title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: At the end of July, CBS hired David Semel, a veteran television procedural director who was under an overall deal with the studio, to direct the first episode for "Discovery". Fuller did not approve of this decision, believing that Semel was "wrong for the job" and wanting a more visionary director to establish the style of the series. Fuller had personally reached out to Edgar Wright to direct the first episode before CBS hired Semel. As development and pre-production on the series continued, Fuller and Semel "clashed" on the direction of the show. The series was also starting to overrun its per-episode budget. Fuller was attempting to design new sets, costumes, and aliens for the series while heading the series' writers room and also spending considerable time addressing his commitments as showrunner of another new series, "American Gods". This caused frustration among CBS executives that were pushing for a January 2017 debut. By August 2016, Fuller had hired Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts, who he had worked with on his earlier series "Pushing Daisies", to serve as co-showrunners with him on "Discovery". A month later, Fuller and Kurtzman asked CBS to delay the series' release so they could realistically meet the high expectations for the series, and the studio announced that the series premiere had been pushed back to May 2017. The pair said in a statement that "these extra few months will help us achieve a vision we can all be proud of."


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: A few weeks after the delay was announced, Fuller met with Sonequa Martin-Green about portraying the series' lead, a character that had been surprisingly difficult for the production to cast. Fuller felt he had "found the crucial piece of the puzzle", but the actress would not be released from her contract at AMC until her character's death on "The Walking Dead" was publicly revealed. This episode was not set to air until April 2017, meaning "Discovery" would have to be delayed again if Martin-Green was cast in the series. At the end of October, CBS asked Fuller to step down as showrunner. They announced that the production was being restructured to keep Fuller actively involved with the series, but not on a day-to-day production level as he shifted his focus fully to "American Gods": Berg and Harberts were made sole showrunners of "Discovery", working off a broad story arc and overall mythology established by Fuller; Kurtzman and Fuller would continue as executive producers, with Fuller still helping the writers break stories; and Akiva Goldsman would join the series as a supporting producer—similar to the role he held on "Fringe" alongside Kurtzman—to help the showrunners and other producers "juggle the demands of the series". In a statement, CBS reiterated that they were "extremely happy with [Fuller's] creative direction" for the series, and were committed to "seeing this vision through". However, some elements of the series that came directly from Fuller were soon dropped, including some "more heavily allegorical and complex story" points and some of his design plans. Fuller later confirmed that he was no longer involved in the series at all, which he said was "bittersweet ... I can only give them the material I've given them and hope that it is helpful for them." By the end of the year, Martin-Green had indeed been cast as the series' lead, and in May 2017, the episode order was expanded to 15. That June, CBS announced a new premiere date of September 24. The season was divided into two chapters, with an airing break after the ninth episode to allow time for post-production on episodes in the second half of the season to be completed.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Fuller wanted to differentiate the series from the previous 700+ episodes of "Star Trek" by taking advantage of the streaming format of All Access and telling a single story arc across the entire first season. He and the writers had completely planned this arc by the end of June 2016. Fuller said the original series episode "Balance of Terror", one of his favorites, would be a "touchstone" for the season's story direction. In August, Fuller teased that the story arc revolved around "an event in "Star Trek" history that's been talked about but never been explored", 10 years before the events of the original series. This was later revealed to be the Federation-Klingon cold war. Goldsman explained that this story would be told over the course of the first season and end with the creation of the Neutral Zone, allowing a new story to be told in potential future seasons. He described the events explored by the season as "sufficiently inexact [in previous "Star Trek" stories] that we can now fill in how we got there." He acknowledged that this time period has been widely covered by previous "Star Trek" novels, and explained that the series' writers considered these novels to be non-canon.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: The writers felt that a traditional series might have begun with the series' protagonist, Michael Burnham, boarding the USS "Discovery" and then revealed her backstory through flashbacks. For "Star Trek: Discovery", they wanted to take a different approach and begin with a prologue that explored Burnham's initial actions and her relationship to Captain Philippa Georgiou. Feeling that at least "two hours" were needed to convey this, the first two episodes of the season (released as a two-part premiere) cover this prologue, with the season's main story beginning with the third episode. The third episode was considered to be the series' equivalent of a pilot episode, and begins six months after the second. This time jump was inspired by film sequels that begin with significant events having transpired since the previous instalment such as "" (1991). The third episode reveals that the season's story involves the development of a new form of space travel that could win the war for the Federation. When it was noted that this form of travel is not known in the previous "Star Trek" series (set later in the timeline), actor Jason Isaacs stated that the writers were aware of this, and were "very clear, in not a cop-out way, to both incorporate this stuff which is exciting and very visual, to make sure that it didn't rankle canon." The season's story is split into two "micro-arcs", covering the first nine episodes and then the rest of the season, with a break in airing between the two. It finishes with the end of the war, which comes down to an agreement between two characters. These negotiations are made entirely by female characters, which was an intentional choice that Kurtzman felt was justified by the Me Too movement. The writers felt this was true to the spirit of "Star Trek", and allowed them to move beyond the war storyline that Fuller had established for the show. The second season is then set-up with the appearance of the USS "Enterprise" from previous "Star Trek" media. Harberts explained that the writers knew they would have to acknowledge the existence of the "Enterprise" at some point due to the series' place in the timeline, and after Fuller left they decided to just "tell this story now" with the second season.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Because of the season's focus on Klingons and their culture, the producers decided that members of the species would speak their own language with subtitles throughout the show. Berg said this was "very important for us ... They have their own pride. They have their own interests and talent." Klingons historically represented the Soviet Union, and were portrayed as becoming friendlier with the protagonists of "Star Trek" as the real Cold War ended. For "Discovery", the Klingons and Starfleet are intended to represent different factions within the modern United States, with Harberts explaining that the writers wanted to introduce two different points of view and explore their differences. He said the season is ultimately about "finding a way to come together". Berg added that one of the main themes being explored for the season was the "universal" lesson of "you think you know 'the other,' but you really don't". The showrunners stated that where previous "Star Trek" series revolved around the relationships between central male characters, "Discovery" focuses more on female characters. They described a "friendship structure" that goes from Captain Georgiou to First Officer Burnham to Cadet Tilly. They also explained that the two main Starfleet captains in the series, Georgiou and Lorca, are "metaphors for how people and institutions act in times of conflict", with Georgiou responding to war as would be expected of a traditional Starfleet officer, but Lorca representing a more "complicated version of a Starfleet captain who can almost only exist during a time of war".


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: In addition to Martin-Green as protagonist Michael Burnham, the season's main cast includes Doug Jones as Saru, an alien lieutenant commander; Shazad Latif as Ash Tyler, a former prisoner of war; Anthony Rapp as Paul Stamets, an astromycologist; Mary Wiseman as Sylvia Tilly, a cadet; and Jason Isaacs as Gabriel Lorca, captain of the USS "Discovery". Isaacs was just cast for one season. Not all of the show's characters are introduced in the first episode as would be done in a traditional television series, with the writers taking advantage of the serialized format to take their time introducing each character over several episodes. Tyler is eventually revealed to actually be the Klingon Voq disguised as a human. Voq was initially credited as being portrayed by the actor "Javid Iqbal", who was invented for the ruse to hide the fact that Latif was portraying both Voq and Tyler. The name Javid Iqbal comes from Latif's father.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: In November 2016, series' writer and consulting producer Nicholas Meyer mentioned that Michelle Yeoh had been cast in "Discovery", and she was soon confirmed to be portraying Captain Georgiou of the USS "Shenzhou". A month later, Mary Chieffo was cast as the Klingon L'Rell. In April 2017, Kenneth Mitchell was cast as Kol, who Latif was originally cast as before he was recast as Voq. That July, Rapp revealed that Wilson Cruz, whom Rapp had previously worked with on the musical "Rent", would portray Stamets' love interest Hugh Culber. Jayne Brook also has a recurring role in the season, as Admiral Katrina Cornwell. Additionally appearing throughout the season in "co-starring" roles are Emily Coutts as Keyla Detmer, Ali Momen as Kamran Gant, Chris Violette as Britch Weeton, Romain Waite as Troy Januzzi, Sara Mitich as Airiam, Oyin Oladejo as Joann Owosekun, Ronnie Rowe Jr. as R.A. Bryce, Conrad Coates as Terral, and Patrick Kwok-Choon as Rhys. Tasia Valenza and Julianne Grossman provided the computer voices for the "Shenzhou" and the "Discovery", respectively.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Fuller said in August 2016 that the series would eventually include characters from previous "Star Trek" media, but he wanted to establish its own characters in the first season. He did express interest in including the character Amanda Grayson from "The Original Series", saying, "there's much to be told about that". She was later confirmed to be appearing in the season due to Burnham having been adopted by Grayson and her husband Sarek in "Discovery" backstory. James Frain was cast as Sarek by January 2017. Rainn Wilson was cast as another original series character, Harry Mudd, that March. In September, Harberts revealed that Mia Kirshner had been cast as Grayson. Katherine Barrell portrays Mudd's wife Stella. Clint Howard, who appeared in several previous "Star Trek" series, has a role in the season finale as an Orion drug dealer. The role was written specifically for Howard, who is friends with Goldsman.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Mark Worthington and Todd Cherniawsky served as initial production designers for the series, with Tamara Deverell taking over around the sixth episode. She was the first female production designer for the "Star Trek" franchise. After CBS told the writers to add an excursion to a planet for an upcoming episode, which became the visit to Pahvo, Deverell had 10 minutes to pitch a design for the new sets. She came up with the idea of a yurt consisting of membranes, based on a mathematical structure, which was added to a forest using visual effects. For the second half of the season, Deverell had to redesign the Mirror Universe, a classic location from previous series. Deverell said the previous depictions had "just slapped a logo on the wall" to represent the Mirror Universe's Terran Empire, but for this series her team created a multi-dimensional version of the Terran Empire logo and then augmented sets with new mirrors to further distance them from the Prime Universe sets. For the flagship spaceship of the Terran Empire, the ISS "Charon", Deverell used a "monolithic, Brutalist, concrete form" for her designs.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: The design of the USS "Discovery" is based on an unused Ralph McQuarrie design for the USS "Enterprise" from the unproduced film "". The USS "Shenzhou" was designed to look older than the "Discovery", and was compared more to a submarine from "The Hunt for Red October" (1990) than previous "Star Trek" spaceships. The "Shenzhou" is a "Walker"-class starship, a new designation created for the series that is named for test pilot Joe Walker. Sets for the "Shenzhou" and the "Discovery"s interiors were built for the series, described as a "tangle of corridors and rooms". Because the bridge of the "Shenzhou" is on the bottom of that ship, the set for that room was built off the ground and upside down, and became a challenge for the crew to work in. In some cases, such as the transporter rooms and corridors, the same sets were used for both ships. These were dressed differently, with alternate lighting, graphics, and paint. The "turn over" process from depicting on ship to another within a set took up to a week.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Fabric for the Starfleet uniforms seen in the series were custom-dyed in Switzerland; the costumes were cut and assembled in Toronto by costume designer Gersha Phillips and her department. For officers in combat situations or hazardous away missions, jumpsuit-versions of the main uniform were paired with armored vests. Also designed for the series was a Starfleet long haul space suit, which was built in the United Kingdom from sections of high-density foam that were then covered in fiberglass. Phillips designed traditional Vulcan robes for Sarek which were meant to reflect his devotion to logic and "serious intellectual pursuits". Vulcan pendants celebrating "Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations" were 3D printed and hand painted. For Harry Mudd's costume, primarily made of leather, Phillips was inspired by Adam Ant.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Fuller had "really, really wanted" to redesign the Klingons, which he felt had inconsistent designs throughout the franchise's history. He wanted to portray the race as "sexy and vital and different" rather than "the thugs of the universe", and spent months working with prosthetics designer Neville Page and production designer Mark Worthington on the new look. Page was aware that changing the look of the Klingons would be controversial with "Star Trek" fans. The idea was to bring a fresh take to the Klingon race by creating a "high level of sophisticated detail—for a race that had long been perceived as brutal, one-minded, and simplistic".


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Page first designed a generic, "realistic" Klingon skull, inspired by real biology, and then developed the different Klingons from that base in an evolution-based approach. The skull design includes spaces for "extra sensory receptors" running from the top of the head to the back, as Page wanted to show the Klingons to be apex predators with heightened senses. To not cover these receptors, the Klingons are depicted as being bald in the series, which is a design decision that was mandated by Fuller. It was important to the producers to show diversity within the Klingons, so the series depicts both light and dark skinned members of the species, and features different clothing, weapon, and armor designs for each of the 24 Klingon houses. Glenn Hetrick, co-founder of Alchemy Studios with Page, explained that the Klingon Empire covers many planets beyond the homeworld of Qo'noS and so different subsets of the species would have evolved on those different planets, each with different environments and cultures.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Hetrick and Page created armor and weapons with 3D printing and aluminum casts made from hand carved moulds. Some props, such as helmets, were designed to be augmented with visual effects. Weapons like Klingon ceremonial blades and gun-like disruptors were reimagined versions of previous props from franchise, especially "". The overall design for Klingon weapons, helmets, and armor was based on the culture notes created for the species in the original series, which included influences from Middle Eastern, Mongolian, and Byzantine culture. Several motifs recur throughout the designs for the Klingons' weapons and armor, including their skulls and vertebrae, images of Klingons "poised to thrust themselves into the honor of battle", and images of Klingons sacrificing themselves in battle. The latter is similar to the emblem of the Klingon Empire.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Phillips and Suttirat Anne Larlarb created the clothing worn by the Klingon T'Kuvma and his followers, inspired more by "ancient Klingon ways" than the costumes seen previously in "Star Trek". T'Kuvma wears a tunic created from three different types of leather and a chest plate made with 3D printed beads, decorated with Swarovski crystals. Costumes for his followers were created with individually stained, painted, modelled, and hand-pressed pieces of leather. Each suit took ten costumers 110 hours to complete. Different colored leather was used to differentiate males and females. A notable set of armor created for the season is the Torchbearer armor, which is worn in a ritual to unite the Klingon houses. It was made from 100 individually 3D printed pieces. When first describing the Torchbearer armor, Fuller referred to baroque and samurai styles. Kol, a member of the house of Kor that appeared in the original series, wears more leather and a different set of armor that is closer to those worn previously by Klingons in the franchise. US$3 million was spent on a "massive" ship set for T'Kuvma's house, known as the "Klingon sarcophagus ship", which was designed to look like an alien cathedral. The outside of the ship is covered in coffins ranging from days old to hundreds of years old. The set was tall, long, and wide, and included multiple levels, mezzanines, and cantilevers. The set also included Klingon text and glyphs inspired by the novel "The Final Reflection", which helped develop Klingon culture and language. Other details that were taken from the novel include the strategy game Klin zha and Klingon bloodwine cups. Research was done on how written languages evolve to accurately depict the ancient form of Klingon written on the ship. Instead of physical displays like Starfleet's ships, the sarcophagus ship uses holographic displays created with visual effects.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: The Klingon homeworld of Qo'noS is visited in the season finale, though the town depicted is an Orion outpost. The production team attempted to reuse existing sets given any new sets would potentially not be reused. The graveyard chamber from the sarcophagus ship set was turned into an Orion sex cabaret, with other sets including a Klingon drinking tent and street stalls. The Orion elements were inspired by Indian architecture, with fabrics from Morocco and other "far east" countries, as these were the inspirations for the original Orion designs in previous "Star Trek" series. Deverell described the sets as "lush like a bordello in the 1800s. We were allowed to go crazy."


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Filming for the season began at Pinewood Toronto Studios on January 24, 2017, with cinematographers including Guillermo Navarro, working on the pilot, and Colin Hoult. Set construction had initially been set to begin within a month of June 2016, for a filming period of that September to around March 2017, but by that September, production was not expected to begin until November. After Fuller stepped down as showrunner, set construction was expected to be completed by the end of 2016, with filming to begin "shortly thereafter". By mid-May 2017, filming for scenes set on an unidentified planet had taken place on location in Jordan. Some of the series' sets took over six weeks to create, and new sets were being built up until the end of production on the season. Some episodes for the season were restricted to a few existing sets, making them bottle episodes, though Harberts said the series would not do anything "as bottle-y as 'everyone is stuck in the mess hall!'" Additional location shooting took place around Ontario, Canada, including at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto which stood in for the Vulcan Science Academy, and in the Hilton Falls and Kelso Conservation Areas for the forest planet Pahvo. Filming for the season concluded on October 11, 2017.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: For the visual scope of the series, Kurtzman felt that the show had to "justify being on a premium cable service". The showrunners were particularly inspired by "" and its "wider scope", with Harberts explaining that the first season was shot in a 2:1 aspect ratio which "just lends itself to a very lyrical way of telling the story." He added that some of the series' visuals were influenced by the modern "Star Trek" films from J. J. Abrams. Some of these influences, per Goldsman, are "the ability to be creative cinematically...the intimate discourse, the humanistic storytelling with the giant canvas that is "Star Trek". A more kinetic camera, a more dynamic way of existing". The producers worked closely with pilot director David Semel to make the series look as cinematic as possible, including filming the bridge of Starfleet's ships in such a way as "not to shoot in a sort of proscenium box...to be able to get the camera into spaces where, you know, to shoot it in interesting ways, which is a combination of choreographing a scene to motivate the camera moving, and also lighting." The cinematographers wanted to emphasize on-set sourcing, with lighting built in wherever it would naturally appear to help create a more realistic feel, and distance the series from the "stage" feel of "The Original Series".


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Robyn Stewart, an expert in the Klingon language, and linguist Rea Nolan worked closely with the Klingon actors to ensure they could both speak and understand their lines in the language, having the actors practice while their makeup and prosthetics were being applied, which took three hours each day. They would first rehearse their lines in English, and worked to "inhabit [the lines] emotionally". Chieffo felt that "it makes sense that when we are speaking to each other we are speaking in our native tongue and really adding a fluidity and nuance", while Mitchell said, "It's an incredibly complex language ... it feels alien. Because it is incredibly difficult and I don't speak the language it takes a lot of muscle memory to memorize each separate syllable over and over and over." For a sequence where L'Rell and Tyler are shown having sex, Chieffo required full-body prosthetics which took four hours to apply. Though these are only seen for around 30 seconds in the episode, Chieffo felt strongly that she film the scene rather than a body double.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: The season has 5000 visual effects shots, which visual effects supervisor Jason Zimmerman said was similar to one feature-length film. He said the department was aiming for "high-end" effects, similar to those seen in films, and the number of visual effects in each episode was always driven by the story. Pixomondo was the primary visual effects vendor, with Spin VFX and Crafty Apes also working on the show. The shot that went through the most iterations during the season was a simple composite of computer screen graphics onto an on-set monitor, with 146 different iterations of the graphics tried before the final design was chosen.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Composer Jeff Russo wrote several themes for the series, in addition to the main title theme, but not necessarily for the different characters in the show as would often be done. Instead, Russo wanted to focus on the emotions of the characters over the story beats, for instance, "Even when you are shooting, you're still feeling, so why not play that as opposed to 'Oh my god, he's got a gun'". Like the rest of the series' departments, Russo's aim was to make the score feel as cinematic as possible.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: For the Kasseelian Opera that Stamets talks about later in the season, Russo did not want to attempt to make a "futuristic opera", believing instead that "opera is opera" and that it should have the same style as what is heard during the present day. For the seventh episode, source music from Wyclef Jean is used which Russo compared to people in the current day listening to the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. Singer Ayana Haviv recorded arias for the opera, and in a "moment of inspiration" Russo asked her to sing the vocal section of the original "Star Trek" theme. Russo and Kurtzman responded positively to her rendition, and Russo arranged the theme for the series' 74-piece orchestra to play over the end credits of the season finale after the USS "Enterprise" appears. Haviv altered her voice for the final recording to match the original 1960s style of the theme.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: A soundtrack album for the first chapter of the season was released digitally on December 15, 2017, by Lakeshore Records. Another, for the second chapter, was released digitally on April 6, 2018. CD versions of both albums were set for release in 2018, along with a vinyl release combining selections from both chapters and titled ""Intergalactic Starburst" Vinyl". All music composed by Jeff Russo:


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: With the announcement of the series' title in July 2016 came a promotional video giving a first look at the USS "Discovery". The video did not feature final designs, as the producers had put it together in three weeks to show the concepts for the series to fans. In January 2017, a YouTube video presented by Alcatel was released, using 360° technology to showcase digital models of previous "Star Trek" ships. The first full trailer for the series was released in May 2017. Chris Harnick of E! News said the trailer was gorgeous and cinematic, and added, because of the appearances of both Sarek and the Klingons, that "this is the "Star Trek" you know and love." Aja Romano at "Vox" called the trailer's visuals "sumptuous [and] modern, but still very much in keeping with the aesthetic of previous "Trek" series". She did note that the series' plot was not conveyed in the trailer.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: In July 2017, "Discovery" had an extensive presence at San Diego Comic-Con, including a panel featuring Martin-Green, Isaacs, Jones, Latif, Wiseman, Rapp, Frain, Kurtzman, Berg, Kadin, Harberts, and Goldsman, and moderated by Wilson. Footage from the series was screened at the panel, with a new trailer released online soon afterwards. CBS also created an immersive art experience at the Michael J. Wolf Fine Arts Gallery, featuring the USS "Discovery"s captain's chair and other props, costumes, and sketches from the series, as well as limited edition posters and a shop selling Comic-Con-exclusive items. Pedicabs inspired by the series gave free rides through the Gaslamp District, while a "#TrekDiscovery Challenge" competition saw fans have to take pictures with "authentically costumed "Trek" ambassadors", one each representing the crews of the five previous "Star Trek" series, as well as the captain's chair at the art gallery, and post them online with the hashtag #TrekDiscovery to be eligible to win a Roku streaming stick and a subscription to CBS All Access. At the convention, Gentle Giant Studios revealed that they had gained the license to create mini-busts and statues based on the series, and planned to particularly focus on the series' Klingons. At the beginning of August, an afternoon of four panels at the "Star Trek Las Vegas" event was dedicated to the series, featuring producers and writers, actors who were not present at Comic-Con, creature designers, and writers involved with related books and comics.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: By the beginning of September, promotion was taking place around the world: Isaacs was involved in the Blackpool Illuminations festival in the UK; cast and crew promoted the series at the Fan Expo Canada; a USS "Shenzhou"-themed photobooth, that took pictures of fans as Klingons, was in operation at the IFA consumer electronics trade show in Berlin; and an outdoor campaign of posters and billboards was underway, including a large billboard on the roof of an LAX Airport building. The night before the premiere, a model of the USS "Discovery" was flown above the Hudson River on Manhattan's west side. Created by Remarkable Media, the skeleton rig was covered in LEDs and suspended from a Black Hawk helicopter. On October 7, panels for the series were held at both the PaleyFest television festival and at New York Comic Con.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: "Star Trek: Discovery" premiered at the ArcLight Hollywood on September 19, 2017. The first episode aired in a "preview broadcast" on CBS in the United States on September 24, and was made available for free on CBS All Access along with the second episode (which required an All Access subscription). Subsequent first-run episodes, making up the first chapter of the season, were streamed weekly on All Access through November 5. The second chapter streamed from January 7 to February 11, 2018.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: CBS Studios International licensed the series to Bell Media for broadcast in Canada, and to Netflix for another 188 countries. In Canada, the premiere was broadcast on September 24, 2017, on both the CTV Television Network and on the specialty channels Space (English) and Z (French) before being streamed on CraveTV, with subsequent episodes just broadcast on Space and Z before streaming on CraveTV. In the other countries, Netflix released each episode of the series for streaming within 24 hours of its U.S. debut. This agreement with CBS also saw Bell and Netflix acquire all previous "Star Trek" series to stream in their entirety.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: In August 2020, CBS announced that it would be broadcasting the full first season of "Discovery" beginning on September 24, 2020, alongside other older or acquired series, due to the lack of television content available to the network due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Also in September, ViacomCBS announced that CBS All Access would be expanded and rebranded as Paramount+ in March 2021. Existing episodes of the season remained on Paramount+ along with future seasons of the series. In November 2021, ViacomCBS announced that it had bought back the international streaming rights to "Discovery" from Netflix effective immediately.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: After reviewing the episode "Choose Your Pain", Space chose to air it uncensored despite its use of the word "fuck" and depictions of violence. The Canadian Broadcast Standards Council received an official complaint about this given the channel aired the episode before 9pm, since series intended for adult audiences should be shown after that time according to the Canadian Association of Broadcasters' "Code of Ethics and Violence Code". The complainant, the Council, and Space itself acknowledged that the use of the word was unexpected given the franchise's "51 year track record of being fairly clean with regards to its content." The Council found Space to have breached the regulations in not censoring the episode or scheduling it post-watershed, and required the channel to air an announcement stating as such twice during the week following April 19, 2018. At the time, Bell Media accepted the decision and agreed to comply with the ruling, but did not indicate any intention to change their approach to broadcasting future seasons of the series.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: The season was released on DVD and Blu-Ray formats in the U.S. on November 13, 2018. The release included two hours of bonus features, including deleted and extended scenes, and behind-the-scenes featurettes. On November 2, 2021, a home media box set collecting the first three seasons of "Discovery" was released, with more than eight hours of special features including behind-the-scenes featurettes, deleted and extended scenes, audio commentaries, and gag reels.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: According to Nielsen Media Research, the CBS broadcast of the first episode was watched by a "decent" audience of 9.5 million viewers. The premiere of the series led to record subscriptions for All Access, with the service attributing its biggest day, week, and month of signups to the debut of "Star Trek: Discovery". According to "app analytics specialist" App Annie, the premiere of the series caused the number of downloads of the All Access mobile app to more than double. Following a 7-day trial period for new subscribers, revenue from the app for CBS doubled on October 1 compared to the average in-app revenue during the previous 30 days.


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 82% approval rating for the first season, with an average rating of 7/10 based on 371 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Although it takes an episode to achieve liftoff, "Star Trek: Discovery" delivers a solid franchise instalment for the next generation—boldly led by the charismatic Sonequa Martin-Green." The average rating for each of the season's individual episodes is 89%. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 72 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Matt Zoller Seitz of "Vulture" praised the series' premiere, feeling it "stands tall alongside the best-regarded incarnations of the "Trek" franchise... with an almost entirely new slate of characters... and casts them with actors you can't help but like". Writing for "Vox", Emily VanDerWerff noted "the best thing about "Discovery" is that Michael Burnham, played beautifully by Martin-Green, does stuff. She gets in trouble. She breaks rules. She violates Starfleet protocol. She has emotions that get the best of her, even as she knows they shouldn't. She is, in other words, very human". Overall, she declared that ""Star Trek" is best when it's hopeful, but hope shines brightest amid horror. On some level, "Discovery" knows both of those things". Writing for "TVLine", Dave Nemetz graded the premiere episode a B+, saying, "The nail-bitingly tense premiere delivered a cracking good action story, eye-popping special effects and a number of gasp-worthy twists" that was worth the wait. Maureen Ryan of "Variety", after watching the first two episodes, said the series "has yet to prove itself a worthy successor to "The Next Generation" or "Deep Space Nine". But there are reasons to hope that "Discovery" will be a promising addition to the "Trek" canon".


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Chaim Gartenberg for The Verge criticized the "extended prologue" approach, but called the two-part premiere "surprisingly satisfying". He praised Burnham as a "far more rounded, human character than any of the previous captains, with some serious trauma from a Klingon attack in her youth that's left her predisposed to hate the warrior race. And while "Star Trek" has plumbed the 'main character has demons' well in the past—most notably with Sisko in "Deep Space Nine", and Picard in the later films, when it comes to the Borg—Burnham feels far more compelling for not being a flawless human being in other respects, as her series-protagonist predecessors were." Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", Darren Franich gave the two-part premiere a B grade, praising Martin-Green's performance as the lead and the production design as well as commenting on the "undeniable appeal" of the "introduction of a new ship, the revelation that we're watching that ship's final voyage, the cliffhanger possibility that our new hero is a fallen angel." However, he felt that the series' third episode retroactively made the two episode prologue "feel even more overextended". Patrick Cooley of cleveland.com criticized the dialogue and "wooden, bewilderingly stupid" characters in the first two episodes. Brian Lowry from CNN called the first three episodes ""Star Trek" Lite", criticizing the bridge crew and lore, and describing the series as an "unspectacular addition" to the franchise that was mostly designed "to entice new subscribers to CBS All Access."


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Discussing the season as a whole, Seitz praised it as the strongest first season of any "Star Trek" series since the original and defended it against fan criticisms, believing that most complaints about the series could be applied to all "Star Trek" series or were about intentional differences from those prior series that Seitz saw as "honorable attempts" to modernize the franchise "while still keeping the whole thing recognizably "Trek"." Seitz in particularly praised the more serialized storytelling, visual effects, original characters like Burnham and Saru, existing characters like Frain's Sarek and Wilson's Harry Mudd, and the themes of science vs. war that the series explored. On the latter, Seitz felt "Discovery" improved on the efforts of the J. J. Abrams "Star Trek" films. Discussing the "hits" and "misses" of the season, Witney Seibold of IGN praised the characters, effects, and design as "hits", but criticized as "misses" the tone and storytelling for respectively being too busy and having too many subplots. Gartenberg criticized the writers for over-using science fiction tropes, repeating plot elements, inconsistently portraying characters' attitudes, and for being unsubtle with the values of Starfleet in the finale. He was optimistic for further seasons though, feeling that the end of the season left "the entire slate of the show ... wiped clean for whatever comes next." At Mashable, Chris Taylor felt the Klingons' prosthetics made it difficult to see the actors' emotions, the development of the characters Tyler and Lorca was wasted, the rest of the bridge characters were not explored enough, and the ending of the Klingon war storyline was rushed in the season finale before the "Enterprise" reveal "left us on the oldest, safest, most recognizable piece of "Trek" fan service ever."


title: Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)

text: Netflix listed "Star Trek: Discovery" fourth in its list of series most watched together by families in 2017. Martin-Green was named TVLine's Performer of the Week for her performance in "The Wolf Inside", in which Burnham is "put through the emotional wringer with a barrage of jaw-dropping twists, giving Martin-Green an opportunity to deliver her finest performance of the season." In January 2019, Comic Book Resources rated "Discovery"s first season as the ninth best season of all "Star Trek" series so far, comparing its high production values to a feature film and calling Michael Burnham "the most interesting character "Trek" has provided us in generations".


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: Hugh Marjoe Ross Gortner (born January 14, 1944) is a former evangelist preacher and actor. He first gained public attention during the late 1940s when his parents arranged for him to be ordained as a preacher at age four, due to his extraordinary speaking ability. He was the youngest known in that position. As a young man, he preached on the revival circuit and brought celebrity to the revival movement.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: He became a celebrity again during the 1970s when he starred in "Marjoe" (1972), a behind-the-scenes documentary about the lucrative business of Pentecostal preaching, which won the 1972 Academy Award for Best Documentary Film. That documentary now is noted as one of the most vehement criticisms of Pentecostal preaching.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: Hugh Marjoe Ross Gortner was born in 1944 in Long Beach, California, into a family with a long evangelical heritage. The name "Marjoe" is a portmanteau of the biblical names "Mary" and "Joseph". His father, Vernon Robert Gortner, was a third-generation Christian evangelical minister who preached at revivals. His mother Marge, who has been labelled as "exuberant," was the person who introduced him as a preacher, and is notable for his success as a child. Vernon noticed his son's talent for mimicry and his fearlessness of strangers and public settings. His parents claimed the boy had received a vision from God during a bath, and he started preaching. Marjoe later said that was a fictional story that his parents forced him to repeat. He claimed they compelled him to do that by using mock-drowning episodes; they did not beat him as they did not want to leave bruises that might be noticed during his many public appearances.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: They trained him to deliver sermons, complete with dramatic gestures and emphatic lunges. When he was four, his parents arranged for him to perform a marriage ceremony attended by the press, including photographers from "Life" and Paramount studios. Until his teenage years, Gortner and his parents traveled throughout the United States holding revival meetings, and by 1951 his younger brother Vernoe had been incorporated into the act. As well as teaching Marjoe scriptural passages, his parents also taught him several money-raising tactics, including the sale of supposedly "holy" articles at revivals. He would promise that such items could be used to heal the sick and dying.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: By the time he was sixteen, his family had amassed what he later estimated to be three million dollars. Shortly after Gortner's sixteenth birthday, his father absconded with the money. Disillusioned, Gortner then left his mother for San Francisco.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: In the years that followed, Gortner took a break from preaching. He grew resentful of his parents and bitter over the childhood they had forced upon him. At age 20, Gortner considered suing his parents, but never did.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: Gortner spent the remainder of his teenage years as an itinerant beatnik. Hard pressed for money in his early twenties, he decided to put his old skills to work and re-emerged on the preaching circuit with a charismatic stage show modeled after those of contemporary rock stars, most notably Mick Jagger of the Rolling Stones. He made enough money to take six months off every year, during which he returned to California and lived off his earnings before returning to the circuit.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: In the late 1960s, Gortner experienced a crisis of conscience about his double life. He decided his performing talents might be put to use as an actor or singer. When approached by documentarians Howard Smith and Sarah Kernochan, he agreed to let their film crew follow him throughout 1971 on a final tour of revival meetings in California, Texas, and Michigan.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: Unknown to everyone involvedincluding, at one point, his fatherhe gave "backstage" interviews to the filmmakers between sermons and revivals, some including other preachers, explaining intimate details of how he and other ministers operated. The filmmakers also shot footage of him while counting the money he had collected during the day, later in his hotel room. The resulting film, "Marjoe", won the 1972 Academy Award for Best Documentary.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: Gortner capitalized on the success of the documentary. "Oui" magazine hired him to cover Millennium '73, a November 1973 festival headlined by the "boy guru" Guru Maharaj Ji. He cut an LP with Chelsea Records titled "Bad, but Not Evil", named after his description of himself in the documentary.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: He began his acting career with a featured role in "The Marcus-Nelson Murders", the 1973 pilot for the "Kojak" TV series. In 1974, he made several appearances in film and television. In the disaster film, "Earthquake", he was Sgt. Jody Joad, a psychotic grocery manager-turned-National Guardsman, the main antagonist. He starred in the television movies "The Gun and the Pulpit" and "Pray for the Wildcats", and appeared in an episode of "Nakia", a 1974 police drama on ABC.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: Gortner portrayed the psychopathic, hostage-taking drug dealer in Milton Katselas's 1979 screen adaptation of Mark Medoff's play "When You Comin' Back, Red Ryder?". He starred in a number of B-movies including "Bobbie Jo and the Outlaw" (1976), "The Food of the Gods" (1976), and "Starcrash" (1978).


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: In the early 1980s, Gortner hosted the short-lived reality TV series, "Speak Up, America". He also appeared frequently in the 1980s "Circus of the Stars" specials. He also played a terrorist preacher in a second-season episode of "Airwolf", and appeared on "Falcon Crest" as corrupt psychic-cum-medium "Vince Karlotti" (1986–87). His last role was as a preacher in the western "Wild Bill" (1995).


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: In 1971, Gortner married Agnes Benjamin, who had appeared in his documentary. From 1978 to December 14, 1979, Gortner was married to actress Candy Clark. Until 2009, Gortner produced Celebrity Sports Invitational charity golf tournaments and ski events to raise money for charities such as the Dream Foundation and Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.'s Waterkeeper Alliance, retiring in January 2010.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: In 2007, the Philadelphia Live Arts Festival commissioned actor and writer Brian Osborne to write a one-man play about Gortner. The play, "The Word", premiered at the Festival with Suli Holum as director and main collaborator. In 2010, the play was recreated as "The Word: A House Party for Jesus", with director Whit MacLaughlin. The new play opened October 14, 2010, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and has since been performed in New York (the Soho Playhouse), Los Angeles, Philadelphia (the 2011 NET Festival), and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (the Kelly Strayhorn Theater), with other productions planned for Austin, Chicago, and Minneapolis.


title: Marjoe Gortner

text: In 2008, the Melbourne Underground Film Festival in Melbourne, Australia held the first retrospective of the cinematic works of Marjoe Gortner as part of their ninth festival.


title: National pipe thread

text: American National Standard Pipe Thread standards, often called national pipe thread standards for short, are United States national technical standards for screw threads used on threaded pipes and pipe fittings. They include both tapered and straight thread series for various purposes, including rigidity, pressure-tight sealing, or both. The types are named with a full name and an abbreviation, such as NPT, NPS, NPTF, or NPSC.


title: National pipe thread

text: Outside North America, some US pipe thread sizes are widely used, as well as many British Standard Pipe threads and ISO 7-1, 7-2, 228-1, and 228-2 threads.


title: National pipe thread

text: Threaded pipes can provide an effective seal for pipes transporting liquids, gases, steam, and hydraulic fluid. These threads are now used in materials other than steel and brass, including PTFE, PVC, nylon, bronze, and cast iron.


title: National pipe thread

text: The taper on NPT threads allows them to form a seal when torqued as the flanks of the threads compress against each other, as opposed to parallel/straight thread fittings or compression fittings in which the threads merely hold the pieces together and do not provide the seal. The various types of pipe threads are designed for use both with or without thread sealants, as particular applications demand. The sealants, where used, are typically thread seal tape thread sealant or a thread seal paste pipe dope (sometimes similar in composition to plumber's putty).


title: National pipe thread

text: Because the thread body is tapered (), a larger diameter keeps compressing into a smaller diameter and finally forms a seal (no clearance remains between the crests and roots of the threads because of the taper). This means that NPT fittings should be burr-free and lubricated using a lubricant like lubricating paste or thread seal tape. The use of tape also helps to limit corrosion on the threads, which otherwise can make future disassembly nearly impossible.


title: National pipe thread

text: Commonly used sizes are , , , , , 1, , , 2, , 3, 4, 5, and 6 inch, as pipe and fittings by most US suppliers. Sizes smaller than  inch are occasionally used for compressed air, while sizes larger than 6 inches are often joined by other methods.


title: National pipe thread

text: The taper rate for all NPT threads is 1 inch of diameter in 16 inches of length () measured by the change of diameter (of the pipe thread) over distance of thread. The angle between the taper and the center axis of the pipe is tan() ≈ 1.7833° ≈ 1° 47′.


title: National pipe thread

text: The standard for Nominal Pipe Size (often abbreviated NPS, which should not be confused with the abbreviation NPS for the straight thread form standard) is loosely related to the inside diameter of Schedule 40 series of sizes. Because of the pipe wall thickness of Schedule pipe, the actual diameter of the NPT threads is larger than the Nominal Pipe Size outside diameter, and considerably so for small sizes. Pipe of a given size in a different Schedule than Schedule 40 provides a different wall thickness, while maintaining the same outside diameter and thread profile as Schedule 40. Thus the inside diameter of a given size of Schedule pipe differs from the Nominal Pipe Size, while outside diameters for a given nominal Schedule size are the same between Schedules.


title: National pipe thread

text: National Pipe Thread series have the same 60° included angle as Sellers thread. On the other hand, for sealing capability, tapered (pressure-tight) threads have crest and root shapes that differ from Sellers. For example, the NPT has a crest width of 0.038 to 0.062 pitch, which is sharper than 0.125 pitch of Sellers.


title: National pipe thread

text: National Pipe Taper Fuel (NPTF, also called Dryseal American National Standard Taper Pipe Thread, defined by ASME B1.20.3) is designed to provide a more leak-free seal without the use of PTFE tape (often referred to by the popular brand name "Teflon") or another sealant compound. NPTF threads have the same basic shape but with crest and root heights adjusted for an interference fit, eliminating the spiral leakage path.


title: National pipe thread

text: In 1864, William Sellers, then president of Franklin Institute, presented a standard for nuts, bolts, and screws. Out of this effort came the first United States Standard threads, including pipe threads.


title: Komeito

text: , formerly New Komeito and abbreviated NKP, is a conservative political party in Japan founded by lay members of the Buddhist Japanese new religions movement Soka Gakkai in 1964. Since 2012, it has served in government as the junior coalition partner of the Liberal Democratic Party. Natsuo Yamaguchi has been the president of the party since 8 September 2009 and currently serves as a member of the House of Councillors (the upper house) in the National Diet, the Japanese national legislature (elected in the 2019 Japanese House of Councillors election, constituency is Tokyo at-large district).


title: Komeito

text: After the 2012 Japanese general election, the party held 31 seats in the lower house and 19 seats in the upper house. The number of lower house seats increased to 35 after the 2014 Japanese general election and to 25 seats in the upper house after winning 14 in the 2016 general election. In the 2017 Tokyo prefectural election, the party garnered a total of 23 seats, up one from the previously held 22 seats. It lost six seats, down to 29 seats in the lower house after the 2017 Japanese general election. In 2021 general election, the party later gained another 3 seats, an increase from 29 to 32 seats.


title: Komeito

text: A self-proclaimed party of "humanitarian socialism," Komeito's declared mission is to pioneer "people-centered politics, a politics based on a humanitarianism, that treats human life with the utmost respect and care". On April 24, 2019, joint task force efforts with its coalition partner resulted in the passing of a bill mandating reparations and having the coalition government issue a formal apology to sterilization victims of the defunct Eugenics Protection Act, thus to advance human rights awareness in the wake of lawsuits related to the history of eugenics in Japan.


title: Komeito

text: Domestically, the party proposals include reduction of the central government and bureaucracy, increased transparency in public affairs, and increased local (prefectural) autonomy with the private sector playing an increased role. In accordance with its public affairs transparency platform, it was reported that since September 2016, the Komeito conducted independent analyses for possible environmental contamination of the proposed Toyosu market site. The Komeito officially raised its environmental concerns later regarding Toyosu market during the October 5, 2016 Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly Session. In response, the newly appointed Tokyo Governor, Yuriko Koike, cited possible disciplinary action towards those responsible for the Toyosu project.


title: Komeito

text: With regard to foreign policy, the Komeito wishes to eliminate nuclear arms and Japanese involvement in armed conflict in general. However, in July 2015, Komeito backed prime minister's Shinzo Abe's push for expanded military powers, although it did manage to moderate the policy.


title: Komeito

text: Religious scholar and political analyst Masaru Satō explains that in postwar Japan there were two major parties, the Liberal Democratic Party representing financial interests and large corporations and the Japan Socialist Party largely advocating the interests of trade unions and the working class. There was no single party that represented people who belonged to neither, such as shop owners and housewives, among others. Komeito was thus able to capture the support of this constituency.


title: Komeito

text: Komeito regards the Soka Gakkai as a "major electoral constituency", having formally separated from the religious group and revised both its platform and regulations in 1970 to reflect a "secular orientation". Observers continue to describe Komeito as the Soka Gakkai's "political arm", however, and critics contend the relationship violates the separation of religion and politics enshrined in Article 20 of the Japanese Constitution. The leadership and financing of the two groups are currently said to be independent. Both groups report having occasional liaison meetings, characterizing them as informational and "open to the media". Numerous Japanese religious groups have established political parties in Japan, but statistics scholar Petter Lindgren states that "None have, however, been more successful than Soka Gakkai."


title: Komeito

text: The party organ of Komeito is the "Komei Shinbun". It is published by the Komei Organ Paper Committee, and has also published a regional Hokkaido edition in the past.


title: Komeito

text: The party promotes closer relations with China, earning it criticism from some hawkish members of the LDP.


title: Komeito

text: Komeito began as the Political Federation for Clean Government in 1961, but held its inaugural convention as Komeito on 17 November 1964. The three characters 公明党 have the approximate meanings of "public/government" (公 kō), "light/brightness" (明 mei), and "political party" (党 tō). The combination "kōmei" (公明) is usually taken to mean "justice".


title: Komeito

text: Komeito's predecessor party, Kōmeitō, was formed in 1962, but it had begun in 1954 as the Kōmei Political League. It lasted until it merged with the NKP in 1998.


title: Komeito

text: In 1957, a group of Young Men's Division members campaigning for a Soka Gakkai candidate in an Osaka Upper House by-election were arrested for distributing money, cigarettes, and caramels at supporters' residences, in violation of election law, and on July 3 of that year, at the beginning of an event memorialized as the "Osaka Incident," Daisaku Ikeda was arrested in Osaka. He was taken into custody in his capacity as Soka Gakkai's Youth Division Chief of Staff for overseeing activities that constituted violations of election law. He spent two weeks in jail and appeared in court forty-eight times before he was cleared of all charges in January 1962.


title: Komeito

text: In 1968, fourteen of its members were convicted of forging absentee ballots in Shinjuku, and eight were sentenced to prison for electoral fraud. In the 1960s it was widely criticized for violating the separation of church and state, and in February 1970 all three major Japanese newspapers printed editorials demanding that the party reorganize. It eventually broke apart based on promises to segregate from Soka Gakkai.


title: Komeito

text: In the 1980s "Shimbun Akahata" discovered that many Soka Gakkai members were rewarding acquaintances with presents in return for Komeito votes and that Okinawa residents had changed their addresses to elect Komeito politicians.


title: Komeito

text: Kōmeitō joined the Hosokawa and Hata anti-LDP coalition cabinets in 1993 and 1994. After the collapse of the anti-LDP and anti-JCP governments () and the electoral and campaign finance reforms of 1994, the Kōmeitō split in December 1994: The joined the New Frontier Party (NFP) a few days later in an attempt to unify the splintered opposition. The other group, , continued to exist as a separate party. After the dissolution of the NFP in December 1997, former Kōmeitō members from the NFP founded two new groups: the and the in the House of Councillors, but some ex-Kōmeitō politicians such as Shōzō Azuma followed Ichirō Ozawa into the Liberal Party. The Reimei Club merged into the New Peace Party a few weeks later in January 1998. Finally, in November 1998, Kōmei and New Peace Party merged to re-establish Kōmeitō (referred to in English now as "New Komeito" – the party's name is just "Kōmeitō" as before the 1994 split).


title: Komeito

text: The "Japan Echo" alleged in 1999 that Soka Gakkai distributed fliers to local branches describing how to abuse the "jūminhyō" residence registration system in order to generate a large number of votes for Komeito candidates in specific districts.


title: Komeito

text: The current conservative, more moderate, and centrist party was formed in 1998, in a merger of Kōmei and the New Peace Party. Since then it has joined coalition with the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which need Komeito to maintain majority in the Diet (especially in the House of Councillors which the LDP lost majority since 1989), and did well in the 2000 and 2001 parliamentary elections.


title: Komeito

text: The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October 1999. New Komeito has been (and continues to be) a coalition partner in the Government of Japan since 1999 (excluding 2009–2011 when the Democratic Party of Japan was in power). As such, New Komeito supported a (temporary) change to Japan's "no-war constitution" in order for Japan to support the 2003 invasion of Iraq.


title: Komeito

text: In the 2003 Japanese general election and 2004 Japanese House of Councillors election, the NKP did well, thanks to an extremely committed and well-organized voter base coming from Soka Gakkai. The party shares its support base with the LDP, made up of white-collar bureaucrats and rural populations, but also gained support from religious leaders. However, on 27 July 2005, NKP's Secretary-General said that his party would consider forming a coalition government with the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) if the DPJ gained a majority in the House of Representatives. On 8 August 2005, then-Prime Minister and the president of LDP Junichiro Koizumi dissolved the Lower House and called for a general election, due to the rejection on some of the members of LDP for efforts to privatize Japan Post. The incumbent LDP-New Komeito coalition won a large majority in the 2005 general election.


title: Komeito

text: Natsuo Yamaguchi became the party's leader on 8 September 2009 after the party and their coalition partner LDP suffered a major defeat in the 2009 general election, become part of the opposition for the first time since 1999. New Komeito lost ten seats, including that of party leader Akihiro Ota and general secretary Kazuo Kitagawa. On 8 September 2009, Yamaguchi replaced Ota as president of New Komeito.


title: Komeito

text: In the general election on 16 December 2012, the LDP/Komeito coalition secured a supermajority and came back into government. The former party chief Akihiro Ota (Ohta) is currently Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. The party also gained seats in the general election in 2014. In September 2014 the party changed its English name from New Komeito back to Komeito.


title: Komeito

text: In July 2015, Komeito backed Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's push to revise the Constitution in order to "give Japan's military limited powers to fight in foreign conflicts for the first time since World War II". This legislation, supported by the United States, would allow the "Self-Defense Forces to cooperate more closely with the U.S. by providing logistical support and, in certain circumstances, armed backup in international conflicts" and "complements guidelines in a bilateral agreement governing how Japanese and United States forces work together, which was signed by the two nations" earlier in 2015.


title: Komeito

text: On March 11, 2019, a project team of Komeito submitted proposals to Foreign Minister Taro Kono for an international agreement to regulate robotic weapons, calling on Japan to build global consensus for a "political declaration or a code of conduct, within the framework of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons".


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey of Monmouth (, ; 1095 – 1155) was a British cleric from Monmouth, Wales and one of the major figures in the development of British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur. He is best known for his chronicle "The History of the Kings of Britain" ( or "") which was widely popular in its day, being translated into other languages from its original Latin. It was given historical credence well into the 16th century, but is now considered historically unreliable.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey was born between about 1090 and 1100, in Wales or the Welsh Marches. He had reached the age of majority by 1129 when he is recorded as witnessing a charter.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey refers to himself in his "Historia" as "Galfridus Monemutensis" (Geoffrey of Monmouth), which indicates a significant connection to Monmouth, Wales, and may refer to his birthplace. His works attest to some acquaintance with the place-names of the region. Geoffrey was known to his contemporaries as "Galfridus Arturus" or variants thereof. The "Arthur" in these versions of his name may indicate the name of his father or a nickname based on his scholarly interests.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Earlier scholars assumed that Geoffrey was Welsh or at least spoke Welsh. His knowledge of this language appears to have been slight, however, and there is no evidence that he was of either Welsh or Cambro-Norman descent. He may have come from the same French-speaking elite of the Welsh border country as Gerald of Wales, Walter Map, and Robert, Earl of Gloucester, to whom Geoffrey dedicated versions of his "History". Frank Merry Stenton and others have suggested that Geoffrey's parents may have been among the many Bretons who took part in William I's conquest and settled in the southeast of Wales. Monmouth had been in the hands of Breton lords since 1075 or 1086, and the names Galfridus and Arthur were more common among the Bretons than the Welsh.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: He may have served for a while in the Benedictine Monmouth Priory, but most of his adult life appears to have been spent outside Wales. Between 1129 and 1151, his name appears on six charters in the Oxford area, sometimes styled "magister" (teacher). He was probably a secular canon of St. George's college. All the charters signed by Geoffrey are also signed by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, a canon at that church. Another frequent co-signatory is Ralph of Monmouth, a canon of Lincoln.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Archbishop Theobald of Bec consecrated Geoffrey as Bishop of St Asaph at Lambeth on 24 February 1152, having ordained him a priest at Westminster 10 days before. According to Lewis Thorpe, "There is no evidence that he ever visited his see, and indeed the wars of Owain Gwynedd make this most unlikely." He appears to have died between 25 December 1154 and 24 December 1155 according to Welsh chronicles, when his successor took office.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey's structuring and shaping of the Merlin and Arthur myths engendered their vast popularity which continues today, and he is generally viewed by scholars as the major establisher of the Arthurian canon. The "History"'s effect on the legend of King Arthur was so vast that Arthurian works have been categorised as "pre-Galfridian" and "post-Galfridian", depending on whether or not they were influenced by him.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey wrote several works in Latin, the language of learning and literature in Europe during the medieval period. His major work was the "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("The History of the Kings of Britain"), the work best known to modern readers. It relates the purported history of Britain, from its first settlement by Brutus of Troy, a descendant of Trojan hero Aeneas, to the death of Cadwaladr in the 7th century, covering Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain, Kings Leir and Cymbeline, and one of the earliest developed narratives of King Arthur.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey claims in his dedication that the book is a translation of an "ancient book in the British language that told in orderly fashion the deeds of all the kings of Britain", given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, but modern historians have dismissed this claim. It is likely, however, that the Archdeacon did furnish Geoffrey with some materials in the Welsh language which helped inspire his work, as Geoffrey's position and acquaintance with him would not have permitted him to fabricate such a claim outright. Much of it is based on the "Historia Britonum", a 9th-century Welsh-Latin historical compilation, Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English People", and Gildas's 6th-century polemic "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae", expanded with material from bardic oral tradition and genealogical tracts, and embellished by Geoffrey's own imagination. In an exchange of manuscript material for their own histories, Robert of Torigny gave Henry of Huntingdon a copy of "History", which both Robert and Henry used uncritically as authentic history and subsequently used in their own works, by which means Geoffrey's fictions became embedded in popular history.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: "The History of the Kings of Britain" is now usually considered a literary forgery containing little reliable history. This has since led many modern scholars to agree with William of Newburgh, who wrote around 1190 that "it is quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors, or indeed about his predecessors from Vortigern onwards, was made up, partly by himself and partly by others."


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Other contemporaries were similarly unconvinced by Geoffrey's "History". For example, Giraldus Cambrensis recounts the experience of a man possessed by demons: "If the evil spirits oppressed him too much, the Gospel of St John was placed on his bosom, when, like birds, they immediately vanished; but when the book was removed, and the "History of the Britons" by 'Geoffrey Arthur' [as Geoffrey named himself] was substituted in its place, they instantly reappeared in greater numbers, and remained a longer time than usual on his body and on the book."


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey's major work was nevertheless widely disseminated throughout medieval Western Europe; Acton Griscom listed 186 extant manuscripts in 1929, and others have been identified since. It enjoyed a significant afterlife in a variety of forms, including translations and adaptations such as Wace's Old Norman-French "Roman de Brut", Layamon's Middle English "Brut", and several anonymous Middle Welsh versions known as "" (""Brut of the Kings""). where it was generally accepted as a true account.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: In 2017, Miles Russell published the initial results of the Lost Voices of Celtic Britain Project established at Bournemouth University. The main conclusion of the study was that the "Historia Regum Britanniae" appears to contain significant demonstrable archaeological fact, despite being compiled many centuries after the period that it describes. Geoffrey seems to have brought together a disparate mass of source material, including folklore, chronicles, king-lists, dynastic tables, oral tales, and bardic praise poems, some of which was irrevocably garbled or corrupted. In doing so, Geoffrey exercised considerable editorial control, massaging the information and smoothing out apparent inconsistencies in order to create a single grand narrative which fed into the preferred narrative of the Norman rulers of Britain. Much of the information that he used can be shown to be derived from two discrete sources:


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Stretching this source material out, chopping, changing and re-editing it in the process, Geoffrey added not just his own fictions but also additional information culled from later Roman histories and also those of Dark Ages and early medieval writers such as Gildas and Bede.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: Geoffrey's earliest writing was probably the "" ("Prophecies of Merlin") which he wrote before 1135, and which appears both independently and incorporated into "The History of the Kings of Britain". It consists of a series of obscure prophetic utterances attributed to Merlin which he claimed to have translated from an unspecified language.


title: Geoffrey of Monmouth

text: The third work attributed to Geoffrey is the hexameter poem "Vita Merlini" ("Life of Merlin"), based more closely on traditional material about Merlin than the other works. Here he is known as Merlin of the Woods ("Merlinus Sylvestris") or Scottish Merlin ("Merlinus Caledonius") and is portrayed as an old man living as a crazed and grief-stricken outcast in the forest. The story is set long after the timeframe of the "History"s Merlin, but the author tries to synchronise the works with references to the mad prophet's previous dealings with Vortigern and Arthur. The "Vita" did not circulate widely, and the attribution to Geoffrey appears in only one late 13th-century manuscript, but it contains recognisably Galfridian elements in its construction and content, and most critics recognise it as his.


title: Romper Stomper

text: Romper Stomper is a 1992 Australian drama film written and directed by Geoffrey Wright in his feature film directorial debut. The film stars Russell Crowe, Daniel Pollock, Jacqueline McKenzie, Tony Le-Nguyen and Colin Chin. The film tells the story of the exploits and downfall of a neo-Nazi group in blue-collar suburban Melbourne. The film was released on 12 November 1992.


title: Romper Stomper

text: A gang of violent young neo-Nazi skinheads from Footscray, Victoria, Australia attack three Vietnamese Australian teenagers in a tunnel at Footscray Station, brutally beating two of them. The gang is led by Hando, a violent, reckless, and unpredictable psychopath with strong white nationalist beliefs and homicidal tendencies, with his friend and second-in-command, the quiet, reserved, but similarly violent Davey. At their local pub, Hando and Davey meet Gabrielle, who suffers from poorly controlled epilepsy, the day after her sexually abusive, affluent father Martin has her junkie boyfriend arrested. Gabrielle begins a romantic relationship with Hando, which, despite a strong start, quickly becomes dysfunctional as he becomes increasingly abusive towards her.


title: Romper Stomper

text: After the gang vandalizes a shopping mall, friends of the gang visit from Canberra, one of whom has joined the Royal Australian Navy. A party at the warehouse follows. The next day two boys go to the pub, which has just been sold to a Vietnamese businessman by the owner. Upon seeing the new owner and his sons, they inform Hando, who arrives with his gang, and they savagely beat two of the new owner's sons, while the third son escapes and calls for help. Fed up with the gang's antagonism and violence, a large mob of armed and angry Vietnamese men, led by Tiger, arrive and descend upon the skinheads. The Vietnamese outnumber the skinheads by droves, and in the ensuing brawl and chase, several skinheads are beaten by the angry mob, among them Magoo, Luke, Champ, and Brent. The rest of the gang is chased back to their rented warehouse, from which they narrowly escape as the Vietnamese mob breaks in and ransacks the building before burning it down.


title: Romper Stomper

text: The skinheads soon find a new base at a nearby warehouse, after evicting a pair of squatters, and plan retaliation against the Vietnamese. When the gang agrees to acquire firearms, two female friends of the gang depart in disgust. Gabrielle suggests the gang burgle her father's mansion for the guns. After beating and tying up Martin, the gang ransacks the house, smashes one of his cars, and raids his wine collection. The youngest skinhead, Bubs, steals a deactivated revolver from the house during the burglary. Gabrielle tells Martin the burglary is revenge for his years of abuse, then reveals to Davey her plan to take Hando away from his violent life. Martin eventually frees himself and uses a handgun to scare away the gang, who flee in the trashed vehicle and leave behind most of the stolen goods. Due to this incident, Davey begins to question his violent lifestyle.


title: Romper Stomper

text: Agitated by Gabrielle's criticism of the poor outcome of the robbery and their living conditions, Hando abruptly hits, berates, dumps, and then evicts her. Davey, unable to tolerate the excess violence and Hando's cruel and unpredictable nature any further, declares his departure from the gang and gives Gabrielle his German grandmother's address, where he will be staying. Gabrielle informs the police of the gang's location and spends the night with Davey, where they confess their feelings for each other. Davey also reveals his doubts about his violent lifestyle to Gabrielle, having removed the racist patches from his flight jacket out of concern for his grandmother.


title: Romper Stomper

text: The morning after, the police raid the warehouse where the skinhead gang is hiding. Bubs is shot in the head after pointing the stolen deactivated gun at the police, and what remains of the gang is beaten and arrested. Hando, who was returning to the warehouse and fled when he spotted the police, successfully evades capture as the last remaining member of his gang.


title: Romper Stomper

text: Arriving at Davey's granny-flat, Hando finds his friend in bed with Gabrielle. Hando accuses her of informing the police, but Davey says they were together the whole time since leaving the squat. However, Hando convinces Davey and Gabrielle to come with him by claiming the police will soon raid the residence, and the trio go on the run. They rob a service station, where Hando strangles the Asian attendant to death; and, after driving all night, they stop at Point Addis, Bells Beach the next morning. There, Gabrielle overhears a conversation wherein Hando tries to convince Davey to abandon her. Feeling betrayed, Gabrielle sets their car on fire and admits to tipping the police off about the gang's whereabouts. Hando, infuriated beyond sense, immediately attacks her and attempts to asphyxiate her multiple times, first by strangling her and then by drowning her in the surf. Davey attempts to fight Hando several times and successfully disrupts each attempt on Gabrielle's life, but he is quickly fought off and beaten down each time. Eventually, Hando attempts to smother Gabrielle in the sand, before Davey, desperate to save Gabrielle, stabs Hando in the neck with his Hitler Youth knife, who staggers away before finally collapsing. As a busload of Japanese tourists looks on, a weeping Davey attempts to comfort a petrified Gabrielle as Hando's corpse gazes lifelessly out at the ocean.


title: Romper Stomper

text: Geoffrey Wright's script was inspired by the highly publicised crimes of leading Melbourne Neo-Nazi Dane Sweetman. Wright contacted Sweetman via mail in 1991 to request an interview; Sweetman was at that time in the process of serving a life sentence in Pentridge Prison for murder. The interview could not be arranged in a timely manner due to prison regulations, so the two men commenced correspondence, and Sweetman furnished Wright with a transcript of his murder trial, from which Wright drew influence. This influence is most clearly seen in the line delivered by Hando when scaring off squatters from the warehouse: "I'll chop your legs off". It is a direct reference to Sweetman's having cut off the legs of his victim.


title: Romper Stomper

text: That was one of many aspects of the film that mirrored Sweetman's life. A further example is that the characters Gabrielle, Davey, and the punk girls were all based on associates of Sweetman. Sweetman's name was conspicuously absent in the end credits, however. This issue was raised in the Australian media during the publicity phase of promoting the film. Russell Crowe acknowledged the origin of his character during an interview on" Tonight Live "with Steve Vizard in 1992. Wright has also cited Sweetman as an inspiration for the film's characters.


title: Romper Stomper

text: The film's score was released by Picture This Records. It included the orchestral music and the energetic punk rock music similar to the Oi! genre (recorded by studio musicians).


title: Romper Stomper

text: White Power labels have bootlegged the RAC tracks and released them on a 7" many times since the soundtrack's release. In 2011, a Russian WP label released the whole soundtrack on a 12".


title: Romper Stomper

text: The RAC songs are often misattributed to real RAC bands on peer to peer sites, with Skrewdriver being used often. The band is also often called "Master Race" due to Peter Pales's German-language monologue in the beginning of "Pulling on the Boots". Some people have also considered the Australian punk band the Bastard Squad to have done the soundtrack, due to the line "Jason from the Bastard Squad" being in the thank you section at the movie's end credits. The actual versions of the RAC songs used in the film are earlier versions to what ended up on the commercial CD—most obvious being "Fuhrer Fuhrer", which plays in the scene after Hando is notified about Vietnamese being at the Railway Hotel—Clifford-White's intonation is slightly different and there are no backing vocals in the chorus.


title: Romper Stomper

text: In 2014, bassist Chris Pettifer was interviewed for "Vice Magazine" about the soundtrack, in which he expressed his disappointment about how genuine neo-Nazi groups had embraced the Oi! songs.


title: Romper Stomper

text: The film was nominated for nine Australian Film Institute Awards. It won Best Achievement in Sound, Best Actor in a Lead Role and Best Original Music Score.


title: Romper Stomper

text: "Romper Stomper" opened at number one at the Australian box office with a gross of $819,736 from 49 screens, replacing "Strictly Ballroom". It went on to gross $3.2 million at the Australian box office, the second highest-grossing Australian film of the year behind "Strictly Ballroom". The film has an approval rating of 79% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 29 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.4/10 with its consensus reading, "Relentlessly grim and gripping, "Romper Stomper" is a disquietingly authentic glimpse into the inner dynamics of a hate group, featuring an electric performance by Russell Crowe".


title: Romper Stomper

text: David Stratton of SBS "The Movie Show" praised the acting style in the film but was appalled at the level of violence, and as a consequence refused to give it a rating while fellow "Movie Show" critic Margaret Pomeranz gave it four-and-a-half stars. Stratton also described the film in "Variety" as ""A Clockwork Orange" without the intellect". Wright was so upset by Stratton's rating that he later poured a glass of wine on Stratton during a chance meeting at the 1994 Venice Film Festival. Stratton would many years later clarify his rating stating: "I think "Romper Stomper" was a very well-made film and an extremely well-acted film, and I thought Geoffrey Wright had a lot of talent. What troubled me about "Romper Stomper" was that it was made in a time, I think 1992, when there had been some racial problems with young Vietnamese people, particularly in Melbourne, and...I thought the film could stir up more violence..."


title: Romper Stomper

text: The film's violent content sparked heavy controversy. In March 2000, British prisoner Robert Stewart bludgeoned his cellmate, Zahid Mubarek, to death with a wooden table leg at the Feltham Young Offenders' Institution. In 2004, Stewart was found guilty of the racially motivated murder of Mubarek and was jailed for life. Stewart compared himself to Hando in "Romper Stomper" as well as Alex DeLarge in "A Clockwork Orange". An inquiry heard that Stewart had watched "Romper Stomper" two days before the killing. A member of the inquiry team said he was a prolific letter writer, and much of his correspondence contained racist and violent content: "He sees himself in the correspondence starring in the film "Romper Stomper" as a racist thug attacking gooks," the inquiry was told. The Anti-Nazi League protested against the film's London premiere.


title: Romper Stomper

text: Dylann Roof, the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting, had an image of Hando dying on the homepage of his personal website.


title: Romper Stomper

text: In August 2017, Australian video streaming service Stan announced that it was producing "Romper Stomper", a six-part television series, as a sequel to the film. The film's director, Geoffrey Wright, will direct two episodes, alongside fellow directors Daina Reid and James Napier Robertson. The actors reprising their original roles are Jacqueline McKenzie, Dan Wyllie and John Brumpton.


title: Pendulum clock

text: A pendulum clock is a clock that uses a pendulum, a swinging weight, as its timekeeping element. The advantage of a pendulum for timekeeping is that it is a harmonic oscillator: It swings back and forth in a precise time interval dependent on its length, and resists swinging at other rates. From its invention in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens, inspired by Galileo Galilei, until the 1930s, the pendulum clock was the world's most precise timekeeper, accounting for its widespread use. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, pendulum clocks in homes, factories, offices, and railroad stations served as primary time standards for scheduling daily life, work shifts, and public transportation. Their greater accuracy allowed for the faster pace of life which was necessary for the Industrial Revolution. The home pendulum clock was replaced by less-expensive, synchronous, electric clocks in the 1930s and '40s. Pendulum clocks are now kept mostly for their decorative and antique value.


title: Pendulum clock

text: Pendulum clocks must be stationary to operate. Any motion or accelerations will affect the motion of the pendulum, causing inaccuracies, thus necessitating other mechanisms for use in portable timepieces.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The first pendulum clock was invented in 1656 by Dutch scientist and inventor Christiaan Huygens, and patented the following year. Huygens contracted the construction of his clock designs to clockmaker Salomon Coster, who actually built the clock. Huygens was inspired by investigations of pendulums by Galileo Galilei beginning around 1602. Galileo discovered the key property that makes pendulums useful timekeepers: isochronism, which means that the period of swing of a pendulum is approximately the same for different sized swings. Galileo in 1637 described to his son a mechanism which could keep a pendulum swinging, which has been called the first pendulum clock design "(picture at top)". It was partly constructed by his son in 1649, but neither lived to finish it. The introduction of the pendulum, the first harmonic oscillator used in timekeeping, increased the accuracy of clocks enormously, from about 15 minutes per day to 15 seconds per day leading to their rapid spread as existing 'verge and foliot' clocks were retrofitted with pendulums.


title: Pendulum clock

text: These early clocks, due to their verge escapements, had wide pendulum swings of 80–100°. In his 1673 analysis of pendulums, "Horologium Oscillatorium", Huygens showed that wide swings made the pendulum inaccurate, causing its period, and thus the rate of the clock, to vary with unavoidable variations in the driving force provided by the movement. Clockmakers' realization that only pendulums with small swings of a few degrees are isochronous motivated the invention of the anchor escapement by Robert Hooke around 1658, which reduced the pendulum's swing to 4–6°. The anchor became the standard escapement used in pendulum clocks. In addition to increased accuracy, the anchor's narrow pendulum swing allowed the clock's case to accommodate longer, slower pendulums, which needed less power and caused less wear on the movement. The seconds pendulum (also called the Royal pendulum), 0.994 m (39.1 in) long, in which the time period is two seconds, became widely used in quality clocks. The long narrow clocks built around these pendulums, first made by William Clement around 1680, became known as grandfather clocks. The increased accuracy resulting from these developments caused the minute hand, previously rare, to be added to clock faces beginning around 1690.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The 18th and 19th century wave of horological innovation that followed the invention of the pendulum brought many improvements to pendulum clocks. The deadbeat escapement invented in 1675 by Richard Towneley and popularized by George Graham around 1715 in his precision "regulator" clocks gradually replaced the anchor escapement and is now used in most modern pendulum clocks. Observation that pendulum clocks slowed down in summer brought the realization that thermal expansion and contraction of the pendulum rod with changes in temperature was a source of error. This was solved by the invention of temperature-compensated pendulums; the mercury pendulum by Graham in 1721 and the gridiron pendulum by John Harrison in 1726. With these improvements, by the mid-18th century precision pendulum clocks achieved accuracies of a few seconds per week.


title: Pendulum clock

text: Until the 19th century, clocks were handmade by individual craftsmen and were very expensive. The rich ornamentation of pendulum clocks of this period indicates their value as status symbols of the wealthy. The clockmakers of each country and region in Europe developed their own distinctive styles. By the 19th century, factory production of clock parts gradually made pendulum clocks affordable by middle-class families.


title: Pendulum clock

text: During the Industrial Revolution, the faster pace of life and scheduling of shifts and public transportation like trains depended on the more accurate timekeeping made possible by the pendulum. Daily life was organized around the home pendulum clock. More accurate pendulum clocks, called "regulators", were installed in places of business and railroad stations and used to schedule work and set other clocks. The need for extremely accurate timekeeping in celestial navigation to determine longitude on ships during long sea voyages drove the development of the most accurate pendulum clocks, called "astronomical regulators". These precision instruments, installed in naval observatories and kept accurate within a second by observation of star transits overhead, were used to set marine chronometers on naval and commercial vessels. Beginning in the 19th century, astronomical regulators in naval observatories served as primary standards for national time distribution services that distributed time signals over telegraph wires. From 1909, US National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) based the US time standard on Riefler pendulum clocks, accurate to about 10 milliseconds per day. In 1929 it switched to the Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock before phasing in quartz standards in the 1930s.


title: Pendulum clock

text: Pendulum clocks remained the world standard for accurate timekeeping for 270 years, until the invention of the quartz clock in 1927, and were used as time standards through World War 2. The French Time Service included pendulum clocks in their ensemble of standard clocks until 1954. The home pendulum clock began to be replaced as domestic timekeeper during the 1930s and 1940s by the synchronous electric clock, which kept more accurate time because it was synchronized to the oscillation of the electric power grid. The most accurate experimental pendulum clock ever made may be the Littlemore Clock built by Edward T. Hall in the 1990s


title: Pendulum clock

text: The mechanism which runs a mechanical clock is called the movement. The movements of all mechanical pendulum clocks have these five parts:


title: Pendulum clock

text: Additional functions in clocks besides basic timekeeping are called complications. More elaborate pendulum clocks may include these complications:


title: Pendulum clock

text: In "electromechanical pendulum clocks" such as used in mechanical Master clocks the power source is replaced by an electrically powered solenoid that provides the impulses to the pendulum by magnetic force, and the escapement is replaced by a switch or photodetector that senses when the pendulum is in the right position to receive the impulse. These should not be confused with more recent quartz pendulum clocks in which an electronic quartz clock module swings a pendulum. These are not true pendulum clocks because the timekeeping is controlled by a quartz crystal in the module, and the swinging pendulum is merely a decorative simulation.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The pendulum in most clocks "(see diagram)" consists of a wood or metal rod "(a)" with a metal weight called the bob "(b)" on the end. The bob is traditionally lens-shaped to reduce air drag. Wooden rods were often used in quality clocks because wood had a lower coefficient of thermal expansion than metal. The rod is usually suspended from the clock frame with a short straight spring of metal ribbon "(d)"; this avoids instabilities that were introduced by a conventional pivot. In the most accurate regulator clocks the pendulum is suspended by metal knife edges resting on flat agate plates.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The pendulum is driven by an arm hanging behind it attached to the anchor piece "(h)" of the escapement, called the "crutch" "(e)", ending in a "fork" "(f)" which embraces the pendulum rod. Each swing of the pendulum releases the escape wheel, and a tooth of the wheel presses against one of the pallets, exerting a brief push through the crutch and fork on the pendulum rod to keep it swinging.


title: Pendulum clock

text: Most quality clocks, including all grandfather clocks, have a "seconds pendulum", in which each swing of the pendulum takes one second (a complete cycle takes two seconds), which is approximately one meter (39 in) long from pivot to center of bob. Mantel clocks often have a half-second pendulum, which is approximately long. Only a few tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7.4 ft) long, or occasionally the two-second pendulum, 4 m (13 ft) which is used in Big Ben.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The pendulum swings with a period that varies with the square root of its effective length. For small swings the period "T", the time for one complete cycle (two swings), is


title: Pendulum clock

text: where "L" is the length of the pendulum and "g" is the local acceleration of gravity. All pendulum clocks have a means of adjusting the rate. This is usually an adjustment nut "(c)" under the pendulum bob which moves the bob up or down on its rod. Moving the bob up reduces the length of the pendulum, reducing the pendulum's period so the clock gains time. In some pendulum clocks, fine adjustment is done with an auxiliary adjustment, which may be a small weight that is moved up or down the pendulum rod. In some master clocks and tower clocks, adjustment is accomplished by a small tray mounted on the rod where small weights are placed or removed to change the effective length, so the rate can be adjusted without stopping the clock.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The period of a pendulum increases slightly with the width (amplitude) of its swing. The "rate" of error increases with amplitude, so when limited to small swings of a few degrees the pendulum is nearly "isochronous"; its period is independent of changes in amplitude. Therefore, the swing of the pendulum in clocks is limited to 2° to 4°.


title: Pendulum clock

text: Small swing angles tend toward isochronous behavior due to the mathematical fact that the approximation sin(x) = x becomes valid as the angle approaches zero. With that substitution made, the pendulum equation becomes the equation of a harmonic oscillator, which has a fixed period in all cases. As the swing angle becomes larger, the approximation gradually fails and the period is no longer fixed.


title: Pendulum clock

text: A major source of error in pendulum clocks is thermal expansion; the pendulum rod changes in length slightly with changes in temperature, causing changes in the rate of the clock. An increase in temperature causes the rod to expand, making the pendulum longer, so its period increases and the clock loses time. Many older quality clocks used wooden pendulum rods to reduce this error, as wood expands less than metal.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The first pendulum to correct for this error was the "mercury pendulum" invented by Graham in 1721, which was used in precision regulator clocks into the 20th century. These had a bob consisting of a container of the liquid metal mercury. An increase in temperature would cause the pendulum rod to expand, but the mercury in the container would also expand and its level would rise slightly in the container, moving the center of gravity of the pendulum up toward the pivot. By using the correct amount of mercury, the centre of gravity of the pendulum remained at a constant height, and thus its period remained constant, despite changes in temperature.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The most widely used temperature-compensated pendulum was the gridiron pendulum invented by John Harrison around 1726. This consisted of a "grid" of parallel rods of high-thermal-expansion metal such as zinc or brass and low-thermal-expansion metal such as steel. If properly combined, the length change of the high-expansion rods compensated for the length change of the low-expansion rods, again achieving a constant period of the pendulum with temperature changes.


title: Pendulum clock

text: This type of pendulum became so associated with quality that decorative "fake" gridirons are often seen on pendulum clocks, that have no actual temperature compensation function.


title: Pendulum clock

text: Beginning around 1900, some of the highest precision scientific clocks had pendulums made of ultra-low-expansion materials such as the nickel steel alloy Invar or fused silica, which required very little compensation for the effects of temperature.


title: Pendulum clock

text: The viscosity of the air through which the pendulum swings will vary with atmospheric pressure, humidity, and temperature. This drag also requires power that could otherwise be applied to extending the time between windings. Traditionally the pendulum bob is made with a narrow streamlined lens shape to reduce air drag, which is where most of the driving power goes in a quality clock. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, pendulums for precision regulator clocks in astronomical observatories were often operated in a chamber that had been pumped to a low pressure to reduce drag and make the pendulum's operation even more accurate by avoiding changes in atmospheric pressure. Fine adjustment of the rate of the clock could be made by slight changes to the internal pressure in the sealed housing.