title: Michael Steele

text: When Paul Sarbanes, Maryland's longest-serving United States Senator, announced in March 2005 that he would not be a candidate for re-election in 2006, top state and national Republican officials began pressing Steele to become their party's nominee for the seat. In April 2005, "The Baltimore Sun" announced the results of a poll it conducted, stating that Steele would run statistically neck and neck against either former NAACP head Kweisi Mfume, or Rep. Benjamin L. Cardin of Baltimore County. Steele formally announced his candidacy for the U.S. Senate on October 25, 2005.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele won the Republican nomination after facing little opposition in the primary. His opponents were Democrat Ben Cardin and Independent Kevin Zeese (who was endorsed by the Green and Libertarian parties). The three candidates participated in three debates. Cardin primarily attacked Steele over his close relations with President Bush. Steele focused on low taxes, less government spending, free markets and national security.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele lost the general election to Cardin on November 7, 2006, 44 percent to Cardin's 55 percent. Steele's former campaign finance chairman later alleged improprieties in Steele's handling of campaign funds, which Steele denied.


title: Michael Steele

text: One day after Steele conceded defeat in the senate election, Chris Cillizza of "The Washington Post" reported that Steele was hoping to succeed Ken Mehlman as the chairman of the Republican National Committee. Senator Mel Martinez of Florida, who had the endorsement of President George W. Bush, got the position.


title: Michael Steele

text: In February 2007, Steele became chairman of GOPAC, a political action committee that helps fund state and local Republican campaigns around the country and is responsible for training future Republican candidates. He succeeded former U.S. Congressman J.C. Watts, a fellow black Republican. In April 2007, Steele joined the international law firm of Dewey & LeBoeuf, as a partner in the firm's Washington, D.C. office.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele is considered a possible candidate for Governor of Maryland in the future and said he was "intrigued by the idea" for 2010. He said that he would not run for president in 2012.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele appeared several times on HBO's political show "Real Time with Bill Maher", and was on Comedy Central's talk show "The Colbert Report" on January 23, 2007. He also hosted a PBS Republican Primary debate in Baltimore, Maryland on September 27, 2007.


title: Michael Steele

text: He coined the phrase "Drill Baby Drill" during the 2008 Republican National Convention in Minnesota, where he promoted offshore drilling as an alternative to dependency on foreign oil.


title: Michael Steele

text: On November 24, 2008, Steele kicked off his campaign for the RNC chairmanship by launching his website. On January 30, 2009, Steele won the chairmanship of the RNC in the sixth round, with 91 votes to Katon Dawson's 77. Steele, the RNC's first African American chairman, was selected in the aftermath of President Obama's election; many in the GOP saw him as a charismatic counter to the nation's first Black president.


title: Michael Steele

text: On March 1, 2009, in response to a question on CBS's "Face the Nation" as to who spoke for the Republican Party, White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel opined that Rush Limbaugh spoke for the Party; Emanuel asserted that "whenever a Republican criticizes [Limbaugh], they have to run back and apologize to him, and say they were misunderstood. He is the voice and the intellectual force and energy behind the Republican Party. And he has been upfront about what he views, and hasn't stepped back from that, which is he hopes for [President Obama's] failure. He said it. And I compliment him for his honesty, but that's their philosophy that is enunciated by Rush Limbaugh."


title: Michael Steele

text: In remarks aired by the CNN program "D.L. Hughley Breaks the News" on March 1, 2009, Steele said he, rather than Limbaugh, was "the "de facto" leader of the Republican Party. Rush Limbaugh is an entertainer. Rush Limbaugh's whole thing is entertainment. Yes, it is incendiary. Yes, it is ugly." On March 2, 2009, Limbaugh said on his radio show that Steele was not fit to lead the Republican Party, asking why Steele claimed "to lead the Republican Party when [he seemed] obsessed with seeing to it President Obama succeeds?" After the show, Steele called Limbaugh to apologize, saying "I have enormous respect for Rush Limbaugh. I was maybe a little bit inarticulate. There was no attempt on my part to diminish his voice or his leadership. I went back at that tape and I realized words that I said weren't what I was thinking. It was one of those things where I thinking I was saying one thing, and it came out differently. What I was trying to say was a lot of people want to make Rush the scapegoat, the bogeyman, and he's not." Steele later issued another statement to say that Limbaugh "is a national conservative leader, and in no way do I want to diminish his voice. I truly apologize."


title: Michael Steele

text: In the fall of 2010, Steele launched the "Fire Pelosi Bus Tour", with the goal of "firing" Speaker Pelosi from her position as Speaker of the House of Representatives by re-establishing a Republican majority in the United States House of Representatives. The tour began on September 15 and lasted six weeks, visiting 48 states in the Continental U.S. and more than 100 cities while covering 14,000 miles. The Tour's purpose was to "encourage votes for Republicans in districts across the nation". The stops in individual districts gave Steele, "known for his bomb-throwing speaking style", an opportunity to fire up local GOP activists. During the tour, "Steele urged party unity" as the Republicans attempted to take over the House of Representatives and end Representative Pelosi's tenure as Speaker of the House.


title: Michael Steele

text: The RNC broke fundraising records by raising over $198 million during the 2010 congressional cycle; in November 2010, Republicans won 63 House seats (the biggest pickup since 1938) and retook control of the House. The 2010 midterm elections were successful for Steele and the Republicans, as they also took back six Senate seats, seven governorships, and the greatest share of state legislative seats since 1928 (over 600 seats).


title: Michael Steele

text: In December 2010, Steele declared that he would run for re-election as RNC chairman. The 2011 Republican National Committee (RNC) chairmanship election was held on January 14, 2011. Steele withdrew from the race after the fourth ballot, urging his supporters to vote for Maria Cino. After seven rounds of balloting, Reince Priebus was elected over Steele, Saul Anuzis, Ann Wagner and Maria Cino.


title: Michael Steele

text: After his loss in the chairmanship election, Steele was hired by MSNBC to be a regular political analyst as of May 2011. He also was hired to be a columnist for the online magazine "The Root", an African-American news and commentary site owned by The Washington Post Company.


title: Michael Steele

text: On C-SPAN's "Washington Journal" on the Sunday after the 2012 Obama reelection victory, Steele expressed some interest in running for RNC Chairman again. Steele emphasized the need to make conservative minorities feel comfortable and welcome in a party that offered them opportunities to launch political careers in counties and statehouses.


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2018, Steele was named a faculty fellow at Brown University's Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, where he will lead seminars.


title: Michael Steele

text: In August 2020, Steele joined the Lincoln Project PAC and endorsed Joe Biden for president. In April 2021, Steele spoke of his interest in running in the Republican primary for the job of governor of Maryland in June 2022. "He could be a very strong challenger in Maryland," commented Roger E. Hartley, the dean of the University of Baltimore's College of Public Affairs.


title: Michael Steele

text: As Lieutenant Governor of Maryland, Steele chaired the Governor's Commission on Minority Business Enterprise Reform.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele rejects the scientific consensus on climate change, claiming in 2009 that the Earth is "cooling" rather than "the supposed warming".


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele was openly critical of Donald Trump during his 2016 presidential campaign and has continued to oppose President Trump during his subsequent administration. In a January 2018 interview on MSNBC, in response to an accusation that President Trump had referred to El Salvador and Haiti as "shithole countries", Steele expressed his belief that the President was "racist". Steele reiterated his frustration with Trump and his supporters during the COVID-19 pandemic by saying "I've talked to enough of them over the last few days. I'm exhausted, I'm exasperated. You know, at this point, it's like, save who you can save. Because there's only so much you can do, there's only so much you can say. The fact that we have to literally beg people to wear a mask to save their own dumb ass from getting sick, I'm sorry. To me, it is beyond the imagination... I am just so exhausted with this president."


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2008, Steele said he was opposed to abortion and thought "Roe v. Wade" was "wrongly decided". In a March 2009 interview with "GQ", Steele suggested that abortion restrictions should be left to state governments, and stated that he "absolutely" believed there was room for a "pro-choice" candidate in the GOP. This statement prompted criticism from socially conservative Republicans such as Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee and former Ohio Secretary of State Ken Blackwell, as well as the Christian Coalition, and Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council. In response to these critics, Steele suggested that he asked God for patience "so I absolutely don't go out and kick this person's ass".


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2008, Steele said that he personally opposes a constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage, saying that he believes states should decide the issue for themselves. Steele, however, has indicated he would uphold the Republican Party platform and support the amendment. He rates the issue of banning same-sex marriage low in importance. In 2009, Steele opposed same-sex civil unions. However, in 2012, Steele said that LGBT couples deserve full privileges and benefits under the law.


title: Michael Steele

text: In a 2006 interview with "The Washington Post", Steele commented on gun control: "Society should draw lines. What do you need an assault weapon for, if you're going hunting? That's overkill. But I don't think that means you go to a total ban for those who want to use gun for skeet shooting or hunting or things like that. But what's the point of passing gun laws if we're not going to enforce them? If you want to talk about gun control, that's where you need to start. We've got 300 gun laws on the books right now. At the end of the day, it's about how we enforce the law."


title: Michael Steele

text: In 2009, speaking on illegal immigration, Steele called for the U.S. to "secure our borders first", saying, "you cannot begin to address the concerns of the people who are already here unless and until you have made certain that no more are coming in behind them."


title: Michael Steele

text: During his 2006 campaign, Steele said that he only supported stem cell research if it did not result in the destruction of the embryo. In February 2006, Steele compared embryonic stem cell research to medical experiments performed by the Nazis during the Holocaust, remarks for which he later apologized.


title: Michael Steele

text: In July 2010, video footage of Steele was released in which he stated that the Afghan war was "a war of Obama's choosing. If he's such a student of history has he not understood that, you know, that's the one thing you don't do – is engage in a land war in Afghanistan? Everyone who has tried, over a thousand years of history has failed." He also said the war was "not something the United States had actively prosecuted or wanted to engage in". However, the war in Afghanistan was initiated by George W. Bush in October 2001 in retaliation for the September 11 attacks on New York City and Washington D.C.; Barack Obama increased troop levels there.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele's comments drew criticism, with neoconservative commentator William Kristol calling for Steele's resignation and former George W. Bush adviser Karl Rove calling Steele's comment "boneheaded." U.S. Senator John McCain of Arizona, the Republican nominee for president in the 2008 election, withdrew his support from Steele, calling Steele's comments "wildly inaccurate ... there is no excuse for them" and saying "I think that Mr. Steele is going to have to assess as to whether he can still lead the Republican Party as chairman of the Republican National Committee." Senator Jim DeMint called upon Steele to apologize and Senator Lindsey Graham said, "It was an uninformed, unnecessary, unwise, untimely comment. This is not President Obama's war, this is America's war. We need to stand behind the president." Former Vice President Dick Cheney's daughter Elizabeth Cheney also called for Steele to resign. However, Congressman Ron Paul, who is known for his generally antiwar stance, in support of Steele said, "Michael Steele has it right, and Republicans should stick by him."


title: Michael Steele

text: In contrast to his position on Afghanistan, Steele has been a supporter of the Iraq War and President George W. Bush's war strategy. During his 2006 campaign, Steele opposed setting a timetable for U.S. withdrawal from Iraq. Steele criticized President Obama on the issue, complaining that he had "demonized" the Iraq War.


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele is a supporter of the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact. In a piece co-authored with former Michigan Republican Party Chairman Saul Anuzis, Steele states that "the good news is that under a national popular vote, a Republican could probably survive a narrow popular vote loss in Texas or Florida and still win the presidency, because every GOP vote in those states would still count toward a national popular vote majority."


title: Michael Steele

text: Steele's book, "", was released on January 4, 2010; it was published by Regnery Publishing, . The Associated Press reported that, "Steele focuses much of the book on familiar GOP denunciations of President Barack Obama's overall policies ('a roadmap to failure'), the $787 billion stimulus bill ('a reckless, wasteful, pork-laden spending spree'), liberal views on man-made global warming ('A threat to life on Earth? Depends on whom you ask') and other issues. To regain the public confidence, Steele says the GOP should, among other things, expose the 'reign of error' inherent in liberal policies, contrast conservative and liberal principles, and highlight the damage caused by Obama's policies while explaining conservative solutions."


title: Michael Steele

text: Michael Steele has been awarded honors and awards in recognition of his political career. These include:


title: Largest naval battle in history

text: The "largest naval battle in history" is a disputed title between adherents of varying criteria which include the numbers of personnel and/or vessels involved in the naval battle, the total displacement of the vessels involved and sometimes the significance and/or implications of the battle. While battles fought in modern times are comparatively well-documented, the figures from those in pre-Renaissance era are generally believed by contemporary chroniclers to be exaggerated.


title: Largest naval battle in history

text: In 1975, the Austrian historian attempted to evaluate naval battles in history by a scoring system. He assigned a score to each of four aspects of a battle as follows:


title: Largest naval battle in history

text: According to him, the largest naval battle ever is the Battle of Leyte Gulf, scoring 8 of a possible 9 points total, while six others tied for second at 7 points each: Salamis, the Aegates, Actium, La Hogue, Trafalgar and Jutland.


title: Ed Oxenbould

text: Ed Oxenbould (born 1 June 2001) is an Australian actor. He rose to prominence for his role in the film "Julian" (2012). Subsequently, he appeared in the television series "Puberty Blues" (2012–2014) and became more well-known for his role in the film "Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day" (2014). He continued to gain fame for his roles in the films "Paper Planes" (2015), "The Visit" (2015), "Better Watch Out" (2016) and "Wildlife" (2018).


title: Ed Oxenbould

text: Oxenbould was born in Melbourne, Australia, the son of actors Diane Adams and Jamie Oxenbould. He is the nephew of comedian/actor Ben Oxenbould.


title: Ed Oxenbould

text: He starred in the 2012 Australian short film "Julian", directed by Matthew Moore, in which he played the title role (a 9-year-old Julian Assange). He was nominated for the AACTA Award for Best Young Actor. He then starred in the Australian television show "Puberty Blues" as David Vickers, a 10-year-old boy.


title: Ed Oxenbould

text: Oxenbould co-starred as Dylan in the 2014 film "Paper Planes" along with Sam Worthington, which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. On 24 June 2013, Oxenbould was added to the cast of Disney's film "Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day", in which he played the title role of Alexander. Miguel Arteta directed the comedy film, which was released on 10 October 2014.


title: Ed Oxenbould

text: Oxenbould won the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Sierra Award for Best Youth Male Performance for his role in the 2018 American indie film "Wildlife".


title: Alan Freed

text: Albert James "Alan" Freed (December 15, 1921 – January 20, 1965) was an American disc jockey. He also produced and promoted large traveling concerts with various acts, helping to spread the importance of rock and roll music throughout North America.


title: Alan Freed

text: In 1986, Freed was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. His "role in breaking down racial barriers in U.S. pop culture in the 1950s, by leading white and black kids to listen to the same music, put the radio personality 'at the vanguard' and made him 'a really important figure'", according to the executive director.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991. The organization's website posted this note: "He became internationally known for promoting African-American rhythm and blues music on the radio in the United States and Europe under the name of rock and roll".


title: Alan Freed

text: In the early 1960s, Freed's career was destroyed by the payola scandal that hit the broadcasting industry, as well as by allegations of taking credit for songs he did not write and by his chronic alcoholism.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed was born to a Russian Jewish immigrant father, Charles S. Freed, and Welsh-American mother, Maude Palmer, in Windber, Pennsylvania. In 1933, Freed's family moved to Salem, Ohio, where Freed attended Salem High School, graduating in 1940. While Freed was in high school, he formed a band called the Sultans of Swing in which he played the trombone. Freed's initial ambition was to be a bandleader; however, an ear infection put an end to that dream.


title: Alan Freed

text: While attending Ohio State University, Freed became interested in radio. Freed served in the US Army during World War II and worked as a DJ on Armed Forces Radio. Soon after World War II, Freed landed broadcasting jobs at smaller radio stations, including WKST (New Castle, Pennsylvania); WKBN (Youngstown, Ohio); and WAKR (Akron, Ohio), where, in 1945, he became a local favorite for playing hot jazz and pop recordings. Freed enjoyed listening to these new styles because he liked the rhythms and tunes.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed was the first radio disc jockey and concert producer who frequently played and promoted rock and roll; he popularized the phrase "rock and roll" on mainstream radio in the early 1950s. (The term already existed and had been used by "Billboard" as early as 1946, but it remained obscure.)


title: Alan Freed

text: Several sources suggest that he first discovered the term (as a euphemism for sexual intercourse) on the record "Sixty Minute Man" by Billy Ward and his Dominoes. The lyrics include the line, "I rock 'em, roll 'em all night long", however, Freed did not accept that inspiration (or that meaning of the expression) in interviews, and explained his view of the term as follows: "Rock 'n roll is really swing with a modern name. It began on the levees and plantations, took in folk songs, and features blues and rhythm".


title: Alan Freed

text: He helped bridge the gap of segregation among young teenage Americans, presenting music by black artists (rather than cover versions by white artists) on his radio program, and arranging live concerts attended by racially mixed audiences. Freed appeared in several motion pictures as himself. In the 1956 film "Rock, Rock, Rock", Freed tells the audience that "rock and roll is a river of music which has absorbed many streams: rhythm and blues, jazz, ragtime, cowboy songs, country songs, folk songs. All have contributed greatly to the big beat."


title: Alan Freed

text: In June 1945, Alan Freed joined WAKR (1590 AM) in Akron, Ohio, and quickly became a star announcer. Dubbed "The Old Knucklehead", Freed had up to five hours of airtime every day on the station by June 1948: the daytime "Jukebox Serenade", the early-evening "Wax Works" and the nightly "Request Review". Freed also had brief run-ins with management and was at one point temporarily fired for violating studio rules and failing to show up for work for several days in a row.


title: Alan Freed

text: At the height of his popularity in 1948, Freed signed a contract extension with WAKR that included a non-compete clause inserted by owner S. Bernard Berk, preventing Freed from working at any station within a radius of of Akron for a full year. Freed left WAKR on February 12, 1950, and after one program on competing station WADC (1350 AM) several days later, Berk and WAKR sued Freed to enforce the clause. Freed repeatedly lost in court, even after appealing his case to the Supreme Court of Ohio; Berk's successful implementation of the non-compete is now recognized within the industry as a model for broadcasters regarding on-air talent contracts.


title: Alan Freed

text: In the late 1940s, while working at WAKR, Freed met Cleveland record store owner Leo Mintz. Record Rendezvous, one of Cleveland's largest record stores, had begun selling rhythm and blues records. Mintz told Freed that he had noticed increased interest in the records at his store, and encouraged him to play them on the radio.


title: Alan Freed

text: In 1951, having already joined television station WXEL (channel 9, now WJW channel 8) in the middle of 1950 as an announcer, Freed moved to Cleveland, which at 39 miles from Akron was within the range of the still in force non-compete clause. However, in April, through the help of William Shipley, RCA's Northern Ohio distributor, he was released from the non-compete clause. He was then hired by WJW radio for a midnight program sponsored by Main Line, the RCA Distributor, and Record Rendezvous. Freed peppered his speech with hipster language, and, with a rhythm and blues record called "Moondog" as his theme song, broadcast R&B hits into the night.


title: Alan Freed

text: Mintz proposed buying airtime on Cleveland radio station WJW (850 AM), which would be devoted entirely to R&B recordings, with Freed as host. On July 11, 1951, Freed began playing rhythm and blues records on WJW. While R&B records were played for many years on lower-powered, inner city radio stations aimed at African-Americans, this is arguably the first time that authentic R&B was featured regularly on a major, mass audience station. Freed called his show "The Moondog House" and billed himself as "The King of the Moondoggers". He had been inspired by an instrumental piece called "Moondog Symphony" that had been recorded by New York-based composer and street musician Louis T. Hardin, known professionally as Moondog. Freed adopted the record as his show's theme music. His on-air manner was energetic, in contrast to many contemporary radio presenters of traditional pop music, who tended to sound more subdued and low-key in manner. He addressed his listeners as if they were all part of a make-believe kingdom of hipsters, united in their love for black music. He also began popularizing the phrase "rock and roll" to describe the music he played.


title: Alan Freed

text: Later that year, Freed promoted dances and concerts featuring the music he was playing on the radio. He was one of the organizers of a five-act show called "The Moondog Coronation Ball" on March 21, 1952, at the Cleveland Arena. This event is now considered to have been the first major rock and roll concert. Crowds attended in numbers far beyond the arena's capacity, and the concert was shut down early due to overcrowding and a near-riot. Freed gained notoriety from the incident. WJW immediately increased the airtime allotted to Freed's program, and his popularity soared.


title: Alan Freed

text: In those days, Cleveland was considered by the music industry to be a "breakout" city, where national trends first appeared in a regional market. Freed's popularity made the pop music business take notice. Soon, tapes of Freed's program, "Moondog", began to air in the New York City area over station WNJR 1430 (now WNSW), in Newark, New Jersey.


title: Alan Freed

text: In July 1954, following his success on the air in Cleveland, Freed moved to WINS (1010 AM) in New York City. Hardin, the original Moondog, later took a court action suit against WINS for damages against Freed for infringement in 1956, arguing prior claim to the name "Moondog", under which he had been composing since 1947. Hardin collected a $6,000 judgment from Freed, as well as an agreement to give up further usage of the name Moondog. Freed left the station in May 1958 "after a riot at a dance in Boston featuring Jerry Lee Lewis". WINS eventually became an around-the-clock Top 40 rock and roll radio station, and would remain so until April 19, 1965, long after Freed left and three months after he had died—when it became an all-news outlet.


title: Alan Freed

text: Earlier, in 1955 and 1956, Freed had hosted "The Camel Rock and Roll Dance Party", so named for the sponsor Camel cigarettes. The half hour program headlined Count Basie and his Orchestra and later Sam The Man Taylor and His Orchestra, and featured weekly rock n roll guests such as LaVern Baker, Clyde McPhatter and Frankie Lyman and the Teenagers. The radio program was also referred to as "Alan Freed's Rock 'n' Roll Dance Party" on CBS Radio from New York.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed also worked at WABC (AM) starting in May 1958 but was fired from that station on November 21, 1959, after refusing to sign a statement for the FCC that he had never accepted payola bribes.


title: Alan Freed

text: He subsequently arrived at a small Los Angeles station, KDAY (1580 AM) and worked there for about one year.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed also appeared in a number of pioneering rock and roll motion pictures during this period. These films were often welcomed with tremendous enthusiasm by teenagers because they brought visual depictions of their favorite American acts to the big screen, years before music videos would present the same sort of image on the small television screen.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed appeared in several motion pictures that presented many of the big musical acts of his day, including:


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed was given a weekly primetime TV series, "The Big Beat", which premiered on ABC on July 12, 1957. The show was scheduled for a summer run, with the understanding that if there were enough viewers, it would continue into the 1957–58 television season. Although the ratings for the show were strong, it was suddenly terminated. "The Wall Street Journal" summarized the end of the program as follows. "Four episodes into “The Big Beat,” Freed's prime-time TV music series on ABC, an uproar was caused when African-American artist Frankie Lymon was seen on TV dancing with a white audience member". Two more episodes were aired but the show was suddenly cancelled. Some sources indicate that the cancellation was triggered by an uproar among ABC's local affiliates in the South.


title: Alan Freed

text: During this period, Freed was seen on other popular programs of the day, including "To Tell the Truth", where he is seen defending the new "rock and roll" sound to the panelists, who were all clearly more comfortable with swing music: Polly Bergen, Ralph Bellamy, Hy Gardner and Kitty Carlisle.


title: Alan Freed

text: In 1958, Freed faced controversy in Boston when he told the audience, "It looks like the Boston police don't want you to have a good time." As a result, Freed was arrested and charged with inciting to riot, and was fired from his job at WINS.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed's career was significantly affected when it was shown that he had accepted payola (payments from record companies to play specific records), a practice that was highly controversial at the time. He initially denied taking payola but later admitted to his fans that he had accepted bribes. Freed refused to sign a statement for the FCC while working at WABC (AM) to state that he never received bribes. That led to his termination.


title: Alan Freed

text: In 1960, payola was made illegal. In December 1962, after being charged on multiple counts of commercial bribery, Freed pled guilty to two counts of commercial bribery and was fined three hundred dollars and given a suspended sentence.


title: Alan Freed

text: There was also a series of conflict of interest allegations, that he had taken songwriting co-credits that he did not deserve. The most notable example was Chuck Berry's "Maybellene". Taking partial credit allowed him to receive part of a song's royalties, which he could help increase by heavily promoting the record on his own program. (Berry was eventually able to regain the writing credit.) In another example, Harvey Fuqua of The Moonglows insisted Freed's name was not merely a credit on the song "Sincerely" and that he did actually co-write it (which would still be a conflict of interest for Freed to promote). Another group, The Flamingos, also claimed that Freed had wrongly taken writing credit for some of their songs.


title: Alan Freed

text: In 1964 Freed was indicted by a federal grand jury for tax evasion and ordered to pay $37,920 in taxes on income he had allegedly not reported. Most of that income was said to be from payola sources.


title: Alan Freed

text: On August 22, 1943, Freed married first wife Betty Lou Bean. They had two children, daughter Alana (deceased) and son Lance. They divorced on December 2, 1949. On August 12, 1950, Freed married Marjorie J. Hess. They also had two children, daughter Sieglinde and son Alan Freed, Jr. They divorced on July 25, 1958. On August 8, 1958, Freed married Inga Lil Boling. They remained together until his death.


title: Alan Freed

text: Because of the negative publicity from the payola scandal, no prestigious station would employ Freed, and he moved to the West Coast in 1960, where he worked at KDAY/1580 in Santa Monica, California. In 1962, after KDAY refused to allow him to promote "rock and roll" stage shows, Freed moved to WQAM in Miami, Florida, arriving in August 1962. Recognizing that his career in major markets might be over, his alcohol consumption increased and the job lasted only two months.


title: Alan Freed

text: During 1964, he returned to the Los Angeles area for a short stint at the Long Beach station KNOB/97.9.


title: Alan Freed

text: Living in the Racquet Club Estates neighborhood of Palm Springs, California, Freed died on January 20, 1965, from uremia and cirrhosis brought on by alcoholism, at the age of 43. Prior to his death, the Internal Revenue Service had continued to maintain that he owed $38,000 for tax evasion, but Freed did not have the financial means to pay that amount.


title: Alan Freed

text: He was initially interred in the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. In March 2002, Judith Fisher Freed, his daughter-in-law, carried his ashes to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. On August 1, 2014, the Hall of Fame asked Alan Freed's son, Lance Freed, to remove the ashes permanently, which he did. The Freed family later interred his ashes at Cleveland's Lake View Cemetery beneath a jukebox-shaped memorial featuring Freed's image.


title: Alan Freed

text: An archived sample of Freed's introduction on the Moondog Show was used by Ian Hunter in the opening of the song "Cleveland Rocks", from Hunter's 1979 album "You're Never Alone with a Schizophrenic".


title: Alan Freed

text: The 1978 motion picture "American Hot Wax" was inspired by Freed's contribution to the rock and roll scene. Although director Floyd Mutrux created a fictionalized account of Freed's last days in New York radio by using real-life elements outside of their actual chronology, the film does accurately convey the fond relationship between Freed, the musicians he promoted, and the audiences who listened to them. The film starred Tim McIntire as Freed and included cameo appearances by Chuck Berry, Screamin' Jay Hawkins, Frankie Ford and Jerry Lee Lewis, performing in the recording studio and concert sequences.


title: Alan Freed

text: On January 23, 1986, Freed was part of the first group inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland. In 1988, he was also posthumously inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame. On December 10, 1991, Freed was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The VH1 series "Behind The Music" produced an episode on Freed featuring Roger Steffens. In 1998, The Official Website of Alan Freed went online with the jumpstart from Brian Levant and Michael Ochs archives as well as a home page biography written by Ben Fong-Torres. On February 26, 2002, Freed was honored at the Grammy Awards with the Trustees Award. In 2017 he was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame in Detroit, Michigan.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed was used as a character in Stephen King's short story, "You Know They Got a Hell of a Band", and was portrayed by Mitchell Butel in its television adaptation for the "Nightmares & Dreamscapes" mini-series. He was the subject of a 1999 television movie, "", starring Judd Nelson and directed by Andy Wolk. The 1997 film "Telling Lies in America" stars Kevin Bacon as a disc jockey with a loose resemblance to Freed. Jack Macbrayer portrayed Freed on the Comedy Central show Drunk History in a segment on Freed's legacy. The Cleveland Cavaliers' mascot Moondog is named in honor of Freed.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed is mentioned in The Ramones' song "Do You Remember Rock 'n' Roll Radio?" as one of the band's idols. Other songs that reference Freed include "The King of Rock 'n Roll" by Terry Cashman and Tommy West, "Ballrooms of Mars" by Marc Bolan, "They Used to Call it Dope" by Public Enemy, "Payola Blues" by Neil Young, "Done Too Soon" by Neil Diamond, "The Ballad of Dick Clark" by Skip Battin, a member of the Byrds, and "This Is Not Goodbye, Just Goodnight" by Kill Your Idols.


title: Alan Freed

text: Freed's importance to the musical genre is confirmed by his induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and his 1991 star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The DJ was also inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame in 1988. The organization's Web page states that "despite his personal tragedies, Freed’s innovations helped make rock and roll and the Top-40 format permanent fixtures of radio".


title: Alan Freed

text: The Wall Street Journal in 2015 recalled "Freed’s sizable contributions to rock ’n’ roll and to teenagers’ more tolerant view of integration in the 1950s". The publication praised the help he gave to "hundreds of black and white artists" and said that "his tireless efforts helped create thousands of jobs for studio musicians, engineers, record producers, concert promoters and instrument manufacturers".


title: Alan Freed

text: One source said that "No man had as much influence on the coming culture of our society in such a short period of time as Alan Freed, the real King of Rock n Roll". Another source summarized his contribution as follows:


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: Aracely Arámbula Jacques (; born March 6, 1975), known professionally as Aracely Arámbula, is a Mexican actress, model, singer, television personality and entrepreneur.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: Aracely Arambula Jacques was born in Chihuahua City, Mexico, on March 6, 1975. At age 13, while attending high school, she began her road to fame, participating in beauty pageants. In 1996, Aracely won for "El rostro de El Heraldo de México", which launched her career.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: She began performing small roles in the telenovelas "Prisionera de amor" (1994), "Acapulco, cuerpo y alma" (1995) y "Canción de Amor" (1996). During her third year of studies at the Centro de Educación Artística of Televisa, Aracely received the opportunity to act in the telenovela "Cañaveral de Pasiones".


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: In 1997 Aracely played the younger version of Veronica Castro's character in "Pueblo Chico, Infierno Grande". Then acted in telenovelas "El alma no tiene color" and "Rencor apasionado", where she played her first antagonistic role. Aracely Arambula got her first starring role in the teen telenovela "Soñadoras" (1998) and then participated in "Alma Rebelde" (1999).


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: Her consecration as the protagonist came with "Abrázame muy fuerte" produced by Salvador Mejía, in 2000. Aracely continued its success with the latest telenovela of her first stint as television actress: "Las vías del amor" (2002), where she also sang the theme song. Besides music and television, Aracely entered the theater with productions such as "Muchachos de Nueva York", "Coqueluche", and "Hermanos de Sangre".


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: In 2008, Aracely paused in her acting career, but she took her time fame as hostess of the program "Todo Bebé". In 2009, Aracely Arambula returned to television sets to star in the umpteenth version of "Corazón salvaje", where she had a double role. In 2010, Aracely Arambula debuted as the protagonist of the play "Perfume de Gardênia" which many considered the rival show of "Aventurera".


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: In 2013, Aracely returned to telenovelas with "La Patrona", produced by Telemundo and Argos, where she shares credits with Christian Bach and Jorge Luis Pila. In addition she sang two songs for the telenovela. Also, after the success obtained in "La Patrona", Telemundo chose her as the lead in a melodrama based on the classic novel by Victor Hugo, "Les Misérables", which was produced in 2014.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: She began in music singing nursery rhymes as part of a tribute to Francisco Gabilondo Soler entitled "Ellas Cantan Cri Cri". In 2001, Arambula was part of the "Abrazame Muy Fuerte" soundtrack.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: In 2003, Aracely Arambula was nominated at the Billboard Latin Music Awards in the categories of Best Album, Best Duo and Best Regional Mexican Song with her production "Sólo Tuya" (2003); subsequently released the studio album "Sexy", produced by Selena's brother, A. B. Quintanilla. Arámbula also writes songs and plays guitar.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: Arambula has recorded two songs for "La Patrona". These songs include "La patrona" (the theme song of the telenovela), and "Juntos tú y yo". Arambula currently working on an upcoming studio album she plans to release in 2014. ""We are working on the album and you will soon know the music, meanwhile, sounds in "La Patrona" two songs that I sing. Would be an unpublished and grupero, I like that style because I am north"", said Arambula.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: Arambula has also dabbled as an entrepreneur, lending her image for a perfume and cosmetics company in Mexico. Her brother, Dr. Leonardo Arámbula, has also served as her longtime manager. They own a spa in Mexico City together.


title: Aracely Arámbula

text: From 2005 to 2009, Arambula dated Luis Miguel. They have two sons Miguel (born January 1, 2007) and Daniel (born December 18, 2008).


title: Clarice Orsini

text: Clarice Orsini (1453–1488) was the daughter of Iacopo Orsini, and his wife and cousin Maddalena Orsini both from the Orsini family, a great Roman noble house and was the wife of Lorenzo de' Medici.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: Clarice and Lorenzo married 4 June 1469, with a four-day celebration. The marriage was arranged by Lorenzo's mother Lucrezia Tornabuoni, who wanted her eldest son to marry a woman from a noble family to enhance the social status of the Medicis. Their marriage was unusual for Florence at the time in that they were nearly the same age. Clarice's dowry was 6,000 florins.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: The political nature of her marriage meant that she was often called upon by each side of her family to influence the other. This included Lorenzo helping her brother Rinaldo get selected as Archbishop of Florence. She was also called on by others throughout the area to support their requests to her husband. People sought her support in the easing of taxes and releasing family members from exile or prison. She would also use her network to gather information about political and military events away from where she was, including troop movements and battles.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: Clarice's religious upbringing was a bit in contrast with the humanist ideals of the age popular in Florence. Nevertheless, sources and letters suggest that there was a great deal of affection and respect between her and Lorenzo.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: During the Pazzi conspiracy, which was aimed at murdering Lorenzo and his younger brother Giuliano, Clarice and her children were sent to Pistoia. (The Pazzis succeeded in murdering Giuliano, but Lorenzo survived the attack, thus the conspirators' plan to replace the Medicis as "de facto" rulers of Florence failed).


title: Clarice Orsini

text: Clarice returned to Rome several times to visit her relatives; she also visited Volterra, Colle Val d'Elsa, Passignano sul Trasimeno, and other places in the 1480s. During these visits, she was treated as a representative of her husband, an unusual role for a woman in that time and place.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: On 30 July 1488 she died in Florence, and was buried two days later. Her husband was not with her when she died, nor did he attend the funeral, because he himself was very ill and was in Bad Filetta near Siena to get cured.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: The fact that Lorenzo was away from home when she died, affected even more his mood. Piero da Bibbiena, private chancellor of the Magnificent, wrote the following letter to the Florentine Ambassador in Rome :


title: Clarice Orsini

text: In a letter to Pope Innocent VIII he wrote that he dearly missed his late wife. The content of Lorenzo's letter to the Pope is the following:


title: Clarice Orsini

text: Their children were taught by Angelo Poliziano for a time. In 1478, he wanted to teach the children humanism, Latin, and Greek, but Clarice insisted on their lessons being more religious, and being delivered in Italian. She had also removed the family and their teacher from Florence after the scare of the Pazzi conspiracy, and he chafed under the exile. In May 1479, she tried to dismiss the tutor over another change in the curriculum, though Lorenzo continued to pay him.


title: Clarice Orsini

text: She appears in the second and third seasons of "Medici", played by Synnøve Karlsen. She also appears in the Starz series Da Vinci's Demons played by Lara Pulver.


title: TRIAC

text: A TRIAC (triode for alternating current; also bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor) is a three terminal electronic component that conducts current in either direction when triggered. The term TRIAC is a genericised trademark.


title: TRIAC

text: TRIACs are a subset of thyristors (analogous to a relay in that a small voltage and current can control a much larger voltage and current) and are related to silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs). TRIACs differ from SCRs in that they allow current flow in both directions, whereas an SCR can only conduct current in a single direction. Most TRIACs can be triggered by applying either a positive or negative voltage to the gate (an SCR requires a positive voltage). Once triggered, SCRs and TRIACs continue to conduct, even if the gate current ceases, until the main current drops below a certain level called the holding current.


title: TRIAC

text: Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) are similar to TRIACs but provide more control by turning off when the gate signal ceases.


title: TRIAC

text: The bidirectionality of TRIACs makes them convenient switches for alternating-current (AC). In addition, applying a trigger at a controlled phase angle of the AC in the main circuit allows control of the average current flowing into a load (phase control). This is commonly used for controlling the speed of a universal motor, dimming lamps, and controlling electric heaters. TRIACs are Bipolar devices.


title: TRIAC

text: To understand how TRIACs work, consider the triggering in each of the four possible combinations of gate and MT2 voltages with respect MT1. The four separate cases (quadrants) are illustrated in Figure 1. Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and Main Terminal (MT2) are also referred to as Anode 1 (A1) and Anode 2 (A2) respectively.


title: TRIAC

text: The relative sensitivity depends on the physical structure of a particular triac, but as a rule, quadrant I is the most sensitive (least gate current required), and quadrant 4 is the least sensitive (most gate current required).


title: TRIAC

text: In quadrants 1 and 2, MT2 is positive, and current flows from MT2 to MT1 through P, N, P and N layers. The N region attached to MT2 does not participate significantly. In quadrants 3 and 4, MT2 is negative, and current flows from MT1 to MT2, also through P, N, P and N layers. The N region attached to MT2 is active, but the N region attached to MT1 only participates in the initial triggering, not the bulk current flow.


title: TRIAC

text: In most applications, the gate current comes from MT2, so quadrants 1 and 3 are the only operating modes (both gate and MT2 positive or negative against MT1). Other applications with single polarity triggering from an IC or digital drive circuit operate in quadrants 2 and 3, where MT1 is usually connected to positive voltage (e.g. +5V) and gate is pulled down to 0V (ground).


title: TRIAC

text: The mechanism is illustrated in Figure 3. The gate current makes an equivalent NPN transistor switch on, which in turn draws current from the base of an equivalent PNP transistor, turning it on also. Part of the gate current (dotted line) is lost through the ohmic path across the p-silicon, flowing directly into MT1 without passing through the NPN transistor base. In this case, the injection of holes in the p-silicon makes the stacked n, p and n layers beneath MT1 behave like a NPN transistor, which turns on due to the presence of a current in its base. This, in turn, causes the p, n and p layers over MT2 to behave like a PNP transistor, which turns on because its n-type base becomes forward-biased with respect to its emitter (MT2). Thus, the triggering scheme is the same as an SCR. The equivalent circuit is depicted in Figure 4.


title: TRIAC

text: However, the structure is different from SCRs. In particular, TRIAC always has a small current flowing directly from the gate to MT1 through the p-silicon without passing through the p-n junction between the base and the emitter of the equivalent NPN transistor. This current is indicated in Figure 3 by a dotted red line and is the reason why a TRIAC needs more gate current to turn on than a comparably rated SCR.


title: TRIAC

text: Generally, this quadrant is the most sensitive of the four. This is because it is the only quadrant where gate current is injected directly into the base of one of the main device transistors.


title: TRIAC

text: Figure 5 shows the triggering process. The turn-on of the device is three-fold and starts when the current from MT1 flows into the gate through the p-n junction under the gate. This switches on a structure composed by an NPN transistor and a PNP transistor, which has the gate as cathode (the turn-on of this structure is indicated by "1" in the figure). As current into the gate increases, the potential of the left side of the p-silicon under the gate rises towards MT1, since the difference in potential between the gate and MT2 tends to lower: this establishes a current between the left side and the right side of the p-silicon (indicated by "2" in the figure), which in turn switches on the NPN transistor under the MT1 terminal and as a consequence also the pnp transistor between MT2 and the right side of the upper p-silicon. So, in the end, the structure which is crossed by the major portion of the current is the same as quadrant-I operation ("3" in Figure 5).


title: TRIAC

text: The whole process is outlined in Figure 6. The process happens in different steps here too. In the first phase, the pn junction between the MT1 terminal and the gate becomes forward-biased (step 1). As forward-biasing implies the injection of minority carriers in the two layers joining the junction, electrons are injected in the p-layer under the gate. Some of these electrons do not recombine and escape to the underlying n-region (step 2). This in turn lowers the potential of the n-region, acting as the base of a pnp transistor which switches on (turning the transistor on without directly lowering the base potential is called remote gate control). The lower p-layer works as the collector of this PNP transistor and has its voltage heightened: this p-layer also acts as the base of an NPN transistor made up by the last three layers just over the MT2 terminal, which, in turn, gets activated. Therefore, the red arrow labeled with a "3" in Figure 6 shows the final conduction path of the current.


title: TRIAC

text: Triggering in this quadrant is similar to triggering in quadrant III. The process uses a remote gate control and is illustrated in Figure 7. As current flows from the p-layer under the gate into the n-layer under MT1, minority carriers in the form of free electrons are injected into the p-region and some of them are collected by the underlying n-p junction and pass into the adjoining n-region without recombining. As in the case of a triggering in quadrant III, this lowers the potential of the n-layer and turns on the PNP transistor formed by the n-layer and the two p-layers next to it. The lower p-layer works as the collector of this PNP transistor and has its voltage heightened: this p-layer also acts as the base of an NPN transistor made up by the last three layers just over the MT2 terminal, which, in turn, gets activated. Therefore, the red arrow labeled with a "3" in Figure 6 shows the final conduction path of the current.


title: TRIAC

text: Generally, this quadrant is the least sensitive of the four. In addition, some models of TRIACs (logic level and snubberless types) cannot be triggered in this quadrant but only in the other three.


title: TRIAC

text: There are some limitations one should know when using a TRIAC in a circuit. In this section, a few are summarized.


title: TRIAC

text: A TRIAC starts conducting when a current flowing into or out of its gate is sufficient to turn on the relevant junctions in the quadrant of operation. The minimum current able to do this is called gate threshold current and is generally indicated by I. In a typical TRIAC, the gate threshold current is generally a few milliamperes, but one has to take into account also that:


title: TRIAC

text: When the gate current is discontinued, if the current between the two main terminals is more than what is called the latching current, the device continues to conduct. Latching current is the minimum current that keeps the device internal structure latched in the absence of gate current. The value of this parameter varies with:


title: TRIAC

text: In particular, if the pulse width of the gate current is sufficiently large (generally some tens of microseconds), the TRIAC has completed the triggering process when the gate signal is discontinued and the latching current reaches a minimum level called holding current. Holding current is the minimum required current flowing between the two main terminals that keeps the device on after it has achieved commutation in every part of its internal structure.


title: TRIAC

text: In datasheets, the latching current is indicated as I, while the holding current is indicated as I. They are typically in the order of some milliamperes.


title: TRIAC

text: A high formula_1 between MT2 and MT1 may turn on the TRIAC when it is off. Typical values of critical static d"v"/d"t" are in the terms of volts per microsecond.


title: TRIAC

text: The turn-on is due to a parasitic capacitive coupling of the gate terminal with the MT2 terminal, which lets currents into the gate in response to a large rate of voltage change at MT2. One way to cope with this limitation is to design a suitable RC or RCL snubber network. In many cases this is sufficient to lower the impedance of the gate towards MT1. By putting a resistor or a small capacitor (or both in parallel) between these two terminals, the capacitive current generated during the transient flows out of the device without activating it. A careful reading of the application notes provided by the manufacturer and testing of the particular device model to design the correct network is in order. Typical values for capacitors and resistors between the gate and MT1 may be up to 100 nF and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ. Normal TRIACs, except for low-power types marketed as "sensitive gate", already have such a resistor built in to safeguard against spurious dv/dt triggering. This will mask the gate's supposed diode-type behaviour when testing a TRIAC with a multimeter.


title: TRIAC

text: In datasheets, the static d"v"/d"t" is usually indicated as formula_2 and, as mentioned before, is in relation to the tendency of a TRIAC to turn on "from the off state" after a large voltage rate of rise even without applying any current in the gate.


title: TRIAC

text: A high rate of rise of the current between MT1 and MT2 (in either direction) "when the device is turning on" can damage or destroy the TRIAC even if the pulse duration is very short. The reason is that during the commutation, the power dissipation is not uniformly distributed across the device. When switching on, the device starts to conduct current before the conduction finishes to spread across the entire junction. The device typically starts to conduct the current imposed by the external circuitry after some nanoseconds or microseconds but the complete switch on of the whole junction takes a much longer time, so too swift a current rise may cause local hot spots that can permanently damage the TRIAC.


title: TRIAC

text: In datasheets, this parameter is usually indicated as formula_3 and is typically in the order of the tens of ampere per microsecond.


title: TRIAC

text: The commutating d"v"/d"t" rating applies when a TRIAC has been conducting and attempts to turn off with a partially reactive load, such as an inductor. The current and voltage are out of phase, so when the current decreases below the holding value, the TRIAC attempts to turn off, but because of the phase shift between current and voltage, a sudden voltage step takes place between the two main terminals, which turns the device on again.


title: TRIAC

text: In datasheets, this parameter is usually indicated as formula_4 and is generally in the order of up to some volts per microsecond.


title: TRIAC

text: The reason why "commutating dv/dt is less than static dv/dt" is that, shortly before the device tries to turn off, there is still some excess minority charge in its internal layers as a result of the previous conduction. When the TRIAC starts to turn off, these charges alter the internal potential of the region near the gate and MT1, so it is easier for the capacitive current due to d"v"/d"t" to turn on the device again.


title: TRIAC

text: Another important factor during a commutation from on-state to off-state is the d"i"/d"t" of the current from MT1 to MT2. This is similar to the recovery in standard diodes: the higher the d"i"/d"t", the greater the reverse current. Because in the TRIAC there are parasitic resistances, a high reverse current in the p-n junctions inside it can provoke a voltage drop between the gate region and the MT1 region which may make the TRIAC stay turned on.


title: TRIAC

text: In a datasheet, the commutating d"i"/d"t" is usually indicated as formula_5 and is generally in the order of some amperes per microsecond.


title: TRIAC

text: The commutating d"v"/d"t" is very important when the TRIAC is used to drive a load with a phase shift between current and voltage, such as an inductive load. Suppose one wants to turn the inductor off: when the current goes to zero, if the gate is not fed, the TRIAC attempts to turn off, but this causes a step in the voltage across it due to the aforementioned phase shift. If the commutating d"v"/d"t" rating is exceeded, the device will not turn off.


title: TRIAC

text: When used to control reactive (inductive or capacitive) loads, care must be taken to ensure that the TRIAC turns off correctly at the end of each half-cycle of the AC in the main circuit. TRIACs can be sensitive to fast voltage changes (dv/dt) between MT1 and MT2, so a phase shift between current and voltage caused by reactive loads can lead to a voltage step that can turn the thyristor on erroneously. An electric motor is typically an inductive load and off-line power supplies—as used in most TVs and computers—are capacitive.


title: TRIAC

text: Unwanted turn-ons can be avoided by using a snubber circuit (usually of the resistor/capacitor or resistor/capacitor/inductor type) between MT1 and MT2. Snubber circuits are also used to prevent premature triggering, caused for example by voltage spikes in the mains supply.


title: TRIAC

text: Because turn-ons are caused by internal capacitive currents flowing into the gate as a consequence of a high d"v"/d"t", (i.e., rapid voltage change) a gate resistor or capacitor (or both in parallel) may be connected between the gate and MT1 to provide a low-impedance path to MT1 and further prevent false triggering. This, however, increases the required trigger current or adds latency due to capacitor charging. On the other hand, a resistor between the gate and MT1 helps draw leakage currents out of the device, thus improving the performance of the TRIAC at high temperature, where the maximum allowed d"v"/d"t" is lower. Values of resistors less than 1kΩ and capacitors of 100nF are generally suitable for this purpose, although the fine-tuning should be done on the particular device model.


title: TRIAC

text: For higher-powered, more-demanding loads, two SCRs in inverse parallel may be used instead of one TRIAC. Because each SCR will have an entire half-cycle of reverse polarity voltage applied to it, turn-off of the SCRs is assured, no matter what the character of the load. However, due to the separate gates, proper triggering of the SCRs is more complex than triggering a TRIAC.


title: TRIAC

text: TRIACs may also fail to turn on reliably with reactive loads if the current phase shift causes the main circuit current to be below the holding current at trigger time. To overcome the problem DC or a pulse train may be used to repeatedly trigger the TRIAC until it turns on.


title: TRIAC

text: Low-power TRIACs are used in many applications such as light dimmers, speed controls for electric fans and other electric motors, and in the modern computerized control circuits of many household small and major appliances.


title: TRIAC

text: When mains voltage TRIACs are triggered by microcontrollers, optoisolators are frequently used; for example optotriacs can be used to control the gate current. Alternatively, where safety allows and electrical isolation of the controller isn't necessary, one of the microcontroller's power rails may be connected to one of the mains supply. In these situations it is normal to connect the neutral terminal to the positive rail of the microcontroller's power supply, together with A1 of the triac, with A2 connected to the live. The TRIAC's gate can be connected through an opto-isolated transistor, and sometimes a resistor to the microcontroller, so that bringing the voltage down to the microcontroller's logic zero pulls enough current through the TRIAC's gate to trigger it. This ensures that the TRIAC is triggered in quadrants II and III and avoids quadrant IV where TRIACs are typically insensitive.


title: TRIAC

text: Three-quadrant TRIACs only operate in quadrants 1 through 3 and cannot be triggered in quadrant 4. These devices are made specifically for improved commutation and can often control reactive loads without the use of a snubber circuit.


title: TRIAC

text: The first TRIACs of this type were marketed by Thomson Semiconductors (now ST Microelectronics) under the name "Alternistor". Later versions are sold under the trademark "Snubberless" and "ACS" (AC Switch, though this type also incorporates a gate buffer, which further precludes Quadrant I operation). Littelfuse also uses the name "Alternistor". Philips Semiconductors (now NXP Semiconductors) originated the trademark "Hi-Com" (High Commutation).


title: TRIAC

text: Often these TRIACs can operate with smaller gate-current to be directly driven by logic level components.


title: Lamington

text: A lamington is an Australian cake made from squares of butter cake or sponge cake coated in an outer layer of chocolate sauce and rolled in desiccated coconut. The thin mixture is absorbed into the outside of the sponge cake and left to set, giving the cake a distinctive texture. A common variation has a layer of cream or strawberry jam between two lamington halves.


title: Lamington

text: Lamingtons are believed to be named after either Lord Lamington, who served as Governor of Queensland from 1896 to 1901, or his wife, Lady Lamington. Most sources incline to the former. The earliest known reference to the naming of the lamington, from June 1927, links the cake to Lord Lamington.


title: Lamington

text: The identity of the recipe's inventor has also been debated. Most stories attribute its creation to Lord Lamington's chef, the French-born Armand Galland, who was called upon at short notice to feed unexpected guests. Using only the limited ingredients available, Galland cut up some left-over French vanilla sponge cake baked the day before, dipped the slices in chocolate and set them in coconut. Impressed by Galland's creation, Lamington's guests were said to have later asked for the recipe. This version of events is supported by Lady Lamington's memoirs. Coconut was not widely used in European cooking at that time, but was known to Galland, whose wife was from Tahiti, where coconut was a common ingredient.


title: Lamington

text: One account suggests that the lamington was first served in Toowoomba, when Lord Lamington took his entourage to Harlaxton House to escape the steamy heat of Brisbane, whereas another claims that it was created by Galland at Queensland's Government House in Brisbane during the busy period leading up to Federation in 1901. A further alternative claim is that Lord Lamington's cook, presumably Galland, accidentally dropped a block of sponge cake into a dish of chocolate. It was later discovered that desiccated coconut, sprinkled over the top, made the cakes more appealing.


title: Lamington

text: The first known mention of "Lamington cake" appears in an 1896 newspaper account of a "Lamington Function" at Laidley in Queensland. The event was in honour of Lord Lamington (although it appears he did not attend) and also featured "Lamington Tea", "Lamington Soup" etc., so, in the absence of any description of the cake, the name of the cake might signify nothing more than the name of the event. A 1900 recipe for Lamington Cakes has been found in the "Queensland Country Life" newspaper. While the recipe originated in Queensland, it spread quickly, appearing in a Sydney newspaper in 1901 and a New Zealand newspaper in 1902. However, none of these recipes indicate the creator of the recipe nor the reason for its name.


title: Lamington

text: A 2014 April Fools' Day story from "Guardian Australia" falsely claimed the lamington to have been based on a previously unknown New Zealand cake known as a "Wellington". This hoax origin story was later repeated by other sources.


title: Lamington

text: Lamingtons remain a popular treat across Australia and New Zealand, and 21 July was designated as National Lamington Day in Australia. Lamingtons are often sold at fundraisers for schools or charity groups, known as "lamington drives". Some Australians shorten the name to "Lammo" (singular) or "Lammos" (plural).


title: Lamington

text: The British Overseas Territory of St Helena Island has a similar variation called coconut fingers, made traditionally for special occasions such as weddings and birthdays.


title: Lamington

text: The Croatian and Bosnian "čupavci" is a similar cake, although it lacks the layer of jam. "Čupavci" are one of the most popular Christmas desserts in Croatia.


title: Lamington

text: In Mauritius, there is a dessert which is a variant of the Lamington cake; It is called the "red Lamington cake", also known as "gato carré rouge" (lit. "red cube cake" or "red square cake" in English and in French) or "gato Francis" (lit. "Francis cake" in English or in French). Red dye is used to give the cake its red colour; square pieces of the cake are soaked in the red dye completely and then coated with desiccated coconut, and whipped cream is applied on the top surface of the cake. A half candied cherry or half a strawberry can also be applied on top of the cream as topping. The cake is sometimes strawberry flavoured.


title: Lamington

text: In 2009, as part of the Q150 celebrations, the lamington was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an iconic "innovation and invention".


title: Cool Math Games

text: Cool Math Games (branded as Coolmath Games) is an online web portal that hosts HTML and Flash web browser games targeted at children and young adults. Cool Math Games is operated by Coolmath LLC and first went online in 1997 with the slogan: "Where logic & thinking meets fun & games.". The site maintains a policy that it will only host games that the operators believe are non-violent and educational and is partnered with coolmath.com and coolmath4kids.com.


title: Cool Math Games

text: In November 2019, "Popular Mechanics" listed Cool Math Games as one of its "50 most important websites" since the internet was created.


title: Cool Math Games

text: Rumors began spreading in mid-2019 that Cool Math Games was to shut down in 2020 due to the discontinuation of Adobe Flash Player. In light of these rumors, a petition was created on Change.org to stop it from shutting down and reached over 100,000 signatures. However, Cool Math Games confirmed that it would not be shutting down and was focusing on getting new HTML5 games and converting old Flash games to HTML5 after Adobe Flash reached its end-of-life in 2020. The website opted to use emulation technologies like Ruffle to continue using and viewing legacy flash content.


title: Cool Math Games

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Cool Math Games' popularity has drastically increased, being played by students whilst in lockdown and self-isolating. Cool Math Games' Alexa ranking went up drastically.


title: Cool Math Games

text: Coolmath Games has received generally positive reception. "The Daily Dot" called the website's library of content “impressive” in a run-down of the best games on the site.


title: 23XI Racing

text: 23XI Racing (pronounced twenty-three eleven) is an American professional auto racing organization that competes in the NASCAR Cup Series. It is owned and operated by Hall of Fame basketball player Michael Jordan, with current Joe Gibbs Racing driver Denny Hamlin as a minority partner. The organization fields the No. 23 and 45 Toyota teams for drivers Bubba Wallace and Tyler Reddick, with a technical alliance with JGR.


title: 23XI Racing

text: During the summer of 2020, rumors swirled that Hall of Fame basketball player Michael Jordan intended on purchasing an ownership stake in Richard Petty Motorsports, who fielded the only black driver in the NASCAR Cup Series, Bubba Wallace. Such claims were repeatedly denied by Jordan's management team.


title: 23XI Racing

text: On September 8, 2021, veteran motorsports executive Steve Lauletta was named team president after serving as the interim president since the team's foundation.


title: 23XI Racing

text: On July 12, 2022, 23XI Racing announced that two-time NASCAR Xfinity Series champion Tyler Reddick signed with the team for the 2024 season. On July 23, Hamlin announced that starting in 2023, 23XI would have its own pit crews instead of leasing them from Joe Gibbs Racing.


title: 23XI Racing

text: On September 21, 2020, Jordan and Denny Hamlin announced the formation of a Cup team to begin competition in 2021 with Jordan as majority owner, Hamlin as minority owner and Wallace as the driver. The team bought a guaranteed starting spot in every 2021 race by purchasing a charter from Germain Racing. The team's name, car number and manufacturer were not revealed at the time of the announcement. Hamlin later said that the two had discussed owning a team but that it never came to fruition. On October 22, the team announced its name, 23XI Racing, and would use the number 23 (Jordan's number during his basketball career). On October 30, the team revealed that they will run Toyotas with a technical alliance with Joe Gibbs Racing (whose No. 11 car is driven by Hamlin) and operate out of a shop owned (and formerly used) by Germain Racing. On December 14, 23XI Racing announced that DoorDash, McDonald's, Columbia Sportswear, Dr Pepper, and Root, Inc. will be the sponsors of the No. 23 team in 2021. It was also announced that several crew members of the former Germain operation would join the team as a pit crew. On February 3, it was announced that former Germain driver Ty Dillon (who attempted to make the Daytona 500 with fellow Toyota team Gaunt Brothers Racing) would run the car in the 2021 Busch Clash, as Wallace was not eligible to run the clash.


title: 23XI Racing

text: Wallace finished second in his Duel and finished 17th at the 2021 Daytona 500 after being involved in a last-lap crash. At the Daytona road course he had troubles all day and finished 26th. Wallace struggled out the gate until Phoenix, which was his first strong run of the season. Wallace was running top 15 for most of the day before working his way into the top 10. Following a caution and most of the field pitting, while Wallace stayed out, he restarted first. This move did not work out well for Wallace. Due to him being on old tires and the rest of the field being on new tires, Wallace was quickly cycled out of the first position, dropped back, and wound up making contact with Cole Custer. He ended up finishing 16th. At the 2021 GEICO 500 at Talladega, Wallace had a strong car the entire day. Wallace was running top 10 for a good portion of the day and ended up winning stage 2. This was Wallace's first career stage win. After an overtime restart, Wallace was cycled to the back of the pack and wound up finishing 19th. At Dover, Wallace finished 11th. At Pocono, Wallace finished the first race in 14th, but finished the second race fifth, scoring the team's best finish and their first top-five. He finished third at the 2021 Coke Zero Sugar 400 at Daytona, but he was officially scored with a second-place finish after Chris Buescher was disqualified post-inspection. On September 16, Bootie Barker was named crew chief for the remainder of the season after Wheeler was promoted to Director of Competition. Wallace scored his first career win at the rain-shortened 2021 YellaWood 500 at Talladega, becoming only the second Black driver after Wendell Scott to win a Cup race. Wallace finished the season 21st in points.


title: 23XI Racing

text: Wallace began the 2022 season by finishing in second place at the 2022 Daytona 500. On March 29, 2022, Barker was suspended for four races due to a tire and wheel loss during the 2022 Texas Grand Prix at COTA. Dave Rogers was announced as Wallace's crew chief for Richmond, Martinsville, Bristol, and Talladega. Later in the regular season, Wallace showed strong form, posting four consecutive top-10s at New Hampshire, Pocono, Indianapolis road course, and Michigan.


title: 23XI Racing

text: After failing to make the driver playoffs at Daytona, it was announced that Ty Gibbs would switch to the No. 23 to allow Wallace to compete in the owners championship with the No. 45. At the Texas playoff race, Gibbs veered into Ty Dillon on pit road, nearly sending Dillon towards a NASCAR official and a group of pit crew members; he was subsequently fined 75,000 and the No. 23 was docked 25 owner points. At Phoenix, Daniel Hemric substituted for Gibbs after the death of his father, Coy Gibbs. Hemric finished 17th.


title: 23XI Racing

text: On August 27, 2021, 23XI Racing announced that Kurt Busch will pilot the No. 45 Toyota Camry in 2022. His long time sponsor Monster Energy will follow him. Following the end of the 2021 season, 23XI purchased the former StarCom Racing's charter for 13.5 million, making it the most expensive charter purchase since the implementation of the system in 2016.


title: 23XI Racing

text: Busch began his 2022 season with a 19th place finish at the 2022 Daytona 500. Despite a promising start with top-five finishes at Phoenix and Atlanta, he suffered from poor finishes at COTA, Richmond, Bristol dirt, Dover, and Darlington. However, he rebounded with a win at Kansas. At the Pocono race, Busch was not medically cleared after a crash during qualifying, and subsequently missed the last five races of the regular season. Xfinity Series driver Ty Gibbs substituted Busch for the next six races. He finished 16th at Pocono and 17th at Indianapolis. A 10th place finish at Michigan earned Gibbs his first top-10 finish. The following week at Richmond, Gibbs finished 36th, last due to an engine failure. Gibbs finished 26th at Watkins Glen. On August 25, Busch announced he withdrew his request for a playoff waiver.


title: 23XI Racing

text: Six days later, it was announced that Bubba Wallace would swap rides with Gibbs as the No. 45 entry is still eligible for the owner's championship. Wallace finished ninth at Darlington to open the playoffs. He scored his second career win at Kansas. On October 16, Busch announced he would step away from full-time competition in 2023, with the possibility of running the season on a part-time basis. At Las Vegas, Kyle Larson charged aggressively past Kevin Harvick and Wallace, causing Wallace to scrape the outside wall. Wallace retaliated with a right rear hook on Larson, wrecking both cars down the frontstretch and severely damaging Christopher Bell's car in the process. During the caution, Wallace engaged in a shoving match with Larson. Wallace was suspended for one race for the incident; John Hunter Nemechek was assigned to drive the No. 45 at Homestead.


title: 23XI Racing

text: On October 15, 2022, 23XI Racing announced that it bought out the remainder of Tyler Reddick's contract from Richard Childress Racing to replace Kurt Busch in the No. 45 for the 2023 season. Reddick originally signed with 23XI for 2024, but Busch's concussion and subsequent retirement from full-time competition led to this move.


title: Sundaland

text: Sundaland (also called Sundaica or the Sundaic region) is a biogeographical region of South-eastern Asia corresponding to a larger landmass that was exposed throughout the last 2.6 million years during periods when sea levels were lower. It includes Borneo, Java, and Sumatra in Indonesia, and their surrounding small islands, as well as the Malay Peninsula on the Asian mainland.


title: Sundaland

text: The area of Sundaland encompasses the Sunda Shelf, a tectonically stable extension of Southeast Asia's continental shelf that was exposed during glacial periods of the last 2 million years.


title: Sundaland

text: The extent of the Sunda Shelf is approximately equal to the 120-meter isobath. In addition to the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, it includes the Java Sea, the Gulf of Thailand, and portions of the South China Sea. In total, the area of Sundaland is approximately 1,800,000 km. The area of exposed land in Sundaland has fluctuated considerably during the past recent 2 million years; the modern land area is approximately half of the maximum extent.


title: Sundaland

text: The western and southern borders of Sundaland are clearly marked by the deeper waters of the Sunda Trench - some of the deepest in the world - and the Indian Ocean. The eastern boundary of Sundaland is the Wallace Line, identified by Alfred Russel Wallace as the eastern boundary of the range of Asia's land mammal fauna, and thus the boundary of the Indomalayan and Australasian realms. The islands east of the Wallace line are known as Wallacea, a separate biogeographical region that is considered part of Australasia. The Wallace Line corresponds to a deep-water channel that has never been crossed by any land bridges. The northern border of Sundaland is more difficult to define in bathymetric terms; a phytogeographic transition at approximately 9ºN is considered to be the northern boundary.


title: Sundaland

text: Greater portions of Sundaland were most recently exposed during the last glacial period from approximately 110,000 to 12,000 years ago. When sea level was decreased by 30–40 meters or more, land bridges connected the islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra to the Malay Peninsula and mainland Asia. Because sea level has been 30 meters or more lower throughout much of the last 800,000 years, the current state of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra as islands has been a relatively rare occurrence throughout the Pleistocene. In contrast, sea level was higher during the late Pliocene, and the exposed area of Sundaland was smaller than what is observed at present. Sundaland was partially submerged starting around 18,000 years ago and continuing till about 5000 BC. During the Last Glacial Maximum sea level fell by approximately 120 meters, and the entire Sunda Shelf was exposed.


title: Sundaland

text: All of Sundaland is within the tropics; the equator runs through central Sumatra and Borneo. Like elsewhere in the tropics, rainfall, rather than temperature, is the major determinant of regional variation. Most of Sundaland is classified as perhumid, or everwet, with over 2,000 millimeters of rain annually; rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration throughout the year and there are no predictable dry seasons like elsewhere in Southeast Asia.


title: Sundaland

text: The warm and shallow seas of the Sunda Shelf (averaging 28 °C or more) are part of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool/Western Pacific Warm Pool and an important driver of the Hadley circulation and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), particularly in January when it is a major heat source to the atmosphere. ENSO also has a major influence on the climate of Sundaland; strong positive ENSO events result in droughts throughout Sundaland and tropical Asia.


title: Sundaland

text: The high rainfall supports closed canopy evergreen forests throughout the islands of Sundaland, transitioning to deciduous forest and savanna woodland with increasing latitude. Remaining primary (unlogged) lowland forest is known for giant dipterocarp trees and orangutans; after logging, forest structure and community composition change to be dominated by shade intolerant trees and shrubs. Dipterocarps are notable for mast fruiting events, where tree fruiting is synchronized at unpredictable intervals resulting in predator satiation. Higher elevation forests are shorter and dominated by trees in the oak family. Botanists often include Sundaland, the adjacent Philippines, Wallacea and New Guinea in a single floristic province of Malesia, based on similarities in their flora, which is predominantly of Asian origin.


title: Sundaland

text: During the last glacial period, sea levels were lower and all of Sundaland was an extension of the Asian continent. As a result, the modern islands of Sundaland are home to many Asian mammals including elephants, monkeys, apes, tigers, tapirs, and rhinoceros. The flooding of Sundaland separated species that had once shared the same environment. One example is the river threadfin ("Polydactylus macrophthalmus", Bleeker 1858), which once thrived in a river system now called "North Sunda River" or "Molengraaff river". The fish is now found in the Kapuas River on the island of Borneo, and in the Musi and Batanghari rivers in Sumatra. Selective pressure (in some cases resulting in extinction) has operated differently on each of the islands of Sundaland, and as a consequence, a different assemblage of mammals is found on each island. However, the current species assemblage on each island is not simply a subset of a universal Sundaland or Asian fauna, as the species that inhabited Sundaland before flooding did not all have ranges encompassing the entire Sunda Shelf. Island area and number of terrestrial mammal species are positively correlated, with the largest islands of Sundaland (Borneo and Sumatra) having the highest diversity.


title: Sundaland

text: The name "Sunda" goes back to antiquity, appearing in Ptolemy's "Geography", written around 150 AD. In an 1852 publication, English navigator George Windsor Earl advanced the idea of a "Great Asiatic Bank", based in part on common features of mammals found in Java, Borneo and Sumatra.


title: Sundaland

text: Explorers and scientists began measuring and mapping the seas of Southeast Asia in the 1870s, primarily using depth sounding. In 1921 Gustaaf Molengraaff, a Dutch geologist, postulated that the nearly uniform sea depths of the shelf indicated an ancient peneplain that was the result of repeated flooding events as ice caps melted, with the peneplain becoming more perfect with each successive flooding event. Molengraaff also identified ancient, now submerged, drainage systems that drained the area during periods of lower sea level.


title: Sundaland

text: The name "Sundaland" for the peninsular shelf was first proposed by Reinout Willem van Bemmelen in his "Geography of Indonesia" in 1949, based on his research during the war. The ancient drainage systems described by Molengraaff were verified and mapped by Tjia in 1980 and described in greater detail by Emmel and Curray in 1982 complete with river deltas, floodplains and backswamps.


title: Sundaland

text: The climate and ecology of Sundaland throughout the Quaternary has been investigated by analyzing foraminiferal "δ"O and pollen from cores drilled into the ocean bed, "δ"O in speleothems from caves, and "δ"C and "δ"N in bat guano from caves, as well as species distribution models, phylogenetic analysis, and community structure and species richness analysis.


title: Sundaland

text: Perhumid climate has existed in Sundaland since the early Miocene; though there is evidence for several periods of drier conditions, a perhumid core persisted in Borneo. The presence of fossil coral reefs dating to the late Miocene and early Pliocene suggests that, as the Indian monsoon grew more intense, seasonality increased in some portions of Sundaland during these epochs. Palynological evidence from Sumatra suggests that temperatures were cooler during the late Pleistocene; mean annual temperatures at high elevation sites may have been as much as 5 °C cooler than present.


title: Sundaland

text: Most recent research agrees that Indo-Pacific sea surface temperatures were at most 2-3 °C lower during the Last Glacial Maximum. Snow was found much lower than at present (approximately 1,000 meters lower) and there is evidence that glaciers existed on Borneo and Sumatra around 10,000 years before present. However, debate continues on how precipitation regimes changed throughout the Quaternary. Some authors argue that rainfall decreased with the area of ocean available for evaporation as sea levels fell with ice sheet expansion. Others posit that changes in precipitation have been minimal and an increase in land area in the Sunda Shelf alone (due to lowered sea level) is not enough to decrease precipitation in the region.


title: Sundaland

text: One possible explanation for the lack of agreement on hydrologic change throughout the Quaternary is that there was significant heterogeneity in climate during the Last Glacial Maximum throughout Indonesia. Alternatively, the physical and chemical processes that underlie the method of inferring precipitation from "δ"O records may have operated differently in the past. Some authors working primarily with pollen records have also noted the difficulties of using vegetation records to detect changes in precipitation regimes in such a humid environment, as water is not a limiting factor in community assemblage.


title: Sundaland

text: Sundaland, and in particular Borneo, has been an evolutionary hotspot for biodiversity since the early Miocene due to repeated immigration and vicariance events. The modern islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra have served as refugia for the flora and fauna of Sundaland during multiple glacial periods in the last million years, and are serving the same role at present.


title: Sundaland

text: Dipterocarp trees characteristic of modern Southeast Asian tropical rainforest have been present in Sundaland since before the Last Glacial Maximum. There is also evidence for savanna vegetation, particularly in now submerged areas of Sundaland, throughout the last glacial period. However, researchers disagree on the spatial extent of savanna that was present in Sundaland. There are two opposing theories about the vegetation of Sundaland, particularly during the last glacial period: (1) that there was a continuous savanna corridor connecting modern mainland Asia to the islands of Java and Borneo, and (2) that the vegetation of Sundaland was instead dominated by tropical rainforest, with only small, discontinuous patches of savanna vegetation.


title: Sundaland

text: The presence of a savanna corridor—even if fragmented—would have allowed for savanna-dwelling fauna (as well as early humans) to disperse between Sundaland and the Indochinese biogeographic region; emergence of a savanna corridor during glacial periods and subsequent disappearance during interglacial periods would have facilitated speciation through both vicariance (allopatric speciation) and geodispersal. Morley and Flenley (1987) and Heaney (1991) were the first to postulate the existence of a continuous corridor of savanna vegetation through the center of Sundaland (from the modern Malaysian Peninsula to Borneo) during the last glacial period, based on palynological evidence. Using the modern distribution of primates, termites, rodents, and other species, other researchers infer that the extent of tropical forest contracted—replaced by savanna and open forest —during the last glacial period. Vegetation models using data from climate simulations show varying degrees of forest contraction; Bird et al. (2005) noted that although no single model predicts a continuous savanna corridor through Sundaland, many do predict open vegetation between modern Java and southern Borneo. Combined with other evidence, they suggest that a 50–150 kilometer wide savanna corridor ran down the Malaysian Peninsula, through Sumatra and Java, and across to Borneo. Additionally, Wurster et al. (2010) analyzed stable carbon isotope composition in bat guano deposits in Sundaland and found strong evidence for the expansion of savanna in Sundaland. Similarly, stable isotope composition of fossil mammal teeth supports the existence of the savanna corridor.


title: Sundaland

text: In contrast, other authors argue that Sundaland was primarily covered by tropical rainforest. Using species distribution models, Raes et al. (2014) suggest that Dipterocarp rainforest persisted throughout the last glacial period. Others have observed that the submerged rivers of the Sunda Shelf have obvious, incised meanders, which would have been maintained by trees on river banks. Pollen records from sediment cores around Sundaland are contradictory; for example, cores from highland sites suggest that forest cover persisted throughout the last glacial period, but other cores from the region show pollen from savanna-woodland species increasing through glacial periods. And in contrast to previous findings, Wurster et al. (2017) again used stable carbon isotope analysis of bat guano, but found that at some sites rainforest cover was maintained through much of the last glacial period. Soil type, rather than long-term existence of a savanna corridor, has also been posited as an explanation for species distribution differences within Sundaland; Slik et al. (2011) suggest that the sandy soils of the now submerged seabed are a more likely dispersal barrier.


title: Sundaland

text: Before Sundaland emerged during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene (~2.4 million years ago), there were no mammals on Java. As sea level lowered, species such as the dwarf elephantoid "Sinomastodon bumiajuensis" colonized Sundaland from mainland Asia. Later fauna included tigers, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian elephant, which were found throughout Sundaland; smaller animals were also able to disperse across the region.


title: Sundaland

text: According to the most widely accepted theory, the ancestors of the modern-day Austronesian populations of the Maritime Southeast Asia and adjacent regions are believed to have migrated southward, from the East Asia mainland to Taiwan, and then to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia. An alternative theory points to the now-submerged Sundaland as the possible cradle of Austronesian languages: thus the "Out of Sundaland" theory. However, this view is an extreme minority view among professional archaeologists, linguists, and geneticists. The Out of Taiwan model (though not necessarily the Express Train Out of Taiwan model) is accepted by the vast majority of professional researchers.


title: Sundaland

text: A study from Leeds University and published in "Molecular Biology and Evolution", examining mitochondrial DNA lineages, suggested that shared ancestry between Taiwan and Southeast Asian resulted from earlier migrations. Population dispersals seem to have occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which may have resulted in migrations from the Philippine Islands to as far north as Taiwan within the last 10,000 years.


title: Sundaland

text: The population migrations were most likely to have been driven by climate change — the effects of the drowning of an ancient continent. Rising sea levels in three massive pulses may have caused flooding and the submerging of the Sunda continent, creating the Java and South China Seas and the thousands of islands that make up Indonesia and the Philippines today. The changing sea levels would have caused these humans to move away from their coastal homes and culture, and farther inland throughout southeast Asia. This forced migration would have caused these humans to adapt to the new forest and mountainous environments, developing farms and domestication, and becoming the predecessors to future human populations in these regions.


title: Sundaland

text: Genetic similarities were found between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern latitudes. Although the Chinese population is very large, it has less variation than the smaller number of individuals living in Southeast Asia, because the Chinese expansion occurred very recently, within only the last 2,000 to 3,000 years.


title: Sundaland

text: From the standpoint of historical linguistics, the home of the Austronesian languages is the main island of Taiwan, also known by its unofficial Portuguese name of Formosa; on this island the deepest divisions in Austronesian are found, among the families of the native Formosan languages.


title: Stephen Crane

text: Stephen Crane (November 1, 1871 – June 5, 1900) was an American poet, novelist, and short story writer. Prolific throughout his short life, he wrote notable works in the Realist tradition as well as early examples of American Naturalism and Impressionism. He is recognized by modern critics as one of the most innovative writers of his generation.


title: Stephen Crane

text: The ninth surviving child of Methodist parents, Crane began writing at the age of four and had several articles published by the age of 16. Having little interest in university studies though he was active in a fraternity, he left Syracuse University in 1891 to work as a reporter and writer. Crane's first novel was the 1893 Bowery tale "", generally considered by critics to be the first work of American literary Naturalism. He won international acclaim in 1895 for his Civil War novel "The Red Badge of Courage", which he wrote without having any battle experience.


title: Stephen Crane

text: In 1896, Crane endured a highly publicized scandal after appearing as a witness in the trial of a suspected prostitute, an acquaintance named Dora Clark. Late that year he accepted an offer to travel to Cuba as a war correspondent. As he waited in Jacksonville, Florida, for passage, he met Cora Taylor, with whom he began a lasting relationship. En route to Cuba, Crane's vessel, the SS "Commodore", sank off the coast of Florida, leaving him and others adrift for 30 hours in a dinghy. Crane described the ordeal in "The Open Boat". During the final years of his life, he covered conflicts in Greece (accompanied by Cora, recognized as the first woman war correspondent) and later lived in England with her. He was befriended by writers such as Joseph Conrad and H. G. Wells. Plagued by financial difficulties and ill health, Crane died of tuberculosis in a Black Forest sanatorium in Germany at the age of 28.


title: Stephen Crane

text: At the time of his death, Crane was considered an important figure in American literature. After he was nearly forgotten for two decades, critics revived interest in his life and work. Crane's writing is characterized by vivid intensity, distinctive dialects, and irony. Common themes involve fear, spiritual crises and social isolation. Although recognized primarily for "The Red Badge of Courage", which has become an American classic, Crane is also known for his poetry, journalism, and short stories such as "The Open Boat", "The Blue Hotel", "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky", and "The Monster". His writing made a deep impression on 20th-century writers, most prominent among them Ernest Hemingway, and is thought to have inspired the Modernists and the Imagists.


title: Stephen Crane

text: Stephen Crane was born on November 1, 1871, in Newark, New Jersey, to Jonathan Townley Crane, a minister in the Methodist Episcopal church, and Mary Helen Peck Crane, daughter of a clergyman, George Peck. He was the fourteenth and last child born to the couple. At 45, Helen Crane had suffered the early deaths of her previous four children, each of whom died within one year of birth. Nicknamed "Stevie" by the family, he joined eight surviving brothers and sisters—Mary Helen, George Peck, Jonathan Townley, William Howe, Agnes Elizabeth, Edmund Byran, Wilbur Fiske, and Luther.


title: Stephen Crane

text: The Cranes were descended from Jaspar Crane, a founder of New Haven Colony, who had migrated there from England in 1639. Stephen was named for a putative founder of Elizabethtown, New Jersey, who had, according to family tradition, come from England or Wales in 1665, as well as his great-great-grandfather Stephen Crane (1709–1780), a Revolutionary War patriot who served as New Jersey delegate to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Crane later wrote that his father, Dr. Crane, "was a great, fine, simple mind", who had written numerous tracts on theology. Although his mother was a popular spokeswoman for the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and a highly religious woman, Crane wrote that he did not believe "she was as narrow as most of her friends or family." The young Stephen was raised primarily by his sister Agnes, who was 15 years his senior. The family moved to Port Jervis, New York, in 1876, where Dr. Crane became the pastor of Drew Methodist Church, a position that he retained until his death.


title: Stephen Crane

text: As a child, Crane was often sickly and afflicted by constant colds. When the boy was almost two, his father wrote in his diary that his youngest son became "so sick that we are anxious about him." Despite his fragile nature, Crane was an intelligent child who taught himself to read before the age of four. His first known inquiry, recorded by his father, dealt with writing; at the age of three, while imitating his brother Townley's writing, he asked his mother, "how do you spell "O"?" In December 1879, Crane wrote a poem about wanting a dog for Christmas. Entitled "I'd Rather Have –", it is his first surviving poem. Stephen was not regularly enrolled in school until January 1880, but he had no difficulty in completing two grades in six weeks. Recalling this feat, he wrote that it "sounds like the lie of a fond mother at a teaparty, but I do remember that I got ahead very fast and that father was very pleased with me."


title: Stephen Crane

text: Dr. Crane died on February 16, 1880, at the age of 60; Stephen was eight years old. Some 1,400 people mourned Dr. Crane at his funeral, more than double the size of his congregation. After her husband's death, Mrs. Crane moved to Roseville, near Newark, leaving Stephen in the care of his older brother Edmund, with whom the young boy lived with cousins in Sussex County. He next lived with his brother William, a lawyer, in Port Jervis for several years.