title: Histoplasmosis

text: Clinically, a wide spectrum of disease manifestations occurs, making diagnosis somewhat difficult. More severe forms include the chronic pulmonary form, often occurring in the presence of underlying pulmonary disease, and a disseminated form, which is characterized by the progressive spread of infection to extrapulmonary sites. Oral manifestations have been reported as the main complaint of the disseminated forms, leading the patient to seek treatment, whereas pulmonary symptoms in disseminated disease may be mild or even misinterpreted as flu. Histoplasmosis can be diagnosed by samples containing the fungus taken from sputum (via bronchoalveolar lavage), blood, or infected organs. It can also be diagnosed by detection of antigens in blood or urine samples by ELISA or polymerase chain reaction. Antigens can cross-react with antigens of African histoplasmosis (caused by "Histoplasma duboisii"), blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, and talaromycosis infection. Histoplasmosis can also be diagnosed by a test for antibodies against "Histoplasma" in the blood. "Histoplasma" skin tests indicate whether persons have been exposed, but do not indicate whether they have the disease. Formal histoplasmosis diagnoses are often confirmed only by culturing the fungus directly. Sabouraud agar is one agar growth medium on which the fungus can be cultured. Cutaneous manifestations of disseminated disease are diverse and often present as a nondescript rash with systemic complaints. Diagnosis is best established by urine antigen testing, as blood cultures may take up to 6 weeks for diagnostic growth to occur and serum antigen testing often comes back with a false negative before 4 weeks of disseminated infection.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: Testing or decontaminating most sites that may be contaminated with "H. capsulatum" is impractical, but the sources below list environments where histoplasmosis is common, and precautions to reduce a person's risk of exposure, in the three parts of the world where the disease is prevalent. Precautions common to all geographical locations would be to avoid accumulations of bird or bat droppings.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health provides information on work practices and personal protective equipment that may reduce the risk of infection.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: A review paper includes information on locations in which "Histoplasma" has been found in Africa (in chicken runs, on bats, in the caves bats inhabit, and in soil), and a thorough reference list including English, French, and Spanish language references.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: In the majority of immunocompetent individuals, histoplasmosis resolves without any treatment. Antifungal medications are used to treat severe cases of acute histoplasmosis and all cases of chronic and disseminated disease. Typical treatment of severe disease first involves treatment with amphotericin B, followed by oral itraconazole.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: Liposomal preparations of amphotericin B are more effective than deoxycholate preparations. The liposomal preparation is preferred in patients who might be at risk of nephrotoxicity, although all preparations of amphotericin B have risk of nephrotoxicity. Individuals taking amphotericin B are monitored for renal function. Liposomal amphotericin B is better at treating people with progressive disseminated Histoplasmosis and underlying HIV when compared to deoxycholate amphotericin B. Meanwhile, fluconazole performs poorly when compared to other azoles.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: Treatment with itraconazole must continue for at least a year in severe cases, while in acute pulmonary Histoplasmosis, 6 to 12 weeks treatment is sufficient. Alternatives to itraconazole are posaconazole, voriconazole, and fluconazole. Individuals taking itraconazole are monitored for hepatic function.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: About 90% of patients with normal immune systems regain health without any intervention. Less than 5% need serious treatments.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: "H. capsulatum" is found throughout the world. It is endemic in certain areas of the United States, particularly in states bordering the Ohio River valley and the lower Mississippi River. The humidity and acidity patterns of soil are associated with endemicity. Bird and bat droppings in soil promote the growth of "Histoplasma". Contact with such soil aerosolizes the microconidia, which can infect humans. It is also common in caves in Southern and East Africa. Positive Histoplasmin skin tests occur in as many as 90% of the people living in areas where "H. capsulatum" is common, such as the eastern and central United States.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: In Canada, the St. Lawrence River Valley is the site of the most frequent infections, with 20–30% of the population testing positive. A review of reported cases in 2018 showed disease presence throughout Southeast Asia, In India, the Gangetic West Bengal is the site of most frequent infections, with 9.4% of the population testing positive. "H. c. capsulatum" was isolated from the local soil proving endemicity of Histoplasmosis in West Bengal.


title: Histoplasmosis

text: "Histoplasma" was discovered in 1905 by Samuel T. Darling, but only in the 1930s was it discovered to be a widespread infection. Before then, many cases of histoplasmosis were mistakenly attributed to tuberculosis, and patients were mistakenly admitted to tuberculosis sanatoria. Some patients contracted tuberculosis in these sanatoriums.


title: Standard German

text: Standard High German (SHG), less precisely Standard German or High German (not to be confused with High German dialects, more precisely Upper German dialects) (, , or, in Switzerland, ), is the standardized variety of the German language used in formal contexts and for communication between different dialect areas. It is a pluricentric Dachsprache with three codified (or standardised) specific regional variants: German Standard German, Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German.


title: Standard German

text: Regarding the spelling and punctuation, a recommended standard is published by the Council for German Orthography which represents the governments of all majority and minority German-speaking countries and dependencies. Adherence is obligatory for government institutions, including schools. Regarding the pronunciation, although there is no official standards body, there is a long-standing "de facto" standard pronunciation (Bühnendeutsch), most commonly used in formal speech and teaching materials. It is similar to the formal German spoken in and around Hanover. Adherence to those standards by private individuals and companies, including the print and audio-visual media, is voluntary but widespread.


title: Standard German

text: Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region but as a written language developed over a process of several hundred years in which writers tried to write in a way that was understood in the largest area.


title: Standard German

text: Martin Luther's translation of the Bible in 1522 was an important development towards an early standardization of written German. Luther based his translation largely on the already developed language of the Saxon chancery, which was more widely understood than other dialects and as a Central German dialect, was felt to be "halfway" between the dialects of the north and south. Luther drew principally on Eastern Upper and East Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German.


title: Standard German

text: Later in 1748, a grammar manual by Johann Christoph Gottsched, "Grundlegung einer deutschen Sprachkunst", was key in the development of German writing and standardization of the language. Similarly to Luther, Gottsched based his manual on the Central German variant of the Upper Saxon area. Over the course of the mid-18th century and onward, a written standard then began to emerge and be widely accepted in German-speaking areas, thus ending the period of Early New High German.


title: Standard German

text: Until about 1800, Standard German was almost entirely a written language. People in Northern Germany who spoke mainly Low Saxon languages, which were very different from Standard German, learned it more or less as a foreign language. However, the Northern pronunciation (of Standard German) later became considered standard and spread southward. In some regions such as around Hanover, the local dialect has completely died out as spoken language but is preserved in dialect literature and scholarly descriptions.


title: Standard German

text: It is thus the spread of Standard German as a language taught at school that defines the German "Sprachraum", which was thus a political decision, rather than a direct consequence of dialect geography. That allowed areas with dialects with very little mutual intelligibility to participate in the same cultural sphere. Currently, local dialects are used mainly in informal situations or at home and in dialect literature, but more recently, a resurgence of German dialects has appeared in mass media.


title: Standard German

text: In German, Standard German is generally called , reflecting the fact that its phonetics are largely those of the High German spoken in the southern uplands and the Alps (including Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and parts of northern Italy as well as southern Germany). The corresponding term Low German reflects the fact that these dialects belong to the lowlands stretching towards the North Sea. The widespread but mistaken impression that Hochdeutsch is so-called because it is perceived to be "good German" has led to use of the supposedly less judgmental ("Standard German"), ("German standard language"). On the other hand, the "standard" written languages of Switzerland and Austria have each been codified as standards distinct from that used in Germany. For this reason, "Hochdeutsch" or "High German", originally a mere geographic designation, applies unproblematically to Swiss Standard German and Austrian German as well as to German Standard German and may be preferred for that reason. A more precise term for the dialects of the Southern part of the German language area is "Upper German" ("Oberdeutsch").


title: Standard German

text: Standard German is pluricentric with different national varieties, namely: German Standard German, Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German. These varieties of standard German differ only in a few features, mostly in vocabulary and pronunciation, but in some instances of grammar and orthography. In formal writing, the differences are minimal to nonexistent; in regards to the spoken language, the different varieties of Standard German are easily recognized by most speakers.


title: Standard German

text: These three national standards (German, Austrian and Swiss) have each been adopted by other German-speaking countries and communities as their standard form of German. The German standard is applied in Luxembourg, Belgium, and Namibia while the Swiss standard has been adopted in Liechtenstein.


title: Standard German

text: The variation of the Standard German varieties must not be confused with the variation of the local German dialects. Even though the Standard German varieties are to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. All varieties of Standard German are based on the common tradition of the written German language, whereas the local dialects have their own historical roots that go further back than the unification of the written language, and in the case of Low German, belong to a different language entirely.


title: Standard German

text: In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties according to situation. However, there are two (or three) exceptions:


title: Standard German

text: While the three principal national varieties are recognized as three distinct standards, the differences are few, perhaps comparable to the difference between British and American English. Duden does codify the standard pronunciation for German Standard German, allowing for a small number of divergences: for example, the string "äh" has two authorized pronunciations, /ɛː/ and /eː/. Some regions see only the first as correct, while others use only the second; Duden now recognizes both as correct. Standardized High German pronunciation is generally used in radio and television as well as in German learning materials for non-natives, and at least aspirationally by language teachers. This accent is documented in reference works such as "Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch" (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al., "Duden 6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch" (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by Max Mangold and the training materials at the "Westdeutscher Rundfunk" (West German Broadcasting) and "Deutschlandfunk" (Radio Germany). It is an invented accent rather than radiating from any particular German-speaking city. It is often said that the people of Hannover speak German with an accent that comes closest to the standard of the Duden dictionaries, but the claim is debatable, particularly since it may apply equally well to the rest of Northern Germany.


title: Standard German

text: Standard High German is written in the Latin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with an umlaut mark, namely "ä", "ö" and "ü", as well as the or (sharp s): "ß". In Switzerland and Liechtenstein, "ss" is used instead of "ß". Since "ß" can never occur at the beginning of a word, it has no traditional uppercase form.


title: Standard German

text: A first step to standardisation, although non-prescriptive, of Early New High German was introduced by the Luther Bible of 1534. In consequence, the written language of the chancery of Saxony-Wittenberg rose in importance in the course of the 17th century so much so that it was used in texts such as the 1665 revision of the Zürich Bible.


title: Standard German

text: The First Orthographical Conference convened in 1876 by order of the government of Prussia, but failed. Konrad Duden published the first edition of his dictionary, later simply known as the "Duden", in 1880. The first spelling codification by the Second Orthographic Conference of 1901, based on Duden's work, came into effect in 1902.


title: Standard German

text: In 1944 there was a failed attempt at another reform; this was delayed on the order of Hitler and not taken up again after the end of World War II.


title: Standard German

text: In the following decades German spelling was essentially decided "de facto" by the editors of the Duden dictionaries. After the war, this tradition was followed with two different centers: Mannheim in West Germany and Leipzig in East Germany. By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by publishing their own dictionaries, which did not always conform to the "official" spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of the federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November 1955 ("Duden-Monopol" or "Dudenmonopol", "Duden-Privileg" or "Dudenprivileg").


title: Standard German

text: The orthography reform of 1996 was based on an international agreement signed by the governments of the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland; but acceptance of the reform was limited and led to public controversy and considerable dispute. The states () of North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria refused to accept it. At one point, the dispute reached the highest court, which quickly dismissed it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in schools could the reform be made the official rule – everybody else could continue writing as they had learned it.


title: Standard German

text: While, , most German print media followed the reform, some newspapers, such as "Die Zeit", "Neue Zürcher Zeitung" and "Süddeutsche Zeitung", created their own in-house orthographies.


title: Standard German

text: After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major revision of the spelling reform was installed in 2006 because there were disagreements regarding capitalization and splitting of German words. Also revised were the rules governing punctuation marks.


title: Standard German

text: The most noticeable change was probably in the use of the letter "ß", called "scharfes s" ("Sharp S") or (pronounced "ess-tsett", coming from ſz). Traditionally, this letter was used in three situations:


title: Standard German

text: Examples are , , and . Currently, only the first rule is in effect, making the reformed spellings , , and . The word 'foot' has the letter "ß" because it contains a long vowel, even though that letter occurs at the end of a syllable. The logic of this change is that an 'ß' is a single letter whereas 'ss' are two letters, so the same distinction applies as (for example) between the words and .


title: Standard German

text: This is a selection of cognates in both English and Standard German. Instead of the usual infinitive ending "-en", Standard German verbs are indicated by a hyphen after their stems. Words that are written with capital letters in Standard German are nouns.


title: Standard German

text: English has taken many loanwords from German, often without any change of spelling (aside from frequently eliminating umlauts and not capitalizing nouns):


title: Standard German

text: The government-backed , (named after Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) aims to enhance the knowledge of German culture and language within Europe and the rest of the world. This is done by holding exhibitions and conferences with German-related themes, and providing training and guidance in the learning and use of the German language. For example, the teaches the German language qualification.


title: Standard German

text: The German state broadcaster provides radio and television broadcasts in Standard German and 30 other languages across the globe. Its Standard German language services are spoken slowly and thus tailored for learners. also provides an website for learning Standard German.


title: Karan Wahi

text: Karan Wahi (born 9 June 1986) is an Indian actor, model and television host. Wahi has also played for the Delhi under-17 cricket team. He started his television career in 2004 with the television show "Remix" on Star One. He later starred as Dr. Siddhant Modi in the medical youth show "Dill Mill Gayye". He showcased his comedy talent in Colors TV's comedy show "Comedy Nights Bachao". Wahi participated in the reality shows "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 5", "" and "" and hosted "Nach Baliye", "Indian Idol" and "India's Next Superstars". He made his Bollywood debut with a supporting role in Habib Faisal's romantic comedy film "Daawat-e-Ishq" (2014). He later made his second Bollywood appearance as one of the leads in "Hate Story 4" (2018).


title: Karan Wahi

text: Wahi was born on 9 June 1986 in Delhi to a Punjabi father and a Kashmiri mother. He did his schooling from St. Mark's Senior Secondary Public School and completed his higher education at the IILM Institute.


title: Karan Wahi

text: Wahi began his career as a cricketer, representing St. Mark's Senior Secondary Public School during his school days. In 2003, he was selected for the Under-19 cricket team for Delhi alongside Virat Kohli and Shikhar Dhawan. Owing to a major injury, Wahi had to leave the sport and enrolled in a marketing course to join his father's business.


title: Karan Wahi

text: In 2004, Wahi rose to fame after getting cast in the lead role of Ranveer Sisodia in the show "Remix".


title: Karan Wahi

text: Wahi started his acting career with the 2004 "Rose Audio Visuals" television series "Remix", where he portrayed the lead role of Ranveer Sisodia, the angry lover boy character, opposite Shweta Gulati. The story of the show was based on the lives of 12th-grade students in an elite school for the kids of the rich and the famous, and scholarship students from poorer families. His performance in the show won him the Indian Telly Award for GR8 Best Male Newcomer. In March 2008, Wahi was a contestant in the celebrity talent hunt show "Mr. & Ms. TV" judged by filmmaker Madhur Bhandarkar and actress Sonali Bendre.


title: Karan Wahi

text: After a break from fiction shows, Wahi made a comeback in the 2009 Colors TV's soap opera "Mere Ghar Aayi Ek Nanhi Pari" as the male lead opposite Mugdha Chaphekar. By the following year, he played Dr. Siddhant Modi in Cinevistaas Limited productions' medical drama series "Dill Mill Gayye" opposite Jennifer Winget.


title: Karan Wahi

text: He was also seen playing the supporting role of a fun-loving guy, Rohan in mid-December 2011 on Sony Entertainment Television's romance-drama series "Kuch Toh Log Kahenge". The show was the Indian adaption of the Pakistani television drama series "Dhoop Kinare". In September 2011, he appeared in the travel reality show "Ritz Jee Le Ye Pal", which he won. In July 2012, he was one of the hosts of the red carpet segment for the "5th Zee Gold Awards". He was cast alongside Kritika Kamra and Mohnish Behl. In 2012, Wahi was paired with Chhavi Pandey to play the lead in Shontara Productions' anthology series "Teri Meri Love Stories".


title: Karan Wahi

text: Wahi signed his first movie with Habib Faisal's romantic comedy film "Daawat-e-Ishq" in 2014. He was seen in a supporting role of a Hyderabadi boy, Amjad alongside Parineeti Chopra and Aditya Roy Kapur.


title: Karan Wahi

text: He also signed to play the male lead opposite Rhea Chakraborty in the 2014 romantic drama film "Babbu Ki Jawani", produced by Amritpal Singh Bindra, under the UTV Spotboy productions.


title: Karan Wahi

text: In September 2015, Wahi was seen as a comedian contestant alongside Bharti Singh in Colors TV's comedy show "Comedy Nights Bachao". In 2016, Wahi played the lead character in &TV's "Kahani Hamari...Dil Dosti Deewanepan Ki".


title: Karan Wahi

text: Wahi has been the host of various red carpet events and awards shows including the Indian Telly Awards and Star Guild Awards. He was the co-host of two seasons of the dance reality show "Nach Baliye" along with Gautam Rode He also hosted the additional series of the same show, "Sriman vs Srimati" along with Aishwarya Sakhuja.


title: Karan Wahi

text: Along with Mandira Bedi, he was next seen co-hosting the singing reality show "Indian Idol Junior". In 2015, he replaced Jay Bhanushali for the second season as the host of "Dance India Dance Super Moms".


title: Karan Wahi

text: He entered as a wild card in the fifth season of BBC Productions' celebrity dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa", but was eliminated next month.


title: Karan Wahi

text: Wahi was seen in two episodes of Colors Television's popular comedy talk show "Comedy Nights with Kapil". He was also a part of the winning team of the first season of the reality show "Box Cricket League". In March 2015, he participated in the reality game show "India Poochega Sabse Shaana Kaun?", hosted by actor Shah Rukh Khan. He also participated "" in 2017. He ended up at 8th place. In August 2020, he participated 2nd time in Colors TV's stunt-based reality show "" where he finished at 1st runner-up.


title: Karan Wahi

text: After a gap of 6 years, he made a comeback in July 2022 with Star Bharat's show "Channa Mereya" as Aditya Raj Singh, opposite Niyati Fatnani.


title: Karan Wahi

text: In addition to acting, Wahi has also supported various charitable organisations. In 2012, he joined the All Stars Football Club, a celebrity football club that raises fund for India's largest non-profit organisations. He has also participated in the Gold Charity Soccer matches to raise funds for supporting the junior artists of the industry. In August 2014, he took part in the Ice Bucket Challenge to spread awareness for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).


title: Karan Wahi

text: In 2013, Wahi featured at number 46 in the UK newspaper "Eastern Eye"'s "Sexiest Asian Man on the Planet" list.


title: Karan Wahi

text: He was also ranked 9th in "Times of India"s Top 20 Most Desirable Men on Indian Television 2018, 13th in 2019 and 15th in 2020.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: Michael Kevin O'Leary (born 20 March 1961) is an Irish businessman who is the Group CEO of Ryanair. With a net worth of around €848.6 million as of April 2018, he is one of Ireland's wealthiest businessmen.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: Michael Kevin O'Leary was born in Dublin, Ireland, on 20 March 1961, the second child of Gerarda and Timothy "Ted" O'Leary. He grew up near Mullingar, County Westmeath. His father was the part-owner of a textile factory. He was educated at Clongowes Wood College near Clane, County Kildare, before studying business and economics at Trinity College Dublin. After graduating in 1982, he worked as a trainee with Stokes Kennedy Crowley (later known as KPMG) and studied the Irish tax system. He left after two years in 1985, setting up profitable newsagents in the Terenure and Walkinstown areas of Dublin. While at Stokes Kennedy Crowley, O'Leary had met Tony Ryan, head of Guinness Peat Aviation (GPA), a leasing company. Ryan was one of KPMG's clients and O'Leary advised Ryan on his personal income tax affairs. In 1988, Ryan hired O'Leary as his personal financial and tax advisor, where Ryan's main interest was in GPA.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: O'Leary became chief financial officer of Ryanair in 1988. He became chief executive officer in 1994.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: Under O'Leary's management, Ryanair further developed the low-cost model originated by Southwest Airlines. O'Leary described the ancillary revenue model in a 2001 interview, saying "The other airlines are asking how they can put up fares. We are asking how we could get rid of them." The business model envisioned by O'Leary uses receipts from onboard shopping, internet gaming, car hire and hotel bookings to supplement the ticket revenue from selling airline seats. Savings are also made by negotiating discounts with airports for reduced landing fees. In many cases, regional airports have made no charges so as to secure flights that bring passengers and wealth into their area. The deregulation of Ireland's major airports and a transformation of traditional full-service airlines are among his demands.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: Many press articles have described O'Leary as arrogant and prone to making comments which he later contradicts. He has been extravagantly outspoken in his public statements, sometimes resorting to personal attacks and foul language. His abrasive management style, ruthless pursuit of cost-cutting and his explicitly hostile attitude towards corporate competitors, airport authorities, governments, unions and customers has become a hallmark. He was reported to have been aggressive and hostile in dealings with a woman who was awarded free flights for life in 1988.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In 2002, O'Leary said that his company is against any long-haul transatlantic services: "The low-cost model only really works for short-haul flights. [...] If we started flying farther afield, we'd have to do something stupid like introducing what I call a 'rich class' to make it pay." However, while at the 2013 Paris Air Show, he said that he wanted to sell cheap flights from the U.S. to Europe for as low as 10 euros ($13) or $10, if conditions were right. He said that he needed a fleet of at least 30 twin-aisle aircraft and access to ports (e.g. major U.S. and European cities, in the airline industry there are so called slots or sometimes gates, often regulated by law, and without obtaining them it is impossible to have regular service to airports). Despite his claims in 2002, there were so called budget airliners in the past who serve long haul routes – for example Laker Airways flights from London to New York in the late 1970s or long-hauls at budget-fares on other continents like AirAsiaX in Malaysia and the Australian Jetstar Group.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In 2004, O'Leary purchased a taxi license plate for his Mercedes-Benz S-Class under the name O'Leary Cabs, enabling it to be classified as a taxi so that he could legally make use of Dublin's bus lanes to speed up his car journeys around the city. A press report suggested that since he had stopped driving his own taxi, he has employed a driver with full PSV licence. In 2005, the Irish transport minister expressed concern at this abuse by O'Leary and others.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In 2007, O'Leary was forced to retract a claim that Ryanair had cut emissions of carbon dioxide by half over the previous five years because the claim should have been that emissions "per passenger" had been cut by half. He has been reported to have impersonated a journalist in an attempt to find information passed on to a newspaper following a safety incident on a Ryanair flight. On occasion, he has apologised for personal attacks under threat of legal action. He has been criticised by a judge for lying, who said he was lucky not to be found guilty of contempt of court. He has also been criticised for dismissing concerns about climate change as "complete nonsense".


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: Reacting to the decision to close European airspace in April 2010 over worries about the volcanic ash plume from an erupting Icelandic volcano, O'Leary falsely said, "There was no ash cloud. It was mythical. It's become evident the airspace closure was completely unnecessary." One study concluded that serious structural damage to aircraft could have occurred if passenger planes had continued to fly.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In May 2014, O'Leary was highly critical of a 24-hour strike by Aer Lingus cabin crew. Aer Lingus, whose biggest shareholder at the time was Ryanair, had to cancel 200 flights and disrupt travel plans for 200,000 people. O'Leary accused Aer Lingus of "mismanagement" of its employee relations, called for the sacking of a board member, and said the striking employees should be punished by having their discount travel incentives withdrawn for a year.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: Participants in the Bilderberg meeting have stated that O'Leary was invited to attend the 2015 meeting. He was later seen attending its 2017 meeting.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In February 2020, O'Leary suggested that airport security should focus on single Muslim men and called obese passengers "monsters".


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In June 2022, O'Leary defended Ryanair's use of an Afrikaans language test on South African nationals flying to the UK and Ireland. However, he later withdrew his comments amid widespread criticism of Ryanair's discriminatory policy. Notwithstanding the historical connotations of Afrikaans in South Africa during the Apartheid era, Afrikaans, along with English, is only one of the 11 official languages in South Africa.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In June 2022, Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán announced that the Hungarian government would introduce an 'extra profit tax' on banks and large private companies, including airlines. In response to the introduction of the tax, Ryanair has decided to retroactively pass the tax on to all passengers, increasing ticket prices by an extra €10 for intra-European destinations and €25 for non-European destinations. Michael O'Leary first called the idea of a new tax 'beyond stupid', and in a later interview, he called Economic Development Minister Márton Nagy a 'complete idiot', demanding local authorities to reverse the tax. In response, the minister said “if only airlines gave equally swift responses when Hungarian citizens turn to them with consumer complaints,” deeming the CEO’s words completely unacceptable. After this, in an Euronews interview, O'Leary said the following about ministers Gergely Gulyás and Márton Nagy: "These two Hungarian ministers are like Dumb and Dumber in that Jim Carrey-film, if they think people will happily pay the extra tax and choose a more expensive airline overnight".


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: O'Leary married Anita Farrell on 5 September 2003 in Delvin, County Westmeath, with whom he has four children. They live in Gigginstown House near Delvin, County Westmeath.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: O'Leary breeds Aberdeen Angus cattle and horses at his Gigginstown House Stud. His horses War of Attrition, Don Cossack, Rule the World, and Tiger Roll have won races such as the Cheltenham Gold Cup, the 2016 Grand National, the 2018 Grand National, and the 2019 Grand National.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: O'Leary has supported English football team Manchester City F.C. from an early age. He had the opportunity to buy a stake in the club in 2003, but believed the potential benefits did not outweigh the risk, and preferred to instead visit England to watch a few matches each season. He wore a Manchester City shirt when unveiling Ryanair's new destinations to and from Manchester Airport in 2011.


title: Michael O'Leary (businessman)

text: In February 2015, O'Leary claimed that he was offered the starring role in "The Apprentice" reality TV show, but turned it down for family reasons before it was eventually offered to and accepted by Alan Sugar.


title: 2022–23 2. Bundesliga

text: The 2022–23 2. Bundesliga is the 49th season of the 2. Bundesliga. It began on 15 July 2022 and concludes on 28 May 2023.


title: Brad Grey

text: Brad Alan Grey (December 29, 1957 – May 14, 2017) was an American television and film producer. He co-founded Brillstein-Grey Entertainment (now Brillstein Entertainment Partners), and afterwards became the chairman and CEO of Paramount Pictures, a position he held from 2005 until 2017. Grey graduated from the State University of New York at Buffalo School of Management. Under Grey's leadership, Paramount finished No. 1 in global market share in 2011 and No. 2 domestically in 2008, 2009, and 2010, despite releasing significantly fewer films than its competitors. He also produced eight out of Paramount's 10 top-grossing pictures of all time after having succeeded Sherry Lansing in 2005.


title: Brad Grey

text: Grey was born to a Jewish family in the Bronx, the youngest child of a garment district salesman. He majored in business and communications at the University at Buffalo.


title: Brad Grey

text: While attending the university, he became a gofer for a young Harvey Weinstein, who was then a concert promoter. The first show Grey produced (at age 20) was a concert by Frank Sinatra at Buffalo's Buffalo Memorial Auditorium in 1978. He traveled to Manhattan on weekends to look for young comics at The Improv. Grey brought comedian Bob Saget to New York, thus making Saget his first client.


title: Brad Grey

text: In 1984, Grey met talent manager Bernie Brillstein in San Francisco, California at a television convention. Having convinced Brillstein that he could deliver fresh talent, he was taken on as a partner and the Bernie Brillstein Company was re-christened Brillstein-Grey Entertainment. Grey began producing for television in 1986 with the Showtime hit, "It's Garry Shandling's Show". In the late 1990s, Shandling sued Grey for breach of duties and related claims. Shandling complained that his TV show lost its best writers and producers when Brad Grey got them deals to do other projects, and that Grey commissioned these other deals, while Shandling did not benefit from them. Grey denied the allegations and countersued, saying the comedian breached his contract on "The Larry Sanders Show" by failing to produce some episodes and indiscriminately dismissing writers, among other actions. Both suits were settled avoiding a trial. Shandling did testify about Grey during the 2008 trial of private investigator Anthony Pellicano who worked on Grey's defense team. The value of the settlement to Shandling was later disputed by attorneys as being either $4 million or $10 million.


title: Brad Grey

text: In 1996, Brillstein sold his shares of the Brillstein-Grey company to Grey, giving Grey full rein over operations; the company's television unit was subsequently rechristened "Brad Grey Television". Grey produced shows such as Emmy Award-winning "The Sopranos" and "The Wayne Brady Show". Other shows developed in the 1990s under the Brillstein-Grey banner included "Good Sports", "The Larry Sanders Show", "Mr. Show", "Real Time with Bill Maher", "The Sopranos", "NewsRadio", and "Just Shoot Me!" Grey also ventured into film by producing the Adam Sandler hit "Happy Gilmore".


title: Brad Grey

text: In 1996, actress Linda Doucett alleged that Grey and Shandling fired her from "The Larry Sanders Show" after her personal relationship with Shandling ended. Doucett reportedly received a $1 million settlement in this matter in 1997.


title: Brad Grey

text: In July 2000 - on the day of "Scary Movie"s opening - Grey and Brillstein-Grey were sued by Bo Zenga and his Boz Productions in what became known as the 'Scary' suit. Zenga, at the time an unknown bit-part actor, "claimed he had an oral agreement with Grey's management firm Brillstein-Grey Entertainment, giving him equal profits on the film". "Scary Movie" went on to make $278m worldwide.


title: Brad Grey

text: The pre-trial discovery process "revealed that major parts of Zenga's resume were fabricated. Brillstein-Grey said in a court filing that Zenga presented himself as a successful investment banker who became a prize-winning screenwriter to satisfy his creative urges." "Far from being a successful investment banker, Zenga once filed for personal bankruptcy" and "according to court papers, the only writing award he won was in a phony contest he set up himself." After denying under oath that he knew who owned the company that ran the contest, Bo Zenga recanted a day later, admitting his ownership of the company and "saying he had been 'overmedicated.'" When questioned about "an accusation from his former business partner that he coerced her to lie for him," Zenga "in a highly unusual move for a plaintiff in a film-profits case — asserted his Fifth Amendment right not to answer hundreds of questions." Zenga's suit was thrown out of court for lack of evidence. L.A. Superior Court Judge Robert O'Brien "noted it was only the second time in all his years on the bench that he had granted a non-suit and taken a case away from a jury."


title: Brad Grey

text: In 2002, Grey formed Plan B with Brad Pitt and Jennifer Aniston, with a first-look deal at Warner Bros. The company produced two films for Warner Bros: Tim Burton's "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory" with Johnny Depp, and Martin Scorsese's "The Departed", starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Matt Damon, and Jack Nicholson. After Pitt and Aniston separated, Grey and Pitt moved the company to Paramount Pictures in 2005.


title: Brad Grey

text: In May 2006, Zenga "filed a new suit against Grey personally," in which he charged Grey with using notorious private investigator Anthony Pellicano to illegally wiretap and conduct illegal background checks on Zenga during the original case. Grey denied any knowledge, testifying that "his dealings with Pellicano 'all came through Bert Fields' and that 'in every instance' Grey had never been given updates on the investigations by Pellicano." The suit was "dismissed, due to Zenga having lied and to statute of limitations issues." Zenga's appeal continued after Grey's death until being dismissed in December 2017.


title: Brad Grey

text: Grey was named chief executive officer of Paramount Pictures Corporation in 2005. In his position, Grey was responsible for overseeing all feature film development and production for films distributed by Paramount Pictures Corporation including Paramount Pictures, Paramount Vantage, Paramount Classics, Paramount Insurge, MTV Films and Nickelodeon Movies. He was also responsible for the worldwide business operations for Paramount Pictures International, Paramount Famous Productions, Paramount Home Media Distribution, Paramount Animation, Studio Group and Worldwide Television Distribution.


title: Brad Grey

text: Among the commercial and critical hit films Paramount produced and/or distributed during Grey's tenure were the "Transformers", "Paranormal Activity", and "Iron Man" franchises, "Star Trek", "How to Train Your Dragon", "Shrek the Third", "", "", "An Inconvenient Truth", "There Will Be Blood", "No Country for Old Men", "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button", "Babel", "Shutter Island", "Up in the Air", "The Fighter", "True Grit", "", and "Hugo".


title: Brad Grey

text: During his time as chairman and CEO of Paramount, the studio's films were nominated for dozens of Academy Awards, including 20 in 2011 and 18 in 2012.


title: Brad Grey

text: After arriving at Paramount in 2005, Chairman and CEO Grey was credited with leading a return to fortune at the box office. He oversaw the creation and revitalization of several major franchises, "", "Star Trek", and "Paranormal Activity", which was made for $15,000 and generated $192 million at the global box office. "Paranormal Activity 2" grossed $177 million worldwide, and the third installment in the franchise collected $205.7 million worldwide in 2011. A fourth installment was released in October 2012. The studio's 2011 results included "", which grossed more than $1.1 billion worldwide, and "", whose $694 million global box office tally makes it the most successful entry in that franchise. Paramount's 2012 slate included "The Dictator" which earned $179 million on a $65 million budget.


title: Brad Grey

text: During this period, Paramount forged productive relationships with top-tier filmmakers and talent including J. J. Abrams, Michael Bay and Martin Scorsese.


title: Brad Grey

text: In 2011, based on the success of "Rango", the studio's first original, computer-animated release, Grey oversaw the launch of a new animation division, Paramount Animation.


title: Brad Grey

text: The 2010 Paramount slate achieved much success with "Shutter Island" and "True Grit" reaching the biggest box office totals in the storied careers of Martin Scorsese and the Coen brothers, respectively. In addition, during Grey's tenure, Paramount launched its own worldwide releasing arm, Paramount Pictures International, and has released acclaimed films such as "An Inconvenient Truth", "Up in the Air" and "There Will Be Blood". The success of "Paranormal Activity" also led to the creation of a low-budget releasing label Insurge Pictures, which released "", which collected nearly $100 million in worldwide box office revenue.


title: Brad Grey

text: Grey was ousted from Paramount Pictures shortly before his death, a result of a power struggle between his backers and the family of majority owner Sumner Redstone, along with a series of flops that cost the studio $450 million in losses.


title: Brad Grey

text: Grey died on May 14, 2017 from cancer at his Holmby Hills home in Los Angeles, California. He was 59.


title: Brad Grey

text: Grey received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from SUNY during a visit to Buffalo and UB in 2003. Grey's Board appointments included:


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Abraham Zapruder (May 15, 1905 – August 30, 1970) was a Ukrainian-born American clothing manufacturer who witnessed the assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963. He unexpectedly captured the shooting in a home movie while filming the presidential limousine and motorcade as it traveled through Dealey Plaza. The Zapruder film is regarded as the most complete footage of the assassination.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Zapruder was born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in the city of Kovel, the Russian Empire (now Ukraine), the son of Israel Zapruder. He received only four years of formal education in Ukraine. In 1909, his father left for America. In 1918, Abraham Zapruder left Kovel for Warsaw with his family. At some point, Zapruder's brother was pulled off a train and murdered in front of his family, apparently by Polish guards. In 1920, his family emigrated to the United States, settling in Brooklyn, New York where they were reunited with Israel Zapruder.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Studying English at night, he found work as a clothing pattern maker in Manhattan's garment district. In 1933, he married Lillian Sapovnik (1913–1993), with whom he had two children. Zapruder was a Freemason and an Inspector-General (33rd degree) of the Scottish Rite.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: In 1941, Zapruder moved to Dallas, Texas, to work for Nardis, a local sportswear company. In 1949, he co-founded Jennifer Juniors, Inc., producing the Chalet and Jennifer Juniors brands of dresses. From the summer of 1953 to April 1954, Zapruder worked at Nardis side by side with Jeanne LeGon. His Jennifer Juniors offices were on the fourth floor of the Dal-Tex Building, across the street from the Texas School Book Depository.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: At the time of the assassination, Zapruder was an admirer of President Kennedy and considered himself a Democrat. Zapruder had originally planned to film the motorcade carrying President Kennedy through downtown Dallas on November 22, but he decided not to film the event because it had been raining that morning. When he arrived at work that morning without his camera, Zapruder's assistant insisted that he retrieve it from home before going to Dealey Plaza because the weather had cleared.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Zapruder's movie camera was an 8 mm Bell & Howell Zoomatic Director Series Model 414 PD—top-of-the-line when it was purchased in 1962. Zapruder had planned to film the motorcade from his office window but decided to choose a more optimal spot in Dealey Plaza where the motorcade would be passing. He chose to film on top of a concrete abutment which extends from a retaining wall that was part of the John Neely Bryan concrete pergola on the grassy knoll north of Elm Street, in Dealey Plaza. Zapruder's secretary, Marilyn Sitzman, offered to assist Zapruder as he suffered from vertigo and was apprehensive about standing on the abutment alone.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: While Sitzman stood behind Zapruder and held his coat to steady him, he began filming the presidential motorcade as it turned from Houston Street onto Elm Street in front of the Book Depository. Zapruder's film captured 26.6 seconds of the traveling motorcade carrying President Kennedy on 486 frames of Kodak Kodachrome II safety film. Zapruder's film captured the fatal head shot that struck President Kennedy as his limousine passed almost directly in front of Zapruder and Sitzman's position, from the center of Elm Street.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Zapruder later recalled that he immediately knew that President Kennedy's wound was fatal as he saw the president's head "...explode like a firecracker." Walking back to his office amid the confusion following the shots, Zapruder encountered "The Dallas Morning News" reporter Harry McCormick, who was standing near Zapruder and noticed he was filming the motorcade. McCormick was acquainted with Agent Forrest Sorrels of the Secret Service's Dallas office, and offered to bring Sorrels to Zapruder's office. Zapruder agreed and returned to his office. McCormick later found Sorrels outside the Sheriff's office at Main and Houston, and together they went to Zapruder's office.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Zapruder agreed to give the film to Sorrels on the condition it would be used only for investigation of the assassination. The three then took the film to the television station WFAA to be developed. After it was realized that WFAA was unable to develop Zapruder's footage, the film was taken to Eastman Kodak's Dallas processing plant later that afternoon where it was immediately developed. As the Kodachrome process requires different equipment for duplication than for simple development, Zapruder's film was not developed until around 6:30 p.m. The original developed film was taken to the Jamieson Film Company, where three additional copies were exposed; these were returned to Kodak around 8 p.m. for processing. Zapruder kept the original, plus one copy, and gave the other two copies to Sorrels, who sent them to Secret Service headquarters in Washington.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Late that evening, Zapruder was contacted at home by Richard Stolley, an editor at "Life" magazine (and first editor of the future "People" magazine). They arranged to meet the following morning to view the film, after which Zapruder sold the print rights to "Life" for $50,000. Stolley was representing Time/Life on behalf of publisher Charles Douglas Jackson.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: The following day (November 24), "Life" purchased all rights to the film for a total of $150,000 (approximately $ today).


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: The night after the assassination, Zapruder said that he had a nightmare in which he saw a booth in Times Square advertising "See the President's head explode!" He determined that, while he was willing to make money from the film, he did not want the public to see the full horror of what he had seen. Therefore, a condition of the sale to "Life" was that frame 313, showing the fatal shot, would be withheld. Although he made a profit from selling the film, he asked that the amount he was paid not be publicly disclosed. He later donated $25,000 (about $ today) of the money he was paid to the widow of Officer J. D. Tippit, a Dallas police officer who was shot and killed by Lee Harvey Oswald 45 minutes after President Kennedy was killed.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: In 1975, Time, Inc. (which owned "Life" magazine) sold the film back to the Zapruder family for $1. In 1978, the Zapruders allowed the film to be stored at the National Archives and Records Administration where it remains. In 1999, the Zapruders donated the copyright of the film to the Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: In his testimony to the Warren Commission, Zapruder was asked for his impression regarding the direction of the shots:


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Zapruder added that he had assumed the shots came from behind him because the President's head went backwards from the fatal shot, and also that the wound on the side of the President's head was facing that direction. He also said he believed it because police officers ran to the area behind him.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: He broke down and wept as he recalled the assassination, and did so again at the 1969 trial of Clay Shaw.


title: Abraham Zapruder

text: Zapruder died of stomach cancer in Dallas on August 30, 1970, at Parkland Memorial Hospital, and is buried in the Emanu-El Cemetery in Dallas.


title: Samora Machel

text: Samora Moisés Machel (29 September 1933 – 19 October 1986) was a Mozambican military commander and political leader. A socialist in the tradition of Marxism–Leninism, he served as the first President of Mozambique from the country's independence in 1975.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel died in office in 1986 when his presidential aircraft crashed near the Mozambican-South African border.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel was born in the village of Madragoa (today's Chilembene), Gaza Province, Mozambique, to a family of farmers. His grandfather had been an active collaborator of Gungunhana. Under Portuguese rule, his father, like most Black Mozambicans, was classified by the demeaning term "indígena" (native). He was forced to accept lower prices for his crops than White farmers; compelled to grow labour-intensive cotton, which took time away from the food crops needed for his family; and forbidden to brand his mark on his cattle to prevent thievery. However, Machel's father was a successful farmer: he owned four plows and 400 head of cattle by 1940. Machel grew up in this farming village and attended mission elementary school. In 1942, he was sent to school in the town of Zonguene in Gaza Province. The school was run by Catholic missionaries who educated the children in Portuguese language and culture. Although having completed the fourth grade, Machel never completed his secondary education. However, he had the prerequisite certificate to train as a nurse anywhere in Portugal at the time, since the nursing schools were not degree-conferring institutions.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel started to study nursing in the capital city of Lourenço Marques (today Maputo), beginning in 1954. In the 1950s, he saw some of the fertile lands around his farming community on the Limpopo river appropriated by the provincial government and worked by White settlers who developed a wide range of new infrastructure for the region. Like many other Mozambicans near the southern border of Mozambique, some of his relatives went to work in the South African mines where additional job opportunities were found. Shortly afterwards, one of his brothers was killed in a mining accident. Unable to complete formal training at the Miguel Bombarda Hospital in Lourenço Marques, he got a job working as an aide in the same hospital and earned enough to continue his education at night school. He worked at the hospital until he left the country to join the Mozambican nationalist struggle in neighbouring Tanzania.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel was attracted to anti-colonial ideals and began his political activities in the Miguel Bombarda hospital in Lourenço Marques, where he protested against the fact that black nurses were paid less than whites doing the same job. Machel decided to leave Lourenço Marques, when a white anti-fascist, the pharmaceutical representative João Ferreira, warned him that he was being watched by the Portuguese political police, the PIDE. He slipped across the border, and made his way to join FRELIMO in Dar es Salaam, via Swaziland, South Africa and Botswana. In Botswana, he hitched a lift on a plane carrying recruits of the African National Congress of South Africa to Tanzania. Impressed by the young Mozambican, a senior ANC official J.B. Marks (according to Joe Slovo) bumped one of the ANC recruits off the flight to let Machel on.


title: Samora Machel

text: In Dar es Salaam, Machel volunteered for military service, and was one of the second group of FRELIMO guerrillas sent for training in Algeria. Back in Tanzania, he was put in charge of FRELIMO's own training camp, at Kongwa. After FRELIMO launched the independence war, on September 25, 1964, Machel soon became a key commander, making his name in particular in the grueling conditions of the eastern area of the vast and sparsely populated province of Niassa. He rapidly rose up the ranks of the guerrilla army, the FPLM, and became the head of the army after the death of its first commander, Filipe Samuel Magaia, in October 1966.


title: Samora Machel

text: Frelimo's founder and first president, Eduardo Mondlane, was assassinated by a parcel bomb on February 3, 1969. His deputy, Rev Uria Simango, expected to take over – but instead the FRELIMO Executive Committee appointed a presidential triumvirate, consisting of Simango, Machel and veteran nationalist and poet Marcelino dos Santos. Simango soon broke ranks, and denounced the rest of the FRELIMO leadership in the pamphlet “Gloomy Situation in Frelimo”. This led to Simango's expulsion from the liberation front, and the election, in 1970, of Machel as Frelimo President, with dos Santos as Deputy President.


title: Samora Machel

text: Like the late Mondlane, Machel identified himself with Marxism–Leninism, and under his leadership these positions became central to FRELIMO, which evolved from a broad front into a more Marxist party.


title: Samora Machel

text: The new commander of the Portuguese army in Mozambique, Gen. Kaúlza de Arriaga, boasted that he would eliminate FRELIMO in a few months. He launched the largest offensive of Portugal's colonial wars, Operation Gordian Knot, in 1970, concentrating on what was regarded as the FRELIMO heartland of Cabo Delgado in the far north. Kaúlza de Arriaga boasted of destroying a large number of guerrilla bases – but since such a base was just a collection of huts, the military significance of such supposed victories was dubious.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel reacted by shifting the focus of the war elsewhere, stepping up FRELIMO operations in the western province of Tete. This was where a massive dam was being built at Cahora Bassa, on the Zambezi, to sell electricity to South Africa. Fearful that FRELIMO would attack the dam site, the Portuguese set up three concentric rings of defence around Cahora Bassa. This denuded the rest of Tete province of troops, and in 1972 FRELIMO crossed the Zambezi, striking further and further south.


title: Samora Machel

text: By 1973, FRELIMO units were operating in Manica and Sofala Province and began to hit the railway from Rhodesia to Beira, causing panic among the settler population of Beira, who accused the Portuguese army of not doing enough to defend white interests.


title: Samora Machel

text: The end came suddenly. On April 25, 1974, Portuguese officers, tired of fighting three unwinnable wars in Africa, overthrew the government in Lisbon. The coup was almost bloodless. Nobody came onto the streets to defend Prime Minister Marcelo Caetano. Within 24 hours, the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) was in full control of Portugal.


title: Samora Machel

text: Frelimo's immediate warning was that there was no such thing as democratic colonialism, and that nobody should imagine that Mozambicans would tolerate Portuguese rule just because there had been a change of government in Lisbon.


title: Samora Machel

text: Frelimo's fears were well-founded. The MFA allowed General António de Spínola to become the first post-coup President. He had been commander of the Portuguese forces in Guinea-Bissau, then Portuguese Guinea, and was believed to be deeply implicated in the assassination of the Guinean nationalist leader, Amílcar Cabral.


title: Samora Machel

text: Spinola had no intention of letting Mozambique and Angola go. He dreamed of a Lusophone commonwealth run from Lisbon, and wanted a referendum on independence. Machel rejected such plans with the pithy remark “You don't ask a slave if he wants to be free, particularly when he is already in revolt, and much less if you happen to be a slave-owner”.


title: Samora Machel

text: Initial discussions between Frelimo and the new Portuguese government, held in Lusaka in June 1974, proved fruitless. It was clear to Machel that the Portuguese foreign minister, Socialist Party leader Mário Soares, had no power to negotiate independence. So Machel sent one of his top advisers, Aquino de Bragança, to Lisbon to find out who really held power in Portugal. His answer was that Frelimo should really be talking to the MFA, particular to military intellectuals such as Col. Ernesto Melo Antunes, whose power was on the rise, as that of Spinola waned.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel refused to give the Portuguese the ceasefire they wanted. For as long as there was no commitment to Mozambican independence, the war would continue. Frelimo re-opened its front in Zambezia province, and stepped up operations throughout the war zone.


title: Samora Machel

text: There was little resistance. Following the collapse of the Caetano government, rank and file Portuguese soldiers saw little point in continuing to fight, preferring to stay in their barracks.


title: Samora Machel

text: More serious talks between the Lisbon government and Frelimo ensued, and this time the MFA played a dominant role. The result was an agreement, signed in Lusaka on September 7, 1974, which agreed to transfer full power to Frelimo with the date for independence set for June 25, 1975. That day there was a short-lived settler revolt against the agreement, put down within a day by Portuguese and Frelimo troops acting jointly. A transitional government was set up, containing ministers appointed by both Frelimo and Portugal, but headed by Frelimo's Joaquim Chissano as Prime Minister. Machel continued to run Frelimo from Tanzania. He returned home triumphantly, in a journey "from the Rovuma to the Maputo" (the rivers marking the northern and southern boundaries of the country), in which he addressed rallies in every major population centre in the country.


title: Samora Machel

text: The journey was interrupted at the beach resort of Tofo, in Inhambane Province, for a meeting of the Frelimo Central Committee, which drew up Mozambique's first Constitution. This gave the outline of the one-party, socialist state which Frelimo intended to establish. Frelimo was constitutionally the leading force in Mozambican society, and the President of Frelimo would automatically be President of Mozambique.


title: Samora Machel

text: On June 25, 1975, Machel proclaimed "the total and complete independence of Mozambique and its constitution into the People's Republic of Mozambique". This, he said, would be "a state of People's Democracy, in which, under the leadership of the worker-peasant alliance, all patriotic strata commit themselves to the destruction of the sequels of colonialism, and to annihilate the system of exploitation of man by man".


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel's government moved quickly to bring key areas under state control. All land was nationalized – individuals and institutions could not hold land, but leased it from the state. On July 24, 1975, just a month after independence, all health and education institutions were nationalized. National health and education services were set up, and all private schools and clinics were abolished. The Catholic Church immediately lost the privileged position it had held in these areas. On February 3, 1976, the government nationalized all rented housing. “Landlords? What do we want landlords for in our country for?”, asked Machel at the rally announcing the measure. Private ownership of houses was not banned. Anyone, Mozambican or foreign, could own a house for their own use - but building private property for rent was forbidden. This changed the face of Mozambican cities – black Mozambicans moved from the suburbs into blocks in the centre of the cities, occupying houses and flats, once owned by Portuguese landlords, and many of which had now been abandoned.


title: Samora Machel

text: In February 1977, at its 3rd Congress, Frelimo declared that it was now a Marxist–Leninist party, dedicated to the building of socialism, based on the “worker-peasant alliance”. The Congress re-elected Machel as President of Frelimo, and thus automatically as President of the Republic.


title: Samora Machel

text: Frelimo was reorganized into "celulas" (“branches”) throughout the county. The party was to be a Leninist vanguard, and state institutions, at whatever level, were to be subordinate to the party. In 1978 elections were held. Since this was a one-party state, there was no organized opposition. Instead, candidates were presented by Frelimo at meetings – and were sometimes rejected when people complained of offences ranging from wife-beating and drunkenness to acting as an informer for the PIDE during the colonial government.


title: Samora Machel

text: Frelimo faced a hostile environment, with the white minority governments of Ian Smith's Rhodesia and apartheid South Africa on Mozambique's borders. In March 1976, Machel's government implemented United Nations sanctions against the Smith government, and closed the borders with Rhodesia. In retaliation, Smith's Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO) recruited dissatisfied Mozambicans and former Portuguese settlers and helped set up an anti-Frelimo movement. Initially this “Mozambique National Resistance” operated as an auxiliary branch of the Rhodesian armed forces. Frelimo dismissed them as “armed bandits”.


title: Samora Machel

text: As part of the measures accompanying the new Frelimo government, Machel introduced "reeducation centers" in which petty criminals, political opponents, and alleged anti-social elements such as prostitutes were imprisoned, often without trial. These were later described by foreign observers as "infamous centers of torture and death." It is estimated that 30,000 inmates died in these camps.


title: Samora Machel

text: Frelimo had longstanding links with Zimbabwean nationalist movements. Even during the independence war, guerrillas of ZANLA (Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army), the armed wing of ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union), were able to operate from Frelimo-held areas in Tete province into northern areas of Rhodesia. After the implementation of the UN sanctions against the Rhodesian government, the entire length of the border was now available for nationalist incursions into Rhodesia.


title: Samora Machel

text: ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, released from Salisbury Prison, Rhodesia in 1974, made his way into Mozambique the following year. Initially, Machel was suspicious of the apparent coup within ZANU that had brought Mugabe to power, and he was effectively rusticated to the central city of Quelimane, where he taught English. Tired of the divisions within Zimbabwean nationalism, Machel sponsored an alternative to both ZANU and its rival ZAPU. This was the Zimbabwean People's Army (ZIPA), which took credit for many operations in eastern Zimbabwe, and was enthusiastically promoted by the Mozambican media. But it soon turned out that the dominant force within ZIPA were ZANLA guerrillas who had never abandoned their loyalty to ZANU and to Mugabe.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel accepted the reality that the people doing most of the fighting in Zimbabwe were ZANLA. To bring the war to a successful conclusion, Machel embarked on a dual strategy, military and diplomatic. He sent Mozambican units into Zimbabwe to fight alongside ZANU guerrillas, while also insisting that the new British Conservative government, under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, should resume its responsibilities as the colonial power.


title: Samora Machel

text: The UK Government hosted a conference at Lancaster House in London, aimed at ending White minority rule and drawing up a constitution for an independent Zimbabwe. Mozambicans, notably Machel's British-trained advisor, Fernando Honwana, were in London to advise the ZANU delegation – and ensured that Mugabe accepted the Lancaster House Agreement, despite its failure to solve the land question, with a small minority of white commercial farmers still holding most of the country's fertile farmland. Machel, with his own intelligence teams on the ground, was certain that ZANU would win any fair election. Indeed, ZANU won 57 of the 80 seats reserved for Black Zimbabweans, while the second nationalist movement, ZAPU, won 20. Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front took the 20 seats, which Mugabe had reluctantly agreed to allocate to the Whites.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel was fully aware of the dangerous ethnic divisions in Zimbabwe, with ZANU drawing most of its support from the Shona majority, and ZAPU from the minority Ndebele people. On his first state visit to Zimbabwe, in 1980, Machel gave a warning: "To ensure national unity, there must be no Shonas in Zimbabwe, there must be no Ndebeles in Zimbabwe, there must be Zimbabweans. Some people are proud of their tribalism. But we call tribalists reactionary agents of the enemy".


title: Samora Machel

text: In 1977, a rebel army known as RENAMO launched a rebellion backed by Rhodesia, plunging the country into civil war. Following the collapse of Smith's government, the rebel force began to receive backing from South Africa. The movement was initially known as the RNM (translated into English as MNR), but as from 2003 adopted the acronym Renamo.


title: Samora Machel

text: During the 1980s, the South African government took an increasingly hostile attitude to the Front Line States. Mozambique, in particular, was accused of harbouring military bases of the African National Congress. On June 30, 1981, South African commandos attacked three houses in the southern city of Matola, killing 12 ANC members as well as a Portuguese electrician. While those killed were members of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK - Spear of the Nation), the houses were not a guerrilla base, as visiting diplomats and journalists soon confirmed. A fortnight later, Machel threw down the gauntlet. At a rally in Maputo's independence square, he embraced ANC leader Oliver Tambo and declared "They want to come here and commit murder. So we say: Let them come! Let all the racists come!... Let the South Africans come, but let them be clear that the war will end in Pretoria!"


title: Samora Machel

text: Helped by weapons airdropped by the South African Defence Force (SADF), Renamo spread its operations across the entire country with the exception of the far north. Frelimo reacted with a series of authoritarian measures, some of which deeply shocked its supporters inside and outside the country. The death penalty, already in force for serious security offences, was now extended to a range of economic crimes. In addition, corporal punishment was imposed as a penalty for a range of offences. Both laws fell into disuse within a year or so but had done severe damage to Frelimo's image. It is widely believed that, at about this time, former Frelimo officials regarded as “traitors” were executed, including Simango and his wife Celina. To this day, Frelimo has published nothing about the circumstances of the execution, though in the Mozambican parliament, in 1995, former security minister Sergio Vieira publicly confirmed “the traitors were executed”. Renamo supporters published colourful versions claiming that the executions happened in 1977, but a date of 1983 seems more likely. In either case, this violated a promise which Machel gave to the Tanzanian and Zambian Presidents, Julius Nyerere and Kenneth Kaunda in 1975.


title: Samora Machel

text: At the Frelimo Fourth Congress, in April 1983, Frelimo reaffirmed its commitment to Marxism, but admitted economic mistakes, particularly in agriculture. Machel was re-elected President of Frelimo, and once again warmly embraced Oliver Tambo.


title: Samora Machel

text: But the deteriorating military and economic situation drove Frelimo to give the apartheid government what it said it wanted – a non-aggression pact. On March 16, 1984, on a railway carriage in the non-man's land between South Africa and Mozambique, Machel and South African President P. W. Botha signed the Nkomati Accord on Non-Aggression and Good Neighbourliness. The deal expressed in the agreement was extremely simple – South Africa would drop its support for Renamo in exchange for Mozambique dropping support for the ANC.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel only partially honoured commitments to expel various ANC members from his territory. South African support for Renamo did not stop – massive shipments of arms were airlifted to Renamo immediately prior to the Accord, and a senior South African official, Deputy Foreign Minister Louis Nel, even visited the Renamo base at Casa Banana in Gorongosa district, using an airstrip which South Africa had helped Renamo build. In mid-1985, the Mozambican and Zimbabwean armed forces launched a joint offensive to drive Renamo out of Gorongosa. Zimbabwean paratroopers ensured the capture of Casa Banana, but Renamo leader Afonso Dhlakama fled north, and re-established the Renamo HQ in the district of Maringue. Visiting Casa Banana on September 5, Machel was optimistic. "We have broken the back of the snake, but the tail will still thrash around," he said.


title: Samora Machel

text: But in fact, the war continued, although its focus shifted northwards to Zambezia and Tete provinces, with Renamo operating with impunity out of Malawi. Machel loathed the Malawian "life President" Hastings Kamuzu Banda, who was the only leader of an independent African state who had established diplomatic relations with Pretoria. After an unsuccessful meeting with Banda, Machel openly threatened to place missiles on the Mozambique-Malawi border and to prevent trade from landlocked Malawi passing through Mozambican territory.


title: Samora Machel

text: On 19 October 1986, Machel attended a summit in Mbala, Zambia, called to put pressure on Zairean dictator Mobutu Sese Seko, over his support for the Angolan opposition movement UNITA. The strategy of the Front Line States was to move against Mobutu and Banda in an attempt to end their support for UNITA and Renamo, who they regarded as South African surrogates. Although the Zambian authorities invited Machel to stay in Mbala overnight, he insisted on returning to Maputo. He had a meeting scheduled for the following morning at which he intended to reshuffle the leadership of the armed forces. Machel thus overrode the instruction from the Security Ministry that the President should not travel at night – with fatal consequences. The plane never reached Maputo. That night it crashed into a hillside at Mbuzini, just inside South Africa. Machel and 33 others died. Nine people sitting at the back of the plane survived.


title: Samora Machel

text: The Margo Commission, set up by the South African government, but which included high-level international representation, investigated the incident and concluded that the accident was caused by pilot error. Despite the acceptance of its findings by the International Civil Aviation Organization, the report was rejected by the Mozambican and Soviet governments. The latter submitted a minority report suggesting that the aircraft was intentionally lured off course by a decoy radio navigation beacon set up specifically for this purpose by the South Africans. Speculation about the accident has therefore continued to the present day, particularly in Mozambique.


title: Samora Machel

text: Hans Louw, a Civil Cooperation Bureau operative, claims to have helped bring about Machel's death. Pik Botha, South African foreign affairs minister at the time, who later joined the ANC, said that the investigation into the plane crash should be re-opened.


title: Samora Machel

text: The Portuguese journalist, , who lived in Moscow from 1977 to 2015 and currently works for the Portuguese newspaper "Público" and as a correspondent for the Portuguese television channel "SIC", maintains that the plane crash had nothing to do with any attempt or any mechanical failure, but was due to several errors of the Russian crew (including the pilot), who, instead of diligently performing their duties, were busy with futile things, like sharing alcoholic and soft drinks unavailable in Mozambique that they had had the possibility to bring from Zambia. In Milhazes' opinion, both the Soviet and the Mozambican authorities had an interest to spread the thesis of an attempt by the South African government: the Soviets wanted to safeguard their reputation (exempting the plane and the crew from any responsibility), the Mozambicans wanted to create a hero.


title: Samora Machel

text: In 2007, however, Jacinto Veloso, one of Machel's most unconditional supporters within Frelimo, had sustained in his memoirs that Machel's death was due to a conspiracy between the South African and the Soviet secret services, both of which had reasons to get rid of him. According to Veloso, the Soviet ambassador once asked the President for an audience to convey the USSR's concern about Mozambique's apparent "sliding away" towards the West, to which Machel supposedly replied ""Vai à merda!"" (Go to hell!). Having then commanded the interpreter to translate, he left the room. Convinced that Machel had irrevocably moved away from their orbit, the Soviets allegedly did not hesitate to sacrifice the pilot and the whole crew of their own plane.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel's state funeral was held in Maputo on 28 October 1986. It was attended by numerous political leaders and other notable people from Africa and elsewhere, including Dr. Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe, Dr. Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, King Moshoeshoe II of Lesotho, Daniel arap Moi of Kenya and Yasser Arafat of Palestinian State. Also present were the ANC leader Oliver Tambo, the U.S. President's daughter Maureen Reagan, the First Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union Heidar Aliyev, and the civil rights leader, Jesse Jackson.


title: Samora Machel

text: At the funeral, the acting leader of Frelimo, Marcelino dos Santos, said in a speech: "The shock of your journey from which there is no return still shudders through the body of the entire nation. You fell in the struggle against apartheid… You understood apartheid as a problem for all humanity."


title: Samora Machel

text: Samora Machel was buried in a star-shaped crypt at Mozambican Heroes' Square, a traffic junction in Maputo.


title: Samora Machel

text: In the late 1950s, when Machel was working as a nurse on Inhaca Island, he met a local girl, Sorita Tchaiakomo, and set up house with her. Their first child, Joscelina, was born on Inhaca in 1958. Idelson (1959) and Olívia (1961) were both born after the family returned to the mainland, where they lived in Mafalala, a suburb of Lourenço Marques. Machel returned to the Miguel Bombarda Hospital and was accepted onto a course of further training. At the hospital he began a relationship with another nurse, Irene Buque. She gave birth to their daughter Ornila in February 1963, three weeks before Machel left Mozambique to join Frelimo. N’tewane, Tchaiakomo's fourth child with Machel, was born that September, six months after Machel had left the country. Later, Machel expressed remorse for what he had come to see as bad behaviour towards Sorita and Irene.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel was not married to either Tchaiakomo or Buque. When he joined Frelimo in 1963 it was widely believed that the war for independence would last years, if not decades, and that the chances of Frelimo cadres being reunited with their families in Mozambique were vanishingly small. Josina Abiatar Muthemba, who had been active in the anti-colonial student organisation NESAM, arrived in Tanzania in 1965, on her second attempt to flee Mozambique. In Tanzania she worked first as an assistant to Janet Mondlane, Eduardo Mondlane's wife and director of the Mozambique Institute. She became one of the earliest recruits to the Women's Detachment of the guerrilla army, and campaigned vigorously for women's full inclusion within all aspects of the liberation struggle. She and Machel were married at Tunduru in southern Tanzania in May 1969. In November their only son Samora, known as Samito, was born. Josina returned to work as head of Social Affairs, with special responsibility for the welfare of war orphans, and for the health and education of all children in the war zones of northern Mozambique. But she felt increasingly unwell. In 1970 she travelled to the Soviet Union to seek a diagnosis for her chronic ill-health, but to no avail. She was probably suffering from leukaemia, although pancreatic cancer is another possibility. She died on April 7, 1971, aged twenty-five. Machel was devastated.


title: Samora Machel

text: Machel's second wife, Graça Simbine, joined Frelimo in 1973 after graduating in modern languages from Lisbon University. She worked as a teacher, first in Frelimo-held areas in Cabo Delgado province, and then at the Frelimo school in Tanzania. She became Minister for Education and Culture in newly independent Mozambique. She and Machel were married three months after Independence, in September 1975. In April 1976 a daughter, Josina, was born, and in December 1978 a son, Malengane. At Independence Machel's five older children joined Josina Machel's son Samito in the Presidential household. In 1998, twelve years after Samora Machel's death, Graça Machel married Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa, thus becoming the only woman to have been First Lady of two countries.


title: Samora Machel

text: Samora Machel established a strong relationship with Italy, because of its interest in fighting apartheid and Portuguese colonialism. In particular, the city of Reggio Emilia organized many initiatives to draw Italian attention to the great political problems of southern Africa. On 24 and 25 March 1973, Machel took part in the first "National Conference of solidarity against colonialism and imperialism for freedom and independence of Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau".


title: Samora Machel

text: When Reggio Emilia sent the first solidarity ship "Amanda", Machel welcomed it at the port of Maputo. He said: "Solidarity is not a charity act. It's cooperation, mutual support between peoples striving to reach the same goal. This ship brings peace, it brings the solidarity of the whole Italian people for every population."


title: Samora Machel

text: A memorial at the Mbuzini crash site was inaugurated on January 19, 1999, by Nelson Mandela and his wife Graça, and by President Joaquim Chissano of Mozambique. Now the monument is made professional and the memorial service is held on October 19 each year. Designed by Mozambican architect José Forjaz, at a cost to the South African government of 1.5 million Rand (US$300,000), the monument comprises 35 steel tubes symbolising the number of lives lost in the air crash. At least eight foreigners were killed there, including the four Soviet crew members, Machel's two Cuban doctors and the Zambian and Zairean ambassadors to Mozambique.


title: Samora Machel

text: There is a large street in downtown Dar es Salaam, the de facto capital of Tanzania, called Samora Avenue. One of the largest streets in Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, was renamed Samora Machel Avenue (from Jameson Avenue) after independence in a gesture of gratitude for Machel's support for black liberation activities before majority rule. Also, a street in Moscow bears his name and the Zimbabwean band R.U.N.N. family had a hit song that mourned his loss.


title: FB Beryl

text: The karabinek szturmowy wzór 1996 Beryl (English: "assault rifle model 1996 beryllium") is a Polish 5.56mm assault rifle, designed and produced by the Łucznik Arms Factory in the city of Radom. The rifle is to replace the 7.62×39mm AKM and 5.45×39mm FB Tantal used in the Polish Armed Forces.


title: FB Beryl

text: Development work on a new service rifle (both a standard and carbine variant) adapted to use the intermediate 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge had been undertaken in 1995, however a functioning 5.56 mm rifle and carbine variant had already been available in Radom since 1991, known as the wz. 1991 (a rechambered wz. 88 Tantal rifle). The new weapon's specifications were approved in February 1995 and in December the same year, a prototype production batch consisting of 11 Beryl rifles was produced. In 1997 the weapon had been successfully evaluated and adopted into service as the "5,56 mm karabinek szturmowy wz. 1996" ("assault carbine pattern 1996").


title: FB Beryl

text: The Beryl subsequently became the standard Polish rifle. In 2011, there were more than 45,000 in the inventory, accounting for about half of the assault rifles in the Polish Army. On May 25, 2016, FB "Łucznik" Radom announced an order from the Polish Army for 26,000 Beryls and Mini-Beryls, though did not break it down by system.


title: FB Beryl

text: Apart from Poland, 80 wz. 96A Beryls and 10 wz. 96A Mini Beryls are used by Lithuania (donated in May 2000 by Poland, including 10 rifles with Pallad grenade launcher and 10 rifles with CWL-1 scope with integrated laser rangefinder). Until 2002/2003 they were equipment of a special forces unit SOJ Aitvaras, operating in Afghanistan.


title: FB Beryl

text: The Beryl's design layout and system of operation are similar to those of the Tantal rifle, and the principal differences, resulting primarily from using a different cartridge, include the following components: the barrel, receiver housing, buttstock, foregrip, muzzle device, sight system and magazine. With an adapter, it can use M16 NATO standard magazine.


title: FB Beryl

text: The 457 mm-long barrel, has six right-hand grooves and a 228 mm (1:9 in) twist rate. The barrel's external profile (from the breech to the front sight base) is identical to the Tantal's barrel, but the length from the foresight base has a visible tapered contour with a decreasing diameter towards the muzzle end, used to mount a flash suppressor.


title: FB Beryl

text: The flash hider can be used to mount and launch rifle grenades. The flash hider has a slight taper at the front that supports a bayonet and a little further to the rear – six side ports arranged in pairs. These ports are placed asymmetrically around the circumference of the flash hider and stabilize the weapon during continuous fire. Internally the flash suppressor features threading at the muzzle used to screw-in a blank firing attachment. Located mid-length on the flash hider is a cut-out with a ring retainer spring that secures a rifle grenade to the barrel.


title: FB Beryl

text: The receiver housing contains several modifications over the receiver of the wz. 1988 rifle. It uses a reinforced rear stock trunnion, adapted for the new shoulder stock and a top-mounted Picatinny rail for mounting optical sights.


title: FB Beryl

text: The side-folding tubular metal stock is coated with a thermal polymer shrink film. It has a metal shoulder stop covered with a rubber recoil pad. More recent models come with a collapsible stock (see picture of wz. 2004 model on right side of page).


title: FB Beryl

text: The standard lower handguard features an angled rib pattern designed to enhance gripping by the support hand. The rear of the handguard features two molded notches that enable the 40 mm wz. 1974 grenade launcher to be mounted under the barrel (early versions of the wz. 1996 lacked these notches, fitted instead with handguards with lateral grooves). Some Beryl handguards are equipped with short Picatinny rails and an integral vertical foregrip.


title: FB Beryl

text: The Beryl's sighting system is very similar to the setup used on the Tantal, it does however differ with the addition of twin cuts made into the sides of rear sight base that are used to fasten a bracket for mounting the following optical sights: the passive PCS-6 night sight, a CK-3 reflex optical collimator (red dot sight), LKA-4 telescopic sight and CWL-1 scope with integrated laser rangefinder. However, the most used additional sight for Beryl is EOTech 552 holographic weapon sight and PCS-5M passive night sight. PCS-6 and CWL-1 are introduced in small number.


title: FB Beryl

text: The weapon's unique magazine is molded from plastic and is not interchangeable with magazines from the kbk wz. 1988 Tantal.


title: FB Beryl

text: The Beryl has a long, trapezoid-shaped selector switch, similar to those found on the AK-47 or almost all of the AK series.


title: FB Beryl

text: The Beryl fires 5.56×45mm ammunition with a steel-core standard round, a tracer cartridge and a training slug, which are produced by Zakłady Metalowe Mesko in the town of Skarżysko-Kamienna.


title: FB Beryl

text: Standard equipment shipped with the rifle includes: three spare magazines, four 15-round stripper clips, a stripper clip guide, bayonet, cleaning kit, lubricant bottle, cleaning rod (two-piece, stored in the cleaning kit pouch), sling, a magazine pouch and bipod. The rifle can also be fitted with a mounting system for optical sights and a blank-firing adaptor.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Arri Alexa (stylised as ΛLEXΛ) is a digital motion picture camera system developed by Arri. First introduced in April 2010, the camera was Arri's first major transition into digital cinematography after previous efforts such as the Arriflex D-20 and D-21.


title: Arri Alexa

text: Alexa cameras are designed for use in feature films, television shows, and commercials. Alexa uses the ALEV series of image sensors manufactured by ON Semiconductor.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa camera system introduced their Log-C imaging science as a digital negative to make digital cinema images process like scanned film images.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The camera has several methods of recording, including SxS cards, CFast 2.0 cards and SXR Capture Drives at resolutions up to 3424 × 2202 pixels in either Rec. 709 HD Video color space or Log-C to ProRes or ARRIRAW codecs. The Alexa camera offers additional optional software licenses that unlock different capabilities of the Alexa Camera including High Speed 120fps recording, DNxHD codec and 4:3 "Open Gate" Mode for anamorphic lenses.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa camera system includes modularity, PL mount lenses, a Super 35 sized CMOS sensor shooting up to 3424×2202 resolution and supports uncompressed video or proprietary raw (ARRIRAW) codec.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The price of the camera depends on model and accessories; as an example in 2015 an Arri Alexa XT cost approximately $66,000-100,000, depending on accessories included.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa, announced in April 2010, was the first camera released of the product family. The Alexa's CMOS Super-35mm sensor is rated at 2.8K and ISO 800. That sensitivity allows the camera to see a full seven stops of over exposure and another seven stops of underexposure. To take advantage of this, ARRI offers both industry-standard REC709 HD video output as well as the Log-C mode that shows the entire range of the chip's sensitivity, allowing for an extreme range of color correction options in post.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa Plus added integrated wireless remote control, the ARRI Lens Data System (LDS), additional outputs, lens synchronization for 3D, and built-in position and motion sensors and a 4:3 sensor making it ideal for anamorphic cinematography.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa M had its imaging and processing unit broken down in two parts to be small, compact and lightweight for 3D rigs and other uses where size is a concern. A special version of the Alexa M, called the Alexa SXT-M, was created for "Gemini Man".


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa Studio features an optical viewfinder, mechanical shutter, and a 4:3 sensor for anamorphic cinematography.


title: Arri Alexa

text: In February 2013, the range was renewed as Alexa XT (XT standing for extended technology). This range is upgraded versions of the original Alexa cameras, which are equipped with a so-called XR module, which replaces the SxS module on the cameras, and allows direct raw recording without the need for an external recorder. This module records on dedicated SSDs. Further improvements are an internal ND filter unit, a 4:3 sensor, an Open Gate sensor mode, and a quieter cooling fan. The range accordingly comprises the Alexa, the Alexa XT, the Alexa XT M, the Alexa XT Plus, the Alexa XT Studio, and the Alexa Fiber Remote. Existing cameras can be upgraded with the XR module for internal raw recording.


title: Arri Alexa

text: On 21 September 2014 at the Cinec convention in Munich, Arri announced the Alexa 65, a 6K 65mm digital cinema camera. As with cameras from competitor Panavision, the Alexa 65 camera was available by rental only, provided through the ARRI Rental Group. The Alexa 65 uses the A3X sensor, composed of three vertical ALEV III sensors, which has a maximum recordable resolution of 6560x3100.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The first production to use the camera was "", which was used to shoot the underwater sequence, and around forty percent of "The Revenant".


title: Arri Alexa

text: In May 2015, Marvel Studios announced that "" and "" will be shot entirely with the brand new camera, marking the first time a narrative feature film was shot entirely with a customized version of the Alexa 65 camera, Alexa IMAX 3D, as the camera had only been used to film specific scenes in "".


title: Arri Alexa

text: On 24 February 2015, Arri announced the Alexa Mini. It has the same sensor as the other Alexa cameras. It features in-camera recording to CFast 2.0 cards, 200 FPS and 4K UHD in-camera upscaling.


title: Arri Alexa

text: On 18 March 2015, Arri announced the SXT line of Arri Alexa cameras which will support in-camera upscaling of Apple ProRes to 4K resolution and Rec. 2020 color space. Arri also announced the SXR module which can upgrade XT, XT Plus, and XT Studio cameras with the SXT features.


title: Arri Alexa

text: On 2 February 2018, Arri announced the Alexa LF at the BSC Expo. It is a 4K Large Format Camera. The Alexa LF's A2X sensor is based on two vertical ALEV III sensors, which are stitched together to create a seamless large format image. This is the same principle that was used to create the Alexa 65, which uses three Alexa sensors that are arranged vertically. The Alexa LF can record in Open Gate in a resolution of 4448 × 3096.


title: Arri Alexa

text: On 28 March 2019, Arri announced the Alexa Mini LF, which houses the same sensor as the Alexa LF inside a camera body similar to the Alexa Mini. Additional improvements over the Alexa Mini include an improved EVF (MVF-2) with larger flip-out monitor and power outputs for camera accessories. The camera also features a new Codex recording module, which accepts 1TB Codex Compact Drives. It was ARRI's top-selling camera prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Arri Alexa

text: On May 31, 2022, Arri announced the Alexa 35. It is based on a Super 35 ALEV 4 sensor, Arri's first new sensor for the Alexa family since the release of the first model in 2010. The sensor is sized 27.99 x 19.22 mm and records at a resolution of 4608 × 3164 with 17 stops of dynamic range.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The ALEV III sensor debuted in the first Alexa model in 2010. It has 3424×2202 effective pixels used for generating an image. 2880×2160 pixels are generally used for recording on the Alexa Studio and M in 4:3 mode, and 2880×1620 pixels are used for recording on the regular Alexa and other models in 16:9 mode. The rest of the sensor is used for looking around in the viewfinder. Alternatively, the full sensor resolution may be employed in 'Open Gate' mode for resolution-demanding situations. It has a native ISO of 800 and records 14.5 stops of dynamic range.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa LF and Alexa Mini LF use the A2X sensor, composed of two vertical ALEV III sensors, which has a 36.70mm × 25.54mm active imaging area. It provides up to 4448×3096 maximum recordable resolution.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa 65 uses the A3X sensor, composed of three vertical ALEV III sensors, which has a 54.12 mm × 25.59 mm active imaging area. It provides up to 6560×3102 'Open Gate' maximum recordable resolution.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The ALEV 4 sensor debuted in 2022 with the release of the Alexa 35. It is sized at 27.99 x 19.22 mm and records at a resolution of 4608 × 3164 with 17 stops of dynamic range.


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Arri Alexa can record to 1920×1080 ProRes 422 or ProRes 4444 on SxS Cards or 2880×1620 ARRIRAW to external recording devices. The Arri Alexa Firmware 7 increases the resolution on the SxS cards to 2k ProRes 4444 (previously 1080p)


title: Arri Alexa

text: ArriRaw is a raw codec similar to CinemaDNG that contains unaltered Bayer sensor information. The data stream from the camera can be recorded via T-link with certified recorders like those from Codex Digital or Cineflow.


title: Arri Alexa

text: According to cinematographer Roger Deakins, Alexa's tonal range, color space , and latitude exceed the capabilities of shooting in film. "This camera has brought us to a point where digital is simply better", says Deakins. Deakins used the camera to shoot "In Time", the James Bond film "Skyfall", "Prisoners", "Unbroken", "Sicario", "The Goldfinch", "Empire of Light", and the Academy Award for Best Cinematography winners "Blade Runner 2049" and "1917".


title: Arri Alexa

text: The Alexa is the dominant camera in the professional film industry, and was used as the primary system on over 70% of the top 100 grossing films since 2016. Since its introduction, eight movies shot on Alexa ("Argo", "Birdman", "Spotlight", "Moonlight", "The Shape of Water", "Green Book", "Parasite", and "Nomadland") won an Academy Award for Best Picture. Also, movies shot on Alexa won Academy Award for Best Cinematography ten times, including five in a row between 2011 and 2015, for "Hugo", "Life of Pi", "Gravity", "Birdman", "The Revenant", "Blade Runner 2049", "Roma", "1917", and "Dune".


title: Shin Ramyun

text: Shin Ramyun is a brand of instant noodle (including cup ramyeon) that has been produced by the South Korean food company Nongshim since 1 October 1986. It is now exported to over 100 countries, and is the best-selling instant noodle brand in South Korea.


title: Shin Ramyun

text: Shin Ramyun, well known for its spicy flavor, is produced in at least four varieties: the original Shin Ramyun and Shin Ramyun Black, which was introduced in 2011 as well as Super Spicy, which was released in 2019, and, finally, a shrimp flavor that is only available in China. A standard package of Shin Ramyun consists of noodles, a packet of flavoring powder (soup base), and a packet of vegetable flakes. Shin Ramyun Black contains an extra packet of beef stock soup, which gives the soup a more intensely savory flavor.


title: Shin Ramyun

text: Shin Ramyun was introduced in October 1986 by Nongshim. The Nongshim R&D team came up with the idea of Sogogijanguk, a cabbage and beef stew, which is one of the most popular traditional South Korean dishes.


title: Shin Ramyun

text: After Shin Ramyun was introduced, Nongshim's market share hit 46.3% in 1987, and exceeded 50% for the first time in 1988 (53.8%). With the market share of over 20% just by itself, Shin Ramyun is a leading brand of the instant noodles in Korea.


title: Shin Ramyun

text: In August 2014, Nongshim revised its recipe for noodle blocks across its line for a chewier consistency, along with a revamped external packaging.


title: Shin Ramyun

text: In 2019 Nongshim launched a non-fried version of its packet noodle which has almost half a reduction on calories.


title: Shin Ramyun

text: In 2015, Shin Ramyun achieved 28 billion units sold since it was first introduced. Shin Ramyun is listed on the National Brand Consumption Index (NBCI) as the number 1 brand in South Korea (2012–2016) for its brand awareness and brand power.