title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant was less radical in configuration than General Motors' compact Chevrolet Corvair, which had an air-cooled rear-mounted engine, but was considered more aesthetically daring than the also-new Falcon and Studebaker Lark compacts, which had more conventional looks; the Valiant boasted a radical design that continued Exner's "Forward Look" styling with "sleek, crisp lines which flow forward in a dart or wedge shape". The flush-sided appearance was a carried-over feature from Chrysler's Ghia-built D'Elegance and Adventure concept cars which also gave the Valiant additional inches of interior room. The Valiant's styling was new, yet with specific design elements that tied it to other contemporary Chrysler products, such as the canted tailfins tipped with cat's-eye shaped tail lamps and the simulated Continental spare tire pressed into the trunk lid that were thematically similar to those on the Imperial and the 300F. According to Exner, the stamped wheel design was used not only to establish identity with other Chryslers, but to "dress up the rear deck area without detracting from the look of directed forward motion".


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant debuted an all-new six-cylinder overhead-valve engine, the famous slant-six. Its inline cylinders were uniquely canted 30° to the right (passenger side), permitting a lower hoodline. The water pump was shifted from front to alongside, shortening engine length. And an efficient long-branch individual-runner intake manifold was fitted, an advance that benefited from Chrysler's pioneering work in tuned intakes. The slant-six produced both more power and better economy than similar American made economy straight sixes, and it soon gained a reputation for dependability. Project engineer Willem Weertman and his team had designed a simple yet robust workhorse, from its four-main forged crankshaft to a simplified "mechanical" valve train. Block and head castings were unusually thick because both were intended to be cast in either iron or aluminum with the same tooling. Although volume casting techniques of the era could not yet reliably produce complex head castings in aluminum, over 50,000 die-cast aluminum-block versions of the engine were produced between late 1961 and early 1963 and sold as extra-cost options.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The 1960 Valiant exemplified Chrysler's leadership in aluminum die casting. While the aluminum slant-six engine block did not enter production until 1961, the Kokomo, Indiana, foundry produced a number of other aluminum parts for the 1960 Valiant, all instrumental in reducing the total weight of the car. The 1960 model contained as much as of aluminum in structural and decorative forms, with the majority of the material used in cast form as chassis parts. These parts included the oil pump, water pump, alternator housing, Hyper-Pak (see below) and standard production intake manifolds, all-new Torqueflite A-904 automatic transmission case and tail extension, and numerous other small parts. These cast-aluminum parts were roughly 60% lighter than corresponding parts of cast iron. A cast aluminum part had the benefit of reduced section thickness where strength was not a vital consideration. Section thickness of cast-iron parts were often dictated by casting practice, which required at least to ensure good castings. Exterior decorative parts stamped from aluminum were lighter than similar chromium-plated zinc castings. The entire grille and surrounding molding on the Valiant weighed only . If this same assembly had been made of die-cast zinc, as many grilles of the era were, it would have weighed an estimated . An estimated —about 4% of a Valiant's total shipping weight—was saved with the of aluminum parts.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant A-body platform utilized "unit-body" or "unibody" construction (not used by the Chrysler Corporation since the Airflow models of the 1930s) rather than "body-on-frame" construction. Instead of a bolted-in forestructure used in other unibody designs, the Valiant incorporated a welded-in front understructure and stressed front sheet metal. The fenders, quarter panels, floor and roof contributed to the stiffness of the body shell. A unit wheelbase comparison showed the Valiant to be 95% stiffer in torsion and 50% stiffer in beam than a 1959 Plymouth with separate body-on-frame construction. Dynamic testing showed that high structural resonant frequencies were attained, indicating greater damping and reduced body shake.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The front suspension consisted of unequal length control arms with torsion bars, while the rear suspension used a live axle supported by asymmetric leaf springs. Chrysler used this design through the entire production of the Valiant and other A-body models, with revisions to the suspension components themselves for the 1962, 1967, 1968, and 1973 models.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Plymouth product planning director Jack Charipar gave impetus for a stock car racing version of the Valiant, and while Chrysler engineers developed the Hyper-Pak for the track, the Hyper-Pak dealer tuning kit option was made available in limited quantities on December 1, 1959. Features included of torque, a 10.5:1 compression ratio, dual exhaust pipes on a single muffler, a manual choke and a larger fuel tank. Dick Maxwell, a Chrysler engineer responsible for many of the super stock Mopars, recalls that "When NASCAR decided to run a compact road race in conjunction with the 1960 Daytona 500, all the factories got involved. We built a fleet of seven Hyper Pak Valiants with 148-hp 170-ci [Slant] sixes having a single four-barrel with ram manifold." The race Hyper-Paks also featured high-load valve springs and long-duration, high-lift camshafts.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: NASCAR's new compact car category debuted at the Daytona International Speedway on January 31, 1960. The first of two races was a road course, which used a portion of the high-banked tri-oval together with a twisting infield road for a lap distance of . The race length was 10 laps, . Averaging a speed of , Marvin Panch drove his Hyper-Pak into first place; all the Hyper-Paks swept the field taking the first seven places. The second race of the day used only the tri-oval track, 20 laps on its full length totaling . A multi-car accident on the fourth lap took out the four Valiant leaders including one driven by Richard Petty. Panch was not among them because car trouble delayed his start and he was busy passing slower cars from the rear of the field when the leaders crashed. After a restart, Panch worked to first place and stayed there, averaging a speed of . The remaining Valiants placed 1-2-3 and Panch again went into the winner's circle. Maxwell again recalls that "It was a Plymouth runway. We finished first through seventh. Our cars were so fast, NASCAR never did that race again."


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant station wagons had of cargo space yet required two feet less parking space than a full-size Plymouth. A locking luggage compartment on the two-seat models included the use of "Captive-Aire" (run-flat) tires. The compartment, located in the cargo deck, served as a spare tire storage space for models equipped with standard tires in which case the lock was optional. Captive-Aire tires, which did not require a spare, were standard equipment on the three-seat models. An aluminum tailgate window screen was available for the exclusion of insects when on vacation and camping trips.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The four-door station wagon, assembled only at the Dodge main plant in Hamtramck, was available in "V100" and "V200" trim in two- and three-seat configurations; the third seat faced the rear. Both models were the lowest priced four-door station wagons in America. The two-seat model was $60 under both the four-door Lark and Rambler station wagons, and the three-seater was $186 below the Rambler four-door.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The first-generation Valiants, though sold in three model years, existed in "four" distinct configurations: early 1960, late 1960, 1961, and 1962. The base-model V100 cars received relatively minimal ornamentation.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Early 1960 models, particularly the V200 high-trim cars, featured extensive brightwork and ornamentation. An chrome spear atop each front fender, an "inner" reveal ring on the deck lid's spare tire stamping, a "V200" nameplate on the dashboard, and stainless steel windshield and backlight reveal moldings, which were deleted from production, replaced with less costly flexible mylar-faced plastic locking strips—in approximately January, 1960. Early and late V200s had a continuous stainless steel molding following the tailfin crease as it swept down in front of the rear wheel, then continuing forward along the lower break line in both doors and the front fender. The radiator grille was brite-dipped stamped aluminum, and a central grille badge doubled as the hood release. Script "Valiant" callouts were placed in the center of the deck lid's spare-tire stamping and on each front fender.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: During the 1960 model year, there were revisions to improve lubrication of the two rear connecting rods, voltage regulator function, cold starting and idling, acceleration, and to prevent breakage of the front and rear manifold mounting studs.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1961, new two-door sedan and hardtop models were released, but no changes were made to the four-door sedan and wagon sheet metal. The interior and exterior trim were changed to provide model year differentiation, a mild form of planned obsolescence. The radiator grille stamping was the same as in 1960, but for 1961 it was painted with a pattern of black squares. The central grille ornament was still pulled from the bottom to release the hood, but it was now faced with an emblem having a white field with the blue-and-red stylized "V" logo, rather than 1960's red placard with a gold script reading "Valiant". The side trim was changed; a stainless spear was placed at the rear of each tailfin crease, a hockey stick-shaped trim was applied to the lower break line, and the front fender/door crease was capped with a long stainless spear. The tailfins were each topped with three transverse chrome strips, and a large horizontal emblem containing a round plastic "V200" callout was centered in the deck lid's spare-tire stamping. Matching round "V200" callouts were placed in round housings at the midpoint of the front fender spears. Inside the car, the instrument cluster was largely carried over, but 1960's black gauges with white callouts gave way to 1961's white gauges with black callouts. For the first time, Valiants wore "Plymouth" script just left of the right-side taillight.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Mechanical revisions for 1961 included new carburetors, the availability of positive crankcase ventilation (which was newly mandated on cars sold in California), the availability of dealer-installed air conditioning, the relocation of the alternator from the left to the right side of the engine, and extensive revisions throughout most of the Valiant's systems and components. Late in the 1961 model year, the larger slant-six engine became available in the Valiant, its use having been expanded earlier in the year from the larger Dodges and Plymouths to the Valiant-sized Dodge Lancer.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The 1962 model year saw an extensive facelift. The radiator grille was flattened and shortened. The hood release was moved to a knob at the top of the grille frame. The central grille emblem was deleted, except on the top-line "Signet 200" two-door hardtop model, which received a black-painted grille with a round central emblem incorporating the red-and-blue stylized "V" Valiant emblem. The Signet 200 had pleated, leather-like bucket seats, custom tailored interior trim, deep-pile carpeting, special trunk lid emblem, different headlamp frames and special side moldings; it was America's lowest-priced hardtop with bucket seats.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Fender and hood stampings were similar to the 1960-61 items, but neither identical nor interchangeable. At the rear, the cat's-eye tail lamps were deleted. A wraparound stainless trim was applied to the tailfins, below which were placed round tail lamps set into stamped aluminum bezels. These occupied the space formerly available for optional backup lamps, which for 1962 flanked the license plate below the rear bumper. The spare-tire stamping was eliminated from the deck lid, which was now a smooth stamping with a small central ridge at its trailing edge. On V200 deck lids, a large round emblem surrounded an oblong block-letter "Valiant" callout on a black field. Similar block-letter/black-field callouts were placed on each front fender. On the Signet, the deck lid was adorned with a smaller round emblem surrounding the red-and-blue stylized "V" logo. The "Plymouth" script disappeared from the 1962 Valiant, as in 1960.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: V200 side trim reverted to the 1960 concept, following the tailfin crease and lower body break crease. However, the 1962 trim was more massive and contained an oblong triple-window effect at the rear of the body break crease. On Signets, the front fenders had an open-centered double spear, connected at the front and back, within which was contained a secondary body paint color.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The 1962 Valiant was given a completely-new asymmetric instrument cluster. Like that of the larger 1962 Plymouth models, the new Valiant cluster was highly regarded for its clean design and easy readability. A large round speedometer was placed at the left of the cluster, with separate round gauges for fuel level, engine temperature, and charging system condition (amperes) in a row to the right of the speedometer. Automatic transmission pushbuttons were in a column at the left edge of the panel, and heater pushbuttons were in a column at the right edge. A new shallower-dish steering wheel was also introduced.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Mechanical revisions for 1962 were extensive. The electrical system was extensively upgraded, with a new gear-reduction starter, new alternator, more fuses, and printed circuit boards rather than individual wires for the instrument cluster. Carburetors were improved again, the manual transmission gearshift was moved from the floor to the steering column, there were new 45°-shear engine mounts replacing the previous vertical-shear items, exhaust systems were made of more corrosion-resistant (aluminized) materials, and axle ratios were altered for better fuel economy. Manual steering ratio was changed from 20:1 to 24:1, and both power and manual steering gearboxes were new, the latter now housed in aluminum rather than iron. Most of the front suspension components were redesigned (now with balloon seals, an industry first), and it was claimed they needed lubrication only every .


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In October 1961, the Society of Illustrators presented Exner the 1962 Styling Award for outstanding design of the 1962 Signet 200; the award lauded Exner's "creative sculpted design" of the Valiant, "an automobile of outstanding originality, restraint and spirited beauty".


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant was totally reskinned for 1963 with a shorter wheelbase; it had a wide, flat hood and a flat square rear deck. The upper belt feature line ran from the rear body, in a gentle sweep, to the front fender tip. Here it was "veed" back and down to the trailing edge of the front fender. The roofline was flatter and sharpened in profile. The grille was a variation of the inverted trapezoid shape that characterized contemporary Chryslers, with a fine mesh insert. Advances in body structure, many accessories and a new spring-staged choke were promotional highlights. The Valiant was offered as a two-door hardtop and convertible, a two- or four-door sedan, and a four-door station wagon. The hardtop and the convertible, with manual- or optional power-operated top, were offered only in the high V200 and premium Signet trim levels. The optional slant-six engine was initially offered with the die-cast aluminum block introduced in late 1961, but early in the 1963 model year the aluminum block was discontinued; both the 170 and 225 engines were thenceforth available only with iron blocks. In December 1962, Plymouth's first-ever vinyl-covered roof became available as an option on the Signet. The 1963 Valiant was much better received by the public, and sales for the year rose to 225,056. The Valiant was sold in Mexico as a "Chrysler Valiant" starting with the 1963 model year. This was also the first year that it was coupled with the Dodge Dart, which had been previously a lower-end full-size model. In the U.S, the Valiant finally joined the Plymouth brand for the rest of its production.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Building on a worldwide record sales success in 1963, the Valiant moved into 1964 with design changes giving better economy, reliability and performance. Changes in the 1964 Valiant included a restyled front end featuring a new grille with a horizontal bars. A "Valiant" medallion was placed at the center of the grille where the bars formed a flat bulge. Vertical taillamps replaced the previous horizontal items. The ring-style rear deck decoration was replaced with a Valiant script located at the right-hand corner. There were few styling changes in the 1965 Valiants, but the 1966 Valiants had


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: significant superficial changes: a split grille with fine-patterned insert; new front fenders; new rear fenders on the sedans; new bevelled-edge rear deck lid; heavier rear bumper; and a new roofline with large rear window.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The new Chrysler-built A833 four-speed manual transmission was offered together with a Hurst shifter. Another new option was the "Sure-Grip" limited slip differential, which was touted as a bad-weather safety feature and also offered traction benefits in performance driving.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant was extremely popular in the US, Canada, and numerous markets outside North America. Plymouth supported a successful team of Valiant two-door sedans in the 1965 and 1966 SCCA Manufacturers Rally Championships.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In mid-1964, Chrysler released an all-new V8 engine as optional equipment in all Valiants. This compact V8 engine, with solid tappets, the first in Chrysler's LA engine range and that would last until 2002, was specifically engineered to fit in the compact A-body engine compartment. Valiants with the optional 273 engine came with V-shaped emblems at the sides of the cowl. With the 273, the Valiant became the lowest-priced V-8 automobile in the world. For 1965, a hotter version of the 273 called the "Commando 273" was made available with 10.5:1 compression, a four-barrel carburetor, performance camshaft, low restriction exhaust and other modifications.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Dodge Lancer, which had been almost identical to the Valiants of 1961–62, was replaced in 1963 by the Dart. The Dart was available in all the same body styles as the Valiant, except there was no Dodge equivalent of the Barracuda. All Darts used a larger, wheelbase, except for wagons which used the Valiant's wheelbase.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant was completely redesigned for 1967 model year and the station wagons, hardtops, and convertibles were dropped. Buyers who wanted a Valiant-type hardtop coupe or convertible could choose a similarly-styled Barracuda, which was still based on the Valiant with a slightly sportier style. The new Valiant model range included two- and four-door sedans on a newly lengthened wheelbase. The design was straightforward and rectilinear. The body sides were mildly sculptured with a tapering lower feature line that widened toward the wheels. The new fenders had a vertical slab look. The grille was vertically split and subdivided horizontally. Vertical taillights were segmented and had a fanned-out look. Horsepower rating for the Slant-6 engine was raised from to by installation of the slightly bigger camshaft introduced on the 225 in 1965, together with Carter BBS and Holley 1920 carburetors using the larger throttle bore previously reserved for the 225, rather than the smaller carburetors formerly used on the 170 engine. Federally-mandated safety equipment was provided on all 1967s, including a new dual-chamber brake master cylinder, energy-absorbing steering column, wheel, and instrument panel controls; shoulder belt mountings for outboard front passengers, a new 4-way hazard flasher, and, for 1970, lane-change directional signals were included.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For the 1968 model, the horizontal division bar was removed from the grille. A fine cross hatched insert was framed by a segmented chrome surround. Model nameplates were moved from the rear fender to the front fender. The , V8 was a Valiant option for the first time. All North American Chrysler products got front and rear side marker lights, amber in front, red in the rear. These were round in shape, surrounded by an attractive chrome bezel. Valiants built after January 1, 1968, also got new front shoulder belts as standard.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1969, a new one-piece, full-width grille, new taillights and trim were featured. Standard engines were unchanged, although refinements in the Chrysler "clean air system" (formerly "clean air package") produced better operating economy from the six-cylinder engines. Improved drum brake self-adjusters, a more efficient power steering pump, and improvements to the optional Sure-Grip differential were also highlighted. Starting with cars built on January 1, 1969, front seat headrests were now standard. 1969 Valiants got new rectangular side marker lamps with federally required integral reflectors.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1970, the Valiant was carried over with detail changes, including a new black plastic grille sculptured differently from 1969's metal item. The central portion protruded flush with the forward edge of the hood, while the remainder of the grille was set back from the front plane. The two-door sedan was dropped, replaced by the new Duster coupe (see below). For all except export Valiants, the base 170 engine was replaced by a new version of the slant-six. The 198 gave better performance than the 170, and was less costly to make, since it used the same cylinder block as the 225. The Valiant was virtually unchanged for 1971; small revisions included removal of the center grille emblem and a new kind of finish treatment on the grille surround. It now had a blacked-out look instead of the previous argent silver treatment. For the 1970 and 1971 models, exterior and interior trim were slightly revised, and there were engineering changes for better driveability, improved soundproofing and decreased emissions, the latter in compliance with regulations mandated by the newly created Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) implementing new devices such as an EGR valve and an activated charcoal evaporative emissions system. The 1971 Valiant eventually set sales records with 256,930 calendar year deliveries, so there was little motivation to change it for 1972. Only details of the taillights and grille were altered for the 1972 Valiants. New surface-mount sidemarker lamp-reflector units replaced the more costly previous flush-mount items.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Beginning in 1971, a badge-engineered version of the wheelbase Dodge Dart Swinger called the "Valiant Scamp" was offered. This used the Dart Swinger two-door hardtop body shell with Valiant front sheet metal and dual taillamps carried over from the 1970 Dodge Dart.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1973, the vent wing windows were deleted from the Scamp, and all models were given a new grille and front bumpers able to withstand damage at a impact, as well as steel beams inside the doors to protect vehicle occupants in side-impact collisions as mandated by NHTSA. The door beams, the new bumpers and their impact-absorbing mounts, a rubber-booted telescoping system attached to the car's structure, added mass to the Valiant. At the same time, engines were being progressively detuned to comply with increasingly stringent emissions regulations. Performance and economy suffered as a result.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Through the early 1970s, the Valiant took more than 40% of Plymouth's total sales volume. These models also had considerable success in foreign markets. Worldwide, Chrysler affiliates and subsidiaries sold American- or Canadian-made Valiants from complete knock down kits, as well as locally designed and engineered Valiants and Valiant-based vehicles incorporating a mix of North American and local design and components.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In 1974, the wheelbase variant of the A-body sedan was dropped, and the Valiant sedan became a rebadged Dart. The larger size resulted in thicker C-pillars and new rear fender contours. Thenceforth, the only differences between the Valiant and Dart were minor cosmetics. The 1973 Valiant grille and front sheet metal were retained for 1974, but the front bumper's rubber guards were chromed. The taillights were extensively redesigned, resulting in a more formal look. The US federal bumper standards were applied to rear bumpers for the 1974 models, adding even more weight to the Valiant. Since the Duster (1970), Dart-based Scamp (1971) and Dart-based sedan (1974) displaced both of the Valiant's 1967 bodies, they could be considered to represent a fourth generation of Valiants.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: 1974 Valiant was also available in a "Scamp package" which included 318 V8 engine, four door, three-speed automatic transmission, power steering, power disc brakes, chrome trim, vinyl roof, AC, carpet, split vinyl bucket seat bench, radio, rear window defroster blower, and 120 mph speedometer standard. Production was limited and ordered as customers requested the package, a few hundred were produced.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: 1974 introduced the Valiant Brougham and its twin, the Dodge Dart special edition. Available in two- or four-door models, they were a compact luxury car meant as an attractive alternative to larger luxury cars following the 1973 oil crisis. The Brougham had generous chrome trim, a vinyl top, deep cut-pile carpeting, velour cloth upholstery, interior door padding, color-keyed or simulated wire wheel covers, and a special selection of paint and trim combinations. Much of the optional equipment on a regular Valiant became standard equipment on Brougham models such as power steering, power disc brakes, air conditioning, cruise control, electric rear window defroster and an AM/FM radio.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: With a slightly restyled grille, 1975 models were essentially carry-overs from 1974 except that California and certain high-altitude models received catalytic converters and required unleaded gasoline. The 1975 Valiants had several new items available to buyers with increasing interest in fuel economy. These included radial tires and a "Fuel Pacer" system that lit a warning light to tell the driver he was driving uneconomically, as well as Chrysler's A833OD four-speed manual transmission, the first four-speed Chrysler had offered with a six-cylinder engine in the North American market since 1965. There were new spark plugs and batteries and a "clincher" warranty that covered everything on the car except trim for 12 months with no mileage restrictions.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: 1976 models were virtually identical to 1975s; amber rather than clear front park/turn signal lights were used and the parking brake pull-handle was changed to a foot pedal.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In 1976, the Valiant was available as a Code A38 police package car and offered in three basic engine sizes: E24 (California emission standards) and E25 (federal) single-barrel slant-six; E44 , twin-barrel V-8; E58 , four-barrel V-8 with single (California) or dual (federal) exhaust. It was the E58 that Chrysler recommended for police service as it was the only one with "added endurance features to improve durability". The E58 produced 175 net hp in California trim and 220 net hp in federal form. The E58 dual exhaust engine (sans catalytic converters) made for a very fast Valiant squad car. So equipped, this compact Chrysler cop car tripped the quarter-mile lights in 16.4 seconds with trap speeds of and could catch nearly all the so-called "performance cars" of the day. The Seattle Police Department using the Valiant A38 reported a 46 percent drop in the preventable accident rate among police officers, and according to a "Motor Trend" police survey, the A38 Valiant had much better evasive capabilities, better overall visibility, and was generally easier to drive than the full-size squad cars. A special handling package applied to the A38 Valiant included front and rear antisway bars. However, the Valiant was not physically durable enough; it lacked additional frame welds and rear cross-member reinforcements standard on all other Mopar A38 packages. More importantly, the front K-frame of the Valiant was prone to failure under severe police use.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In 1976, the Plymouth Volaré and Dodge Aspen F-body cars were introduced mid-year replacing the Valiant and Dart, respectively. Production of the A-body shifted to Saint Louis Assembly while Hamtramck Assembly was dedicated to the new F-body, which did not maintain their predecessors' reputation for quality and durability and in fact reversed it. The change hurt Chrysler's reputation and profitability, contributing to its near-bankruptcy in 1979–80.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Automotive trends in the early middle 1960s had all the US automakers looking at making compact sporty cars. The Valiant was a natural choice of basis for Chrysler's efforts in this direction. Ford's Mustang gave this type of vehicle its common "pony car" moniker, but in fact Chrysler beat Ford to market by two weeks with the April 1, 1964 release of the Barracuda fastback. The Barracuda used the Valiant's wheelbase and the Valiant hood, headlamp bezels, windshield, vent windows, quarter panels and bumpers; all other sheet metal and glass was new. This hybrid design approach significantly reduced the development and tooling cost and time for the new model. Unfortunately, the Barracuda was as similar to the Valiant as the Mustang was different from the Falcon, and its introduction was, at first, barely noticed by most buyers.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The fastback body shape was achieved primarily with an enormous rear window, or backlight, which wrapped down to the fenderline. Pittsburgh Plate Glass (PPG) collaborated with Chrysler designers in producing this rear window, the largest ever installed on a standard production car up to that time. The following year, the fenders and taillamps that had been introduced on the 1964 Barracuda were used on the whole 1965 Valiant range except for the wagon, which got different taillamps.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The second-generation Barracuda, though still a wheelbase A-body sharing many components with the Valiant, was given Barracuda-specific styling and its own range of models including convertibles and fastback and notchback hardtops. A wide range of engines were available on the Barracuda throughout its production lifecycle, from a 145-hp 225 cubic-inch (3.7L) slant six, up through high-compression small- and big-block V8s.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Although the first and second generation Barracudas were heavily based on the contemporary Valiants, Plymouth wanted them perceived as a distinct models. Consequently, the "Valiant" chrome script that appeared on the 1964 model's trunk lid was deleted on the 1965 model in the US market. For 1966, the stylized red-and-blue Valiant "V" emblems were replaced on the Barracuda with a model-specific stylized fish logo. For 1967, the new four-barrel V-8 with was optional only in the Formula S, which boosted the Barracuda's performance with 0–60 mph in 7.4 seconds and the quarter mile covered in 15.9 seconds. In other markets such as Canada and South Africa, where Valiant was a marque in its own right, the car remained known as the "Valiant Barracuda" until the A-body Barracuda was discontinued after 1969.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1970, the Barracuda lost all commonality with the Valiant as an all-new E-body Barracuda was produced.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Plymouth introduced a sporty new model for 1970: the two-door fastback Duster. The same technique that spawned the 1964 Barracuda was employed for the Duster. It was designed to use the same front end sheet metal, running gear, and wheelbase as the Valiant, but Plymouth's stylists gave the car an entirely new look by using a modified fastback configuration with radically curved side glass having only half the curvature radius of conventional side glass. Though the V8 engine with 10.5:1 compression, and of torque had been available for special order in Valiants and Barracudas since 1968, the 340 was offered as a regular production option in the Duster 340, Plymouth's analogue to the Dodge Demon 340 and the Dodge Dart Swinger 340. The Duster was an immediate hit as a sporty alternative to the now larger and more expensive Barracuda. Throughout its production lifetime, the vast majority of Dusters were built with the Slant Six engine (available in 198 and 225 cubic inch versions) and TorqueFlite automatic transmission.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: An aggressive "shark tooth" grille was offered on the fastback Duster 340 and new-for-1971 Duster Twister models. The Twister was a "performance appearance package" produced in response to increasing premiums on muscle cars, many of which were calculated using the vehicle's power-to-weight ratio as an actuarial gauge. Despite the "dust whirl" side stripes and "Twister" decals, Rallye road wheels, dual racing mirrors, twin hood scoops, flat-black hood paint with strobe stripes, and plaid cloth-and-vinyl trim interior available in four colors, the biggest engine available was the V8.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Chrysler increased the displacement of its highest-performance small block V-8 engine from to for 1974. The 360 was rated at and placed in the Duster 360. However, the 1974 Duster was nearly heavier than the 1971 model on account of the heavier bumpers, side-impact door beams, emission control equipment, and added soundproofing. Even with performance options such as the four-speed manual transmission, Hurst shifter and Sure-Grip differential with 3.55:1 axle ratio, 0–60 mph and quarter-mile times increased roughly two seconds compared to those for the 1970 Duster. However, higher fuel prices and performance-car insurance surcharges deterred many buyers as the interest in high performance waned.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Chrysler Canada marketed the Valiant at Dodge and Plymouth dealers under a standalone "Valiant" marque. The Canadian 1960–62 Valiant was visually similar to its American counterpart except the badge on the trunk lid read "by Chrysler" instead of "Plymouth". Besides minor differences in interior and exterior trim, the alternator was an extra-cost option in Canada through 1962 while it was standard equipment in America. An anti-ice system for the carburetor's throttle body, engine block heater, battery warmer, electric car interior heater and other cold-climate items were available as factory or dealer-installed options. Air conditioning, which was first offered in the US 1961 models, was not made available north of the border until 1966. Some Canadian-made Auto-Lite (now Prestolite) electrical components were used in lieu of the American-production Chrysler-built components. The Windsor, Ontario, plant was a source for left- and right-hand-drive export Valiants as knock down kits.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1963 and 1964, the Canadian Valiant used US Plymouth Valiant front sheet metal with the US Dodge Dart body and wheelbase (except wagons, which—like all 1963–1966 Dart and Valiant wagons—were on the wheelbase).


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: For 1965, Chrysler Canada sold both the wheelbase and the wheelbase A-body vehicles, all badged as Valiants, and all with the US Dart dashboard and instrument cluster. For 1966, the shorter Valiant was dropped from the Canadian market and all Canadian Valiants were now rebadged US Darts.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Canadian Barracuda, badged as the "Valiant Barracuda", was built in Canada in 1964 and 1965 but was imported for 1966. Like the Valiant, the Barracuda had no Plymouth markings.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: With the coming of the US-Canada Auto Pact of 1965, Chrysler could ship cars and parts both ways over the border and in 1967 the company began importing Plymouth Valiants and Dodge Darts from the US, as well as exporting Darts and Valiants from Windsor to the US.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant was introduced in Australia in 1962, as a right-hand drive version of the American 1961 model; just over 1,000 of these were sold before they were superseded by a locally-adapted version of the U.S. 1962 model. As in other markets outside the United States, they were sold not as Plymouths but as Chryslers, replacing the previous Chrysler Royal range. The AP5 model, introduced for 1963, was built locally by Chrysler Australia—the first of eleven Valiant model ranges built until 1981. Earlier models bore some resemblance to American Valiants and Dodge Darts until 1971 when the VH model was released; its locally-designed body became the basis of all subsequent Australian Valiants and bore no resemblance to any U.S Valiants. The coupe utility or "ute" (car-based pickup truck), the Valiant Charger coupe, and the Chrysler by Chrysler luxury car were all Valiant-based models unique to Australia.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Australian Valiants were locally built in New Zealand and South Africa; and were exported to the United Kingdom, Japan, and other right-hand drive markets.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Chrysler Australia was eventually bought out by Mitsubishi Motors Australia and the last Australian Valiants were produced by Mitsubishi from 1980 to 1981.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Valiants, which were assembled and sold in Mexico from 1963 through 1976, were essentially the same A-body models as their US counterparts with minor differences. The Mexican Valiant lineup included a unique two-door hardtop produced from 1963 to 1969 called the "Acapulco" named after the coastal resort city. Based on a V200 Signet, the Acapulco was not available in the U.S. or anywhere else outside of Mexico. The most notable features included a cobra snakeskin vinyl roof and emblems of Acapulco in the interior and on the trunk lid. Other features included bucket seats, upgraded interior and remote controlled passenger side mirrors. The car was powered by 2bbl 225 slant-six which was being used concurrently in the Australian market; the manual transmission was operated by a four-on-the-floor Hurst gearshift.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant Duster was introduced in Mexico in 1970, the same as the Plymouth Duster sold in the US market. Starting in 1972, the Valiant Duster got the same body as the US-market Dodge Demon/Dart Sport. In 1976, A-body cars were discontinued in North America, replaced by the Plymouth Volare/Dodge Aspen. Mexican Volares were badged as "Valiant Volares"; these vehicles had the Volare rear end but with the Aspen grille. When the Volare was replaced with the Reliant "K-cars" in 1981, these cars were marketed as "Valiant Volare Ks" as well. The Valiant Volare K was the last Valiant-badged car sold in Mexico.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: New Zealand's first Valiant model was the Australian 1963 Chrysler Valiant "S" series. New Zealand assembly of the Australian models began in 1964 by Todd Motors first in Petone, Wellington, and from 1974 in Porirua, Wellington. Only four-door sedans and utilities (pickups) were produced. Station wagons, coupes and the mid-70s upmarket Chrysler by Chrysler sedans were otherwise fully imported from Australia. Todd Motors also assembled the Australian two-door Valiant Charger 770 between 1971 and 1976. Latter Charger models were fully imported. Todd Motors ceased production in 1981.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In 1962, Chrysler-Fevre Argentina S.A. started building the 1960 version of the US Plymouth Valiant under the Chrysler nameplate (although later most of the cars were sold under the "Valiant" nameplate as an independent brand). Only the four-door version was produced. Two models were offered, the "Valiant V200" (Valiant I), with a 2,790 cc engine, and, since 1963, the "Valiant II" with a 3,687 cc engine. In 1965 the "Valiant III" was launched. Despite its name, this car was similar to the 1963 US Dodge Dart. It was offered in three trims, standard, Coronado (luxury) and GT (sport). In 1967 the "Valiant IV" came out. This car also looked very much like the US 1966 Dodge Dart, offering the same trims than the previous version. Production ceased for the Valiants in 1968, when they were replaced by the GTX /Coronado/Polara lineup. However, for the 1968 model year a basic "Valiant" trim of the Coronado/Polara was offered.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Right-hand-drive Plymouth Valiants were assembled and sold in South Africa Branded as the DeSoto Rebel from 1960 and were assembled at the Chrysler plant in Cape Town. The cars followed the U.S Plymouth and Dodge Dart models and the knock-down kits were sourced from Canada. By 1966 the Valiant was the top selling car in South Africa. Although Chrysler in the U.S stopped making Valiant and Dart station wagons after 1966, station wagons continued to be built in South Africa using U.S front ends on Australian Valiant VC/VE/VF wagon bodies.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Between 1968 and 1970 a local version of the two-door Plymouth Barracuda was built and sold as the Valiant Barracuda (as in Canada.) Between 1970 and 1973 a local coupe model derived from the U.S Dodge Demon and Plymouth Duster was built and sold as the Valiant Charger.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: In 1972 South Africa switched to assembling Australian Valiants, starting with the VH Valiant. These were available in sedan, station wagon and bakkie (pickup truck/ute.) The Australian Chrysler by Chrysler two-door model was not available but the four door model was sold as the "Dodge SE" and was built with the same locally-sourced 225 cid six-cylinder engine used in all South African-built Valiants.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Australian VJ Valiant was assembled in South Africa and sold as the Valiant J series. The lineup included the Rebel, Rebel 660, Regal, Regal Safari, Charger Coupe, and the VIP. The bakkie was sold as the Fast-Body Rustler Utility thereafter.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: At the end of 1976 Chrysler ceased operations in South Africa and the local operation merged with local company Illings (owned by the Anglo-American Corporation.) Thereafter South African Valiants were assembled at the Sigma Motor Corporation plant in Silverton, near Pretoria.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The last Valiants built in South Africa were the Australian Valiant CL which was built from 1975 to 1978 and the Australian Valiant CM which was built from 1978 to 1980. These were marketed as the Chrysler SE.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: Chryslers were imported into the United Kingdom throughout the 20th Century, sourced from both the United States or Canada in factory right-hand drive. Chrysler International in Belgium was in charge of all European imports. The U.K received RHD Plymouth Valiants as well as other Chrysler and Dodge vehicles until 1967 whereupon it was decided by Chrysler International that all RHD markets would thereafter be supplied with vehicles from Australia (with the exception of South Africa which continued to build U.S-derived models until 1972 before it too switched to Australian models.) Chrysler's European head office appointed Chrysler Motors Ltd. to be the Australian-import concessionaires for the U.K, and Warwick Wright Ltd. to be the distributors. The announcement was made in Autocar magazine, on 16th October 1966.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Australian VC, VE, and VF Valiant models were thereafter imported to the U.K in saloon (sedan) and estate (station wagon) form, with the VIP model added in 1969. Rootes Group dealers sold the Australian Valiants on a shared-commission basis with Warwick Wright. Australian VG, VH, VJ, and VK Valiants continued to be sold in the U.K throughout the 1970s, including the Australian Valiant Charger coupe and long-wheelbase Chrysler By Chrysler. Imports ceased after 1976.


title: Plymouth Valiant

text: The Valiant is a collectable car today, particularly early models, as they are rarer. However, very few early Valiants survive as, until recently, few collectors considered sedans attractive; therefore, outstanding examples fetch high appraisal values today.


title: Rachael Bella

text: Rachael Bella Zvagelsky (née Kneeland, born March 13, 1984) known professionally as Rachael Bella, is an American former actress.


title: Rachael Bella

text: Bella is best known for her role as Becca Kotler in the movie "The Ring". She has also appeared in other various movies and television shows, such as "", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Boston Public" and "Tru Calling" and "The Crucible".


title: Rachael Bella

text: Bella married Edward Furlong on April 19, 2006. She gave birth to their son in September 2006. On July 8, 2009, Bella filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences. She alleged in court documents that their son tested positive for cocaine, which led a judge to rule Furlong's visits had to be supervised. In May 2013, she obtained a restraining order against Furlong, alleging domestic violence. Furlong pleaded no contest.


title: Hypha

text: A hypha (; ) is a long, branching, filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium.


title: Hypha

text: A hypha consists of one or more cells surrounded by a tubular cell wall. In most fungi, hyphae are divided into cells by internal cross-walls called "septa" (singular septum). Septa are usually perforated by pores large enough for ribosomes, mitochondria, and sometimes nuclei to flow between cells. The major structural polymer in fungal cell walls is typically chitin, in contrast to plants and oomycetes that have cellulosic cell walls. Some fungi have aseptate hyphae, meaning their hyphae are not partitioned by septa.


title: Hypha

text: Hyphae grow at their tips. During tip growth, cell walls are extended by the external assembly and polymerization of cell wall components, and the internal production of new cell membrane. The Spitzenkörper is an intracellular organelle associated with tip growth. It is composed of an aggregation of membrane-bound vesicles containing cell wall components. The Spitzenkörper is part of the endomembrane system of fungi, holding and releasing vesicles it receives from the Golgi apparatus. These vesicles travel to the cell membrane via the cytoskeleton and release their contents (including various cysteine-rich proteins including cerato-platanins and hydrophobins) outside the cell by the process of exocytosis, where they can then be transported to where they are needed. Vesicle membranes contribute to growth of the cell membrane while their contents form new cell wall. The Spitzenkörper moves along the apex of the hyphal strand and generates apical growth and branching; the apical growth rate of the hyphal strand parallels and is regulated by the movement of the Spitzenkörper.


title: Hypha

text: As a hypha extends, septa may be formed behind the growing tip to partition each hypha into individual cells. Hyphae can branch through the bifurcation of a growing tip, or by the emergence of a new tip from an established hypha.


title: Hypha

text: The direction of hyphal growth can be controlled by environmental stimuli, such as the application of an electric field. Hyphae can also sense reproductive units from some distance, and grow towards them. Hyphae can weave through a permeable surface to penetrate it.


title: Hypha

text: Hyphae may be modified in many different ways to serve specific functions. Some parasitic fungi form haustoria that function in absorption within the host cells. The arbuscules of mutualistic mycorrhizal fungi serve a similar function in nutrient exchange, so are important in assisting nutrient and water absorption by plants. Ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium greatly increases the soil area available for exploitation by plant hosts by funneling water and nutrients to ectomycorrhizas, complex fungal organs on the tips of plant roots. Hyphae are found enveloping the gonidia in lichens, making up a large part of their structure. In nematode-trapping fungi, hyphae may be modified into trapping structures such as constricting rings and adhesive nets. Mycelial cords can be formed to transfer nutrients over larger distances. Bulk fungal tissues, cords, and membranes, such as those of mushrooms and lichens, are mainly composed of felted and often anastomosed hyphae.


title: Hypha

text: Characteristics of hyphae can be important in fungal classification. In basidiomycete taxonomy, hyphae that comprise the fruiting body can be identified as generative, skeletal, or binding hyphae.


title: Hypha

text: Based on the generative, skeletal and binding hyphal types, in 1932 E. J. H. Corner applied the terms monomitic, dimitic, and trimitic to hyphal systems, in order to improve the classification of polypores.


title: Hypha

text: Fungi that form fusiform skeletal hyphae bound by generative hyphae are said to have sarcodimitic hyphal systems. A few fungi form fusiform skeletal hyphae, generative hyphae, and binding hyphae, and these are said to have sarcotrimitic hyphal systems. These terms were introduced as a later refinement by E. J. H. Corner in 1966.


title: Hypha

text: Hyphae are described as "gloeoplerous" ("gloeohyphae") if their high refractive index gives them an oily or granular appearance under the microscope. These cells may be yellowish or clear (hyaline). They can sometimes selectively be coloured by sulphovanillin or other reagents. The specialized cells termed cystidia can also be gloeoplerous.


title: Hypha

text: Hyphae might be categorized as 'vegetative' or 'aerial.' Aerial hyphae of fungi produce asexual reproductive spores.


title: Dani Kind

text: Danielle Kind was born on 10 January 1980. Raised in Toronto, Ontario, Kind chose her career in grade nine after seeing an actress perform a monologue during her high school studies. Kind then joined a high school improvisational theatre group, and in college, took theatre arts.


title: Dani Kind

text: Kind is most noted for her role as Anne Carlson in the television series "Workin' Moms", for which she received a Canadian Screen Award nomination for Best Actress in a Comedy Series at the 7th Canadian Screen Awards in 2019. Kind is repped by Patterson Talent Management.


title: Dani Kind

text: "CAPSULE", a short film, with Kind as director, funded by an indiegogo $24,025 campaign, closed at 109%.


title: Active listening

text: Active listening is the practice of preparing to listen, observing what verbal and non-verbal messages are being sent, and then providing appropriate feedback for the sake of showing attentiveness to the message being presented. This form of listening conveys a mutual understanding between speaker and listener. Speakers receive confirmation their point is coming across and listeners absorb more content and understanding by being engaged. The overall goal of active listening is to eliminate any misunderstandings and establish clear communication of thoughts and ideas between the speaker and listener. It may also be referred to as Reflective Listening. Active listening was introduced by Carl Rogers and Richard Farson.


title: Active listening

text: Carl Rogers and Richard Farson coined the term "active listening" in 1957 in a paper of the same title (reprinted in 1987 in the volume "Communicating in Business Today"). Practicing active listening also emphasized Rogers' (1980) concept of three facilitative conditions for effective counseling; empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard. Rogers and Farson write: "Active listening is an important way to bring about changes in people. Despite the popular notion that listening is a passive approach, clinical and research evidence clearly shows that sensitive listening is a most effective agent for individual personality change and group development. Listening brings about changes in peoples' attitudes toward themselves and others; it also brings about changes in their basic values and personal philosophy. People who have been listened to in this new and special way become more emotionally mature, more open to their experiences, less defensive, more democratic, and less authoritarian."


title: Active listening

text: Active listening comprises several components by the listener, who must pay attention to what the speaker is attempting to communicate and elicit clarification where necessary for comprehension.


title: Active listening

text: The first steps of active listening begin with passive listening. Passive listening shows the speaker you are interested using nonverbal cues. Active listening involves the listener observing the speaker's non-verbal behavior and body language as well. The listener can observe non-verbal behaviors through kinesics, the study of body motion and posture, paralinguistics, the study of the tone of words, and proxemics, the study of physical distance and posture between speakers. Body language conveys more meaning than the words that are spoken. Interpreting a person's body language lets the listener develop a more accurate understanding of the speaker's message . According to a study conducted by Albert Mehrabian, 55% of communication is non-verbal. Non-verbal cues such as tone, inflection, gestures, and facial expression provide the listener further insight into what the speaker is trying to convey.


title: Active listening

text: The "first step" in the active listening process is that of comprehension. Comprehension is a shared meaning between parties in communication. This can be done through top-down or bottom-up listening strategies. Top-down listening for comprehension will involve preparing for what message is likely going to be given, attempting to organize what is being communicated, and listening for summarizations or shifts in topic. Bottom-up listening for comprehension will involve an attentiveness to emphasized words such as longer or louder words. In addition, careful attention should be paid to repeated parts of the message being communicated. Attentiveness can be emphasized not just in one's ability to listen, but to listen and respond with sensitivity to particular needs or cultural norms. For example, if you are listening to someone communicate through a disability such as severe lower-functioning autism, you will need to pay close attention and forego common methods of organizing information as it is received. In many of today's cultures, comprehension may include a knowledge of people using neutral pronouns or preferred pronouns. In order to listen for comprehension, it will be important for a receiver to be aware and understand these cultural norms.


title: Active listening

text: Retaining is the "second step" in the process. Memory is essential to the active listening process because the information retained when a person is involved in the listening process is how meaning is extracted from words. Because everyone has different memories, the speaker and the listener may attach different meanings to the same statement. Memories are fallible. Poor memory retaining techniques like cramming may cause information to be forgotten as our brains have a limited capacity to process more than one thing at a time. Retaining information from messages being received is increased with the amount of attentiveness the receiver gives to what is being communicated. For example, information is best retained in adults if the adult has experience in what is being said, communicates back and forth with another communicator about the topic, and maintains visual contact with the source of the message being sent.


title: Active listening

text: There are a multitude of factors that may impede upon someone's ability to listen with purpose and intention; these factors are referred to as listening blocks. Some examples of these blocks include rehearsing, filtering, and advising. Rehearsing is when the listener is more focused on preparing their response rather than listening. Filtering is when a listener focuses only on what they expect to hear, while tuning out other aspects of what is being said, and lastly, advising is when the listener focuses on problem solving, which can create a sense of pressure to fix what the other person is doing wrong. There are three types of barriers to effective listening: Environmental, Physiological, and Psychological.


title: Active listening

text: Environmental barriers are brought about by the speakers environment. Some examples include noises, smells, bad cell reception, and any other factors that make it difficult to hear and process information. Sometimes it is due to the language the speaker uses—such as high sounding and bombastic words that can lead to ambiguity. Other barriers include distractions, trigger words, vocabulary, and limited attention span. Environmental barriers likely can not be eliminated but they can be managed.


title: Active listening

text: Physiological barriers are those that are brought about by the listener's body. They can be temporary or permanent. Hearing loss and deficiencies are usually permanent boundaries. Temporary physiological barriers include headaches, earaches, hunger or fatigue of the listener. Another physiological boundary is the difference between the slow rate of most speech and the brain's ability to process that information. Typically, the brain can process around 500 words per minute while the average rate of speech for speakers is 125 words per minute. This difference make it easy for the mind to wander.


title: Active listening

text: Psychological barriers interfere with one's willingness and mental capacity for listening. Pre-existing biases can lead to listening to someone else's argument for its weaknesses, ignoring its strengths. This can lead to a competitive advantage in a political debate, or by a journalist to provoke a strong response from an interviewee, and is known as "ambushing". Individuals in conflict often blindly contradict each other. On the other hand, if one finds that the other party understands, an atmosphere of cooperation can be created.


title: Active listening

text: "Shift response is the general tendency of a speaker in a conversation to affix attention to their position." This is a type of conversational narcissism—the tendency of listeners to turn the topic to themselves without showing sustained interest in others. A support response is the opposite of a shift response; it is an attention giving method and a cooperative effort to focus the conversational attention on the other person. Instead of being me-oriented like shift response, it is we-oriented. It is the response a competent communicator is most likely to use.


title: Active listening

text: Ineffective listeners are unaware of non-verbal cues, though they dramatically affect how people listen. To a certain extent, it is also a perceptual barrier. Up to 93 percent of people's attitudes are formed by non-verbal cues. In most cases, the listener does not understand the non-verbal cues the speaker uses. For example, a person may show two fingers to emphasize a point, but this may be perceived as an intent by the speaker to place their fingers in the listener's eyes. Overuse of non-verbal cues also creates distortion, and as a result listeners may be confused and forget the correct meaning.


title: Active listening

text: The active listening technique is used to improve personal communications in organizations. Listeners put aside their own emotions and ask questions and paraphrase what the speaker says to clarify and gain a better understanding of what the speaker intended to say. Distractions that interrupt the listener's attention are one of the major barriers to effective listening. These include external factors such as background noise and physical discomfort, and internal distractions, such as thoughts about other things and lack of focus. Another barrier is misinterpretation of what the speaker is attempting to communicate, including assumption of motives, and "reading between the lines", as is premature judgment of the speaker's point, which can occur as a consequence of the listener holding onto a rigid personal opinion on the topic. This problem can be mitigated by asking the speaker what they mean when it is unclear, though this is not guaranteed to work every time.


title: Active listening

text: A strong disagreement hinders the ability to listen closely to what is being said. Eye contact and appropriate body languages are seen as important components to active listening, as they provide feedback to the speaker. The stress and intonation used by the speaker may also provide information to the listener, which is not available in the written word.


title: Active listening

text: Active listening is used in a wide variety of situations, including public interest advocacy, community organizing, tutoring, medical workers talking to patients, HIV counseling, helping suicidal persons, management,


title: Active listening

text: counseling, and journalistic settings. In groups it may aid in reaching consensus. It may also be used in casual conversation or small talk to build understanding. Active listening plays a large role in the success of a leader. Leaders need to build trust and respect with those around them and mastering the skills of active listening will help them greatly.


title: Active listening

text: A listener can use several degrees of active listening, each resulting in a different quality of communication. These degrees include repeating to indicate attentiveness, paraphrasing to signify understanding, and reflecting to acknowledge perspective and application.


title: Active listening

text: The proper use of active listening results in getting people to open up, avoiding misunderstandings, resolving conflict, and building trust. In a medical context, benefits may include increased patient satisfaction, improved cross-cultural communication, improved outcomes, or decreased litigation.


title: Active listening

text: Active listening has been developed as a concept in music and technology by François Pachet, researcher at Sony Computer Science Laboratory, Paris. Active listening in music refers to the idea that listeners can be given some degree of control on the music they listen to, by means of technological applications mainly based on artificial intelligence and information theory techniques, by opposition to traditional listening, in which the musical media is played passively by some neutral device


title: Active listening

text: A Munich-based marital therapy study conducted by Dr. Kurt Hahlweg and associates found that even after employing active listening techniques in the context of couple's therapy, the typical couple was still distressed.


title: Active listening

text: Active listening was criticized by John Gottman's "The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work" as being of limited usefulness:


title: Minamoto clan

text: The Minamoto were one of four great clans that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian period—the other three were the Fujiwara, the Taira, and the Tachibana.


title: Minamoto clan

text: The most prominent of the several Minamoto families, the Seiwa Genji, descended from Minamoto no Tsunemoto (897–961), a grandson of Emperor Seiwa. Tsunemoto went to the provinces and became the founder of a major warrior dynasty. Minamoto no Mitsunaka (912–997) formed an alliance with the Fujiwara. Thereafter the Fujiwara frequently called upon the Minamoto to restore order in the capital, Heian-Kyō (modern Kyōto).


title: Minamoto clan

text: Mitsunaka's eldest son, Minamoto no Yorimitsu (948–1021), became the protégé of Fujiwara no Michinaga; another son, Minamoto no Yorinobu (968–1048) suppressed the rebellion of Taira no Tadatsune in 1032. Yorinobu's son, Minamoto no Yoriyoshi (988–1075), and grandson, Minamoto no Yoshiie (1039–1106), pacified most of northeastern Japan between 1051 and 1087.


title: Minamoto clan

text: The Seiwa Genji's fortunes declined in the Hōgen Rebellion (1156), when the Taira executed most of the line, including Minamoto no Tameyoshi. During the Heiji Disturbance (1160), the head of the Seiwa Genji, Minamoto no Yoshitomo, died in battle. Taira no Kiyomori seized power in Kyoto by forging an alliance with the retired emperors Go-Shirakawa and Toba and infiltrating the "kuge". He sent Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199), the third son of Minamoto no Yoshimoto of the Seiwa Genji, into exile. In 1180, during the Genpei War, Yoritomo mounted a full-scale rebellion against the Taira rule, culminating in the destruction of the Taira and the subjugation of eastern Japan within five years. In 1192 he received the title "shōgun" and set up the first "bakufu" at Kamakura.


title: Minamoto clan

text: The later Ashikaga (founders of the Ashikaga shogunate), Nitta, and Takeda clans claim descent from the Seiwa Genji.


title: Minamoto clan

text: The protagonist of the classical Japanese novel "The Tale of Genji", Hikaru Genji, was bestowed the name Minamoto for political reasons by his father the emperor and was delegated to civilian life and a career as an imperial officer.


title: Minamoto clan

text: The Genpei War is also the subject of the early Japanese epic "The Tale of the Heike" ("Heike Monogatari").


title: Minamoto clan

text: Even within royalty there was a distinction between princes with the title ("[having the] ability to advance", "i.e.", eligible to become the new Emperor), who could ascend to the throne, and princes with the title ("great" or "major"), who were not members of the line of imperial succession but nevertheless remained members of the royal class (and therefore outranked members of Minamoto clans). The bestowing of the Minamoto name on a (theretofore-)prince or his descendants excluded them from the royal class altogether, thereby operating as a reduction in legal and social rank even for "ō"-princes not previously in the line of succession.


title: Minamoto clan

text: Many later clans were formed by members of the Minamoto clan, and in many early cases, progenitors of these clans are known by either family name. There are also known monks of Minamoto descent; these are often noted in genealogies but did not carry the clan name (in favor of a dharma name).


title: Minamoto clan

text: There were 21 branches of the clan, each named after the emperor from whom it descended. Some of these lineages were populous, but a few produced and no descendants.


title: Minamoto clan

text: The Saga Genji are descendants of Emperor Saga. As Saga had many children, many were bestowed the "uji" Minamoto, declassing them from imperial succession. Among his sons, Makoto, Tokiwa, and Tōru took the position of Minister of the Left ("sadaijin"); they were among the most powerful in the Imperial Court in the early Heian period. Some of Tōru's descendants in particular settled the provinces and formed "buke". Clans such as the Watanabe, Matsuura, and Kamachi descend from the Saga Genji.


title: Minamoto clan

text: History records indicate that at least three of Emperor Saga's daughters were also made Minamoto (Kiyohime, Sadahime, and Yoshihime), but few records concerning his daughters are known.


title: Minamoto clan

text: They were descendants of Emperor Ninmyō. His sons Masaru and Hikaru were udaijin. Among Hikaru's descendants was Minamoto no Atsushi, adoptive father of the Saga Genji's Watanabe no Tsuna and father of the Seiwa Genji's Mitsunaka's wife.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Montoku. Among them, Yoshiari was a sadaijin, and among his descendants were the Sakado clan who were Hokumen no Bushi.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Seiwa. The most numerous of them were those descended from Tsunemoto, son of Prince Sadazumi. Hachimantarō Yoshiie of the Kawachi Genji was a leader of a "buke". His descendants set up the Kamakura shogunate, making his a prestigious pedigree claimed by many "buke", particularly for the direct descendants in the Ashikaga clan (that set up the Ashikaga shogunate) and the rival Nitta clan. Centuries later, Tokugawa Ieyasu would claim descent from the Seiwa Genji by way of the Nitta clan.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Yōzei. While Tsunemoto is termed the ancestor of the Seiwa Genji, there is evidence (rediscovered in the late 19th century by Hoshino Hisashi) suggesting that he was actually the grandson of Yōzei rather than of Seiwa. This theory is not widely accepted as fact, but as Yōzei was deposed for reprehensible behavior, there would have been a compelling motive to claim descent from more auspicious origins if it were the case.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Kōkō. The great-grandson of his firstborn Prince Koretada, Kōshō, was the ancestor of a line of "busshi", from which various styles of Buddhist sculpture emerged. Kōshō's grandson Kakujo established the Shichijō Bussho workshop.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Uda. Two sons of Prince Atsumi, Masanobu and Shigenobu became "sadaijin". Masanobu's children in particular flourished, forming five "dōjō" houses as "kuge", and as "buke" the Sasaki clan of the Ōmi Genji, and the Izumo Genji.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Daigo. His son Takaakira became a "sadaijin", but his downfall came during the Anna incident. Takaakira's descendants include the Okamoto and Kawajiri clans. Daigo's grandson Hiromasa was a reputed musician.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Murakami. His grandson Morofusa was an "udaijin" and had many descendants, among them several houses of "dōjō kuge". Until the Ashikaga clan took it during the Muromachi period, the title of "Genji no Chōja" always fell to one of Morofusa's progeny.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Reizei. Though they are included among the listing of 21 Genji lineages, no concrete record of the names of his descendants made Minamoto is known to survive.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Kazan. They became the "dōjō" Shirakawa family, which headed the Jingi-kan for centuries, responsible for the centralized aspects of Shinto.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Sanjō's son Prince Atsuakira. Starting with one of them, Michisue, the position of "Ōkimi-no-kami" (chief genealogist of the imperial family) in the Ministry of the Imperial Household was passed down hereditarily.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Go-Sanjō's son Prince Sukehito. Sukehito's son Arihito was a "sadaijin". Minamoto no Yoritomo's vassal Tashiro Nobutsuna, who appears in the "Tale of the Heike", was allegedly Arihito's grandson (according to the "Genpei Jōsuiki").


title: Minamoto clan

text: This line consisted solely of Emperor Go-Shirakawa son Mochihito-ō (Takakura-no-Miya). As part of the succession dispute that led to the opening hostilities of the Genpei War, he was declassed (renamed "Minamoto no Mochimitsu") and exiled.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Juntoku's sons Tadanari-ō and Prince Yoshimune. The latter's grandson Yoshinari rose to "sadaijin" with the help of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.


title: Minamoto clan

text: This line consisted solely of Emperor Go-Saga's grandson Prince Koreyasu. Koreyasu-ō was installed as a puppet "shōgun" (the seventh of the Kamakura shogunate) at a young age, and was renamed "Minamoto no Koreyasu" a few years later. After he was deposed, he regained royal status, and became a monk soon after, thereby losing the Minamoto name.


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were descendants of Emperor Go-Fukakusa's son Prince Hisaaki (the eighth "shōgun" of the Kamakura shogunate). Hisaaki's sons Prince Morikuni (the next "shōgun") and Prince Hisayoshi were made Minamoto. Hisayoshi's adopted "nephew" (actually Nijō Michihira's son) Muneaki became a "gon-dainagon" (acting "dainagon").


title: Minamoto clan

text: These were non-royal descendants of Emperor Ōgimachi. At first they were "buke", but they later became "dōjō-ke", the Hirohata family.


title: Alex Essoe

text: Alexandra Essoe (born March 9, 1992) is a Canadian actress who has appeared predominantly in horror films. Essoe had her first lead role in the 2014 American horror film "Starry Eyes", and she had a starring role in the 2017 American horror film "Midnighters". She has collaborated several times with director Mike Flanagan, playing Wendy Torrance in the 2019 horror film "Doctor Sleep" and playing supporting roles in the series "The Haunting of Bly Manor" in 2020 and "Midnight Mass" in 2021.


title: Alex Essoe

text: Essoe's parents were Canadian and American immigrants living in Saudi Arabia when Essoe was born. When she was 12 years old, she and her family moved to Toronto. Essoe's mother was a stage actor, and Essoe watched rehearsals and productions. While she acted in high school, including playing the lead in "Medea", she initially aspired to be a teacher. After a couple of years modeling, she took an acting workshop in Toronto, which led her to an acting school in Vancouver, and later, a school in Los Angeles. Prior to starring in "Starry Eyes", she appeared in the TV series "Reaper" and various short films.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning (also known as collaborative learning) is a machine learning technique that trains an algorithm across multiple decentralized edge devices or servers holding local data samples, without exchanging them. This approach stands in contrast to traditional centralized machine learning techniques where all the local datasets are uploaded to one server, as well as to more classical decentralized approaches which often assume that local data samples are identically distributed.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning enables multiple actors to build a common, robust machine learning model without sharing data, thus allowing to address critical issues such as data privacy, data security, data access rights and access to heterogeneous data. Its applications are spread over a number of industries including defense, telecommunications, IoT, and pharmaceutics. A major open question at the moment is how inferior models learned through federated data are relative to ones where the data are pooled. Another open question concerns the trustworthiness of the edge devices and the impact of malicious actors on the learned model.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning aims at training a machine learning algorithm, for instance deep neural networks, on multiple local datasets contained in local nodes without explicitly exchanging data samples. The general principle consists in training local models on local data samples and exchanging parameters (e.g. the weights and biases of a deep neural network) between these local nodes at some frequency to generate a global model shared by all nodes.


title: Federated learning

text: The main difference between federated learning and distributed learning lies in the assumptions made on the properties of the local datasets, as distributed learning originally aims at parallelizing computing power where federated learning originally aims at training on heterogeneous datasets. While distributed learning also aims at training a single model on multiple servers, a common underlying assumption is that the local datasets are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) and roughly have the same size. None of these hypotheses are made for federated learning; instead, the datasets are typically heterogeneous and their sizes may span several orders of magnitude. Moreover, the clients involved in federated learning may be unreliable as they are subject to more failures or drop out since they commonly rely on less powerful communication media (i.e. Wi-Fi) and battery-powered systems (i.e. smartphones and IoT devices) compared to distributed learning where nodes are typically datacenters that have powerful computational capabilities and are connected to one another with fast networks.


title: Federated learning

text: In the centralized federated learning setting, a central server is used to orchestrate the different steps of the algorithms and coordinate all the participating nodes during the learning process. The server is responsible for the nodes selection at the beginning of the training process and for the aggregation of the received model updates. Since all the selected nodes have to send updates to a single entity, the server may become a bottleneck of the system.


title: Federated learning

text: In the decentralized federated learning setting, the nodes are able to coordinate themselves to obtain the global model. This setup prevents single point failures as the model updates are exchanged only between interconnected nodes without the orchestration of the central server. Nevertheless, the specific network topology may affect the performances of the learning process. See blockchain-based federated learning and the references therein.


title: Federated learning

text: An increasing number of application domains involve a large set of heterogeneous clients, e.g., mobile phones and IoT devices. Most of the existing Federated learning strategies assume that local models share the same global model architecture. Recently, a new federated learning framework named HeteroFL was developed to address heterogeneous clients equipped with very different computation and communication capabilities. The HeteroFL technique can enable the training of heterogeneous local models with dynamically varying computation and non-iid data complexities while still producing a single accurate global inference model.


title: Federated learning

text: To ensure good task performance of a final, central machine learning model, federated learning relies on an iterative process broken up into an atomic set of client-server interactions known as a federated learning round. Each round of this process consists in transmitting the current global model state to participating nodes, training local models on these local nodes to produce a set of potential model updates at each node, and then aggregating and processing these local updates into a single global update and applying it to the global model.


title: Federated learning

text: In the methodology below, a central server is used for aggregation, while local nodes perform local training depending on the central server's orders. However, other strategies lead to the same results without central servers, in a peer-to-peer approach, using gossip or consensus methodologies.


title: Federated learning

text: Assuming a federated round composed by one iteration of the learning process, the learning procedure can be summarized as follows:


title: Federated learning

text: The procedure considered before assumes synchronized model updates. Recent federated learning developments introduced novel techniques to tackle asynchronicity during the training process, or training with dynamically varying models. Compared to synchronous approaches where local models are exchanged once the computations have been performed for all layers of the neural network, asynchronous ones leverage the properties of neural networks to exchange model updates as soon as the computations of a certain layer are available. These techniques are also commonly referred to as split learning and they can be applied both at training and inference time regardless of centralized or decentralized federated learning settings.


title: Federated learning

text: In most cases, the assumption of independent and identically distributed samples across local nodes does not hold for federated learning setups. Under this setting, the performances of the training process may vary significantly according to the unbalancedness of local data samples as well as the particular probability distribution of the training examples (i.e., features and labels) stored at the local nodes. To further investigate the effects of non-iid data, the following description considers the main categories presented in the preprint by Peter Kairouz et al. from 2019.


title: Federated learning

text: The description of non-iid data relies on the analysis of the joint probability between features and labels for each node.


title: Federated learning

text: This allows to decouple each contribution according to the specific distribution available at the local nodes.


title: Federated learning

text: The loss in accuracy due to non-iid data can be bounded through using more sophisticated means of doing data normalization, rather than batch normalization.


title: Federated learning

text: The way the statistical local outputs are pooled and the way the nodes communicate with each other can change from the centralized model explained in the previous section. This leads to a variety of federated learning approaches: for instance no central orchestrating server, or stochastic communication.


title: Federated learning

text: In particular, orchestrator-less distributed networks are one important variation. In this case, there is no central server dispatching queries to local nodes and aggregating local models. Each local node sends its outputs to several randomly-selected others, which aggregate their results locally. This restrains the number of transactions, thereby sometimes reducing training time and computing cost.


title: Federated learning

text: Once the topology of the node network is chosen, one can control different parameters of the federated learning process (in opposition to the machine learning model's own hyperparameters) to optimize learning:


title: Federated learning

text: Those parameters have to be optimized depending on the constraints of the machine learning application (e.g., available computing power, available memory, bandwidth). For instance, stochastically choosing a limited fraction formula_3 of nodes for each iteration diminishes computing cost and may prevent overfitting, in the same way that stochastic gradient descent can reduce overfitting.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning requires frequent communication between nodes during the learning process. Thus, it requires not only enough local computing power and memory, but also high bandwidth connections to be able to exchange parameters of the machine learning model. However, the technology also avoids data communication, which can require significant resources before starting centralized machine learning. Nevertheless, the devices typically employed in federated learning are communication-constrained, for example IoT devices or smartphones are generally connected to Wi-Fi networks, thus, even if the models are commonly less expensive to be transmitted compared to raw data, federated learning mechanisms may not be suitable in their general form.


title: Federated learning

text: In this section, the notation of the paper published by H. Brendan McMahan and al. in 2017 is followed.


title: Federated learning

text: Very few methods for hybrid federated learning, where clients only hold subsets of both features and samples, exist. Yet, this scenario is very important in practical settings. Hybrid Federated Dual Coordinate Ascent (HyFDCA) is a novel algorithm proposed in 2022 that solves convex problems in the hybrid FL setting. This algorithm extends CoCoA, a primal-dual distributed optimization algorithm introduced by Jaggi et al. (2014) and Smith et al. (2017), to the case where both samples and features are partitioned across clients.


title: Federated learning

text: There is only one other algorithm that focuses on hybrid FL, HyFEM proposed by Zhang et al. (2020). This algorithm uses a feature matching formulation that balances clients building accurate local models and the server learning an accurate global model. This requires a matching regularizer constant that must be tuned based on user goals and results in disparate local and global models. Furthermore, the convergence results provided for HyFEM only prove convergence of the matching formulation not of the original global problem. This work is substantially different than HyFDCA's approach which uses data on local clients to build a global model that converges to the same solution as if the model was trained centrally. Furthermore, the local and global models are synchronized and do not require the adjustment of a matching parameter between local and global models. However, HyFEM is suitable for a vast array of architectures including deep learning architectures, whereas HyFDCA is designed for convex problems like logistic regression and support vector machines.


title: Federated learning

text: Deep learning training mainly relies on variants of stochastic gradient descent, where gradients are computed on a random subset of the total dataset and then used to make one step of the gradient descent.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated stochastic gradient descent is the direct transposition of this algorithm to the federated setting, but by using a random fraction formula_3 of the nodes and using all the data on this node. The gradients are averaged by the server proportionally to the number of training samples on each node, and used to make a gradient descent step.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated averaging (FedAvg) is a generalization of FedSGD, which allows local nodes to perform more than one batch update on local data and exchanges the updated weights rather than the gradients. The rationale behind this generalization is that in FedSGD, if all local nodes start from the same initialization, averaging the gradients is strictly equivalent to averaging the weights themselves. Further, averaging tuned weights coming from the same initialization does not necessarily hurt the resulting averaged model's performance.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning methods suffer when the device datasets are heterogeneously distributed. Fundamental dilemma in heterogeneously distributed device setting is that minimizing the device loss functions is not the same as minimizing the global loss objective. Recently, Acar et al. introduced FedDyn method as a solution to heterogenous dataset setting. FedDyn dynamically regularizes each devices loss function so that the modified device losses converges to the actual global loss. Since the local losses are aligned, FedDyn is robust to the different heterogeneity levels and it can safely perform full minimization in each device. Theoretically, FedDyn converges to the optimal (a stationary point for nonconvex losses) by being agnostic to the heterogeneity levels. These claims are verified with extensive experimentations on various datasets.


title: Federated learning

text: Minimizing the number of communications is the gold-standard for comparison in federated learning. We may also want to decrease the local computation levels per device in each round. FedDynOneGD is an extension of FedDyn with less local compute requirements. FedDynOneGD calculates only one gradients per device in each round and update the model with a regularized version of the gradient. Hence, the computation complexity is linear in local dataset size. Moreover, gradient computation can be parallelizable within each device which is different from successive SGD steps. Theoretically, FedDynOneGD achieves the same convergence guarantees as in FedDyn with less local computation.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated Learning methods cannot achieve good global performance under Non-IID settings which motivates the participating clients to yield personalized models in federation. Recently, Vahidian et al. introduced Sub-FedAvg opening a new personalized FL algorithm paradigm by proposing Hybrid Pruning (structured + unstructured pruning) with averaging on the intersection of clients’ drawn subnetworks which simultaneously handles communication efficiency, resource constraints and personalized models accuracies.


title: Federated learning

text: Sub-FedAvg is the first work which shows existence of personalized winning tickets for clients in federated learning through experiments. Moreover, it also proposes two algorithms on how to effectively draw the personalized subnetworks. Sub-FedAvg tries to extend "Lottery Ticket Hypothesis" which is for centrally trained neural networks to federated learning trained neural networks leading to this open research problem: “Do winning tickets exist for clients’ neural networks being trained in federated learning? If yes, how to effectively draw the personalized subnetworks for each client?”


title: Federated learning

text: IDA (Inverse Distance Aggregation) is a novel adaptive weighting approach for clients based on meta-information which handles unbalanced and non-iid data. It uses the distance of the model parameters as a strategy to minimize the effect of outliers and improve the model's convergence rate.


title: Federated learning

text: A FEDERATED PURE VISION TRANSFORMER ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTER VISION USING DYNAMIC AGGREGATION MODEL (FED-REV)


title: Federated learning

text: Federated Learning (FL) provides training of global shared model using decentralized data sources on edge nodes while preserving data privacy. However, its performance in the computer vision applications using Convolution neural network (CNN) considerably behind that of centralized training due to limited communication resources and low processing capability at edge nodes. Alternatively, Pure Vision transformer models (VIT) outperform CNNs by almost four times when it comes to computational efficiency and accuracy. Hence, we propose a new FL model with reconstructive strategy called FED-REV, Illustrates how attention-based structures (pure Vision Transformers) enhance FL accuracy over large and diverse data distributed over edge nodes, in addition to the proposed reconstruction strategy that determines the dimensions influence of each stage of the vision transformer and then reduce its dimension complexity which reduce computation cost of edge devices in addition to preserving accuracy achieved due to using the pure Vision transformer.


title: Federated learning

text: The main advantage of using federated approaches to machine learning is to ensure data privacy or data secrecy. Indeed, no local data is uploaded externally, concatenated or exchanged. Since the entire database is segmented into local bits, this makes it more difficult to hack into it.


title: Federated learning

text: With federated learning, only machine learning parameters are exchanged. In addition, such parameters can be encrypted before sharing between learning rounds to extend privacy and homomorphic encryption schemes can be used to directly make computations on the encrypted data without decrypting them beforehand. Despite such protective measures, these parameters may still leak information about the underlying data samples, for instance, by making multiple specific queries on specific datasets. Querying capability of nodes thus is a major attention point, which can be addressed using differential privacy and secure aggregation.


title: Federated learning

text: It was found that the privacy issues of federated learning is often due to running estimates, which hinders the usage of advanced deep learning models. A Static Batch Normalization (sBN) for optimizing privacy constrained deep neural networks was developed. During the training phase, sBN does not track running estimates but simply normalizes batch data. Only the statistics of hidden representations from local data after the model converges are calculated. This method is suitable for the FL framework as local models do not need to upload running estimates during training. Local models only upload their statistics once after optimization, which significantly reduces data leakage risk.


title: Federated learning

text: The generated model delivers insights based on the global patterns of nodes. However, if a participating node wishes to learn from global patterns but also adapt outcomes to its peculiar status, the federated learning methodology can be adapted to generate two models at once in a multi-task learning framework. In addition, clustering techniques may be applied to aggregate nodes that share some similarities after the learning process is completed. This allows the generalization of the models learned by the nodes according also to their local data.


title: Federated learning

text: In the case of deep neural networks, it is possible to share some layers across the different nodes and keep some of them on each local node. Typically, first layers performing general pattern recognition are shared and trained all datasets. The last layers will remain on each local node and only be trained on the local node's dataset.


title: Federated learning

text: Early personalization methods often introduce additional computation and communication overhead that may not be necessary. To significantly reduce computation and communication costs in FL, a “Masking Trick” approach was developed. The “Masking Trick” allows local clients to adaptively contribute to the training of global models much more flexibly and efficiently compared with classical federated learning.


title: Federated learning

text: Meta learning can be incorporated in personalizing federated learning methods to the edge users. Recently, PFL method was introduces as a way to combine popular MAML and Proto meta learning frameworks with the heterogeneity agnostic federated learning methods. Extensive experiments show that PFL methods are superior compared to combining meta learning frameworks with FedAvg.


title: Federated learning

text: Western legal frameworks emphasize more and more on data protection and data traceability. White House 2012 Report recommended the application of a data minimization principle, which is mentioned in European GDPR. In some cases, it is illegal to transfer data from a country to another (e.g., genomic data), however international consortia are sometimes necessary for scientific advances. In such cases federated learning brings solutions to train a global model while respecting security constraints.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning has started to emerge as an important research topic in 2015 and 2016, with the first publications on federated averaging in telecommunication settings. Another important aspect of active research is the reduction of the communication burden during the federated learning process. In 2017 and 2018, publications have emphasized the development of resource allocation strategies, especially to reduce communication requirements between nodes with gossip algorithms as well as on the characterization of the robustness to differential privacy attacks. Other research activities focus on the reduction of the bandwidth during training through sparsification and quantization methods, where the machine learning models are sparsified and/or compressed before they are shared with other nodes. Developing ultra-light DNN architectures is essential for device-/edge- learning and recent work recognises both the energy efficiency requirements for future federated learning and the need to compress deep learning, especially during learning.


title: Federated learning

text: Recent research advancements are starting to consider real-word propagating channels as in previous implementations ideal channels were assumed. Another active direction of research is to develop Federated learning for training heterogeneous local models with varying computation complexities and producing a single powerful global inference model.


title: Federated learning

text: A learning framework named Assisted learning was recently developed to improve each agent's learning capabilities without transmitting private data, models, and even learning objectives. Compared with Federated learning that often requires a central controller to orchestrate the learning and optimization, Assisted learning aims to provide protocols for the agents to optimize and learn among themselves without a global model.


title: Federated learning

text: Federated learning typically applies when individual actors need to train models on larger datasets than their own, but cannot afford to share the data in itself with others (e.g., for legal, strategic or economic reasons). The technology yet requires good connections between local servers and minimum computational power for each node.


title: Federated learning

text: Self-driving cars encapsulate many machine learning technologies to function: computer vision for analyzing obstacles, machine learning for adapting their pace to the environment (e.g., bumpiness of the road). Due to the potential high number of self-driving cars and the need for them to quickly respond to real world situations, traditional cloud approach may generate safety risks. Federated learning can represent a solution for limiting volume of data transfer and accelerating learning processes.


title: Federated learning

text: In Industry 4.0, there is a widespread adoption of machine learning techniques to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of industrial process while guaranteeing a high level of safety. Nevertheless, privacy of sensitive data for industries and manufacturing companies is of paramount importance. Federated learning algorithms can be applied to these problems as they do not disclose any sensitive data. In addition, FL also implemented for PM2.5 prediction to support Smart city sensing applications.