title: Druidry (modern)

text: While modern Druidry has spread rapidly across the globe, Druids do not proselytize, and 74% of world Druids actively work to keep their spiritual practices private.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Modern Druidry derives its name from the magico-religious specialists of Iron Age Western Europe who were known as druids. There is no real historical continuity between the druids of Iron Age Europe and modern Druids. However, some Druids nevertheless regard modern Druidry as a genuine continuation of the practices of the Iron Age druids.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Some 18th century sources like Iolo Morganwg fabricated what he claimed were early Welsh literary sources and traditions that supposedly dated to the prehistoric Druids. "Gorsedd", one of the 18th century traditions that were founded by Morganwg, became part of the "National Eisteddfod of Wales" festival. The concerns of modern Druidry—which include healing the planet and seeking connections with the natural world—are likely very different from those of the Iron Age societies in which the original druids lived. Other 18th century fabrications like the "Fragments of Ancient Poetry" published by James Macpherson between 1760 and 1763. The poems were hugely popular; they were read by many of the notable figures of the period, including Voltaire, Napoleon and Thomas Jefferson, and quality of the poetry inspired contemporary comparisons with Homer. Though attributed to the ancient semi-legendary poet Ossian, the works are believed to have been composed by a wistful Macpherson seeking to recreate the oral traditions of Scotland.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Everything presently known about the Iron Age druids derives from archaeological evidence and Greco-Roman textual sources, rather than material produced by these druids themselves. Due to the scarcity of knowledge about the Iron Age druids, their belief system cannot be accurately reconstructed. Some Druids incorporate everything that is known about Iron Age druids into their practices. However, as noted by Irish contemporary paganism scholar, Jenny Butler, the historical realities of Iron Age religion are often overlooked by Druids in favour of "a highly romanticised version".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Many Druids believe that the practices of the Iron Age druids should be revived and modified to meet current needs.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In Ireland, some Druids have claimed that because the island was never conquered by the Roman Empire, the Iron Age druids survived here and their teachings were passed down hereditarily until modern times, at which modern Druids can reclaim them. Some Druids claim that they can channel information about the Iron Age druids.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidry has been described as a religion, a new religious movement, a "spiritual movement", and as a nature religion. It has been described as a form of contemporary Paganism, and on the contemporary Pagan spectrum between reconstructionism and eclecticism, Druidry sits on the latter end. Various Druidic groups also display New Age and neo-shamanic influences.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The Druidic community has been characterised as a neo-tribe, for it is disembedded and its membership is elective.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidry has been described as a form of Celtic spirituality, or "Celtic-Based Spirituality". Scholar of religion Marion Bowman described Druidry as the "Celtic spirituality" "par excellence". Some practitioners regard Druidry as a form of "native spirituality", and it displays an affinity with folk religions.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In defining Druidry as a "native spirituality", some Druids seek to draw elements from other native religions, such as the belief systems of Australian Aboriginal and Native American communities. Practitioners differ in the levels of formality and seriousness that they bring to their adherence. Some groups use the word "Druid" for both male and female practitioners, eschewing the term "Druidess" for female followers.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Following terms devised by the Druid Philip Carr-Gomm, a distinction has been drawn between "cultural" Druids, who adopt the term as part of their Welsh and Cornish cultural activities, and "esoteric" Druids who pursue the movement as a religion. The scholar of religion Marion Bowman suggested "believing" as an alternative term to "esoteric". There are also individuals who cross these two categories, involving themselves in cultural Druidic events while also holding to modern Pagan beliefs. Some cultural Druids nevertheless go to efforts to disassociate themselves from their esoteric and Pagan counterpart; the Cornish Gorsedd for example has publicly disassociated any links to Paganism.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Some Druids identify as Pagan, others as Christian. Some practitioners merge Pagan and Christian elements in their own personal practice, in at least one case identifying as a "Christodruid". Other practitioners adopt additional elements; for instance there are self-described "Zen Druids" and "Hasidic Druids". The Berengia Order of Druids drew upon elements from science fiction television shows like "Star Trek" and "Babylon 5".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The earliest modern Druids aligned themselves with Christianity. Some writers like William Stukeley regarded the Iron Age druids as proto-Christians who were monotheists worshiping the Christian God. In a similar vein, some modern Druids believe that ancient druidic wisdom was preserved through a distinct Celtic Christianity. Over the course of the twentieth century, and particularly since the early 1960s, Druidry increasingly came to be associated with the modern Pagan movement.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druid perceptions of the divine tend to be complex, and subject to change as the individual Druid learns and grows. Most Druids identify with more than one theological category: 64% of Druids identify as animists; 49% of Druids identify as soft polytheists, 37% of Druids identify as pantheists, 15% of Druids identify as hard polytheists, 7% of Druids identify as monotheists; 7% are agnostic; and 2% identify as atheists.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidry is the sole religious or spiritual path for 54% of world Druids; the other 46% practice Druidry concurrently with one or more other religions traditions. The most common, concurrently practiced religious traditions reported among Druids were Buddhism, Christianity, shamanistic traditions, Witchcraft/Wicca, northern traditions, Hinduism, Native American traditions, and Unitarian Universalism.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: 63% of world Druids identify as either Pagan or Heathen, in addition to identifying as Druids; 37% of Druids reject both of these labels.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Some Druids draw upon the legends surrounding King Arthur. One of the clearest links between Arthuriana and Druidry is through the Loyal Arthurian Warband, a Druidic group in Britain that employs Arthurian symbolism as part of its environmental campaigns.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidry conceives of the natural world as being imbued with spirit, and thus regard it as alive and dynamic.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: 89% of world Druids practice nature connection, along with some form of environmental stewardship work. Nature connection involves spending time alone in nature, while maintaining a full sensory and spiritual awareness of whatever or whoever may be near by. Environmental stewardship work extends this connection through acts of reciprocity. Druids regularly participate in activities such as restoring native ecosystems, creating wildlife habitats, growing organic food crops, composting, installing solar or wind power systems, and changing personal consumption habits to protect the natural environment from damage. Many Druids are also involved in environmental activism, acting to protect areas of the natural landscape that are under threat from development or pollution.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druids are generally critical of mainstream society, regarding it as being "governed by consumerism, environmental exploitation and the supremacy of technology." In contrast to this, Druids seek to establish a way of living that they regard as being more "natural". Through seeking a connection with nature, Druids pursue a sense of "cosmic belonging".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidry is now often described as polytheistic, although there is no set pantheon of deities to which all Druids adhere. Emphasis is however placed on the idea that these deities predate Christianity. These deities are usually regarded as being immanent rather than transcendent. Some practitioners express the view that the real existence of these deities is less important to them than the impact that said belief has on their lives.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: With the increase in polytheistic Druidry, and the widespread acceptance of Goddess worship, "The Druid's Prayer", which had been originally written in the 18th century by Druid Iolo Morganwg and emphasises the unity of the supreme Deity, had the word "God" replaced with "Goddess" in common usage.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Some Druids regard it as possible to communicate with various spirits during ritual. Certain Druids in Ireland have for instance adopted belief in the Sí, spirits from Irish folklore, into their Druidic system, interpreting them as elementals. They have adopted the folkloric belief that such spirits are repelled by iron and thus avoid bringing iron to their rituals, so as not to scare spirits away.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Awen is a concept of spirit or divinity in Druidry, which inspires poetry and art, and is believed to be a "flowing spirit" given by the Deity, which can be invoked by the Druid. In many Druidic rituals, Awen is invoked by either chanting the word "Awen" or "A-I-O" three times, in order to shift the consciousness of the participants involved. The word "Awen" derives from the Welsh and Cornish terms for "inspiration".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: A connection with ancestors is important in Druidry. In some recorded examples, Druids regard the "ancestors" as an amorphous group, rather than as a set of named individuals. The Druidic concept of ancestry is that of "ancestors of the land", rather than the "ancestors of the blood" venerated by some Heathen groups; they perceive a spiritual connection, rather than a genetic one, as being important. Emphasising ancestors gives practitioners a sense of an identity which has been passed down from the past over the course of many centuries.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Ancestor veneration leads many to object to the archaeological excavation of human remains and their subsequent display in museums. Many have organised campaigns for their reburial. For instance, in 2006, a neo-Druid called Paul Davies requested that the Alexander Keiller Museum in Avebury, Wiltshire rebury their human remains, and that storing and displaying them was "immoral and disrespectful". Criticism of this view has come from the archaeological community, with statements like "no single modern ethnic group or cult should be allowed to appropriate our ancestors for their own agendas. It is for the international scientific community to curate such remains."


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The World Druidry Survey of 2018-2020 identified 147 active Druid groups internationally. The six largest and most influential of which were the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (including 57% of world Druids), Ár nDraíocht Féin (12%), the Ancient Order of Druids in America (8%), the British Druid Order (6%), The Druid Network (4%), the New Order of Druids (2%), each of which offers either Druidry curriculum materials or online reference materials about how to practice contemporary Druidry. Survey results indicated that 25% of world Druids belong to multiple Druid groups; 57% belong to just one group, and 18% are unaffiliated, solitary practitioners. Despite these Druid group affiliations, 92% of world Druids report that most of their devotional practices and rituals are celebrated alone, as solitary practitioners.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidic groups are usually known as "groves". Such a term reflects the movement's association with trees, and references the idea that Iron Age druids performed their rituals within tree groves. Larger Druidic organisations are usually termed "orders", and those that lead them are often termed "Chosen Chiefs" or "Arch Druids".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Some British Druid orders divide membership into three grades, referred to as "bards", "ovates", and then "Druids". This three-tier system mirrors the three degrees found in British Traditional Wicca. Other groups eschew any division into bard, ovate, and druid. OBOD primarily educates its members in its form of Druidry through a correspondence course.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Every solitary Druid and Druidic grove conducts its rituals and ceremonies in a unique way. Druidic rituals are designed to align their participants with the spirit imbuing nature. According to the anthropologist Thorsten Gieser, Druidic rituals are best seen not as a set of formalised actions but as "a stance, an attitude, a particular mode of experience and perception which gives rise to a feeling of being-in-the-world, of being part of Nature."


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The practices of modern Druids typically take place outside, in the daylight, in what is described as "the eye of the sun", meaning around midday. In some cases, they instead perform their rites indoors, or during the night. Druidic rituals usually reflect on the time of year and the changing of the seasons.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The most common form of ritual used for seasonal celebrations is a solitary nature ramble to observe and connect with nature, combined with a personal meditation on the meaning of the season at hand. When larger, group rituals are organized among Druids, the rituals tend to be more elaborate and formally structured, with a fixed ceremonial framework unique to the Druid group, and a central ritual activity that varies with the season. Druids residing in the traditionally Celtic regions of Europe are significantly more likely than Druids residing in other parts of the world to perform their ceremonies and rituals in groups.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In the British Isles, Druid group rituals often involve the participants standing in a circle and begin with a "calling of the quarters", in which a participant draws a circle in the air in a deosil direction to hail the north, south, east, and west, marking out the space in which the ceremony will take place. Libations may be poured onto the ground while a chalice of drink is passed around the assembled participants, again in a deosil direction. Food, often in the form of bread or cake, is also passed around the Druids and consumed. This may be followed by a period of meditation among those assembled. A form of earth energy is then visualised, with participants believing that it is sent for a designated healing purpose. This may be designed to help the victims of a particular event, such as a war or an epidemic, or it might be directed to assist individuals known to the group who are ill or requiring emotional support. After the end of the ceremony, the Druids may remain together to take part in a meal, or visit a nearby pub.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: There is no specific dress code for ritual within the Druidic movement; some participants wear ordinary clothes, others wear robes. Some groups favour earth-coloured robes, believing that this links them to the natural world and that it aids them in traveling unnoticed when going about at night. "Celtish" language is often employed during ceremonies, as are quotations and material from the "Carmina Gadelica". Most use some form of Morganwg's Gorsedd Prayer.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Some Druids also involve themselves in spell-casting, although this is usually regarded as a secondary feature among their practices.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The two most common locations for Druid rituals are indoors, at home, at a home altar or shrine (92% of Druids), or outdoors in a private garden or wild space (90% of Druids). Only 48% of world Druids regularly participate in rituals held in publicly viewable spaces, and 18% attend rituals at public monuments or popular tourist destinations such as Stonehenge or Avebury, however, Druids in the British Isles are significantly more likely to do so.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Public rituals in the British Isles frequently take place at formations in the natural landscape or at prehistoric sites, among them megalithic constructions from the Neolithic and Bronze Age or earthworks from the Iron Age. Druids often believe that, even if the Iron Age druids did not build these monuments, they did use them for their rites. Performing rituals at said sites allows many Druids to feel that they are getting close to their ancestors. Druids regard them as sacred sites in part as recognition that prehistoric societies would have done the same.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druids in various parts of Ireland and Britain have reported such sites being home to a "Spirit of the Place" residing there.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Many Druids also believe that such sites are centres of earth energy and lie along ley lines in the landscape. These are ideas that have been adopted from Earth mysteries writers like John Michell.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In the popular imagination, Druids are closely linked with Stonehenge—a Neolithic and Bronze Age site in Wiltshire, southern England. Although Stonehenge predates the Iron Age and there is no evidence that it was ever used by Iron Age druids, many modern Druids believe that their ancient namesakes did indeed use it for their ceremonies. Druids also use many other prehistoric sites as spaces for their rituals, including stone circles like that at Avebury in Wiltshire. Some Druids have erected their own, modern stone circles in which to perform their ceremonies.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druidic practices have also taken place at Early Neolithic chambered long barrows such as Wayland's Smithy in Oxfordshire, and the Coldrum Long Barrow in Kent.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In Ireland, Druids perform ceremonies at one of the island's best known prehistoric sites, the Hill of Tara. In 2000, scholar of religion Amy Hale noted that Druidic rituals at such prehistoric sites were "increasingly more common". She regarded the stone circle as "a symbol of an imagined Celtic past" shared by both Druids and Gorseth Bards. As well as performing group rituals at sites, Druids also visit them alone to meditate, prayer, and provide offerings. Aside from Sabbat rituals, rites of passage can also take place at such sites, such as a Druidic baby-naming ceremony which took place at Kent's Chestnuts Long Barrow.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In 2003, Druids performed a ritual at the Hill of Tara to heal the location after road construction took place in the adjacent landscape. Others have carried out rituals at Coldrum Long Barrow to oppose fracking in the landscape. Druids have also involved themselves in tree planting projects.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In the 1990s and early 2000s, the use of a ritual based on the sweat lodge became increasingly popular among some Neo-druids in Ireland and the U.K. Some Druids regard these sweat lodges as "initiatory and regenerative opportunities to rededicate oneself to honouring the Earth and the community of life." This practice is regarded differently by different individuals. Some practitioners regard it as a "revival" of genuine pre-Christian druidic practices, others see it a creative and respectful borrowing from one "native spirituality" into another, and a third school of thought regards it as a form of cultural theft. Native Americans who preserve the sweat lodge ceremonies for their communities have protested the appropriation of the ceremony by non-Natives, increasingly so now that people have been injured, and some have died, in fraudulent sweat lodge ceremonies performed by non-Natives.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In Druidry, a specific ceremony takes place known as an "Eisteddfod", which is dedicated to the recitation of poetry and musical performances. Within the Druidic community, practitioners who are particularly skilled in their recitation of poetry or their performance of music are referred to as Bards. Although bardism can also be found in other Pagan traditions such as Eco-Paganism, it is of particular importance within Druidry. Bards perform at "Eisteddfod" at various occasions, from formal rituals to pub get-togethers and summer camps and environmental protests. Among the Druidic community, it is often believed that bards should be divinely inspired in producing their work.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Storytelling is important within Druidry, with stories chosen often coming from the vernacular literature of linguistically Celtic countries or from Arthurian legend. Musical performances typically draw from the folk musical traditions of Ireland, Scotland, England, France, and Brittany.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Instruments used commonly include lap harps, mandolins, whistles, bag pipes, and guitars. Bards utilise archaic words such as "t'was", "thence", and "deeds", while speaking in a grandiose manner of intonation. The general purpose of bardism, according to scholar of religion and bard Andy Letcher, is to create an "ambience" of "a catchall ahistorical past; a Celtic, medieval, Tolkienesque, once-upon-a-time enchanted world". Instruments commonly used by Druidic Bards include acoustic stringed instruments such as the guitar and the clarsach, as well as the bodhran, bagpipe, rattle, flute and whistle. The scholar of religion Graham Harvey believed that these specific instruments were preferred by modern Druids because many of them were Irish in origin, and therefore gave a "Celtic flavour, seemingly invoking the Iron Age", the period during which the ancient druids lived.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Groups like the British Druid Order have established their own "gorseddau". Unlike the Welsh cultural gorseddau, these Druidic events often allow anyone to perform as a bard if they are inspired to do so.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druids have participated in other musical genres and with more technological instruments, including the blues and rave music, and one British club, Megatripolis, opened with the performance of a Druidic ritual.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Among many Druids, there is a system of tree lore, through which different associations are attributed to different species of tree, including particular moods, actions, phases of life, deities and ancestors. Different species of trees are often linked to the ogham alphabet, which is employed in divination by Druids. Rather than ogham, some practitioners favour coelbren—an alphabet likely devised by Iolo Morganwg—for their divinatory practices.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Many Druids engage in a range of healing therapies, with both herbalism and homeopathy being popular within the Druidic community.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Druids often revive older folk customs for use on their practices. The England-based Secular Order of Druids for instance possess a hobby horse based on that used in the 'Obby 'Oss festival of Padstow, Cornwall.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Traditionally, modern Druids have observed eight spiritual festivals annually, which are collectively known as the Wheel of the Year. These are the same festivals usually celebrated by Wiccans. According to the results of the World Druidry Survey of 2018-2020, 47% of world Druids currently celebrate all eight of these festivals in the traditional manner; 26% celebrate only a locally meaningful subset of them; and 27% do not celebrate any festivals at all, but focus instead on daily or weekly devotional practices and nature connection. 76% of Druids use the Wheel of the Year as a cyclical reminder to go outside to observe and connect with the natural world. As a result, 52% of world Druids report “wildcrafting” their seasonal celebrations to some extent, modifying the timing, sequence, and/or symbolism of their seasonal celebrations as needed to align with local seasonal cycles and ecologies.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In some cases groups attempt to revive folkloric European festivals and their accompanying traditions. In other cases the rites are modern inventions, inspired by "the spirit of what they believe was the religious practice of pre-Roman Britain." For reasons of practicality, such celebrations are not always held on the specific date of the festival itself, but on the nearest weekend, thus maximising the number of participants who can attend.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Four of these are solar festivals, being positioned at the solstices and equinoxes; these are largely inspired by Germanic paganism. The other four are the "Celtic" festivals, the crossquarter days inspired by modern interpretations of ancient Celtic polytheism. The idea of the Wheel of the Year was introduced into Druidry by Ross Nichols, who founded the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids in 1964, and he had gained this idea from his friend Gerald Gardner, who had implemented it in his Bricket Wood coven of Gardnerian Witches in 1958.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The Druidic movement originated among the Romanticist ideas of the ancient druids that had begun to be developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. While many Early Mediaeval writers, particularly in Ireland, had demonised the ancient druids as barbarians who had practiced human sacrifice and tried to suppress the coming of Christianity, certain Late Mediaeval writers had begun to extol what they believed were the virtues of the druids, and reinvented them as national heroes, particularly in Germany, France and Scotland. It was also during this period that Conrad Celtis had begun to propagate the image of the druids as having been bearded, wise old men wearing white robes, something that would prove highly influential in future centuries.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The image of the Iron Age druids as national heroes would later begin to emerge in England during the Early Modern period, with the antiquarian and Anglican vicar William Stukeley (1687–1765) proclaiming himself to be a "druid" and writing a number of popular books in which he claimed that prehistoric megaliths like Stonehenge and Avebury were temples built by the druids, something now known to be incorrect. Stukeley himself, being a devout but unorthodox Christian, felt that the ancient druids had been followers of a monotheistic faith very similar to Christianity, at one point even stating that ancient druidry was "so extremely like Christianity, that in effect, it differed from it only in this; they believe in a Messiah who was to come into the world, as we believe in him that is come".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Soon after the publication and spread of Stukeley's writings, other people also began to self-describe themselves as "druids" and form societies: the earliest of these was the Druidic Society, founded on the Welsh island of Anglesey in 1772. Largely revolving around ensuring the continued financial success of business on the island, it attracted many of Anglesey's wealthy inhabitants into it, and donated much of its proceeds to charity, but was disbanded in 1844. A similar Welsh group was the Society of the Druids of Cardigan, founded circa 1779, largely by a group of friends who wished to attend "literary picnics" together. The third British group to call itself Druidic was English rather than Welsh, and was known as the Ancient Order of Druids. Founded in 1781 and influenced by Freemasonry, its origins have remained somewhat unknown, but it subsequently spread in popularity from its base in London across much of Britain and even abroad, with new lodges being founded, all of which were under the control of the central Grand Lodge in London. The Order was not religious in structure, and instead acted as somewhat of a social club, particularly for men with a common interest in music. In 1833 it suffered a schism, as a large number of dissenting lodges, unhappy at the management of the Order, formed the United Ancient Order of Druids, and both groups would go on to grow in popularity throughout the rest of the century.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: None of the earliest modern Druidic groups had been religious in structure; however, this was to change in the late 18th century, primarily because of the work of a Welshman who took the name of Iolo Morganwg (1747–1826). Born as Edward Williams, he would take up the cause of Welsh nationalism, and was deeply opposed to the British monarchy, supporting many of the ideals of the French revolution, which had occurred in 1789. Eventually moving to London, he began perpetuating the claim that he was actually one of the last initiates of a surviving group of druids who were descended from those found in the Iron Age, centred on his home county of Glamorgan. He subsequently organised the performing of Neo-druidic rituals on Primrose Hill with some of his followers, whom he categorised as either Bards or Ovates, with he himself being the only one actually categorised as a Druid. He himself practiced a form of religion he believed the ancient druids had, which involved the worship of a singular monotheistic deity as well as the acceptance of reincarnation.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Morganwg's example was taken up by other Welshmen in the 19th century, who continued to promote religious forms of Druidry. The most prominent figure in this was William Price (1800–1893), a physician who held to ideas such as vegetarianism and the political Chartist movement. His promotion of cremation and open practice of it led to his arrest and trial, but he was acquitted, achieving a level of fame throughout Britain. He would declare himself to be a Druid, and would do much to promote the return of what he believed was an ancient religion in his country.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In 1874, Robert Wentworth Little, a Freemason who achieved notoriety as the first Supreme Magus of the occult Societas Rosicruciana, allegedly founded the Ancient and Archaeological Order of Druids, which, like the Societas Rosicruciana, was an esoteric organisation. Meanwhile, at the start of the 20th century, Druidic groups began holding their ceremonies at the great megalithic monument of Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England: the historian Ronald Hutton would later remark that "it was a great, and potentially uncomfortable, irony that modern Druids had arrived at Stonehenge just as archaeologists were evicting the ancient Druids from it" as they realised that the structure dated from the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, millennia before the Iron Age, when the druids first appear in the historical record.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: One member of the Ancient Order of Druids was the English Gerald Gardner, who later established Gardnerian Wicca.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The most important figure for the rise of Neopagan Druidry in Britain was Ross Nichols. A member of The Druid Order, in 1964 he split off to found the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD). In 1988 Philip Carr-Gomm was asked to lead the Order.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Nichols drew upon ideas from the Earth mysteries movement, incorporating many of its ideas about Glastonbury into his interpretation of Druidry.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Between 1985 and 1988, the Druid Tim Sebastion campaigned for religious access to Stonehenge, forming the Secular Order of Druids (SOD) around him. In the late 1980s, SOD's campaign was joined by another group focused on Stonehenge access, led by a Druid calling himself King Arthur Pendragon; by 1993, his group had formalised as the Loyal Arthurian Warband. In 1988, a Druid order was also established in Glastonbury, Somerset, under the leadership of Rollo Maughfling.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In the late 1970s, the former Alexandrian Wiccan high priest Philip Shallcrass established the British Druid Order (BDO) to create a more explicitly Pagan form of Druidry. Fellow Druid Emma Restall Orr became co-leader of the group in the mid-1990s. Feeling the system of Orders too limiting, in 2002 Orr created The Druid Network, which was officially launched in 2003.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The early 1990s were—according to the historian Ronald Hutton—"boom years" for British Druidry. In 1989, the Council of British Druid Orders was established to co-ordinate the activities of different Druid groups at the national level. Further reflecting this spirit of unity, in 1992 a rite took place on London's Primrose Hill in which various Druid orders participated. That year, two new Druidic magazines began publication Shallcrass' "Druid's Voice" and Steve Wilson's "Aisling". However, arguments between different groups persisted and in 1996, the AOD, OBOD, and BDO withdrew from the Council of British Druid Orders. In the late 1990s, English Heritage relented to pressure and agreed to allow Druidic and greater public access to Stonehenge.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: During the 1990s, Pagan Druidic groups were also established in Italy, with British Druids like Carr-Gomm visiting the country to give talks to the Pagan community.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The Dun Ailline Druid Brotherhood ("Hermandad Druida Dun Ailline" in Spanish) is a pagan organization for followers of the Celtic Neopaganism based on Spain in 2010 which supports the practice of a type of Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism called Druidism, centered on the Celtic culture of Ireland, and whose principal deities are known as the Tuatha Dé Danann. Its members consider themselves practitioners of a European native religion and they call themselves "creidim", a concept of Irish origin.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The earliest American Druid organizations were fraternal orders such as the United Ancient Order of Druids and the American Order of Druids. The former was a branch of a British organization that had split from the Ancient Order of Druids, while the latter was founded in Massachusetts in 1888. Both were forms of fraternal benefit societies rather than religious or neo-pagan groups.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In 1963, the Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA) was founded by students at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota, a liberal arts college that required its members to attend their choice of weekly religious services. As a form of humorous protest against this rule, a group of students, who contained Christians, Jews and agnostics within their ranks, decided to create their own, non-serious religious group. Their protest was successful, and the college's requirement was scrapped in 1964. Nonetheless, the group continued holding services. These were not considered Neopagan by most members, but rather as inter-religious. From its beginning, the RDNA encouraged the veneration of the natural world, personified as Mother Earth, holding that religious truth could be found through nature. They also adopted other elements of Neopaganism, such as celebrating the festivals of the Wheel of the Year, borrowed from the Neopagan religion of Wicca.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: While the RDNA founded new branches or "groves" around the United States, the Neopagan elements of the RDNA eventually rose to prominence, leading several groves to describe themselves as Neopagan. This was opposed by several of the group's founders, who wanted it to retain its inter-religious origins, and some groves actually emphasized their connection to other religions: there was a group of Zen Druids in Olympia and Hassidic Druids in St. Louis. Among those responsible for the transition towards Neopaganism were Isaac Bonewits and Robert Larson from a grove located in Berkeley, California. Believing that the Reformed Druidic movement should accept that it was essentially Neopagan in nature, Bonewits founded a split-off group, the New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA), which he defined as an "Eclectic Reconstructionist Neo-Pagan Priestcraft, based primarily upon Gaulish and Celtic sources".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: Bonewits still felt that many in the RDNA were hostile towards him, believing that he had infiltrated their group, and so in 1985 he founded a new, explicitly Neopagan Druidic group, Ár nDraíocht Féin (Our Own Druidism; a.k.a. ADF) and began publishing a journal, "The Druid's Progress". Arguing that it should draw from pan-European sources, rather than just those that were considered "Celtic", he placed an emphasis on academic and scholarly accuracy, taking a stand against what he perceived as the prevalent pseudo-historical ideas of many Neopagans and Druids.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In 1986, several members of Ár nDraíocht Féin openly criticized Bonewits for his pan-European approach, wishing modern Druidism to be inspired purely by Celtic sources, and so they splintered off to form a group called the Henge of Keltria.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The Ancient Order of Druids in America (AODA), currently headed by Pagan author and druid John Michael Greer, was founded as the Ancient Order of Masonic Druids in America in 1912 in Boston, Mass. The founder, James Manchester had obtained a charter from the Ancient Order of Masonic Druids of England (AOMD). AOMD started in 1874 as the Ancient Archaeological Order of Druids (AAOD) by Robert Wentworth Little, the founder of Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (SRIA). SRIA is the immediate predecessor organization of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (HOGD). In 1972, the Ancient Order of Masonic Druids in America changed its name to the current name the Ancient Order of Druids in America and started initiating women, which it had not done so previously because of its masonic origin. It was also at this time that AOMD denied ever having recognized AOMDA and wasn't interested in doing so at that time.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: At the start of the twenty-first century, Druids could be found in most European countries and countries with large European-descended communities. Druids do not seek to convert everyone else to Druidry.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: According to the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS), there are approximately 30,000 Druids in the United States. In August 2007, the ADF claimed 1177 members, spread over 61 groves. Scholar of religion Michael T. Cooper found that, among 57 ADF members, 37% had previously been Christian, and that a common theme among participants in the group was disillusionment with Christianity, a religion that they regard as an oppressive force which has subordinated women and damaged the environment.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The Pagan Census project led by Helen A. Berger, Evan A. Leach, and Leigh S. Shaffer gained responses from Druids in the U.S. Of these respondents, 49.7% were male and 48.2% female (2% did not answer), which reflected a greater proportion of men than the American Pagan community as a whole, which had a female majority. 73.6% of Druid respondents described themselves as heterosexual, with 16.2% as bisexual, 3% as gay men and 1.5% as lesbian. This reflected a greater proportion of heterosexuals than in the broader American Pagan community. The median income of these Druids was between $20,000 and $30,000, which was lower than the average for Pagans. The project revealed that 83.8% of Druid respondents were registered to vote, which was lower than the proportion across the broader Pagan community (87.8%). Among these Druids, 35.5% were registered independents, 31% Democrats, 5.1% Libertarians, 4.6% Republicans, and 3.6% Greens.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: The historian Ronald Hutton estimated that, in 1996, there were approximately 6000 members of Druid groups in England, two-thirds of whom were OBOD members. The 2001 UK Census, 30,569 individuals described themselves as "Druids" and 508 as "Celtic Druids".


title: Druidry (modern)

text: In September 2010, the Charity Commission for England and Wales agreed to register The Druid Network as a charity, effectively giving it official recognition as a religion.


title: Druidry (modern)

text: A study of 75 members of the UK-based Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids found "a clear preference for introversion (61%) over extraversion (39%), a clear preference for intuition (64%) over sensing (36%), a clear preference for feeling (56%) over thinking (44%), and a clear preference for judging (68%) over perceiving (32%)."


title: Meet Me at Our Spot

text: "Meet Me at Our Spot" is a song by American band The Anxiety, consisting of American singers Willow Smith and Tyler Cole. It was initially released through MSFTSMusic and Roc Nation on March 13, 2020, from the band's self-titled debut album. On October 5, 2021, the song was released as a single to contemporary hit radio.


title: Meet Me at Our Spot

text: Though the song did not chart at the time of its 2020 release, it became a sleeper hit in 2021 after becoming popular on TikTok, with users incorporating it as the soundtrack to their summer, or playing it in the background of cartoon videos.


title: Meet Me at Our Spot

text: Kelsey Garcia of "Popsugar" felt the song "is a sludgy alternative track with emo undertones that hits at the zeitgeist and is pretty inescapable on TikTok."


title: Meet Me at Our Spot

text: After it became a viral hit on TikTok, the song entered various charts, reaching No. 21 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Willow's highest-charting entry since "Whip My Hair" (2010), as well as her second top-40 hit on the chart. It also reached the top 10 in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and UK.


title: Supernatural (season 10)

text: The tenth season of "Supernatural", an American dark fantasy television series created by Eric Kripke, premiered on October 7, 2014 on The CW, and concluded on May 20, 2015, consisting of 23 episodes. The season aired Tuesdays at 9:00 p.m. (ET), and moved to Wednesdays at 9:00 p.m. beginning March 18, 2015. This is the third season with Jeremy Carver as showrunner. The season was released on DVD and Blu-ray in region 1 on September 8, 2015. The tenth season had an average viewership of 2.02 million U.S. viewers. The season follows Sam and Dean as Dean deals with the after effects of using The First Blade and becomes a demon. The brothers try to escape the curse, dealing with a family of murderers and Cain himself.


title: Supernatural (season 10)

text: A special titled "A Very Special Supernatural Special" aired on October 6, 2014, narrated by Rob Benedict and received 1.07 million viewers.


title: Supernatural (season 10)

text: "Supernatural" was renewed for a tenth season on February 12, 2014, after undergoing an 88% spike in viewership during its ninth season. Mark A. Sheppard, who had been recurring on the show since season 5 as Crowley, was promoted to series regular.


title: Supernatural (season 10)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating for "Supernatural"s tenth season, with an average rating of 7.67/10 based on 8 reviews.


title: CNCO

text: CNCO is a Latin American boy band based in Miami, Florida. The group consists of Richard Camacho, Erick Brian Colón, Christopher Vélez and Zabdiel De Jesús; former member Joel Pimentel departed the band in May 2021. They won a five-year recording contract with Sony Music Latin after becoming the winning competitors of the first season of "La Banda." The band toured with Ricky Martin. Their debut and second singles "Tan Fácil" and "Quisiera", charted well soon after their debut. They released their first album, "Primera Cita", on August 26, 2016, which included the hit "Reggaetón Lento (Bailemos)".


title: CNCO

text: The group released their self-titled second studio album on April 6, 2018, which included the singles "Mamita" and "Se Vuelve Loca". Their debut EP "Que Quiénes Somos", containing the singles "De Cero" and "Pegao" (featuring Manuel Turizo), was released on October 11, 2019. Both albums debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Top Latin Albums and the top 40 on the "Billboard" 200, while the EP debuted within the top 15 of the former chart.


title: CNCO

text: In 2020, they began the era of their album "Déjà Vu", a cover album of Latin pop classics, with three singles released from November to December. On February 5, 2021, the band released the LP. The album was released preceded by the fourth single and accompanied by the fifth on its release day.


title: CNCO

text: On July 21, 2022, the band announced that they would be breaking up to focus on their solo careers, but would continue as a group for another year and a half.


title: CNCO

text: Erick Brian Colón, Christopher Vélez, Zabdiel De Jesús, Richard Camacho and Joel Pimentel auditioned for the first season of "La Banda", a televised singing competition which started on Univision in September 2015, created by Simon Cowell and produced by Ricky Martin. They all received an 75% of votes from the public during auditions except Colón, though he was saved by Martin. The band's members competed individually with other contestants from Latin America and the United States before the show's judges, Martin, Alejandro Sanz and Laura Pausini. The boys had to go through several phases to become the winners. During the competition, they were put into groups, with Camacho and De Jesús in the same band, while Vélez, Colón and Pimentel were in another. The band was formed on the finale of the show, on December 13, 2015, when they received their name, which alludes to the Spanish word for five, "cinco", and is pronounced in English as it is spelled: "C-N-C-O". They won a recording contract of 5 years with Sony Music Latin, and rapper Wisin was scheduled to produce their first album. Martin became their representative.


title: CNCO

text: They performed the song "Devuélveme Mi Corazón" on the finale, which included performances by Pitbull, Fifth Harmony, Wisin, and a video congratulations from One Direction. They sang it again in Times Square at Univision's Feliz 2016 New Year's celebration.


title: CNCO

text: On January 29, 2016, they released their debut single, "Tan Fácil", which debuted on "Billboard"'s Latin Rhythm Airplay at number 25, number 23 on the Hot Latin Songs chart, and instantly topped the U.S. iTunes Latino charts, later peaking at number one on the Latin Airplay chart. On January 30, 2016, they held their first concert in The Fillmore Miami Beach.


title: CNCO

text: On February 12, CNCO started touring as opening acts on Ricky Martin's One World Tour for some of his shows in the U.S., including Hollywood, Florida San Juan, Puerto Rico, and parts of South America, including Chile and Argentina.


title: CNCO

text: On May 13, they released their second single, "Quisiera", which peaked on "Billboard"'s Hot Latin Songs at number 29, with its music video premiering on June 3. In May, they sang the national anthem at Yankee Stadium. On July 13, the band was nominated for six awards, at Premios Juventud and won five for the Most – "Tan Fácil", My Pop/Rock Artist Producers' Choice Award, My Favorite Twitter Celebrity, and My Favorite Fan-Army; they also performed at the ceremony.


title: CNCO

text: In August, their fans, called "CNCOwners", voted the band first place in "Billboard"'s "Favorite New Latin Boy Band Poll'. On August 23, the group asked fans to locate hotspots for songs from their upcoming album, in a Pokémon Go inspired game, called 'CNCOGo', and Ecuadorian fans found the first song, "Cometa".


title: CNCO

text: On August 26, their first album, "Primera Cita", ("First Date", in English), produced by Wisin, was released. Wisin spoke about their album saying, "It is a union of countries and cultures. It is what keeps us growing because the people can understand that we can unite different genres." The album has fourteen tracks and includes an urban remix of "Tan Fácil" featuring the rapper, and a ballad version of the song "Quisiera" featuring Spanish singer Abraham Mateo. On its release date, the band met fans while traveling with Ricky Martin on his tour, and they gave a concert at the Miami International Mall to celebrate the album's debut.


title: CNCO

text: In November, they filmed a new music video for one of the songs on "Primera Cita", "Para Enamorarte", at the Los Angeles Ramon C. Cortines School of Visual and Performing Arts. It was produced in conjunction with Toyota and included fans who also selected the ending of the video. A video clip was scheduled for airing on "La Banda's" season finale on December 11, then on Toyota's Latino Facebook page and on YouTube. They also announced plans for their first headlining tour in February 2017 in Latin America. On October 7, they released the single "Reggaetón Lento (Bailemos)", which peaked at number 6 on the "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart and number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100.


title: CNCO

text: On February 7, 2017, the band was announced as one of four finalists in the category "Artist of the Year, New" for the 2017 "Billboard" Latin Music Awards, representing artists who charted well over the past year. On February 26 they began their first headlining tour, Más Allá, in Cochabamba, Bolivia, for a total of 15 countries, including 40 performances in Central and South America, Mexico, Portugal, Spain, and the United States; and recorded music for their second album while on tour. On March 24, they were featured on the remix of Becky G's "Todo Cambió". On April 4, 2017, the group officially released the lead single from their second album, "Hey DJ", featuring Puerto Rican singer Yandel; they also released a solo pop version. They were featured on a remix of Enrique Iglesias' "Súbeme la Radio", released on May 12. On May 26, they were featured on Río Roma's song "Princesa".


title: CNCO

text: On August 18, CNCO released a remixed version of "Reggaetón Lento" featuring vocals from British girl group Little Mix as the second single from the record. On October 20, 2017, the group released the third single, "Mamita" from their second album. On March 3, 2018, they released the song, "Mi Medicina", announcing the album's pre-order. It was followed by "Bonita" two weeks later, on March 16, and finally "Fiesta en Mi Casa", also arriving two weeks later, on March 30. The music videos accompanied the songs' releases.


title: CNCO

text: On April 6, 2018, the boy band released their highly anticipated second self-titled album, "CNCO". It debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Top Latin Albums and entered at number 33 on the "Billboard" 200, succeeding their debut. The group released "Sólo Yo", along with its music video, to celebrate the album's release. On May 16, CNCO signed a new management deal with Walter Kolm Entertainment, after being managed by Ricky Martin for nearly three years. The music video for the fifth single "Se Vuelve Loca" was made available on July 19, with a Spanglish version being released for digital download and streaming several hours later. It reached number one on the Latin Pop Songs Chart in October 2018. The band embarked on the CNCO World Tour, starting in Guatemala. They announced shows in the United States, thus becoming their first U.S. tour. The band released a collaboration with singer-songwriter Prince Royce on October 26, titled "Llegaste Tú". On November 8, the group released a remix version of "Hey DJ", with American singer-songwriter Meghan Trainor and Jamaican artist Sean Paul.


title: CNCO

text: The band announced the single "Pretend", which was released on February 15, 2019. The song is their first official solo Spanglish release, and samples "Rhythm of the Night" by DeBarge.


title: CNCO

text: CNCO released the single "De Cero" on June 24 along with its music video. They performed a short version of "Pretend" at the Teen Choice Awards of 2019, where they won the Choice Latin Artist and were nominated for Choice Group. Spanish singer-songwriter Abraham Mateo launched his song "Me Vuelvo Loco" in collaboration with the boys in July. The group revealed their first extended play, "Que Quiénes Somos", in mid-August, along with its cover art. Its title references the line sung by Colón at the end in most of their songs and also alludes as to who the boys are as they co-wrote the EP themselves. They released the first promotional single, titled "Ya Tú Sabes" in the 23rd of the same month. It contains a sample of a song by Cuban salsa singer Celia Cruz and features Latin Trap in its production. The band was announced as part of the line-up for 2019 MTV Video Music Awards pre-show where they performed "De Cero" on August 26. The second promotional song, named "La Ley", was made free on all digital platforms on September 27. Both songs were released with audios on YouTube. The EP was released on October 11, 2019, and includes seven tracks in total. They also released the single "Pegao" with Manuel Turizo on the same day with a music video. The EP "Que Quiénes Somos" debuted at No. 1 on the Latin Pop Albums "Billboard" chart. The group collaborated with fellow boy band PRETTYMUCH on the song "Me Necesita". CNCO performed "Ya Tú Sabes" and also performed "Me Vuelvo Loco" alongside Abraham Mateo at the 2019 Latin American Music Awards and also won 2 awards that night. On November 7 the group was featured on the song "Como Así" by Argentinian singer Lali Espósito, which appears on her then-upcoming album, "Libra". In the same month, CNCO announced a clothing campaign with Forever 21.


title: CNCO

text: The band announced their new tour "Press Start" on January 21, 2020. The tour was set to begin on May 30, 2020, at the Coliseo de Puerto Rico in San Juan, Puerto Rico and end in Chicago, Illinois at the Rosemont Theater on June 21, but was postponed to 2021 due to the ongoing 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic. The boys also stated their self-written third studio album would be released in March, but it was pushed back for the same reason. However, they released a single titled "Honey Boo" with Dominican singer Natti Natasha on April 2 along with its music video. The band received two nominations at the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Quarantine Performance for their MTV Unplugged at Home concert and Best Choreography for "Honey Boo". They also received a nomination for Best Group after voting for the main categories closed. The boys released a song titled "Beso" on August 28 and performed it at the VMAs, this time at the main show. They were announced as winners for Best Quarantine Performance, becoming the first Latin boyband to win a Moonman.


title: CNCO

text: The group stated in November 2020 that they had decided to push back their third album until further notice. Instead, they would release a cover album, composed of Latin pop classics. They released "trailers" on their YouTube channel, revealing the songs covered would be from 1988 until an unknown date. The group released "Tan Enamorados", a song by Ricardo Montaner in the same month. Its music video was inspired by a New Kids on the Block's own, with the band acknowledging the homage. CNCO announced the album, "Déjà Vu," with its release date on social media. They released their version of Puerto Rican artist Big Boy's song "Mis Ojos Lloran Por Ti" the following week, with its video being inspired by NSYNC's "Tearin' Up My Heart". The group performed the former song at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 26. In December, they released their cover of "Hero" by Enrique Iglesias, along with a music video inspired by the Backstreet Boys' music video for "Show Me the Meaning of Being Lonely".


title: CNCO

text: On January 31, 2021, CNCO released their rendition of Franco De Vita's 1986 ballad "Solo Importas Tú". On February 5, the group released their new album, "Déjà Vu", to digital download and streaming, along with the tracks' audios on their YouTube channel. The release was accompanied by the fifth single, "Dejaría Todo", a cover of Puerto Rican singer, Chayanne.


title: CNCO

text: On May 9, 2021, Joel Pimentel announced his exit from the group, citing desires to "grow and explore new artistic venues". The band announced they would continue as a quartet. Two months later, on June 22, the band released "Toa La Noche", their first song as a foursome. They collaborated with Alex Rose for the song "Pa' Que Guaye", released on September 16.


title: CNCO

text: On January 13, 2022, the band released "Party, Humo & Alcohol", their second song as a foursome, which has garnered seven million views on YouTube. On February 3, 2022, it was announced that the group would make their acting debut on Disney+’s upcoming original fiction miniseries titled "4 Ever".


title: CNCO

text: On April 8, 2022 the band released the single "La Equivocada". On May 13, they appeared on "Teteo" with Maffio and Kiko el Crazy and featured on "Suelta, Sola y Tranquila (Remix)" with Fabro and Mya, which came out on June 17. CNCO released "No Apagues la Luz" and "La Equivocada (Versión Tumbao)" with Adriel Favela on June 23.


title: CNCO

text: In September, while accepting the award for "Best Fandom" at the Premios Juventud ceremony, Zabdiel de Jesús announced that the group would be disbanding in a year and a half. Their last album "XOXO" was released on August 26, the sixth anniversary of their debut. The album includes the previously released single “Plutón” with Mexican singer Kenia OS. The boyband will embark one final tour before disbanding.


title: CNCO

text: Christopher Vélez is an Ecuadorian from Hightstown, New Jersey, Richard Camacho is Dominican and from New Hampshire, Zabdiel De Jesús is from Bayamón in Puerto Rico, and Erick Brian Colón is a Cuban from Tampa, Florida.


title: CNCO

text: Griselda Flores of "Billboard" said the band is "taking the torch and leading a new boy band era", like prior Latino bands Magneto, Menudo, Uff!, and .


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Ehd-e-Wafa () is a Pakistani television series created by Inter-Services Public Relations (ISPR) and Momina Duraid under MD Productions aired on Hum TV. It revolves around four school friends with different hopes, goals and aspirations and how their lives change over time as they witness hardships, challenges and betrayal in their friendship and career. It stars Ahad Raza Mir,Osman Khalid Butt, Ahmed Ali Akbar and Wahaj Ali in lead roles.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The show was the third most searched item among the category of 'Movies & TV' on Google in Pakistan as confirmed by the Google Trends end-of-years report.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The show was a critical and commercial success, being popular in Pakistan UK and India At 20th Lux Style Awards, it received 3 awards; Best TV Play, Best Emerging Talent for Adnan Samad Khan and Best Original Soundtrack out of 7 nominations.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The story revolves around a group of high-spirited friends who help, support, and enjoy one another's company as they overcome hardships in their lives.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Four friends, Saad, Shahzain, Shariq and Shehryar call themselves the SSG (Special 'S' Gang because all their names start with the letter 'S'). They all study at Lawrence College in Murree. Saad's family comprises his father, Brigadier (later Major General) Faraz Inam, who serves in the army, his mother and sister, Rahmeen, an aspiring artist. Shahzain belongs to a rich village family and is the closest to his grandfather, Malik Allahyar. Shariq's family consists of his sister, Ghazala and his widowed mother. Shehryar's father is a bandmaster. They often bunk college together at night and once caught by their hostel warden, Firdous Baig.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: On the other hand, there is Dua and Rani. Rani is a vivacious girl, who comes from a rich village family. After three years, she is yet to pass her Intermediate exams, which she ultimately doesn't. Dua comes from Rawalpindi and is seen visiting her cousins, Aisha and Raheel in Murree. Raheel is obnoxious and is over-protective of Dua, which she immensely dislikes and tries to avoid him.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Despite receiving warnings from the headmaster of the college, the SSG still bunk college and this time, they accidentally run into Dua and her cousins. Saad immediately recognizes Dua, while Shariq and Shehryar run away from the scene. Saad tells Shahzain that he had seen Dua twice before and has a crush on her but he didn't have the courage to tell her about his feelings. Shahzain encourages Saad to go after her and get to know her name since he didn't. They follow her and eventually get to know her name.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The next day, they met Dua again after Shariq spots her with her cousins and tells the other three, who immediately rushes to her. As Shahzain and Shehryar begin to introduce themselves to Dua and tell her about Saad, Raheel pushes Saad, thinking he was harassing Dua and a physical fight follows. The police arrive and take Saad and Raheel into custody, while Shahzain and Shehryar flee, later joined by Shariq.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Dua's parents file a complaint against Saad, in the name of harassment. This causes a rift between the SSG. Shariq refuses to be involved in their tactics anymore. Saad slaps Shahzain, because he made a fuss in front of Dua. In the end, Saad, Shahzain and Shehryar were rusticated from the hostel. Since Sharq wasn't directly involved in the incident, no action was taken against him.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The four friends now go on to lead their separate lives. Shahzain doesn't show up for his exams and slowly transforms into an angry young man. Saad is confused between choosing Army or Medical as his profession but ultimately joins army after finding Dua submitting her application at the same medical college. Later they meet at a park where Dua softens up when she overhears him scolding his pet Zorro for chasing her.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Shahzain and Shehryar then visit Saad, wanting to reconcile but Saad humiliates the two and asks them to leave. Saad later departs for PMA (Pakistan Military Academy). Upon arriving at PMA, Saad meets Gulzar Hussain and develops a good friendship with him.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: However Dua's parents reject his proposal. Shehryar confronts Shahzain and stops him from marrying Dua, and makes him realize his mistakes. Then Shahzain, Saad, Shariq, Shehryar meet to sort out all misunderstandings. But learning that Shahzain went to Dua's house, Saad confronts Shahzain. Shahzain feels humiliated again. His marriage is fixed with Rani. He only invites Shariq and Shehryar to his wedding but when he overhears the two talking about Saad, it angers him. Shariq and Shrehyar leave realizing that Shahzain only viewed them as commodities and not friends.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: In their next meeting Saad and Dua were confronted by Raheel (Dua's cousin). Dua walks off angrily and goes home. Raheel proposes to Dua for marriage but Dua refuses and tells her father to trust her that Saad is just a friend. She then tells Saad she won't contact him until they both establish their careers. Raheel's parents then invite Dua's parents and insist on their marriage but Dua's father refuses. On the way home, Dua's parents meet with an accident. Dua's father passes away and her mother becomes disabled. Her cousin blackmails her into marrying him as he finds out she is adopted. Dua agrees but then exposes him in front of his parents. Dua and her mother shift to Abbottabad to live near her medical college. Saad is shown to pass out of PMA with a sword of honour. Later he finds about Dua's father.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Shahzain is shown to be contesting in the by elections. Shariq's YouTube channel has been so well established that he is offered a job as a news anchor at a well-established channel. He accepts the job after declining at first and selects Ramsha (a former news reporter who became friends with Shariq) as producer of his show.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Shahzain wins his elections and becomes an MNA. Shariq achieves success as a news anchor. After passing out from PMA, Saad starts his army duties and visits Dua. He helps Dua in setting up her new home. They grow closer to each other and eventually meet each other's parents. Saad starts planning his wedding and bumps into Shahzain while completing a wedding-related task. They confront each other and eventually reconcile.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Meanwhile, Shehryar is appointed as an Assistant Commissioner and works with Shariq to help free one of their college friends who has been wrongly imprisoned due to a mafia gang. Shariq and Shehryar manage to successfully free him. All the four friends get together for Saad's wedding and are seen teasing Saad. On the night of the wedding, it is revealed that Dua has been appointed as an army doctor and walks down the aisle in her uniform leaving Saad in awe.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Later, Shahzain is attacked by his presumed rivals. Saad, on the other hand, is appointed in LOC Kashmir. Dua informs him that she is pregnant. Shahzain wins the elections but Shehreyar is suspicious. He confronts Shahzain on learning that he staged Choudhary Vakar(Rani's brother) for his attempted murder to win the elections. Shariq and Ramsha are going to marry each other. Shariq advises Shehryar to go to Masooma and apologize to her for his behavior. Shahzain apologizes to Rani, his grandfather and Shehryar. Rani tells him that she is pregnant.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Due to high alert on LOC all four boys stand up for their country. Shahzain went on a live show of India. Shariq covers media and tells all Pakistan about the problems at LOC. Shehryar tells people to go away from LOC. Saad is given an operation of retrieving an injured soldier from the battleground. He is eventually shot in process but manages to complete his mission. He is then taken to the hospital where he recovers. At the end all friends visit their College and advise the students on how to serve the country through various fields of opportunities.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: "Ehd-e-Wafa" was co-developed by Hum TV's senior producer Momina Duraid and ISPR. Saife Hassan was chosen as a director who previously directed acclaimed serials for the channel such as "Belapur Ki Dayan" and "Sammi". The story was written by Mustafa Afridi who previously wrote the screenplay of mega drama serial "Aangan". It marked fourth collaboration of the writer and director, lastly collaborated for 2016-17's mega-hit "Sang-e-Mar Mar".


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Producer Momina Duraid and DG ISPR Asif Ghafoor mutually choose the cast which includes Ahad Raza Mir, Osman Khalid Butt, Ahmed Ali Akbar and Wahaj Ali as male leads. Zara Noor Abbas was selected to portray one of the lead role, "Rani". Alizeh Shah known for her recent notable appearances in channel's hits "Baandi", "Daldal" and "Jo Tu Chahey" was chosen to play the other female lead "Duaa". Model Vaneeza Ahmed and PTV actor Faraz Inam Siddiqui were selected to play the parents of Saad. Siddiqui had also appeared in "Alpha Bravo Charlie", ISPR's 1980's production that was supposed to be the original series of "Ehd-e-Wafa" but later denied by writer, Mustafa Afridi. Hajra Yamin and Momina Iqbal were selected to portray the parallel female leads as characters of Ramsha and Masooma respectively. Adnan Samad Khan was cast in the parallel lead role of "Gulzar" who made his television debut by this serial. "Cake" actor Syed Mohammad Ahmed was chosen to play the supporting role of "Malik Allahyar" while Anjum Habibi for the role of Shehryar's father. Humayun Saeed was cast as guest appearance for the last bumper episode.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The drama serial was shot in 16 cities. The college sequences were shot in Lawrence College Ghora Gali (Murree) while sequences of Saad's academy were shot in Pakistan Military Academy (Abbottabad). Other cities include Lahore, Chakwal, Rawalpindi / Islamabad, Gujrat and Bahawalpur. The shooting lasted for more than 9 months.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Reviewing of initial episodes for "Youline Magazine", the reviewer praised the chemistry of the stars and execution of the serial stating, "Each character’s individual personality comes across as fully developed from the first episode. Their hilarious first scene lets their chemistry shine through, and propels the audience into the world of the Special Services Group (SSG), one of the most otherwise secretive sections of the Army".


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Sheeba Khan of "Express Tribune" praised the performances of male protagonists stating, "OKB is brilliant and has excellent comedic timing…add to that his expressions while speaking and you will can’t find one fault in his acting. Ahmed Ali, Ahad Raza Mir, and Wahaj Ali are equally great. What’s even better is their chemistry. When you watch them on screen, it doesn’t seem like they are acting. They are all very natural and their personalities really gel.""


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: Wahaj Ali and Adnan Samad Khan received major praise from the critics due to their respective roles of Shariq and Gulzar, turned out a breakthrough project for them.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: While reviewing for "Daily Times", Muhammad Ali praised the writing of the serial, especially the characters' development and their journey and said it "A Treat for Youngsters".


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: While reviewing finale of the serial, Buraq Shabbir wrote for "The News", ""Ehd e Wafa" stood out for tackling an unusual genre, with male protagonists, their struggle and friendship being the highlight of the drama. Besides, the women in their lives, essayed by Hajra Yamin, Alizeh Shah, Zara Noor Abbas and Momina Iqbal, played small yet substantial roles that had impact on their male counterparts. Despite a males-centric plot, it was refreshing to see most of these women having a professional life and contributing to society, unlike most other Pakistani dramas."


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: A petition was filed against the drama serial in Lahore High Court. The petitioner's plea: the drama showed a negative image of politicians and media personnel. After which Justice Shahid Waheed declared the petition inadmissible and decided to reject it. He remarked that the petitioners should first apply to PEMRA and if there is no hearing, they can approach the court.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: The title song of the serial "Dil Ka Dil Se Hua Hai Ehd-E-Wafa" was performed by Ali Zafar, Sahir Ali Bagga, Asim Azhar and Aima Baig. Lyrics for songs were written by Imran Raza. The lines of the song are frequently used during the course of the show. Later another soundtrack "Sab Ehd-E-Wafa Ke Naam Kiya" performed by Rahat Fateh Ali Khan was released on 7 February 2020.


title: Ehd-e-Wafa

text: "Ehd-e-Wafa" originally premiered on 22 September 2019. "Ehd-e-Wafa" airs a weekly episode on every Sunday succeeding "Anaa", starting from its premiere date, with time slot of 8:00 pm. It was aired on Hum Europe in UK, on Hum TV USA in USA and Hum TV Mena on UAE, with same timings and premiered date. All International broadcasting aired the series in accordance with their standard timings.


title: Bubble gum

text: Bubble gum or bubblegum is a type of chewing gum, designed to be inflated out of the mouth as a bubble.


title: Bubble gum

text: While there is a bubble gum "flavor" – which various artificial flavorings including esters are mixed to obtain – it varies from one company to another. Esters used in synthetic bubblegum flavoring may include methyl salicylate, ethyl butyrate, benzyl acetate, amyl acetate or cinnamic aldehyde.


title: Bubble gum

text: A natural bubble gum flavoring can be produced by combining banana, pineapple, cinnamon, cloves, and wintergreen. Vanilla, cherry, lemon, and orange oil have also been suggested as ingredients.


title: Bubble gum

text: In modern chewing gum, if natural rubber such as chicle is used, it must pass several purity and cleanliness tests. However, most modern types of chewing gum use synthetic gum-based materials. These materials allow for longer lasting flavor, a better texture, and a reduction in tackiness.


title: Bubble gum

text: In 1928, Walter Diemer, an accountant for the Fleer Chewing Gum Company in Philadelphia, was experimenting with new gum recipes. One recipe, based on a formula for a chewing gum called "Blibber Blubber", was found to be less sticky than regular chewing gum, and stretched more easily. This gum became highly successful and was eventually named by the president of Fleer as Dubble Bubble because of its stretchy texture.


title: Bubble gum

text: This remained the dominant brand of bubble gum until after WWII, when Bazooka bubble gum entered the market.


title: Bubble gum

text: Until the 1970s, bubble gum still tended to stick to one's face. At that time, synthetic bubble gum was introduced, which would almost never stick as a bubble popped. The first brands in the US to use these new synthetic gum bases were Hubba Bubba and Bubble Yum.


title: Bubble gum

text: Bubble gum got its distinctive pink color because the original recipe Diemer worked on produced a dingy gray colored gum, so he added red dye (diluted to pink) as that was the only dye he had on hand at the time.


title: Bubble gum

text: In taste tests, children tend to prefer strawberry and blue raspberry flavors, rejecting more complex flavors as they say these make them want to swallow the gum rather than continue chewing.


title: Bubble gum

text: In 1996, Susan Montgomery Williams of Fresno, California set the Guinness World Record for largest bubblegum bubble ever blown, which was in diameter. Chad Fell though holds the record for "Largest Hands-free Bubblegum Bubble" at , achieved on 24 April 2004.


title: Bubble gum

text: Bubblegum Alley is a tourist attraction in downtown San Luis Obispo, California, known for its accumulation of used bubble gum on the walls of an alley.


title: Bubble gum

text: The Market Theater Gum Wall is a brick wall covered in used chewing gum located in an alleyway in Post Alley under Pike Place Market in Downtown Seattle.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke is a suspension of airborne particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires (including stoves, candles, internal combustion engines, oil lamps, and fireplaces), but may also be used for pest control (fumigation), communication (smoke signals), defensive and offensive capabilities in the military (smoke screen), cooking, or smoking (tobacco, cannabis, etc.). It is used in rituals where incense, sage, or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual or magical purposes. It can also be a flavoring agent and preservative.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke inhalation is the primary cause of death in victims of indoor fires. The smoke kills by a combination of thermal damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused by carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and other combustion products.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke is an aerosol (or mist) of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the ideal range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light.


title: Smoke

text: The composition of smoke depends on the nature of the burning fuel and the conditions of combustion. Fires with high availability of oxygen burn at a high temperature and with a small amount of smoke produced; the particles are mostly composed of ash, or with large temperature differences, of condensed aerosol of water. High temperature also leads to production of nitrogen oxides. Sulfur content yields sulfur dioxide, or in case of incomplete combustion, hydrogen sulfide. Carbon and hydrogen are almost completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Fires burning with lack of oxygen produce a significantly wider palette of compounds, many of them toxic. Partial oxidation of carbon produces carbon monoxide, while nitrogen-containing materials can yield hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and nitrogen oxides. Hydrogen gas can be produced instead of water. Contents of halogens such as chlorine (e.g. in polyvinyl chloride or brominated flame retardants) may lead to the production of hydrogen chloride, phosgene, dioxin, and chloromethane, bromomethane and other halocarbons. Hydrogen fluoride can be formed from fluorocarbons, whether fluoropolymers subjected to fire or halocarbon fire suppression agents. Phosphorus and antimony oxides and their reaction products can be formed from some fire retardant additives, increasing smoke toxicity and corrosivity. Pyrolysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), e.g. from burning older transformer oil, and to lower degree also of other chlorine-containing materials, can produce 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin, a potent carcinogen, and other polychlorinated dibenzodioxins. Pyrolysis of fluoropolymers, e.g. teflon, in presence of oxygen yields carbonyl fluoride (which hydrolyzes readily to HF and CO); other compounds may be formed as well, e.g. carbon tetrafluoride, hexafluoropropylene, and highly toxic perfluoroisobutene (PFIB).


title: Smoke

text: Pyrolysis of burning material, especially incomplete combustion or smoldering without adequate oxygen supply, also results in production of a large amount of hydrocarbons, both aliphatic (methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene) and aromatic (benzene and its derivates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; e.g. benzo[a]pyrene, studied as a carcinogen, or retene), terpenes. It also results in the emission of a range of smaller oxygenated volatile organic compounds (methanol, acetic acid, hydroxy acetone, methyl acetate and ethyl formate) which are formed as combustion by products as well as less volatile oxygenated organic species such as phenolics, furans and furanones. Heterocyclic compounds may be also present. Heavier hydrocarbons may condense as tar; smoke with significant tar content is yellow to brown. Combustion of solid fuels can result in the emission of many hundreds to thousands of lower volatility organic compounds in the aerosol phase. Presence of such smoke, soot, and/or brown oily deposits during a fire indicates a possible hazardous situation, as the atmosphere may be saturated with combustible pyrolysis products with concentration above the upper flammability limit, and sudden inrush of air can cause flashover or backdraft.


title: Smoke

text: Presence of sulfur can lead to formation of gases like hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, sulfur dioxide, carbon disulfide, and thiols; especially thiols tend to get adsorbed on surfaces and produce a lingering odor even long after the fire. Partial oxidation of the released hydrocarbons yields in a wide palette of other compounds: aldehydes (e.g. formaldehyde, acrolein, and furfural), ketones, alcohols (often aromatic, e.g. phenol, guaiacol, syringol, catechol, and cresols), carboxylic acids (formic acid, acetic acid, etc.).


title: Smoke

text: The visible particulate matter in such smokes is most commonly composed of carbon (soot). Other particulates may be composed of drops of condensed tar, or solid particles of ash. The presence of metals in the fuel yields particles of metal oxides. Particles of inorganic salts may also be formed, e.g. ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, or sodium chloride. Inorganic salts present on the surface of the soot particles may make them hydrophilic. Many organic compounds, typically the aromatic hydrocarbons, may be also adsorbed on the surface of the solid particles. Metal oxides can be present when metal-containing fuels are burned, e.g. solid rocket fuels containing aluminium. Depleted uranium projectiles after impacting the target ignite, producing particles of uranium oxides. Magnetic particles, spherules of magnetite-like ferrous ferric oxide, are present in coal smoke; their increase in deposits after 1860 marks the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. (Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles can be also produced in the smoke from meteorites burning in the atmosphere.) Magnetic remanence, recorded in the iron oxide particles, indicates the strength of Earth's magnetic field when they were cooled beyond their Curie temperature; this can be used to distinguish magnetic particles of terrestrial and meteoric origin. Fly ash is composed mainly of silica and calcium oxide. Cenospheres are present in smoke from liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Minute metal particles produced by abrasion can be present in engine smokes. Amorphous silica particles are present in smokes from burning silicones; small proportion of silicon nitride particles can be formed in fires with insufficient oxygen. The silica particles have about 10 nm size, clumped to 70–100 nm aggregates and further agglomerated to chains. Radioactive particles may be present due to traces of uranium, thorium, or other radionuclides in the fuel; hot particles can be present in case of fires during nuclear accidents (e.g. Chernobyl disaster) or nuclear war.


title: Smoke

text: Most of the smoke material is primarily in coarse particles. Those undergo rapid dry precipitation, and the smoke damage in more distant areas outside of the room where the fire occurs is therefore primarily mediated by the smaller particles.


title: Smoke

text: Aerosol of particles beyond visible size is an early indicator of materials in a preignition stage of a fire.


title: Smoke

text: Burning of hydrogen-rich fuel produces water vapor; this results in smoke containing droplets of water. In absence of other color sources (nitrogen oxides, particulates...), such smoke is white and cloud-like.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke emissions may contain characteristic trace elements. Vanadium is present in emissions from oil fired power plants and refineries; oil plants also emit some nickel. Coal combustion produces emissions containing aluminium, arsenic, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, mercury, selenium, and uranium.


title: Smoke

text: Traces of vanadium in high-temperature combustion products form droplets of molten vanadates. These attack the passivation layers on metals and cause high temperature corrosion, which is a concern especially for internal combustion engines. Molten sulfate and lead particulates also have such effect.


title: Smoke

text: Some components of smoke are characteristic of the combustion source. Guaiacol and its derivatives are products of pyrolysis of lignin and are characteristic of wood smoke; other markers are syringol and derivates, and other methoxy phenols. Retene, a product of pyrolysis of conifer trees, is an indicator of forest fires. Levoglucosan is a pyrolysis product of cellulose. Hardwood vs softwood smokes differ in the ratio of guaiacols/syringols. Markers for vehicle exhaust include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hopanes, steranes, and specific nitroarenes (e.g. 1-nitropyrene). The ratio of hopanes and steranes to elemental carbon can be used to distinguish between emissions of gasoline and diesel engines.


title: Smoke

text: Many compounds can be associated with particulates; whether by being adsorbed on their surfaces, or by being dissolved in liquid droplets. Hydrogen chloride is well absorbed in the soot particles.


title: Smoke

text: Inert particulate matter can be disturbed and entrained into the smoke. Of particular concern are particles of asbestos.


title: Smoke

text: Deposited hot particles of radioactive fallout and bioaccumulated radioisotopes can be reintroduced into the atmosphere by wildfires and forest fires; this is a concern in e.g. the Zone of alienation containing contaminants from the Chernobyl disaster.


title: Smoke

text: Polymers are a significant source of smoke. Aromatic side groups, e.g. in polystyrene, enhance generation of smoke. Aromatic groups integrated in the polymer backbone produce less smoke, likely due to significant charring. Aliphatic polymers tend to generate the least smoke, and are non-self-extinguishing. However presence of additives can significantly increase smoke formation. Phosphorus-based and halogen-based flame retardants decrease production of smoke. Higher degree of cross-linking between the polymer chains has such effect too.


title: Smoke

text: The naked eye detects particle sizes greater than 7 µm (micrometres). Visible particles emitted from a fire are referred to as smoke. Invisible particles are generally referred to as gas or fumes. This is best illustrated when toasting bread in a toaster. As the bread heats up, the products of combustion increase in size. The fumes initially produced are invisible but become visible if the toast is burnt.


title: Smoke

text: An ionization chamber type smoke detector is technically a product of combustion detector, not a smoke detector. Ionization chamber type smoke detectors detect particles of combustion that are invisible to the naked eye. This explains why they may frequently false alarm from the fumes emitted from the red-hot heating elements of a toaster, before the presence of visible smoke, yet they may fail to activate in the early, low-heat smoldering stage of a fire.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke from a typical house fire contains hundreds of different chemicals and fumes. As a result, the damage caused by the smoke can often exceed that caused by the actual heat of the fire. In addition to the physical damage caused by the smoke of a fire – which manifests itself in the form of stains – is the often even harder to eliminate problem of a smoky odor. Just as there are contractors that specialize in rebuilding/repairing homes that have been damaged by fire and smoke, fabric restoration companies specialize in restoring fabrics that have been damaged in a fire.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke from oxygen-deprived fires contains a significant concentration of compounds that are flammable. A cloud of smoke, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, therefore has the potential of being ignited – either by another open flame in the area, or by its own temperature. This leads to effects like backdraft and flashover. Smoke inhalation is also a danger of smoke that can cause serious injury and death.


title: Smoke

text: Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritating. The most dangerous is carbon monoxide leading to carbon monoxide poisoning, sometimes with the additive effects of hydrogen cyanide and phosgene. Smoke inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness. Sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride in contact with moisture form sulfuric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid, which are corrosive to both lungs and materials. When asleep the nose does not sense smoke nor does the brain, but the body will wake up if the lungs become enveloped in smoke and the brain will be stimulated and the person will be awoken. This does not work if the person is incapacitated or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol.


title: Smoke

text: Cigarette smoke is a major modifiable risk factor for lung disease, heart disease, and many cancers. Smoke can also be a component of ambient air pollution due to the burning of coal in power plants, forest fires or other sources, although the concentration of pollutants in ambient air is typically much less than that in cigarette smoke. One day of exposure to PM2.5 at a concentration of 880 μg/m3, such as occurs in Beijing, China, is the equivalent of smoking one or two cigarettes in terms of particulate inhalation by weight. The analysis is complicated, however, by the fact that the organic compounds present in various ambient particulates may have a higher carcinogenicity than the compounds in cigarette smoke particulates. Secondhand tobacco smoke is the combination of both sidestream and mainstream smoke emissions from a burning tobacco product. These emissions contain more than 50 carcinogenic chemicals. According to the United States Surgeon General's 2006 report on the subject, "Short exposures to secondhand [tobacco] smoke can cause blood platelets to become stickier, damage the lining of blood vessels, decrease coronary flow velocity reserves, and reduce heart variability, potentially increasing the risk of a heart attack". The American Cancer Society lists "heart disease, lung infections, increased asthma attacks, middle ear infections, and low birth weight" as ramifications of smoker's emission.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke can obscure visibility, impeding occupant exiting from fire areas. In fact, the poor visibility due to the smoke that was in the Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire in Worcester, Massachusetts was the reason why the trapped rescue firefighters could not evacuate the building in time. Because of the striking similarity that each floor shared, the dense smoke caused the firefighters to become disoriented.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke can contain a wide variety of chemicals, many of them aggressive in nature. Examples are hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid, produced from halogen-containing plastics and fire retardants, hydrofluoric acid released by pyrolysis of fluorocarbon fire suppression agents, sulfuric acid from burning of sulfur-containing materials, nitric acid from high-temperature fires where nitrous oxide gets formed, phosphoric acid and antimony compounds from P and Sb based fire retardants, and many others. Such corrosion is not significant for structural materials, but delicate structures, especially microelectronics, are strongly affected. Corrosion of circuit board traces, penetration of aggressive chemicals through the casings of parts, and other effects can cause an immediate or gradual deterioration of parameters or even premature (and often delayed, as the corrosion can progress over long time) failure of equipment subjected to smoke. Many smoke components are also electrically conductive; deposition of a conductive layer on the circuits can cause crosstalks and other deteriorations of the operating parameters or even cause short circuits and total failures. Electrical contacts can be affected by corrosion of surfaces, and by deposition of soot and other conductive particles or nonconductive layers on or across the contacts. Deposited particles may adversely affect the performance of optoelectronics by absorbing or scattering the light beams.


title: Smoke

text: Corrosivity of smoke produced by materials is characterized by the corrosion index (CI), defined as material loss rate (angstrom/minute) per amount of material gasified products (grams) per volume of air (m). It is measured by exposing strips of metal to flow of combustion products in a test tunnel. Polymers containing halogen and hydrogen (polyvinyl chloride, polyolefins with halogenated additives, etc.) have the highest CI as the corrosive acids are formed directly with water produced by the combustion, polymers containing halogen only (e.g. polytetrafluoroethylene) have lower CI as the formation of acid is limited to reactions with airborne humidity, and halogen-free materials (polyolefins, wood) have the lowest CI. However, some halogen-free materials can also release significant amount of corrosive products.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke damage to electronic equipment can be significantly more extensive than the fire itself. Cable fires are of special concern; low smoke zero halogen materials are preferable for cable insulation.


title: Smoke

text: When smoke comes into contact with the surface of any substance or structure, the chemicals contained in it are transferred to it. The corrosive properties of the chemicals cause the substance or structure to decompose at a rapid rate. Certain materials or structures absorb these chemicals, which is why clothing, unsealed surfaces, potable water, piping, wood, etc., are replaced in most cases of structural fires.


title: Smoke

text: Wood smoke is a major source of air pollution, especially particulate pollution, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as formaldehyde. In the United Kingdom domestic combustion is the largest single source of PM2.5 annually. In some towns and cities in New South Wales, wood smoke may be responsible for 60% of fine particle air pollution in the winter. Wood smoke can cause lung damage, artery damage and DNA damage leading to cancer, other respiratory and lung disease and cardiovascular disease. Air pollution, particulate matter and wood smoke may also cause brain damage and increase the risk of developmental disorders, neurodegenerative disorders mental disorders, and suicide, although studies on the link between depression and some air pollutants are not consistent. At least one study has identified "the abundant presence in the human brain of magnetite nanoparticles that match precisely the high-temperature magnetite nanospheres, formed by combustion and/or friction-derived heating, which are prolific in urban, airborne particulate matter (PM)." Air pollution has also been linked to a range of other psychosocial problems.


title: Smoke

text: As early as the 15th century Leonardo da Vinci commented at length on the difficulty of assessing smoke, and distinguished between black smoke (carbonized particles) and white 'smoke' which is not a smoke at all but merely a suspension of harmless water particulates.


title: Smoke

text: In-line capture. A smoke sample is simply sucked through a filter which is weighed before and after the test and the mass of smoke found. This is the simplest and probably the most accurate method, but can only be used where the smoke concentration is slight, as the filter can quickly become blocked.


title: Smoke

text: The ASTM smoke pump is a simple and widely used method of in-line capture where a measured volume of smoke is pulled through a filter paper and the dark spot so formed is compared with a standard.


title: Smoke

text: Filter/dilution tunnel. A smoke sample is drawn through a tube where it is diluted with air, the resulting smoke/air mixture is then pulled through a filter and weighed. This is the internationally recognized method of measuring smoke from combustion.


title: Smoke

text: Electrostatic precipitation. The smoke is passed through an array of metal tubes which contain suspended wires. A (huge) electrical potential is applied across the tubes and wires so that the smoke particles become charged and are attracted to the sides of the tubes. This method can over-read by capturing harmless condensates, or under-read due to the insulating effect of the smoke. However, it is the necessary method for assessing volumes of smoke too great to be forced through a filter, i.e., from bituminous coal.


title: Smoke

text: Ringelmann scale. A measure of smoke color. Invented by Professor Maximilian Ringelmann in Paris in 1888, it is essentially a card with squares of black, white and shades of gray which is held up and the comparative grayness of the smoke judged. Highly dependent on light conditions and the skill of the observer it allocates a grayness number from 0 (white) to 5 (black) which has only a passing relationship to the actual quantity of smoke. Nonetheless, the simplicity of the Ringelmann scale means that it has been adopted as a standard in many countries.


title: Smoke

text: Optical scattering. A light beam is passed through the smoke. A light detector is situated at an angle to the light source, typically at 90°, so that it receives only light reflected from passing particles. A measurement is made of the light received which will be higher as the concentration of smoke particles becomes higher.


title: Smoke

text: Optical obscuration. A light beam is passed through the smoke and a detector opposite measures the light. The more smoke particles are present between the two, the less light will be measured.


title: Smoke

text: Combined optical methods. There are various proprietary optical smoke measurement devices such as the 'nephelometer' or the 'aethalometer' which use several different optical methods, including more than one wavelength of light, inside a single instrument and apply an algorithm to give a good estimate of smoke. It has been claimed that these devices can differentiate types of smoke and so their probable source can be inferred, though this is disputed.


title: Smoke

text: Inference from carbon monoxide. Smoke is incompletely burned fuel, carbon monoxide is incompletely burned carbon, therefore it has long been assumed that measurement of CO in flue gas (a cheap, simple and very accurate procedure) will provide a good indication of the levels of smoke. Indeed, several jurisdictions use CO measurement as the basis of smoke control. However it is far from clear how accurate the correspondence is.


title: Smoke

text: Throughout recorded history, humans have used the smoke of medicinal plants to cure illness. A sculpture from Persepolis shows Darius the Great (522–486 BC), the king of Persia, with two censers in front of him for burning Peganum harmala and/or sandalwood Santalum album, which was believed to protect the king from evil and disease. More than 300 plant species in 5 continents are used in smoke form for different diseases. As a method of drug administration, smoking is important as it is a simple, inexpensive, but very effective method of extracting particles containing active agents. More importantly, generating smoke reduces the particle size to a microscopic scale thereby increasing the absorption of its active chemical principles.


title: Smoke

text: https://www.infographicview.com/things-you-need-to-know-about-smoke.html/ 7 things you need to know about smoke detectors]


title: Child murder

text: Pedicide, child murder, child manslaughter, or child homicide is the homicide of an individual who is a minor.


title: Child murder

text: In 2008, there were 1,494 child homicides in the United States. Of those killed, 1,035 were male and 452 were female.


title: Child murder

text: Several U.S. states have included child murder to their list of aggravating factors that may make a murder punishable by the death penalty, but the victim’s age under which the crime is a capital crime varies between them. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten.


title: Child murder

text: Child manslaughter can result in an aggravated charge in some jurisdictions such as the State of Florida.


title: Child murder

text: Any murder in the United Kingdom carries a mandatory life sentence. In England and Wales, murder of a child involving sexual or sadistic conduct or abduction of the victim can result in a whole life order (i.e. life imprisonment without the possibility of parole) being imposed where the offender is at least 21 years old. Sentencing guidelines state that where the offender is under 21, the starting point is a minimum term of 30 years.