title: George M. Cohan

text: Cohan appeared in 1930 in "The Song and Dance Man", a revival of his tribute to vaudeville and his father. In 1932, he starred in a dual role as a cold, corrupt politician and his charming, idealistic campaign double in the Hollywood musical film "The Phantom President". The film co-starred Claudette Colbert and Jimmy Durante, with songs by Rodgers and Hart, and was released by Paramount Pictures. He appeared in some earlier silent films but he disliked Hollywood production methods and only made one other sound film, "Gambling" (1934), based on his own 1929 play and shot in New York City. A critic called "Gambling" a "stodgy adaptation of a definitely dated play directed in obsolete theatrical technique". It is considered a lost film.


title: George M. Cohan

text: By the 1930s, Cohan walked in and out of retirement. He earned acclaim as a serious actor in Eugene O'Neill's only comedy "Ah, Wilderness!" (1933) and in the role of a song-and-dance President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Rodgers and Hart's musical "I'd Rather Be Right" (1937). The same year, he reunited with Harris to produce a play titled "Fulton of Oak Falls", starring Cohan. His final play, "The Return of the Vagabond" (1940), featured a young Celeste Holm in the cast.


title: George M. Cohan

text: In 1940, Judy Garland played the title role in a film version of his 1922 musical "Little Nellie Kelly". Cohan's mystery play "Seven Keys to Baldpate" was first filmed in 1916 and has been remade seven times, most recently as "House of the Long Shadows" (1983), starring Vincent Price. In 1942, a musical biopic of Cohan, "Yankee Doodle Dandy", was released, and James Cagney's performance in the title role earned the Best Actor Academy Award. The film was privately screened for Cohan as he battled the last stages of abdominal cancer, and he commented on Cagney's performance: "My God, what an act to follow!" Cohan's 1920 play "The Meanest Man in the World" was filmed in 1943 with Jack Benny.


title: George M. Cohan

text: Although Cohan is mainly remembered for his songs, he became an early pioneer in the development of the "book musical", using his engaging libretti to bridge the gaps between drama and music. More than three decades before Agnes de Mille choreographed "Oklahoma!", Cohan used dance not merely as razzle-dazzle, but to advance the plot. Cohan's main characters were "average Joes and Janes" who appealed to a wide American audience.


title: George M. Cohan

text: In 1914, Cohan became one of the founding members of ASCAP. Although Cohan was known as generous to his fellow actors in need, in 1919, he unsuccessfully opposed a historic strike by Actors' Equity Association, for which many in the theatrical professions never forgave him. Cohan opposed the strike because in addition to being an actor in his productions, he was also the producer of the musical that set the terms and conditions of the actors' employment. During the strike, he donated $100,000 to finance the Actors' Retirement Fund in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. After Actors' Equity was recognized, Cohan refused to join the union as an actor, which hampered his ability to appear in his own productions. Cohan sought a waiver from Equity allowing him to act in any theatrical production. In 1930, he won a law case against the Internal Revenue Service that allowed the deduction, for federal income tax purposes, of his business travel and entertainment expenses, even though he was not able to document them with certainty. This became known as the "Cohan rule" and frequently is cited in tax cases.


title: George M. Cohan

text: Cohan wrote numerous Broadway musicals and straight plays in addition to contributing material to shows written by others – more than 50 in all – many of which were made into films. His shows included:


title: George M. Cohan

text: Cohan was called "the greatest single figure the American theatre ever produced – as a player, playwright, actor, composer and producer". On May 1, 1940, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt presented him with the Congressional Gold Medal for his contributions to World War I morale, in particular with the songs "You're a Grand Old Flag" and "Over There". Cohan was the first person in any artistic field selected for this honor, which previously had gone only to military and political leaders, philanthropists, scientists, inventors, and explorers.


title: George M. Cohan

text: In 1959, at the behest of lyricist Oscar Hammerstein II, a $100,000 bronze statue of Cohan was dedicated in Times Square at Broadway and 46th Street in Manhattan. The 8-foot bronze remains the only statue of an actor on Broadway. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970, and into the American Folklore Hall of Fame in 2003. His star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame is located at 6734 Hollywood Boulevard. Cohan was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame on October 15, 2006.


title: George M. Cohan

text: The United States Postal Service issued a 15-cent commemorative stamp honoring Cohan on the anniversary of his centenary, July 3, 1978. The stamp depicts both the older Cohan and his younger self as a dancer, with the tag line "Yankee Doodle Dandy". It was designed by Jim Sharpe. On July 3, 2009, a bronze bust of Cohan, by artist Robert Shure, was unveiled at the corner of Wickenden and Governor Streets in Fox Point, Providence, a few blocks from his birthplace. The city renamed the corner the George M. Cohan Plaza and announced an annual George M. Cohan Award for Excellence in Art & Culture. The first award went to Curt Columbus, the artistic director of Trinity Repertory Company.


title: George M. Cohan

text: From 1899 to 1907, Cohan was married to Ethel Levey (1881–1955; born Grace Ethelia Fowler), a musical comedy actress and dancer. Levey and Cohan had a daughter, actress Georgette Cohan Souther Rowse (1900–1988). Levey joined the Four Cohans when Josie married, and she starred in "Little Johnny Jones" and other Cohan works. In 1907, Levey divorced Cohan on grounds of adultery.


title: George M. Cohan

text: In 1908, Cohan married Agnes Mary Nolan (1883–1972), who had been a dancer in his early shows; they remained married until his death. They had two daughters and a son. The eldest was Mary Cohan Ronkin, a cabaret singer in the 1930s, who composed incidental music for her father's play "The Tavern". In 1968, Mary supervised musical and lyric revisions for the musical "George M!" Their second daughter was Helen Cohan Carola, a film actress, who performed on Broadway with her father in "Friendship" in 1931. Their youngest child was George Michael Cohan, Jr. (1914–2000), who graduated from Georgetown University and served in the entertainment corps during World War II. In the 1950s, George Jr. reinterpreted his father's songs on recordings, in a nightclub act, and in television appearances on the Ed Sullivan and Milton Berle shows. George Jr.'s only child, Michaela Marie Cohan (1943–1999), was the last descendant named Cohan. She graduated with a theater degree from Marywood College in Pennsylvania in 1965. From 1966 to 1968, she served in a civilian Special Services unit in Vietnam and Korea. In 1996, she stood in for her ailing father at the ceremony marking her grandfather's induction into the Musical Theatre Hall of Fame at New York University. Cohan was a devoted baseball fan, regularly attending games of the former New York Giants.


title: George M. Cohan

text: He died of cancer at the age of 64 on November 5, 1942, at his Manhattan apartment on Fifth Avenue, surrounded by family and friends. His funeral was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, and was attended by thousands of people, including five governors of New York, two mayors of New York City and the Postmaster General. The honorary pallbearers included Irving Berlin, Eddie Cantor, Frank Crowninshield, Sol Bloom, Brooks Atkinson, Rube Goldberg, Walter Huston, George Jessel, Connie Mack, Joseph McCarthy, Eugene O'Neill, Sigmund Romberg, Lee Shubert and Fred Waring. Cohan was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City, in a private family mausoleum he had erected a quarter century earlier for his sister and parents.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Sheldon J. Plankton and Karen Plankton are the main antagonists in the Nickelodeon animated television series "SpongeBob SquarePants". They are respectively voiced by Mr. Lawrence and Jill Talley. Their first appearance was in the episode "Plankton!" that premiered on July 31, 1999. They were created and designed by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg, the creator of the series. Hillenburg named Karen after his wife, Karen Hillenburg (née Umland).


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton and Karen are the married owners of the unsuccessful Chum Bucket restaurant. Plankton is an intellectual planktonic copepod and Karen is a waterproof supercomputer. Plankton shares a rivalry with Mr. Krabs, who owns the far more profitable Krusty Krab restaurant and sells a fictional burger called the Krabby Patty. Plankton and Karen often devise schemes to steal the secret Krabby Patty recipe, but their efforts are always thwarted by Krabs and his employees.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Critics have praised the characters’ voices and dialogue together. They began as minor characters, but Lawrence developed their personalities throughout the show's early seasons and they eventually became the franchise's main antagonists. The Planktons play central roles in "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie", which promoted them both to main cast members in its credits, and in the . They have also been featured in a variety of spin-off media, including tie-in publications, playsets and other merchandise.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton is the nemesis and former best friend of Mr. Krabs. He is the owner of the Chum Bucket, a fast food restaurant located directly across the street from Krabs' restaurant, the Krusty Krab. The Chum Bucket primarily sells chum (bait consisting of fish parts), which is considered mostly inedible by the other characters. As a result, his restaurant is a commercial failure. Plankton's primary goal in the series is to steal the Krabby Patty Secret Formula so he can sell Krabby Patties at the Chum Bucket. His villainous efforts to do this are widely known within the show; fellow character Squidward Tentacles refers to Plankton as "the most hated thing in Bikini Bottom".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: A running gag throughout the series is the fact that Plankton is smaller than the other regular characters. He is easily stepped on and sent flying back to the Chum Bucket with a mere flick of the finger. His small size has led him to develop a Napoleon complex, which is occasionally manifested as a desire for global domination. He is a skillful inventor and regularly builds machines, both to help him in his plots, and for his own personal gain. Although he uses his intellect for evil, Plankton did not start out as a villainous scientist; he built Karen, his first invention, when he was friends with Mr. Krabs in grade school. Prominent in his earliest appearances, Plankton's catchphrase is "I went to college!" He also has a pet amoeba named Spot who at first was a guard dog, but later became a retriever.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton's roles are not exclusively antagonistic. Outside of business, he seems to have a somewhat friendly relationship with SpongeBob. In "", Plankton allies himself with SpongeBob, initially to protect himself from an angry mob, but gradually warms up to SpongeBob throughout the movie. The movie has been described by "The Guardian" as a "buddy film" between Plankton and SpongeBob. Series creator Stephen Hillenburg considered Plankton to be "more of a caricature of a villain" than a truly evil character.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: When "SpongeBob SquarePants" premiered, Plankton was not part of the series' main cast. Plankton's voice actor, Mr. Lawrence, has stated that after producing Plankton's debut episode in the late 1990s, creator Stephen Hillenburg was unsure if he would continue to use the character. After recording it, Hillenburg was noncommittal, telling Lawrence: "We'll probably do another [Plankton episode] next year," Lawrence summarized Plankton's origins in 2015, saying that he "was only supposed to be in one or two episodes, but I was a writer on the show and I really liked this character". Following his first voice recording as Plankton, Lawrence drafted some of his own ideas for the character and passed them to Hillenburg. From then on, Plankton began to appear more often. Lawrence considers the third season the first in which Plankton is a main character.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: During production on "SpongeBob"s early seasons, Lawrence was the only staff member writing premises and outlines involving Plankton. At the time, he felt he "had to prove Plankton could survive as more than a one-note character". Since then, multiple writers have written for Plankton without Lawrence's involvement, including the teams of writers responsible for Plankton's starring roles in both "SpongeBob" films. Lawrence continues to write Plankton episodes, having said in 2015, "I'm not just his voice. I get to create how the character is written and how he evolves over time."


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Preliminary design sketches for Plankton depict him in a robotic suit, with Karen's system built into it; that suit has yet to appear in the series. The suit functioned as a way to increase Plankton's presence, as one of Hillenburg's original intentions was for the character to be too small to see without a magnifying glass. As the series progressed, the animators enlarged Plankton's size, feeling that being microscopic was "not conducive to him interacting with other characters".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton's voice is provided by show writer and actor Doug Lawrence, normally credited as "Mr. Lawrence". The voice originated as an imitation of one of his deep-voiced high school friends. On television, Lawrence first used this voice for incidental characters on "Rocko's Modern Life". Fellow voice actor Tom Kenny found it amusing, leading to Lawrence's decision to use it when auditioning for roles on "SpongeBob". Lawrence initially tried out for the role of SpongeBob during the series' pre-production, but Stephen Hillenburg wanted a more innocent voice for the character and turned him down. Lawrence continued to work on the show, voicing minor characters, eventually leading to him being offered the role of Plankton in his debut episode, "Plankton!". He describes Plankton's voice as a "combination of Gregory Peck and Tony the Tiger."


title: Plankton and Karen

text: When "Plankton!" was pitched to Nickelodeon, Hillenburg had already decided that he wanted Lawrence to play Plankton. However, network executives wanted a guest star to provide his voice since he was set to appear in only one episode. Lawrence mentioned in an interview with fellow "SpongeBob" actor Thomas F. Wilson that the studio said, in his words, "'we could stunt-cast this. You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice.' And Steve [Hillenburg] was just like, 'it's Doug, don't you hear it? This is the character! '"


title: Plankton and Karen

text: The Plankton character has received a generally positive reception. In his review of the fourth season, Paul Mavis of "DVD Talk" stated that adult viewers would likely find Plankton more amusing than others, praising his "hilariously stentorian" voice. In his review of the season six episode "Clash of Triton," Mavis called Plankton "the only secondary "SpongeBob" character who can [successfully] anchor his own short". Bettijane Levine of "The Los Angeles Times" wrote positively of Plankton's portrayal, calling it poignant rather than genuinely immoral, describing him as a "town meanie... but mean is different than evil. There is no evil, not even a sense of menace, in SpongeBob's soggy, safe world." Ann Hagman Cardinal of Blogcritics praised the character, rhetorically asking in a 2007 review, "who isn't tickled by the tight-jawed, Kirk Douglas-voiced Plankton with his silent moviesque evil plans to steal the secret recipe for the Krabby Patty?" Boston.com writer Jamie Loftus had mixed feelings about Plankton in a 2015 article, asserting that while "almost every episode featuring tiny supervillain Plankton is highly formulaic," he never "gets old".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: James Poniewozik of "Time" magazine commented on Plankton in a 2001 article. He noted that "no one thinks it's strange that the town villain, the megalomaniacal Plankton, is a one-celled organism" as part of the "colorful, goofy" atmosphere of the program. In an article for "The A.V. Club", Zack Handlen stated that "the humor of Plankton comes from how his operative ambitions are constantly thwarted by a naïve, trusting kid". In 2015, "Entertainment Weekly"s Hillary Busis named Plankton one of the most devious characters on television, adding in her commentary that he is "voiced to wicked perfection by Doug Lawrence". José Antonio Gómez Marín of "El Mundo" favorably compared Plankton's plans to the stories of Georges Simenon in a 2013 article.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: In his 2011 book "SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy", political scientist Joseph J. Foy argues that "Plankton may actually be the unsung hero of the series, and SpongeBob the true villain." He compares the character to the Nietzschean "Übermensch", taking note of his mental superiority compared to the other characters in the show, and questions how Plankton is only "judged as bad because, no matter how many great things he accomplishes, his intentions are deemed ignoble". Foy concludes his analysis by criticizing the fact that "SpongeBob is praised as noble for trying to hold Plankton back."


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton is married to a waterproof supercomputer named Karen, who is also his sidekick and best friend. Karen is Plankton's own invention, assembled from a calculator and a mass of wires. She was Plankton's first invention when he was in grade school, and they dated before he became evil. Her system is built into most of Plankton's machines (including the Chum Bucket itself) so that she and Plankton can communicate while the latter is on a mission. She is a Mark II Surplus UNIVAC with 256 gigabytes of random-access memory.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Karen takes on various jobs at the Chum Bucket, including busser, chef and cashier; she rarely has to fulfill them because of the restaurant's unpopularity. She also tends to stay more focused than Plankton on the core mission of stealing Krabs' formula. Karen often reminds him to stay on task and encourages him to keep going when he loses confidence. Since she lacks a heart, Karen is usually unable to feel empathy for the people around her. Her interactions are not limited to helping Plankton, however; she is a friend of Sandy Cheeks, who is also intelligent and interested in science.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Karen is more competent than Plankton in formulating plots to steal the Krabby Patty recipe. Most of his effective plans have come from Karen, including "Plan Z"—the only scheme to result in Plankton successfully stealing the formula and using it to his advantage—in "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie". Nonetheless, he tends to take credit for them, much to her dismay. Karen has effortlessly stolen Krabs' formula without Plankton's help on many occasions, but her husband always inadvertently gets in the way. Because of their contrasting behaviors, Plankton and Karen have a tendency to argue. Tom Kenny, SpongeBob's voice actor, has called their marriage ""Honeymooners"-like," comparing them to the bickering couple from the sitcom "The Honeymooners".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: As a computer on the ocean floor, Karen's ability to operate underwater has not been explained in any of the series' episodes. Tom Kenny addressed this in a 2004 interview with the Associated Press, stating that Karen's functionality is a "don't-ask-why" aspect of "SpongeBob" and that "logic doesn't have a place" in the series' universe.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Karen was also created by Stephen Hillenburg, who named the character after his wife, Karen Hillenburg (née Umland). Hillenburg initially designed a laboratory for Plankton to convey the character's technological abilities, leading to Karen's development as his lab's central computer system. Like Plankton, she was not initially intended to be a main character; her role in the series grew as Lawrence wrote ideas to give the Planktons more personality. Throughout the series' first and second seasons, Karen is not defined as Plankton's wife; Plankton's official biography from 2000 simply states that he works "with the help of his computer, Karen".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: In the series' third season opener, 2002's "The Algae's Always Greener," Plankton refers to Karen as his wife for the first time. Aspects of their marriage, like their anniversary and their honeymoon, have become the frequent focus of episodes since then. In early episodes, Karen is always supportive and friendly toward her husband. As the series progresses, she becomes more cynical and sarcastic because of Plankton's relentless obsession with the Krabby Patty formula. However, she remains loving and affectionate toward him.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Many episodes written by Lawrence develop and explore the relationship between Karen and her husband. Lawrence has stated that he feels Karen makes Plankton-focused episodes more humorous and that her presence helps portray him as a multidimensional character. In a 2009 interview with Andy Goodman, he said, "I want more Karen on the show ... The married life of an evil genius is the funniest thing to me, so in that regard [Karen] definitely enhances Plankton's stories, making him more than just your typical bad guy."


title: Plankton and Karen

text: For the first three seasons, Karen was usually depicted as a large, blue monitor in the Chum Bucket's laboratory; at other times, only her voice is heard from within Plankton's robotic creations. When Karen was promoted to a main character in "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie", a mobile unit was introduced to allow her to interact more easily with other characters. Showrunner Vincent Waller stated that the mobile unit was introduced because having Karen able to move was more convenient for storytelling purposes. Karen alternates between her multiple forms in most episodes produced after the film. As of the tenth season, her wall monitor is no longer used and her mobile form is always equipped with a pair of robotic arms.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Karen is voiced by American actress Jill Talley, who is married to SpongeBob's voice actor, Tom Kenny. Talley, a Chicago native, uses a Midwestern accent for the character. Whenever Karen talks, her voice is mixed over electronic sound effects by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound. Her voice, which was more monotonous in earlier episodes, has been described as "deadpan" by the Associated Press. Some of Karen's conversations with Plankton are improvised between Talley and Lawrence. The latter described this improvisation as his "favorite part of the voice over" in 2009. He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth. [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'" Lawrence also feels that voicing the characters for so long has built a close relationship between the two actors. On the topic, he said, "This on-TV marriage we have, the whole world knows us being married ... We start becoming a married couple [when recording]."


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Karen has received generally positive reactions from critics. In a 2010 review of "SpongeBob's Last Stand", DVD Talk's Paul Mavis wrote highly of Karen and Plankton's dialogue, stating that the two "could have their own sitcom". Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media praised the amount of screen time given to Karen in "Sponge Out of Water", calling her "hilarious". In 2015, Boston.com's Jamie Loftus cited Karen as her reason for naming 2002's "Welcome to the Chum Bucket" one of the sixteen greatest "SpongeBob" episodes. Gizmodo's Ryan Lufkin wrote in 2016 that "SpongeBob"s "90s-level weirdness" is proven by characters like Plankton and Karen. The About Group's Nancy Basile commended Jill Talley's portrayal of the character, saying that it is "no surprise she plays [the role] so well" due to her earlier work with Second City and "Mr. Show".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: In an analysis of how the show has changed throughout its run, Channel Frederator argued that the main characters of "SpongeBob"–specifically Sandy, Patrick, Mr. Krabs, Squidward and Karen–have been reduced from multidimensional to reliant on single traits. According to this view, "Karen is now a full-blown nag" in newer episodes. This aspect of Karen's character has also been criticized by author Joseph J. Foy, in his book "SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy". He considers this trope one of several harmful stereotypes present on the program, writing that "the motif of the nagging wife is certainly an issue worthy of dissection in dealing with a young audience, along with the spoiled teen daughter <nowiki>[</nowiki>Pearl<nowiki>]</nowiki> and the stupid best friend <nowiki>[</nowiki>Patrick<nowiki>]</nowiki>".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Lampooning a controversy surrounding SpongeBob's sexuality, essayist Dennis Hans wrote a 2005 satirical piece for the "National Catholic Reporter" focusing on the marriage of Plankton and Karen. He remarked, in jest, that SpongeBob's sexual orientation was a lesser issue compared to the positive representation of Plankton's "technosexuality". Hans identified instances where both Planktons were portrayed as a loving couple and joked: "the subliminal message from SpongeBob's insidious creators ... [is that] the technosexual lifestyle means bonding forever with your one true love".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton and Karen have been featured in various forms of "SpongeBob SquarePants" merchandise, including video games and action figures. In 2006, Ty Inc.'s Beanie Babies introduced a plush toy based on Plankton. A Lego building set based on the Chum Bucket, including a Plankton minifigure and his laboratory with Karen, was released in 2007. The fourteenth issue of "SpongeBob Comics", titled "Plankton Comics," is centered around the Planktons and includes six original stories set at the Chum Bucket. The 2013 video game "" is Plankton-themed and features Lawrence and Jill Talley reprising their voice roles from the show as Plankton and Karen.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton and Karen appear in several Nickelodeon crossover works, including 2005's "Nicktoons Unite!" game and one of its sequels, "". Both games feature the Chum Bucket as a playing location and in the latter, Plankton is a player character. Additionally, Plankton and Karen are both mentioned by Eric Lange (as his character Sikowitz) in "Tori Goes Platinum," an episode of Nickelodeon's sitcom "Victorious".


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Sea World Australia's "SpongeBob ParadePants" event, which opened in December 2011, included a float featuring Karen and a talking Plankton. In 2015, a recreation of Plankton's laboratory was constructed for a "SpongeBob" event at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in Zhongzheng District, Taipei. It included a replica of Karen's monitor, functioning as a television, screening episodes of "SpongeBob", and a miniature Plankton statue.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: The Flaming Lips' song "SpongeBob and Patrick Confront the Psychic Wall of Energy," recorded for "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie", closes with several lines about Plankton and Karen. The song characterizes Plankton as a confused faultfinder who would be much happier if he stopped focusing on his failures and complaining to Karen. Plankton sings a track on the novelty album "The Best Day Ever" titled "You Will Obey," on which Elvis Presley's former guitarist James Burton played guitar. Of the album, Tom Kenny said "one of our hidden Easter eggs that hopefully more than three people in the world will get is during the guitar solo when Plankton says 'Take it, James', which was what Elvis said in every one of those concert movies". Film composer John Debney produced Plankton's theme music for the second "SpongeBob" movie, using low brass and trombones. The film's includes several tracks named after Plankton, including "Plankton Rescues Karen," which is used during a scene highlighting Plankton's cooperation with hero SpongeBob.


title: Plankton and Karen

text: Plankton and Karen are the main antagonists in the show's Broadway adaptation. They were portrayed by Wesley Taylor and Stephanie Hsu. In addition to wearing costumes inspired by the characters, Taylor and Hsu are accompanied by a Plankton puppet and a replica of Karen's mobile form, respectively. The two also sing a musical number titled "When the Going Gets Tough" (composed by T.I.). The plot features them attempting to hypnotize the residents of Bikini Bottom into liking the food they serve at the Chum Bucket.


title: Jamison family deaths

text: The Jamison family deaths occurred on or after October 8, 2009, when the Jamison family of Eufaula, Oklahoma, United States Bobby Jamison, his wife Sherilynn and daughter Madyson mysteriously disappeared. The family was reportedly considering the purchase of a forty-acre plot of land near Red Oak, about from Eufaula, at the time that they vanished. Their suspected remains were found in November 2013 and positively identified by the Oklahoma medical examiner on July 3, 2014. No cause of death was determined, and the circumstances surrounding their disappearance remain unknown.


title: Jamison family deaths

text: The initial investigation into the Jamison family's disappearance indicated that they had probably not vanished of their own accord. The family's pickup truck was found abandoned in Latimer County, Oklahoma, a short distance south of Kinta, a few days after their disappearance. The Jamisons' bodies were not found, but their malnourished dog, Maisie, was still in the truck. Also discovered were the family's ID cards, wallets, mobile phones, a GPS system, and about US$32,000 in cash. The Jamisons were not known for carrying large amounts of cash with them.


title: Jamison family deaths

text: Footage from the family's home surveillance system, time stamped the day they left their house, showed the couple making several silent trips between their vehicle and home as they methodically packed to leave. In the footage, the couple's movements were described as "trancelike". The video also shows Sherilyn place a brown briefcase in the vehicle. Former Sheriff Beauchamp remarked that he believed the briefcase could be an important clue; both the briefcase and Sherilyn's handgun have never been recovered.


title: Jamison family deaths

text: The skeletal remains of two adults and a child were discovered by two hunters in a remote spot of Latimer County in November 2013, more than four years after the family went missing, and less than away from where the family's pickup truck had been abandoned. The remains were widely presumed to be those of the missing family, though the Oklahoma medical examiner's office had to use anthropological and forensic pathological testing to identify them. Officials confirmed on July 3, 2014, that the remains belonged to the Jamisons. A cause of death was not determined due to the heavily decomposed state of the bodies.


title: Jamison family deaths

text: Before the remains were discovered, several theories emerged about the family's disappearance, such as that they had faked their own deaths, were in witness protection, were murdered, or had died by group suicide. Shortly before the disappearance, Bobby Jamison was involved in a bitter lawsuit with his father, Bob Dean Jamison, claiming that he had threatened the family and had struck him with his vehicle in November 2008. Bobby also alleged that his father was involved in meth and criminal activity. Police do not believe that Bob Dean Jamison was involved in the family's disappearance.


title: Jamison family deaths

text: Another popular theory was that the Jamisons themselves were drug dealers. Investigators cited the large amount of cash found in their truck, and the apparent strange behavior exhibited by Bobby and Sherilynn shortly before they went missing. The Jamisons had reportedly told their local pastor Gary Brandon on separate occasions that they had seen spirits inside their home and that Bobby had allegedly claimed to have been reading from "The Satanic Bible".


title: Jamison family deaths

text: The Jamison disappearance was profiled on the Investigation Discovery series "Disappeared" in late 2010, in an episode titled "Paradise Lost".


title: Ceramide

text: Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules. A ceramide is composed of N-acetylsphingosine and a fatty acid. Ceramides are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of eukaryotic cells, since they are component lipids that make up sphingomyelin, one of the major lipids in the lipid bilayer. Contrary to previous assumptions that ceramides and other sphingolipids found in cell membrane were purely supporting structural elements, ceramide can participate in a variety of cellular signaling: examples include regulating differentiation, proliferation, and programmed cell death (PCD) of cells.


title: Ceramide

text: The word "ceramide" comes from the Latin "cera" (wax) and "amide". Ceramide is a component of vernix caseosa, the waxy or cheese-like white substance found coating the skin of newborn human infants.


title: Ceramide

text: There are three major pathways of ceramide generation. First, the sphingomyelinase pathway uses an enzyme to break down sphingomyelin in the cell membrane and release ceramide. Second, the "de novo" pathway creates ceramide from less complex molecules. Third, in the "salvage" pathway, sphingolipids that are broken down into sphingosine are reused by reacylation to form ceramide.


title: Ceramide

text: Hydrolysis of sphingomyelin is catalyzed by the enzyme sphingomyelinase. Because sphingomyelin is one of the four common phospholipids found in the plasma membrane of cells, the implications of this method of generating ceramide is that the cellular membrane is the target of extracellular signals leading to programmed cell death. There has been research suggesting that when ionizing radiation causes apoptosis in some cells, the radiation leads to the activation of sphingomyelinase in the cell membrane and ultimately, to ceramide generation.


title: Ceramide

text: De novo synthesis of ceramide begins with the condensation of palmitate and serine to form 3-keto-dihydrosphingosine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme serine palmitoyl transferase and is the rate-limiting step of the pathway. In turn, 3-keto-dihydrosphingosine is reduced to dihydrosphingosine, which is then followed by acylation by the enzyme (dihydro)ceramide synthase to produce dihydroceramide. The final reaction to produce ceramide is catalyzed by dihydroceramide desaturase. De novo synthesis of ceramide occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum. Ceramide is subsequently transported to the Golgi apparatus by either vesicular trafficking or the ceramide transfer protein CERT. Once in the Golgi apparatus, ceramide can be further metabolized to other sphingolipids, such as sphingomyelin and the complex glycosphingolipids.


title: Ceramide

text: Constitutive degradation of sphingolipids and glycosphingolipids takes place in the acidic subcellular compartments, the late endosomes and the lysosomes, with the end goal of producing sphingosine. In the case of glycosphingolipids, exohydrolases acting at acidic pH optima cause the stepwise release of monosaccharide units from the end of the oligosaccharide chains, leaving just the sphingosine portion of the molecule, which may then contribute to the generation of ceramides. Ceramide can be further hydrolyzed by acid ceramidase to form sphingosine and a free fatty acid, both of which are able to leave the lysosome, unlike ceramide. The long-chain sphingoid bases released from the lysosome may then re-enter pathways for synthesis of ceramide and/or sphingosine-1-phosphate. The salvage pathway re-utilizes long-chain sphingoid bases to form ceramide through the action of ceramide synthase. Thus, ceramide synthase family members probably trap free sphingosine released from the lysosome at the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum or in endoplasmic reticulum-associated membranes. The salvage pathway has been estimated to contribute from 50% to 90% of sphingolipid biosynthesis.


title: Ceramide

text: As a bioactive lipid, ceramide has been implicated in a variety of physiological functions including apoptosis, cell growth arrest, differentiation, cell senescence, cell migration and adhesion. Roles for ceramide and its downstream metabolites have also been suggested in a number of pathological states including cancer, neurodegeneration, diabetes, microbial pathogenesis, obesity, and inflammation.


title: Ceramide

text: Ceramides induce skeletal muscle insulin resistance when synthesized as a result of saturated fat activation of TLR4 receptors. Unsaturated fat does not have this effect. Ceramides induce insulin resistance in many tissues by inhibition of Akt/PKB signaling. Aggregation of LDL cholesterol by ceramide causes LDL retention in arterial walls, leading to atherosclerosis. Ceramides cause endothelial dysfunction by activating protein phosphatase 2 (PP2A). In mitochondria, ceramide suppresses the electron transport chain and induces production of reactive oxygen species.


title: Ceramide

text: One of the most studied roles of ceramide pertains to its function as a proapoptotic molecule. Apoptosis, or Type I programmed cell death, is essential for the maintenance of normal cellular homeostasis and is an important physiological response to many forms of cellular stress. Ceramide accumulation has been found following treatment of cells with a number of apoptotic agents, including ionizing radiation, UV light, TNF-alpha, and chemotherapeutic agents. This suggests a role for ceramide in the biological responses of all these agents. Because of its apoptosis-inducing effects in cancer cells, ceramide has been termed the "tumor suppressor lipid". Several studies have attempted to define further the specific role of ceramide in the events of cell death and some evidence suggests ceramide functions upstream of the mitochondria in inducing apoptosis. However, owing to the conflicting and variable nature of studies into the role of ceramide in apoptosis, the mechanism by which this lipid regulates apoptosis remains elusive.


title: Ceramide

text: The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis. It is composed of terminally differentiated and enucleated corneocytes that reside within a lipid matrix, like "bricks and mortar." Together with cholesterol and free fatty acids, ceramides form the lipid mortar, a water-impermeable barrier that prevents evaporative water loss. As a general rule of thumb, the epidermal lipid matrix is composed of an equimolar mixture of ceramides (~50% by weight), cholesterol (~ 25% by weight), and free fatty acids (~15% by weight), with smaller quantities of other lipids also being present. The lipid barrier also protects against the entry of microorganisms.


title: Ceramide

text: Epidermal ceramides have a diversity of structures and can be broadly classified as AS and NS ceramides; ADS and NDS dihydroceramides; AH, EOH, and NH 6-hydroxyceramides; AP and NP phytoceramides; and EOH and EOS acylceramides, see figure.


title: Ceramide

text: Similar to body site-specific alterations in ceramide abundance, there are also well-characterized changes in epidermal ceramide expression in patients with inflammatory skin diseases. In the hyperplastic disorder psoriasis, investigators have reported an increase in AS and NS ceramides and a decrease in EOS, AP, and NP ceramides, which may contribute to a defect in the skin's water impermeability barrier. Studying ceramide expression in atopic dermatitis and psoriasis patients, other investigators have reported that rather than focusing on ceramide classes, ceramide sphingoid base length and fatty acid chain length have the strongest influence on the likelihood of a particular ceramide structure being upregulated or downregulated in inflamed skin.


title: Ceramide

text: Inhibition of ceramide synthesis with myriocin in obese mice may lead to both improved leptin signaling and decreased insulin resistance by decreasing SOCS-3 expression. An elevated level of ceramide can cause insulin resistance by inhibiting the ability of insulin to activate the insulin signal transduction pathway and/or via the activation of JNK.


title: Ceramide

text: One hypothesis is that ceramide generated in the plasma membrane enhances membrane rigidity and stabilizes smaller lipid platforms known as lipid rafts, allowing them to serve as platforms for signalling molecules. Moreover, as rafts on one leaflet of the membrane can induce localized changes in the other leaflet of the bilayer, they can potentially serve as the link between signals from outside the cell to signals to be generated within the cell.


title: Ceramide

text: Ceramide has also been shown to form organized large channels traversing the mitochondrial outer membrane. This leads to the egress of proteins from the intermembrane space.


title: Ceramide

text: Ceramides may be found as ingredients of some topical skin medications used to complement treatment for skin conditions such as eczema. They are also used in cosmetic products such as some soaps, shampoos, skin creams, and sunscreens. Additionally, ceramides are being explored as a potential therapeutic in treating cancer.


title: Ceramide

text: Ceramide phosphoethanolamine (CPE) is a sphingolipid consisted of a ceramide and a phosphoethanolamine head group. CPE is the major sphingolipid class in some invertebrates such as members of Drosophila. In contrast, mammalian cells contain only small amounts of CPE.


title: Soil horizon

text: A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance) and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than the horizons above and below.


title: Soil horizon

text: The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of horizon symbols in the world. No one system is more correct—as artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed.


title: Soil horizon

text: In most soil classification systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system uses entire horizon sequences for definition. Other systems pick out certain horizons, the "diagnostic horizons", for the definition; examples are the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), the USDA soil taxonomy and the Australian Soil Classification. Diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the "cambic horizon" or the "spodic horizon". The WRB lists 40 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil characteristics may be needed to define a soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development of horizons.


title: Soil horizon

text: A soil horizon is a result of soil-forming processes (pedogenesis). Layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called "layers".


title: Soil horizon

text: Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil.


title: Soil horizon

text: Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses, to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.


title: Soil horizon

text: The "O" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition. In the Australian system, the O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain undecomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of leaves), and O2 horizons contain organic debris in various stages of decomposition, the origin of which is not readily visible. O horizons contain ≥ 20% organic carbon.


title: Soil horizon

text: These horizons are also heavily organic but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The "P" designation comes from their common name, peats. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O horizons. P horizons contain ≥ 12 to 18% organic carbon, depending on the clay content.


title: Soil horizon

text: The A horizon is the top layer of the mineral soil horizons, often referred to as 'topsoil'. This layer contains dark decomposed organic matter, which is called "humus". The technical definition of an A horizon may vary between the systems, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. "A" horizons may be darker in colour than deeper layers and contain more organic matter, or they may be lighter but contain less clay or pedogenic oxides. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs. Soil organisms such as earthworms, potworms (enchytraeids), arthropods, nematodes, fungi, and many species of bacteria and archaea are concentrated here, often in close association with plant roots. Thus, the A horizon may be referred to as the biomantle. However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A horizon. The A horizon may be further subdivided into A1 (dark, maximum biologic activity), A2 (paler), and A3 (transitional to the B horizon).


title: Soil horizon

text: "E", being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates or silica. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons. In systems where (like in the Australian system) this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation "e" (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In soils that contain gravels, due to animal bioturbation, a stonelayer commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon.


title: Soil horizon

text: The B horizon is commonly referred to as "subsoil" and consists of mineral layers which are significantly altered by pedogenesis, mostly with the formation of iron oxides and clay minerals. It is usually brownish or reddish due to the iron oxides, which increases the chroma of the subsoil to a degree that it can be distinguished from the other horizons. The weathering may be biologically mediated. In addition, the B horizon is defined as having a distinctly different structure or consistency than the horizon(s) above and the horizon(s) below.


title: Soil horizon

text: The B horizon can also accumulate minerals and organic matter that are migrating downwards from the A and E horizons. If so, this layer is also known as the "illuviated" or "illuvial" horizon.


title: Soil horizon

text: As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 – dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have a high concentration of clay minerals or oxides. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.


title: Soil horizon

text: The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker.


title: Soil horizon

text: The A/E/B horizons are referred to collectively as the "solum", the surface depth of the soil where biologically activity and climate effects drives pedogenesis. The layers below the solum have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes.


title: Soil horizon

text: The C horizon is below the solum horizons. This layer is little affected by pedogenesis. Clay illuviation, if present, is not significant. The absence of solum-type development (pedogenesis) is one of the defining attributes. The C horizon forms either in deposits (e.g., loess, flood deposits, landslides) or it formed from weathering of residual bedrock. The C horizon may be enriched with carbonates carried below the solum by leaching. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the C horizon and no underlying bedrock present, the C horizon resembles the parent material of the solum.


title: Soil horizon

text: D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the Australian system refer to "any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in its general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable horizon designation… [it] may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization between it and the overlying horizons" (National Committee on Soil and Terrain, 2009, p. 151).


title: Soil horizon

text: R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the R horizon, the R horizon resembles the parent material of the solum.


title: Soil horizon

text: L (Limnic) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic organisms. Included are coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat), diatomaceous earth, and marl; and is usually found as a remnant of past bodies of standing water.


title: Soil horizon

text: A horizon that combines the characteristics of two horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If distinct parts have properties of two kinds of horizons, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.


title: Soil horizon

text: In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23 etc.). While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time. In the Australian system, as a rule of thumb, layers thinner than 5 cm (2 inches) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer.


title: Soil horizon

text: Suffixes describing particular features of a horizon may also be added. The Australian system provides the following suffixes:


title: Soil horizon

text: Soil formation is often described as occurring "in situ": Rock breaks down, weathers and is mixed with other materials, or loose sediments are transformed by weathering. But the process is often far more complicated. For instance, a fully formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind- or water-deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile. This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas, and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes. Thus, a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O, A1, A2, B2, 2A2, 2B21, 2B22, 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2.


title: Soil horizon

text: B: Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus, CaCO, CaSO; or loss of CaCO; or accumulation of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure.


title: Soil horizon

text: W: A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen water (Wf) within or beneath the soil (excludes water/ice above soil).


title: Soil horizon

text: A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.


title: Soil horizon

text: Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithologic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a master horizon. Example: A, E, Bt1, 2Bt2, 2BC, 3C1, 3C2.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons, the residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon. All or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. Additionally, they are characterized by one or more of the following:


title: Soil horizon

text: If a surface horizon has properties of both A and E horizons but the dominant feature is an accumulation of humified organic matter, it is designated an A horizon.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of clay minerals, iron, aluminium, organic matter or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles. However, pedogenesis is advanced, because the lost substances first have been formed or accumulated there. All or much of the original rock structure is obliterated. An E horizon is usually, but not necessarily, lighter in colour than an underlying B horizon. In some soils, the colour is that of the sand and silt particles. An E horizon is most commonly differentiated from an underlying B horizon: by colour of higher value or lower chroma, or both; by coarser texture; or by a combination of these properties. An E horizon is commonly near to the surface, below an O or A horizon, and above a B horizon. However, the symbol E may be used without regard to the position in the profile for any horizon that meets the requirements and that has resulted from soil genesis.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are horizons that formed below an A, E, H, or O horizon, and in which the dominant features are the obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, together with one or a combination of the following:


title: Soil horizon

text: Examples of layers that are not B horizons are: layers in which clay films either coat rock fragments or are found on finely stratified unconsolidated sediments, whether the films were formed in place or by illuviation; layers into which carbonates have been illuviated but that are not contiguous to an overlying genetic horizon; and layers with gleying but no other pedogenic changes.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, that are little affected by pedogenic processes and lack properties of H, O, A, E or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but some siliceous and calcareous layers, such as shells, coral, and diatomaceous earth, are included. The material of C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying solum presumably formed. Plant roots can penetrate C horizons, which provide an important growing medium. Included as C layers are sediments, saprolite, non-indurated bedrock, and other geological materials that commonly slake within 24 hours when air-dry or drier chunks are placed in water, and that, when moist, can be dug with a spade. Some soils form in material that is already highly weathered, and if such material does not meet the requirements of A, E, or B horizons, it is designated C. Changes not considered pedogenic are those not related to overlying horizons. Layers having accumulations of silica, carbonates, or gypsum, even if indurated, may be included in C horizons, unless the layer is obviously affected by pedogenic processes; then it is a B horizon.


title: Soil horizon

text: These consist of hard bedrock underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated limestone or sandstone are examples of bedrock that are designated R. Air-dry or drier chunks of an R layer, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours. The R layer is sufficiently coherent when moist to make hand digging with a spade impractical. The bedrock may contain cracks, but these are so few and so small that few roots can penetrate. The cracks may be coated or filled with soil material.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are ice lenses and wedges that contain at least 75 percent ice (by volume) and that distinctly separate layers (organic or mineral) in the soil.


title: Soil horizon

text: These are sediments deposited in a body of water. They may be organic or mineral. Limnic material is either: (i) deposited by precipitation or through action of aquatic organisms, such as algae, especially diatoms; or (ii) derived from underwater and floating aquatic plants and subsequently modified by aquatic animals. L layers include coprogenous earth or sedimentary peat (mostly organic), diatomaceous earth (mostly siliceous), and marl (mostly calcareous).


title: Soil horizon

text: These are either water layers in soils or water layers submerging soils. The water is present either permanently or cyclic within the time frame of 24 hours. Some organic soils float on water. In other cases, shallow water (i.e. water not deeper than 1 m) may cover the soil permanently, as in the case of shallow lakes, or cyclic, as in tidal flats. The occurrence of tidal water can be indicated by the letter W in brackets: (W).


title: Soil horizon

text: A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A. The master horizon symbols may be followed by the lowercase letters indicating subordinate characteristics (see below). Example: AhBw. The I, L and W symbols are not used in transitional horizon designations.


title: Soil horizon

text: This is the list of suffixes to the master horizons. After the hyphen, it is indicated to which master horizons the suffixes can be added.


title: Soil horizon

text: Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a horizon. The horizons in a profile are combined using a hyphen (-). Example: Ah-E-Bt1-2Bt2-2BwC-3C1-3C2.


title: Soil horizon

text: The designations are found in Chapter 10 of the WRB Manual. The Chapter starts with some general definitions:


title: Soil horizon

text: The fine earth comprises the soil constituents ≤ 2 mm. The whole soil comprises fine earth, coarse fragments, artefacts, cemented parts, and dead plant residues of any size.


title: Soil horizon

text: A litter layer is a loose layer that contains > 90% (by volume, related to the fine earth plus all dead plant residues) recognizable dead plant tissues (e.g. undecomposed leaves). Dead plant material still connected to living plants (e.g. dead parts of Sphagnum mosses) is not regarded to form part of a litter layer. The soil surface (0 cm) is by convention the surface of the soil after removing, if present, the litter layer and, if present, below a layer of living plants (e.g. living mosses). The mineral soil surface is the upper limit of the uppermost layer consisting of mineral material.


title: Soil horizon

text: A soil layer is a zone in the soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with properties different from layers above and/or below it. If at least one of these properties is the result of soil-forming processes, the layer is called a soil horizon. In the following, the term layer is used to indicate the possibility that soil-forming processes did not occur.


title: Soil horizon

text: The designation consists of a capital letter (master symbol), which in most cases is followed by one or more lowercase letters (suffixes).


title: Soil horizon

text: soil structure and/or structural elements created by cultivation in ≥ 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth), i.e. rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume).


title: Soil horizon

text: has lost by downward movement within the soil (vertically or laterally) one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter.


title: Soil horizon

text: unconsolidated (can be cut with a spade when moist), or consolidated and more fractured than the R layer;


title: Soil horizon

text: This is the list of suffixes to the master symbols. In brackets is indicated to which master symbols the suffixes can be added. The suffixes e and i have different meanings for organic and mineral layers.


title: Soil horizon

text: 1. The c follows the suffix that indicates the substance that forms the concretions or nodules; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the c.


title: Soil horizon

text: 2. The m follows the suffix that indicates the substance that is the cementing agent; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the m.


title: Soil horizon

text: 3. The ρ follows the suffix that indicates the relict features; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the ρ.


title: Soil horizon

text: 4. If two suffixes belong to the same soil-forming process, they follow each other immediately; in the combination of t and n, the t is written first; rules 1, 2 and 3 have to be followed, if applicable.


title: Soil horizon

text: 5. If in a B horizon the characteristics of the suffixes g, h, k, l, o, q, s, t, v, or y are strongly expressed, the suffix w is not used, even if its characteristics are present; if the characteristics of the mentioned suffixes are weakly expressed and the characteristics of the suffix w are present as well, the suffixes are combined.


title: Soil horizon

text: 7. The @, f and b are written last, if b occurs together with @ or f (only if other suffixes are present as well): @b, fb.


title: Soil horizon

text: 8. Besides that, combinations must be in the sequence of dominance, the dominant one first. Examples: Btng, Btgb, Bkcyc.


title: Soil horizon

text: If the characteristics of two or more master layers are superimposed to each other, the master symbols are combined without anything in between, the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes.


title: Soil horizon

text: If the characteristics of two or more master layers occur in the same depth range, but occupy distinct parts clearly separated from each other, the master symbols are combined with the slash (/), the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes.


title: Soil horizon

text: If lithic discontinuities occur, the strata are indicated by preceding figures, starting with the second stratum. I and W layers are not considered as strata. All layers of the respective stratum are indicated by the figure:


title: Soil horizon

text: If two or more layers with the same designation occur, the letters are followed by figures. The sequence of figures continues across different strata.


title: Soil horizon

text: Many soil classification systems have diagnostic horizons. A diagnostic horizon is a horizon used to define soil taxonomic units (e.g. to define soil types). The presence or absence of one or more diagnostic horizons in a required depth is used for the definition of a taxonomic unit. In addition, most classification systems use some other soil characteristics for the definition of taxonomic units. The diagnostic horizons need to be thoroughly defined by a set of criteria. When allocating a soil (a pedon, a soil profile) to a taxonomic unit, one has to check every horizon of this soil and decide, whether or not the horizon fulfils the criteria of a diagnostic horizon. Based on the identified diagnostic horizons, one can proceed with the allocation of the soil to a taxonomic unit. In the following, the diagnostic horizons of two soil classification systems are listed.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Wolf Creek 2 is a 2013 Australian horror film co-written and directed by Greg McLean. The film is a sequel to the 2005 film "Wolf Creek" and stars John Jarratt, reprising his role as Mick Taylor. It was released on 30 August 2013 at the Venice Film Festival, then released in Australia on 20 February 2014.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: The film follows a young German couple, and a British tourist, who fall victim to the kidnapping and torture of Mick Taylor, a deranged xenophobic killer, while travelling in the Australian outback. Similar to the 2005 film, the plot is based upon the real-life murders of backpackers by Ivan Milat in the 1990s and Bradley Murdoch in 2001. The film received mixed reviews from critics, praising the acting from Jarratt and Corr, but criticism for the violence and gore. The film grossed over $4.7 million at the Australian box office.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: In North Western Australia, highway patrol officers Gary Bulmer and Brian O'Connor are parked by an outback highway, desperate to meet a quota for speeding tickets. Mick Taylor (John Jarratt) drives past going under the speed limit and they pull him over, claiming he was speeding. After belittling and insulting Mick, the two officers give him a speeding ticket and an order to get rid of his truck. Soon after in retaliation, Mick shoots O'Connor in the head as the officers drive away, causing the car to crash in a gully. Despite Bulmer's desperate pleas, Mick breaks his leg, stabs him in the back with a bowie knife and places the mortally wounded officer back in the car before dousing it with petrol and setting it alight. Mick departs, leaving Bulmer to burn alive in the resulting explosion.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Meanwhile, a young German couple, Rutger and Katarina, hitchhike from Sydney to Wolf Creek Crater and camp nearby. In the middle of the night, Mick arrives at the campsite and offers them a lift to a caravan site so they do not get charged for camping in a national park. When Rutger declines his offer, Mick loses his temper and stabs Rutger in the back. He then ties Katarina up and prepares to rape her, but a wounded Rutger battles Mick; Rutger is eventually overpowered and decapitated. Mick then tells Katarina they'll be spending "a fun couple of months together" before choking her until she falls unconscious.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Katarina wakes up later in the night to see Mick cutting up Rutger's body to feed to his dogs. She flees into the bush and Mick pursues her in his truck, referring to this as playing a game of hide and seek. At the same time, English tourist Paul Hammersmith (Ryan Corr) is driving along the highway, and stops when he sees Katarina standing in the road. He picks her up, but Mick relentlessly pursues them. Mick shoots at Paul, but accidentally kills Katarina instead. Paul then drives off, remorsefully leaving Katarina's body in the sand and covering it with just a sleeping bag at daybreak. Mick must now track and kill Paul as a witness to his killing of Katarina. He also blames Paul for taking his 'plaything' (Katarina) away from him, even though he, Mick, fired the shot that killed her.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Paul reaches a highway. Realising he is off course and has low fuel, he tries to flag down a truck in the distance. He soon realises that Mick is driving the truck, having killed the original driver. After a long chase, during which Mick runs over numerous kangaroos which are crossing the highway, Mick nudges Paul's vehicle at a steep hillside, sending it rolling down into a valley. Paul survives the crash and taunts Mick, who sends the truck hurtling down into Paul's vehicle, which explodes as Paul barely escapes the area. Paul treks across the outback for hours looking for help. Exhausted and dehydrated, he passes out near an outback homestead and is given food and shelter by an elderly couple. They plan to take Paul to the nearest town after he has eaten, but Mick finds the house, and shoots the couple dead. Paul flees again; Mick catches Paul hiding in the grassland and knocks him out.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Paul wakes up in Mick's dungeon, zip-tied to a chair. Mick is furious at Paul for his role in Katarina's death and prepares to torture him, but Paul pacifies him with his "English wit" by narrating limericks and leading Mick in drinking songs that he claims he learned at boarding school. He also gets Mick to join him in singing Rolf Harris's Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport. Mick's torture for Paul consists of a ten question quiz about Australian culture and history, with a promise to free him if he answers five of them correctly. However, for each question Paul answers incorrectly, he loses a finger. Paul answers the first two questions correctly and reveals that he is a history major. After he gets the next question 'wrong', Mick (irritated by Paul's knowledge) grinds off one of his fingers with a sander.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: When Paul intentionally gets the next answer wrong, Mick cuts his other hand free (at Paul's request) from the zip tie and grinds off a finger. Paul then grabs a nearby hammer and clubs Mick with it before fleeing through the tunnels of the dungeon. Paul finds numerous decayed corpses and a severely emaciated woman begging to be freed. While being pursued by an injured Mick, Paul eventually stumbles across an exit, but notices a sheet on the ground directly in front of it. Lifting it up, he finds a Punji stick trap underneath. As he considers trying to jump over it, he hears someone coming and hides, assuming it's Mick. When the figure approaches, he knocks them into the trap and kills them; it was the woman he encountered earlier. Immediately afterwards, Mick finds and subdues Paul, and headbutts him unconscious.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: When he wakes up, Paul finds himself, dressed only in his underpants, on a footpath in a small town, with multiple wounds across his body. He finds a handwritten note near him which reads "LOSER" before being discovered by two police officers. A series of title cards before the credits reveal that despite reporting Mick to the police, Paul was held as a suspect in various unsolved murders in the Wolf Creek area. During the investigation, he suffered a complete mental breakdown and was deported back to the UK and placed in full-time care at Ashworth Hospital, Merseyside. The film ends like the first film with Mick walking off into the outback with his rifle.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Despite the first film's success, McLean chose to begin work on the film "Rogue" rather than develop a sequel. Later he said he regretted that decision: 'If I'd known then what I know now about how long it would take to get this up, I'd probably have said yes to a sequel earlier.'


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: In 2010, McLean announced that he was developing a sequel and confirmed that Jarratt would be returning to portray Mick Taylor.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Geoffrey Edelsten signed on to invest in the production of "Wolf Creek 2", but later withdrew his support of the film and alleged that McLean had misled him into believing that he would not be the largest single private investor. When the funding deadline had passed, Emu Creek Pictures sent Edelsten's Millennium Management a statutory demand for A$4.923 million. Edelsten asked the Supreme Court of Victoria to set aside the demand so he could seek further legal recourse. McLean and Emu Creek Pictures denied they had misled Edelsten, and said they had shown Edelsten documents that clearly set out his A$5 million share of the A$5.2  million support expected from private investors. The funding plan specified that any shortfall from that level would be made up by Screen Australia and the South Australian Film Corporation (SAFC).


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Filming was set to begin in 2011, but the loss of Edelsten's backing delayed the production. McLean risked losing the funds from the government bodies if he could not find another private investor. Early in 2012 the SAFC withdrew its commitment but recommitted in September to the tune of A$400,000, enabling production to resume. Filming began in 2012 and continued into early 2013.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: While developing the script, McLean chose to focus on Mick Taylor as the character was "the most interesting thing about the first movie." McLean says that the second story, like the first, is based on true events, a point he said would be "pretty obvious when [viewers] see the film".


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: "Wolf Creek 2" was released theatrically in Australia on 20 February 2014. The film also opened in the United States on 17 April 2014.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: The film was released on DVD, digital and Blu-ray Disc in Australia on 25 June 2014 through Roadshow Entertainment. Two cuts of the film were released, a theatrical and director's cut. Special features include an Audio commentary by writer/director/producer Greg McLean, a fifty-minute documentary titled Creating a Monster: The Making of Wolf Creek 2 and nine deleted scenes.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: The film grossed over $1,510,578 at the box office, making it the number one film in its opening weekend. The movie's total collection in Australia stood at $4,732,168.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: Initial response at the Venice Film Festival was mostly positive. "The Hollywood Reporter" summarized the story thus: 'A psychopathic serial killer and his knife carve out an edge-of-seat gorefest that follows safely in the tracks of its predecessor.' "Variety"s review commented that the film was "neither as striking nor as fundamentally scary as its predecessor" but was "still quite a ride, and one that genre-inclined distribs should have no qualms about hitching." Likewise, Norman Gator of "The Sydney Morning Herald" gave the film four out of four stars, calling it "Perhaps the greatest Aussie flick ever made. I hope to hell there'll be a third one."


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: The film has a rating of 50% on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews from 52 critics, with an average rating of 5.6/10. The site's critical consensus states "After a strong start, "Wolf Creek 2" devolves into an unnecessary – and disappointingly predictable – sequel." The film has a score of 44 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 13 critics indicating "Mixed or average reviews."


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: In 2016, the "Wolf Creek" web television series debuted on Stan. The series saw Jarratt return to his role as Mick Taylor. A second series aired in 2017.


title: Wolf Creek 2

text: As of April 2022, after a series of delays, some linked to the Covid pandemic, another film, Wolf Creek 3, was in the development phase, specifically, location scouting. It will be directed by Rachele Wiggins and written by Duncan Samarasinghe with Greg McLean as Producer. Altitude Film Distribution will distribute in the U.K. John Jarratt will reprise his role as the psychopathic Mick Taylor. ""An American family takes a dream trip to the Australian outback and soon draws the attention of notorious serial killer Mick Taylor. A hellish nightmare ensues as the couple’s two children escape only to be hunted by Australia’s most infamous killer."" Wolf Creek 3 is planned for release later in 2022, with the tagline "There Will be Blood".


title: Adductor muscles of the hip

text: The adductor muscles of the hip are a group of muscles mostly used for bringing the thighs together (called adduction).


title: Adductor muscles of the hip

text: The adductors originate on the pubis and ischium bones and insert mainly on the medial posterior surface of the femur.


title: Adductor muscles of the hip

text: The pectineus is the only adductor muscle that is innervated by the femoral nerve. The other adductor muscles are innervated by the obturator nerve with the exception of a small part of the adductor magnus which is innervated by the tibial nerve.


title: Adductor muscles of the hip

text: In 33% of people a supernumerary muscle is found between the adductor brevis and adductor minimus. When present, this muscle originates from the upper part of the inferior ramus of the pubis from where it runs downwards and laterally. In half of cases, it inserts into the anterior surface of the insertion aponeurosis of the adductor minimus. In the remaining cases, it is either inserted into the upper part of the pectineal line or the posterior part of the lesser trochanter. While similar to its neighbouring adductors, it is formed by separation from the superficial layer of the obturator externus, and is thus not ontogenetically related to the adductors.


title: Adductor muscles of the hip

text: So-called adductor tenotomy (cutting the origin tendons of the adductor muscles of the thigh) and obturator neurectomy (cutting the anterior branch of the obturator nerve) are sometimes performed on children with cerebral palsy. These children often have hypertonia of the adductor muscles, making abduction difficult, obstructing normal hip development, and putting them at risk of hip luxation.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The chief instrument through which judicial activism has flourished in India is public interest litigation (PIL) or social action litigation (SAL). "Public interest litigation" (PIL) refers to litigation undertaken to secure public interest and demonstrates the availability of justice to socially-disadvantaged parties and was introduced by Justice P. N. Bhagwati. It is a relaxation on the traditional rule of "locus standi". Before 1980s the judiciary and the Supreme Court of India entertained litigation only from parties affected directly or indirectly by the defendant. It heard and decided cases only under its original and appellate jurisdictions. However, the Supreme Court began permitting cases on the grounds of public interest litigation, which means that even people who are not directly involved in the case may bring matters of public interest to the court. It is the court's privilege to entertain the application for the PIL.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: One of the earliest public interest litigation was filed by G. Vasantha Pai who filed a case in the Madras High Court against the then sitting Chief Justice of the Madras High court S. Ramachandra Iyer after it was found the judge had forged his date of birth to avoid compulsory retirement at the age of 60 and his younger brother sent invitations to celebrate his 60th birthday and Pai found evidence after photographing his original birth register which showed his real age. Ramachandra Iyer resigned on a request from the then Chief Justice of India P. B. Gajendragadkar as the case would damage the judiciary and he had resigned before the case came up for hearing this led the case to be dismissed as he had resigned.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: In December 1979, Kapila Hingorani filed a petition in regards to the condition of the prisoners detained in the Bihar jail, whose suits were pending in court. The petition was signed by prisoners of the Bihar jail and the case was filed in the Supreme Court of India before the bench headed by Justice P. N. Bhagwati. The petition was filed under the name of a prisoner, Hussainara Khatoon, and the case was therefore named "Hussainara Khatoon Vs State of Bihar". The Supreme Court decided that prisoners should receive free legal aid and fast hearings. As a result, 40,000 prisoners were released from jail. Thereafter many similar cases have been registered in the Supreme Court. It was in the case of "SP Gupta vs Union of India" that the Supreme Court of India defined the term "public interest litigation" in the Indian context.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The concept of public interest litigation (PIL) is suited to the principles enshrined in Article 39A of the Constitution of India to protect and deliver prompt social justice with the help of law. Before the 1980s, only the aggrieved party could approach the courts for justice. After the emergency era the high court reached out to the people and devised a means for any person of the public (or NGO) approaching the court to seek legal remedy in cases where public interest is at stake. Bhagwati and Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer were among the first judges to admit PILs in court. Filing a PIL is not as cumbersome as a usual legal case; there have been instances when letters and telegrams addressed to the court have been heard as PILs.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The Supreme Court entertained a letter from two professors at the University of Delhi; it requested the enforcement of the constitutional right of inmates at a protective home in Agra who lived in inhuman and degrading conditions. In "Miss Veena Sethi v. State of Bihar", 1982 (2) SCC 583 : 1982 SCC (Cri) 511 : AIR 1983 SC 339, the court treated a letter addressed to a judge of the court by the Free Legal Aid Committee in Hazaribagh, Bihar as a writ petition. In "Citizens for Democracy through its President v. State of Assam and Others", 1995 KHC 486 : 1995 (2) KLT SN 74 : 1995 (3) SCC 743 : 1995 SCC (Cri) 600 : AIR 1996 SC 2193, the court entertained a letter from Shri Kuldip Nayar (a journalist, in his capacity as President of Citizens for Democracy) to a judge of the court alleging human rights violations of Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA) detainees; it was treated as a petition under Article 32 of the Constitution of India.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: PIL is a "rule of law" declared by the courts of record. However, the person (or entity) filing the petition must prove to the satisfaction of the court that the petition serves the public interest and is not as a frivolous lawsuit brought for monetary gain. The 38th Chief Justice of India, S. H. Kapadia, has stated that substantial "fines" would be imposed on litigants filing frivolous PILs. His statement was widely praised because the incidence of frivolous PILs for monetary interest were on the rise. A bench of the high court had also expressed concern over the misuse of PILs. The bench issued a set of guidelines it wanted all courts in the country to observe when entertaining PILs.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: In a September 2008 speech, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh expressed concern over the misuse of PILs: “Many would argue that like in so many things in public life, in PILs too we may have gone too far. Perhaps a corrective was required and we have had some balance restored in recent times”. In what may be a tool against frivolous PILs, the Union Ministry of Law and Justice (assisted by Bhagwati and Iyer) prepared a law regulating PILs.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The judgment said: “This court wants to make it clear that an action at law is not a game of chess. A litigant who approaches the court must come with clean hands. He cannot prevaricate and take inconsistent positions”. For example, a petition drafted by Amar Singh was vague, not in conformance with the rules of procedure, and contained inconsistencies; the court did not explore his primary grievance (infringement of privacy). A positive outcome of the case was the court’s request that the government “frame certain statutory guidelines to prevent interception of telephone conversation on unauthorised requests”. In this case, Reliance Communications acted upon a forged request from police.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: In "Kalyaneshwari vs Union of India", the court cited the misuse of public-interest litigation in business conflicts. A writ petition was filed in the Gujarat High Court seeking the closure of asbestos units, stating that the material was harmful to humans. The high court dismissed the petition, stating that it was filed at the behest of rival industrial groups who wanted to promote their products as asbestos substitutes. A similar petition was then submitted to the Supreme Court. The plea was dismissed, and the plaintiff was assessed a fine of 100,000. The judgment read: “The petition lacks "bona fide" and in fact was instituted at the behest of a rival industrial group, which was interested in banning the activity of mining and manufacturing of asbestos. A definite attempt was made by it to secure a ban on these activities with the ultimate intention of increasing the demand of cast and ductile iron products as they are some of the suitable substitute for asbestos. Thus it was litigation initiated with ulterior motive of causing industrial imbalance and financial loss to the industry of asbestos through the process of court”. The court stated that it was its duty in such circumstances to punish the petitioners under the Contempt of Courts Act; it must “ensure that such unscrupulous and undesirable public interest litigation be not instituted in courts of law so as to waste the valuable time of the courts as well as preserve the faith of the public in the justice delivery system”.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: “By now it ought to be plain and obvious that this Court does not approve of an approach that would encourage petitions filed for achieving oblique motives on the basis of wild and reckless allegations made by individuals, i.e., busybodies', a bench of Justices B. Sudershan Reddy and S. S. Nijjar observed in their judgment. The bench overturned an April 2010 Andhra Pradesh High Court decision which set aside the services of a retired Indian Police Service (IPS) officer employed by the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple. The high court’s decision concerned a public-interest petition filed by S. Mangati Gopal Reddy, who alleged in court that the former IPS officer was involved in the loss of “300 gold dollars” from the temple and should not continue in office. The Supreme Court found that the high court decided against the accused with little information about Reddy himself.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: “The parameters within which PILs can be entertained have been laid down. The credentials, the motive and the objective of the petitioner have to be apparently and patently aboveboard. Otherwise the petition is liable to be dismissed at the threshold”, the judgment stated. As for why it is skeptical about a large number of PILs, the bench spoke for the Supreme Court when it said that the “judiciary has to be extremely careful to see that behind the beautiful veil of public interest an ugly private malice, vested interest and/or publicity-seeking is not lurking. This Court (Supreme Court of India) must not allow its process to be abused for oblique considerations by masked phantoms who monitor at times from behind”.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: Public interest litigation gives a wider description to the right to equality, life and personality, which is guaranteed under part III of the Constitution of India. It also functions as an effective instrument for changes in the society or social welfare. Through public interest litigation, any public or person can seek remedy on behalf of the oppressed class by introducing a PIL.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: A PIL may be filed against state government, central government, municipal authority, private party. Also, private person may be included in PIL as ‘Respondent’, after concerned of state authority. i.e. a private factory in Mumbai which is causing pollution then public interest litigation can be filed against government of Mumbai, state pollution central board including that private factory of Mumbai.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The court must be satisfied that the Writ petition fulfills some basic needs for PIL as the letter is addressed by the aggrieved person, public spirited individual and a social action group for the enforcement of legal or Constitutional rights to any person who are not able to approach the court for redress. Any citizen can file a public case by filing a petition:


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The case fought against sexual harassment in the workplace and was filed by Bhanwari Devi, who, after trying to stop the marriage of a one year old girl in rural Rajasthan, was raped by five men. She faced numerous problems when she (Devi) attempted to seek justice. Naina Kapoor decided to initiate a PIL to challenge sexual harassment at workplace in the Supreme Courts.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The judgement of the case recognized sexual harassment as a violation of the fundamental constitutional rights of Articles 14, 15, and 21. The guidelines also directed for sexual harassment prevention.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The court shut down numerous industries and allowed them to reopen only after controlled pollution disposal in the Ganga basin.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: A controversial study by social scientist Hans Dembowski concluded that PILs had been successful in making official authorities accountable to NGOs. While Dembowski also found some effect at the grassroots level, PIL cases dealing with major environmental grievances in the Kolkata urban agglomeration did not tackle underlying problems (such as inadequate town planning). Dembowsk wrote about it in his book, "Taking the State to Supreme Court - Public Interest Litigation and the Public Sphere in Metropolitan India" which was originally published by Oxford University Press in 2001. The publisher, however, discontinued distribution because of contempt of court proceedings initiated by the Calcutta High Court. The author, who claimed he was never officially notified by the court, republished the book online with German NGO Asia House.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: Earlier, the princely state of Jaipur used to get water from this river by making a canal, later this river turned into a dirty drain. There are more than 160 tubewells around it. Those who are giving water to the city. There have been infections in many tube wells. The State Human Rights Commission took cognizance of the transition to water in the year 2001. Our citizens committee became a party to the case. And decided that the river should be brought in its original form. Expert committee was formed. In 2007, when no action was ruled on the case, then the PIL of the river was presented. Many constructions were broken and currently the river is 48 km long. The influential people bought land at the cost of Kodis from poor accountants in the river and did not allow the original width of the river to be restored. The current width is 210 feet. later Tata projects worked on rejuvenation of dravyavati river projects with jaipur development Authority. Rapid urbanisation in the last 3-4 decades coupled with rampant encroachments in the river area and its catchment areas along with the dumping of sewage, industrial waste water and solid waste converted this once pristine flowing river to a Nallah. In the first-of-its-kind river rejuvenation activity, the Dravyavati River Project will oversee the amortisation of 170 MLD polluted water and have more than 100 fall structures constructed to turn this rain side river to a perennial river. With more than 18,000 trees planted and 65,000 square meters green area developed under this project, the Dravyavati River bank will soon become a lure to the people seeking solitude or refreshment in the city.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: Public interest litigation on publication of property list of princely state of rajasthan Article 12 (1) and (II) of the agreement provides that immovable properties of former princely states which were public properties of the princely state on August 15, 1947, will be transferred to the state. In this way, two lists were to be made, if there is a dispute over the property of the transferring property to a new state and the personal property of the other princely states, then the Court will not have the right of trial under Article 363 of the Constitution and the State Ministry of the Government of India (the current home). The decision will be final, the former princely states made a single list and made entire public properties their own. Bhajpa Congress governments kept silence. Public interest litigation is presented in this regard. See detail HIGHCORT site and attached writ petition. D B Civil Writ (P) 10655/15 Writ Petition was submitted regarding the cradle of the agreement reached with Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and 563 former princely states of the country and 18 princely states of Rajasthan.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: A bench consisting of Justices G. S. Singhvi and Asok Kumar Ganguly pointed out that laws enacted for achieving the goals set out in the Preamble to the Constitution were inadequate; the benefits of welfare measures embodied in the legislation had not reached millions of poor people, and efforts to bridge the gap between rich and poor did not yield the desired results.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: Singhvi wrote, in a case concerning sewage workers: “The most unfortunate part of the scenario is that whenever one of the three constituents of the state i.e., the judiciary issues directions for ensuring that the right to equality, life, and liberty no longer remains illusory for those who suffer from the handicap of poverty, illiteracy and ignorance, and directions are given for implementation of the laws enacted by the legislature for the benefit of the have-nots, a theoretical debate is started by raising the bogey of judicial activism or overreach”.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The bench clarified that it was necessary to erase the impression on some that the superior courts, by entertaining PIL petitions for the poor who could not seek protection of their rights, exceeded the unwritten boundaries of their jurisdiction. The judges said it was the duty of the judiciary to protect the rights of every citizen and ensure that all lived with dignity.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: Such cases may be filed for public interest when victims lack the capability to commence litigation or their freedom to petition the court has been blocked. The court may proceed "sua sponte", or cases can proceed on the petition of an individual or group. Courts may also proceed on the basis of letters written to them or newspaper reports.


title: Public interest litigation in India

text: The Centre for Law and Policy Research, Bangalore (CLPR) hosts a Public Interest Lawyering Hub, where resources on PIL are available.


title: Jantje Friese

text: Jantje Friese (born 1977) is a German film producer and screenwriter known for co-creating the Netflix series "Dark" (2017–2020) and "1899" (2022) with her creative and romantic partner Baran bo Odar.


title: Jantje Friese

text: Jantje Friese studied production and media management at the University of Television and Film Munich. After graduating, she worked as a producer for Made in Munich Film Production and Neue Sentimental Film Berlin. In 2010 she was the production manager of the feature film "The Silence" with her partner Baran bo Odar.