopic knee surgeries that are known to be ineffective in people with degenerative knee pain.


title: Dot (diacritic)

text: When used as a diacritic mark, the term dot is usually reserved for the "interpunct" ( · ), or to the glyphs "combining dot above" ( ◌̇ ) and "combining dot below" ( ◌̣ )


title: Dot (diacritic)

text: which may be combined with some letters of the extended Latin alphabets in use in Central European languages and Vietnamese.


title: Dot (diacritic)

text: In mathematics and physics, when using Newton's notation the dot denotes the time derivative as in formula_1. In addition, the overdot is one way used to indicate an infinitely repeating set of numbers in decimal notation, as in formula_2, which is equal to the fraction , and formula_3 or formula_4, which is equal to .


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: The seventh season of "Criminal Minds" premiered on CBS in the United States on September 21, 2011. Both A. J. Cook and Paget Brewster were rehired by CBS to reprise their roles as Jennifer Jareau and Emily Prentiss. On February 15, 2012, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Paget Brewster (Emily Prentiss) would leave the series, definitively, once season seven was over. All the other main actors on the show secured deals to return for the eighth season. The two-hour season finale, which took place on May 16, 2012, reveals Prentiss making the decision to leave the BAU.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: On March 14, 2012, CBS renewed "Criminal Minds" for an eighth season, which aired on September 26, 2012.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: In the season premiere "It Takes a Village", Timothy V. Murphy reprises as Ian Doyle, and Robin Atkin Downes guest-starred as Lachlan McDermott, an international criminal who seeks vengeance against Doyle for murdering his brother Jimmy. In the episode "Proof", Andy Milder guest-starred as Cy Bradstone, a mentally challenged serial killer who removes his victims' five senses with sulfuric acid. Johanna Braddy guest-starred as Cy's niece, Tammy, and Tracy Middendorf guest-starred as Tammy's mother, Lyla, over whom Cy had a secret obsession. In the episode "Dorado Falls", Max Martini guest-starred as Luke Dolan, a former U.S. Navy Seal suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder and capgras syndrome who goes on a murderous rampage. Sarah Aldrich guest-starred as Luke's wife, Jenna.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: In the episode "Painless", Eric Jungmann guest-starred as Robert Adams, a survivor of a high school shooting who copied the murders committed by Randy Slade. Julia Campbell guest-starred as Randy's mother, Martha Slade, and Aaron Hill guest-starred as Jerry Holtz, another survivor of the shooting who is murdered by Robert. In the episode "From Childhood's Hour", Isabella Hofmann guest-starred as Carolyn Baker, David Rossi's first wife who dies of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Heather Tom guest-starred as Connie Barton, a mother who is abducted by George Kelling. In the episode "There's No Place Like Home", Alex Weed guest-starred as Travis James, a serial killer who abducted male prostitutes.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: In the episode "Hope", Brigid Brannagh guest-starred as Monica Kingston, a mother whose daughter was abducted and murdered by Bill Rogers, played by Jack Coleman. In the episode "Self-Fulfilling Prophecy", René Auberjonois of Star Trek: Deep Space 9 fame guest-starred as Colonel Ronald Massey, the leader of the Somerville Military Academy and criminal accomplice of both his second in command and of a dead cadet's vengeful father. In the episode "The Bittersweet Science", Shawn Hatosy guest-starred as Jimmy Hall, a professional boxer and spree killer whose son dies of leukemia. David Mazouz who co-starred with Kieffer Sutherland in the TV show Touch plays young Ryan Hall. Charles S. Dutton guest-starred as Tony Cole, Jimmy's boxing trainer. Danny Goldman guest-starred as Detective Bob Zablonsky, who leads the investigation of the murders.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: In the episode "Unknown Subject", Jay Karnes guest-starred as Hamilton Bartholomew, aka "The Piano Man", a serial rapist who is assaulting the victims he previously raped. In the episode "Snake Eyes", Dean Cain guest-starred as Curtis Banks, a serial killer with a gambling problem. Vanessa Branch guest-starred as Curtis' wife, Teri. In the episode "Closing Time", Geoffrey Blake guest-starred as Michael Janeczko, a serial killer who targeted men who have been divorced, which reflected Michael's own background. Tyler Neitzel guest-starred as Michael's stepson, Hunter Wright. In the episode "A Thin Line", Paul Johansson guest-starred as Clark Preston, a mayoral candidate and criminal accomplice of hate crime serial killer Trevor Mills.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: In the episode "A Family Affair", Kathy Baker and William Russ guest-starred as Donald and Linda Collins, the parents of paraplegic serial killer Jeffrey Collins. In the episode "I Love You, Tommy Brown", Teri Polo guest-starred as Margaret Hollman, a mentally unstable high school teacher who fell in love with one of her students, Thomas Brown, with whom she had a son. In the episode "Foundation", Hedy Burress guest-starred as Samantha Allen, the daughter of pedophilic abductor J.B. Allen. In the episode "Heathridge Manor", Juliet Landau guest-starred as Catherine Heathridge, a textile heiress who suffered a psychotic reaction to a Shakespeare play that convinced her that the lead actresses were "The Devil's Wives", prompting her to murder them. Kyle Gallner and Madeleine Martin guest-starred as Catherine's children, James and Lara, who followed in her footsteps. Robert Englund appeared as Detective Gassner, who calls in the BAU for help.


title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: In the episode "The Company", Shanola Hampton guest-starred as Cindi Burns, Derek Morgan's cousin who suffered from stockholm syndrome after marrying and giving birth to the son of her abductor, Malcolm Ford. In the episode "Divining Rod", Mackenzie Astin guest-starred as Dylan Kohler, the copycat killer of serial killer Rodney Baines Garrett. In the two-part season finale "Hit & Run", Josh Randall guest-starred as Matthew Downs, a member of the Face Cards and Izzy Rogers' lover, and Evan Jones guest-starred as Chris Stratton, another member of the Face Cards. Sebastian Roché reprises as Clyde Easter, Emily Prentiss' former partner at Interpol who offers her a job as Chief of the Interpol office in London, which she accepts, causing her departure from the BAU.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The biblical account of the crucifixion, death, and resurrection of Jesus ("ʿĪsā") recorded in the Christian New Testament is rejected by most Muslims, but like Christians they believe that Jesus ascended to heaven and he will, according to Islamic literary sources, return before the end of time. The various sects of Islam have different views regarding this topic; traditionally, mainstream Muslims believe that Jesus was not crucified but was bodily raised up to heaven by God, while Ahmadi Muslims reject this belief and instead contend that Jesus survived the crucifixion, was taken off the cross alive and continued to preach in India until his natural death.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Depending on the interpretation of the following Quranic verses (-), Islamic scholars and commentators of the Quran have abstracted different opinions and conflicting conclusions regarding the death of Jesus. Some believe that in the Biblical account, Jesus' crucifixion did not last long enough for him to die, while others opine that God gave Jesus' appearance to the one who revealed his location to those persecuting him. He was replaced as Jesus and the executioners thought the victim was Jesus, causing everyone to believe that Jesus was crucified. A third explanation could be that Jesus was nailed to a cross, but as his soul is immortal he did not "die" or was not "crucified" [to death]; it only appeared so. In opposition to the second and third foregoing proposals, yet others maintain that God does not use deceit and therefore they contend that the crucifixion just did not happen:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Jesus' death is mentioned in the future sense (on the Day of Resurrection) in the Quran, and his attempted death and his ascension into Heaven in the past sense. Below are the verses which mention the death and ascension of Jesus.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: By "they did not kill him," "before his death," and "the day I die" it can be assumed, based on a cursory reading of the plain text, that Jesus did not die. By "God raised him up to himself" and "You took me to Yourself" it can be assumed, based on a cursory reading of the plain text, that Jesus ascended to Heaven rather than dying. Despite Quran 5:117 only speaking of Jesus' ascension and 19:33 only speaking of Jesus' future death, Muslim scholars like Mahmoud M. Ayoub claim the aforesaid verses "assert" Jesus' death.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: In the past sense it is said that the Jews did not kill or crucify Jesus but it only appeared to them as if they had, because Jesus had been raised up by God according to the Quranic narrative. Given the historicity of Jesus' death and the Islamic theological doctrine on the supposed inerrancy of the Quran, most mainstream Muslims and Islamic scholars deny the crucifixion and death of Jesus, deny the historical reliability of the Gospels, claim that the canonical Gospels are corruptions of the true Gospel of Jesus for their portrayal of Jesus dying, and they also claim that extra-Biblical evidence for Jesus' death is a Christian forgery. and are interpreted by most mainstream Muslims as referring to Jesus entering heaven alive at the end of his life, like Enoch. According to the Islamic scholar Muhammad Asad the crucifixion of Jesus did not take place, nor was there any substitution "for Jesus, a person closely resembling him", thus among many Asad also rejects the theory of substitution mentioned with the words "none of these legends finds the slightest support in the Qur'an or in authentic Traditions, and the stories produced in this connection by the classical commentators must be summarily rejected".


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: In the future sense it is said that Jesus will not die until the day of resurrection. Given that, according to the Quran, Jesus had not died before going up to God, nor will he die before the day of resurrection, the interpretation by most Muslims is that Jesus entered heaven alive. Jesus' words "the day I die" in are interpreted by most Muslims in the future sense (Jesus will die on the day of resurrection).


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The belief that Jesus only appeared to be crucified and did not actually die predates Islam and is found in several New Testament apocrypha and Gnostic Gospels. Although most contemporary scholars argue that the Islamic portrayal of Jesus himself is not docetic, his crucifixion narrative in the Quran could be. The Greek Father of the Church and bishop Irenaeus in his heresiological treatise "Against Heresies" (180 CE) described early Gnostic beliefs regarding the crucifixion and death of Jesus that bear remarkable resemblance with the Islamic views, expounding on the hypothesis of substitution:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: One of the Christian Gnostic writings found in the Nag Hammadi library, the "Second Treatise of the Great Seth", has a similar substitutionist interpretation of Jesus' death:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The "Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter", likewise, holds the same substitutionist interpretation of Jesus' death:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The "Gospel of Peter" is a docetic Apocryphal Gospel. The British biblical scholar F. F. Bruce, who served as Rylands Professor of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis at the Victoria University of Manchester, wrote in a commentary about this text:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: John of Damascus, a Syrian Eastern Orthodox monk, Christian theologian, and apologist that lived under the Umayyad Caliphate, reported in his heresiological treatise "De Haeresibus" (8th century) the Islamic denial of Jesus' crucifixion and his alleged substitution on the cross, attributing the origin of these doctrines to Muhammad:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: In his scholarly monograph "Gott ist Christus, der Sohn der Maria. Eine Studie zum Christusbild im Koran" (1989, ), the German Roman Catholic theologian and professor of Religious studies states that Muhammad's distorted understanding of Jesus and the Christian faith, along with the misrepresentation of Christian beliefs about Jesus in the Quran and the "hadith", were influenced by the non-Chalcedonian (heretical) Monophysite Christianity that prevailed at the time in the pre-Islamic Arabian peninsula and further in Abyssinia, Egypt, and Syria. A similar hypothesis regarding the Gnostic Christian influence on Muhammad's beliefs about the crucifixion of Jesus has been proposed by Neal Robinson, senior lecturer of Religious studies at the College of St. Paul and St. Mary, in his scholarly monograph "Christ in Islam and Christianity" (1991, ).


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: This docetic interpretation regarding Jesus' crucifixion was also shared by Manichaeans. Since Manichaeism was still prevailing in Arabia during the 6th century, just alike prohibition against wine and fasting rules, Islamic views on Jesus' death might have been influenced by it. However, while Zoroastrianism existed only in the eastern and southern Arabia, the existence of Manichaeism in Mecca in the 6th-7th century is denied as lacking historical support. Similar reservations regarding the appearance of Manichaeism, Gnosticism, and Mazdakism in pre-Islamic Mecca are offered by Trompf & Mikkelsen et al. in their latest work (2018).


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Some Islamic scholars like Sheikh Mohammed al-Ghazali and Javed Ahmad Ghamidi argue that Jesus was rescued but was given death by God before he was ascended bodily as God never allows His messengers to be dishonored, even their dead bodies.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Thomas McElwain states that the context of the verse is clearly within the discussion of Jewish ridicule of Christians, not in context of whether or not Jesus died. He continues that the text could be interpreted as denying the death of Jesus at the hands of Jews rather than denying his death. He adds, however, "the expressions against the crucifixion are strong, so that to interpret the meaning for Romans rather than Jews to have committed the act is also suspect" and that if this meaning is correct, "it would have been more effective to state that the Romans killed Jesus, rather than to emphasise that the Jews were not in possession of the facts."


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The majority of Muslims translate the verb "mutawafik" (متوفيك) "to terminate after a period of time" while others translate it "to die of natural causes". Islamic scholars like Javed Ahmad Ghamidi consider it as the physical death of Jesus, and hence question the return of Jesus. Geoffrey Parrinder discusses different interpretations of the Qur'anic chapter 19, verse 33 and writes in his conclusion that "the cumulative effect of the Qur'anic verse is strongly in favor of a real death". This verse could also refer to the Second Coming of Jesus.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Translators that favour "to die" have included Muhammad Asad, George Sale, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, Maulvi Sher Ali, John Medows Rodwell, Abdul Majid Daryabadi and Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, but the majority of Qur'anic translators, including Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Muhammad Habib Shakir and Marmaduke Pickthall, do not.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: David Marshall Lang stated in his 1957 book "The Wisdom of Balahvar" that confusion in diacritical markings in Arabic documents resulted in confusing Kashmir and Kushinara (the place of Buddha's death) with the place of the death of Jesus. Lang has stated that the term Budhasaf (Buddha-to-be) became Yudasaf, Iodasaph, and then Yuzasaf, and resulted in the assertions of Jesus being buried in Srinagar. In 1981 (in "Jesus i Kashmir: Historien om en legend") and then in 2011, Per Beskow also stated that confusion about the traditions regarding Gautama Buddha in the Bilawhar wa-Yudasaf legend had resulted in the confused assumption that Jesus was Yuzasaf and was buried in Kashmir.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Most Islamic traditions, save for a few, categorically deny that Jesus physically died, either on a cross or another manner. The contention is found within the Islamic traditions themselves, with the earliest Hadith reports quoting the companions of Muhammad stating Jesus having died, while the majority of subsequent Hadith and Tafsir have elaborated an argument in favor of the denial through exegesis and apologetics, becoming the popular (orthodox) view.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Professor and Muslim scholar Mahmoud M. Ayoub sums up what the Quran states despite interpretative Islamic arguments:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Some disagreement and discord can be seen beginning with Ibn Ishaq's (d. 761 CE/130 AH) report of a brief accounting of events leading up to the crucifixion, firstly stating that Jesus was replaced by someone named Sergius, while secondly reporting an account of Jesus' tomb being located at Medina and thirdly citing the places in and that God took Jesus up to himself.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: An early interpretation of verse 3:55 (specifically "I will cause you to die and raise you to myself"), al-Tabari (d. 923 CE/310 AH) records an interpretation attributed to Ibn 'Abbas, who used the literal "I will cause you to die" ("mumayyitu-ka") in place of the metaphorical "Jesus died" ("mutawaffi-ka"), while Wahb ibn Munabbih, an early Jewish convert, is reported to have said: "God caused Jesus, son of Mary, to die for three hours during the day, then took him up to himself". Tabari further transmits from Ibn Ishaq Bishr: "God caused Jesus to die for seven hours", while at another place reported that a person called Sergius was crucified in place of Jesus. Ibn al-Athir forwarded the report that it was Judas, the betrayer, while also mentioning the possibility it was a man named Natlianus. Al-Masudi (d. 956 CE/343 AH) reported the death of Christ under Tiberius.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: 10th and 11th-century Ismaili Shia scholars Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman, Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi, Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani, Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi and the group Ikhwan al-Safa affirm the historicity of the crucifixion, reporting Jesus was crucified and not substituted by another man as maintained by many other popular Qur'anic commentators and Tafsir.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Discussing the interpretation of those scholars who deny the crucifixion, the "Encyclopaedia of Islam" writes:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Unlike the Christian view of the death of Jesus, most Muslims believe he was raised to Heaven without being put on the cross and God created a resemblance to appear exactly like Jesus who was crucified instead of Jesus, and he ascended bodily to Heaven, there to remain until his Second Coming in the End days.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The identity of the substitute has been a source of great interest. One proposal is that God used one of Jesus' enemies. Judas Iscariot, Jesus' betrayer, is often cited, and is mentioned in the Gospel of Barnabas. The second proposal is that Jesus asked for someone to volunteer to be crucified instead of him. Simon of Cyrene is the person most commonly accepted to have done it, perhaps because according to the Synoptic Gospels he was compelled by the Romans to carry Jesus' cross for him. Al-Baidawi writes that Jesus told his disciples in advance that whoever volunteered would go to heaven.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Tabari (d. 839–923/ 224–310 AH) divided the early reports regarding Jesus crucifixion into two groups. According to the first, one of Jesus disciples volunteers to take the form of his master and is crucified. According to the other, the Jew mistakenly carried only an empty resemblance to the cross.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE/760 AH) follows traditions which suggest that a crucifixion did occur, but not with Jesus. After the event, Ibn Kathir reports the people were divided into three groups following three different narratives; The Jacobites believing 'God remained with us as long as He willed and then He ascended to Heaven;' The Nestorians believing 'The son of God was with us as long as he willed until God raised him to heaven;' and the third group of Christians who believing; 'The servant and messenger of God, Jesus, remained with us as long as God willed until God raised him to Himself.'


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The following narration recorded in the Qur'anic exegesis of Ibn Kathir verse is related to the substitution of Jesus:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The apocryphal Gospel of Barnabas (the known manuscripts dated to the late 16th or early 17th centuries), also promotes a non-death narrative. The work claims itself to be by the biblical Barnabas, who in this work is one of the twelve apostles; however, text of this Gospel is late and pseudepigraphical. Nonetheless, some scholars suggest that it may contain some remnants of an earlier, apocryphal work (perhaps Gnostic, Ebionite, or Diatessaronic), redacted to bring it more in line with Islamic doctrine. Some Muslims consider the surviving versions as transmitting a suppressed apostolic original.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: According to the Gospel of Barnabas it was Judas, not Jesus, who was crucified on the cross. This work states that when Judas led the Roman soldiers to arrest Jesus in an effort to betray him, angels appeared to take Jesus out a window and up to the heavens. As Judas entered the room, his appearance was transformed to that of Jesus, and the Romans arrested him and brought him to be crucified. The narrative states this transformation of appearance not only fooled the Romans, but the Pharisees, the High Priest, the followers of Christ, and his mother Mary.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The Gospel of Barnabas then mentions that after three days since burial, Judas' body was stolen from his grave with rumors spreading of Jesus being risen from the dead. In following with Islamic lore, when Jesus was informed in the third heaven about what happened he prayed to God to be sent back to the earth, and later descended and gathered his mother, disciples, and followers and told them the truth of what happened. He then ascended back to the heavens, with the narrative continuing Islamic legend mirroring Christian doctrine of returning at the end of times as a just king.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: A less common opinion among scholars hold that the crucifixion of Jesus was just an illusion. Accordingly, Jesus' body was really put on the cross, but his spirit did not die, but ascended to heaven. Thus the Jew erred because they did not recognized the "Messiah", the spiritual form of Jesus.Docetists are Christians or Gnostics who believed that Jesus' physical body was an illusion, as was his crucifixion; that is, Jesus only seemed to have a physical body and to physically die, but in reality he was incorporeal, a pure spirit, and hence could not physically die. A docetic interpretation regarding Jesus' death is provided by Ghazali, who states Mansur Al-Hallaj quoted the Quranic verse about Jesus' death being merely an illusion, referring to both himself and Jesus as something, whose bodies could be killed but not their divine element. Other Docetic interpretations might also be found in Ismaili beliefs.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Some modern Muslim scholars believe that Jesus was actually crucified on the cross but didn't die, instead pretending to be dead, or that he fell unconscious ("swooned") and was later revived in the tomb in the same mortal body. Accordingly, His appearances after three days in the tomb were merely perceived to be resurrection appearances. These types of theories are also known as swoon theory. These theories were first proposed by 17th or 18th century western scholars.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Muslim preacher Ahmed Deedat of South Africa wrote several books, one particularly entitled "Crucifixion or Cruci-fiction" along with many video lectures widely printed and distributed all over the Muslim World. He takes a critical look at the events from the canonial four Gospels and theorizes an alternative scenario of what really happened, a scenario very similar to the swoon theory.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Another Muslim Scholar Zakir Naik also uses these theories in a debate with Pastor Ruknuddin Henry Pio.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: In regard to the interpretation of the Muslims who accept the historicity of Jesus' crucifixion, Mahmoud M. Ayoub states:


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: In contrast to the mainstream Islamic views, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community rejects the interpretation of Jesus being lifted alive to Heaven, and instead contend that Jesus survived the crucifixion, and go further to describe Jesus as a mortal man who was taken off the cross alive, and continued to preach in India until his natural death in Kashmir. Ahmadis believe that Jesus, having survived the crucifixion, later migrated to India to escape persecution in Judea and to further spread his message to the Lost Tribes of Israel.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The viewpoint of Jesus's migration to India had also been independently researched in the literature of authors prior to the foundation of the movement, for example most notably by the Russian historian Nicolas Notovitch in 1894. Ibn Babawayh (d.991 CE) in "Ikhmal ad Din" recounts that Jesus went to a far country. This was adapted by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community as the basis of their theory regarding the voyage of Jesus in India.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: The claim of Jesus is buried at the Roza Bal shrine in Srinagar was promoted also by writers such as Holger Kersten (1981). Sunni Muslim authorities at the shrine however consider this as heretical and say that it is a Muslim saint buried there. The claims of the theory have been examined in various documentaries, and have generated tourist visits to the site. Some scholars, such as Norbert Klatt (1988), and Indologist Günter Grönbold (1985), have critically dismissed the speculations of Jesus in India.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: Adherents of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community regard the prophecies in the Bible and "hadith" relating to the Second advent of Jesus were fulfilled in the likeness and personality of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who initiated the foundation of the Ahmadiyya movement. This view however is considered blasphemous by Sunni Muslim authorities and subsequently has led to the religious persecution against Ahmadi Muslims, especially in Pakistan.


title: Islamic views on Jesus' death

text: In reference to the Quranic quote "We have surely killed Jesus the Christ, son of Mary, the apostle of God", Ayoub asserts this boast not as the repeating of a historical lie or the perpetuating of a false report, but an example of human arrogance and folly with an attitude of contempt towards God and His messenger(s). Ayoub furthers what modern scholars of Islam interpret regarding the historical death of Jesus, the man, as man's inability to kill off God's Word and the Spirit of God, which the Quran testifies were embodied in Jesus Christ. Ayoub continues highlighting the denial of the killing of Jesus as God denying men such power to vanquish and destroy the divine Word. The words, "they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him" speaks to the profound events of ephemeral human history, exposing mankind's heart and conscience towards God's will. The claim of humanity to have this power against God is illusory. "They did not slay him...but it seemed so to them" speaks to the imaginations of mankind, not the denial of the actual event of Jesus dying physically on the cross.


title: Lanka

text: Lanka (, Sanskrit : लंका) is the legendary island kingdom in the northern Indian Ocean, situated on the Equator. It's stated to be approximately 100 Yojana (797 km) south of the Indian landmass. It is famously known to be ruled by the rakshasa emperor Ravana in the times of "Ramayana" and by his brother Vibhishana during the "Mahabharata". The capital city, Lankapuri was situated on a plateau in the lap of a massive three-peaked mountain known as Trikuta.