title: Screw thread

text: Whereas metric threads are usually defined by their pitch, that is, how much distance per thread, inch-based standards usually use the reverse logic, that is, how many threads occur per a given distance. Thus, inch-based threads are defined in terms of "threads per inch" (TPI). Pitch and TPI describe the same underlying physical property—merely in different terms. When the inch is used as the unit of measurement for pitch, TPI is the reciprocal of pitch and vice versa. For example, a -20 thread has 20 TPI, which means that its pitch is inch ().


title: Screw thread

text: As the distance from the crest of one thread to the next, pitch can be compared to the wavelength of a wave. Another wave analogy is that pitch and TPI are inverses of each other in a similar way that period and frequency are inverses of each other.


title: Screw thread

text: Coarse threads are those with larger pitch (fewer threads per axial distance), and fine threads are those with smaller pitch (more threads per axial distance). Coarse threads have a larger threadform relative to screw diameter, where fine threads have a smaller threadform relative to screw diameter. This distinction is analogous to that between coarse teeth and fine teeth on a saw or file, or between coarse grit and fine grit on sandpaper.


title: Screw thread

text: The common V-thread standards (ISO 261 and Unified Thread Standard) include a coarse pitch and a fine pitch for each major diameter. For example, -13 belongs to the UNC series (Unified National Coarse) and -20 belongs to the UNF series (Unified National Fine). Similarly, M10 (10 mm nominal outer diameter) as per ISO 261 has a coarse thread version at 1.5 mm pitch and a fine thread version at 1.25 mm pitch.


title: Screw thread

text: The term "coarse" here does not mean lower quality, nor does the term "fine" imply higher quality. The terms when used in reference to screw thread pitch have nothing to do with the tolerances used (degree of precision) or the amount of craftsmanship, quality, or cost. They simply refer to the size of the threads relative to the screw diameter.


title: Screw thread

text: Coarse threads are more resistant to stripping and cross threading because they have greater flank engagement. Coarse threads install much faster as they require fewer turns per unit length. Finer threads are stronger as they have a larger stress area for the same diameter thread. Fine threads are less likely to vibrate loose as they have a smaller helix angle and allow finer adjustment. Finer threads develop greater preload with less tightening torque.


title: Screw thread

text: There are three characteristic diameters (⌀) of threads: "major diameter", "minor diameter", and "pitch diameter": Industry standards specify minimum (min.) and maximum (max.) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The minimum limits for "external" (or "bolt", in ISO terminology), and the maximum limits for "internal" ("nut"), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip at the tensile strength limits for the parent material. The minimum limits for internal, and maximum limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the threads fit together.


title: Screw thread

text: The major diameter of threads is the larger of two extreme diameters delimiting the height of the thread profile, as a cross-sectional view is taken in a plane containing the axis of the threads. For a screw, this is its outside diameter (OD). The major diameter of a nut may not be directly measured, but it may be tested with go/no-go gauges.


title: Screw thread

text: The major diameter of external threads is normally smaller than the major diameter of the internal threads, if the threads are designed to fit together. But this requirement alone does not guarantee that a bolt and a nut of the same pitch would fit together: the same requirement must separately be made for the minor and pitch diameters of the threads. Besides providing for a clearance between the "crest" of the bolt threads and the "root" of the nut threads, one must also ensure that the clearances are not so excessive as to cause the fasteners to fail.


title: Screw thread

text: The minor diameter is the lower extreme diameter of the thread. Major diameter minus minor diameter, divided by two, equals the height of the thread. The minor diameter of a nut is its inside diameter. The minor diameter of a bolt can be measured with go/no-go gauges or, directly, with an optical comparator.


title: Screw thread

text: As shown in the figure at right, threads of equal pitch and angle that have matching minor diameters, with differing major and pitch diameters, may appear to fit snugly, but only do so radially; threads that have only major diameters matching (not shown) could also be visualized as not allowing radial movement. The reduced "material condition", due to the unused spaces between the threads, must be minimized so as not to overly weaken the fasteners.


title: Screw thread

text: In order to fit a male thread into the corresponding female thread, the female major and minor diameters must be slightly larger than the male major and minor diameters. However this excess does not usually appear in tables of sizes. Calipers measure the female minor diameter (inside diameter, ID), which is less than caliper measurement of the male major diameter (outside diameter, OD). For example, tables of caliper measurements show 0.69 female ID and 0.75 male OD for the standards of "3/4 SAE J512" threads and "3/4-14 UNF JIS SAE-J514 ISO 8434-2". Note the female threads are identified by the corresponding male major diameter (3/4 inch), not by the actual measurement of the female threads.


title: Screw thread

text: The pitch diameter (PD, or "D") of a particular thread, internal or external, is the diameter of a cylindrical surface, axially concentric to the thread, which intersects the thread flanks at equidistant points, when viewed in a cross-sectional plane containing the axis of the thread, the distance between these points being exactly one half the pitch distance. Equivalently, a line running parallel to the axis and a distance "D" away from it, the "PD line," slices the "sharp-V" form of the thread, having flanks coincident with the flanks of the thread under test, at exactly 50% of its height. We have assumed that the flanks have the proper shape, angle, and pitch for the specified thread standard. It is generally unrelated to the major ("D") and minor ("D") diameters, especially if the crest and root truncations of the sharp-V form at these diameters are unknown. Everything else being ideal, "D", "D", & "D", together, would fully describe the thread form. Knowledge of PD determines the position of the sharp-V thread form, the sides of which coincide with the straight sides of the thread flanks: e.g., the crest of the external thread would truncate these sides a radial displacement "D" − "D" away from the position of the PD line.


title: Screw thread

text: Provided that there are moderate non-negative clearances between the root and crest of the opposing threads, and everything else is ideal, if the pitch diameters of a screw and nut are exactly matched, there should be no play at all between the two as assembled, even in the presence of positive root-crest clearances. This is the case when the flanks of the threads come into intimate contact with one another, before the roots and crests do, if at all.


title: Screw thread

text: However, this ideal condition would in practice only be approximated and would generally require wrench-assisted assembly, possibly causing the galling of the threads. For this reason, some "allowance", or minimum difference, between the PDs of the internal and external threads has to generally be provided for, to eliminate the possibility of deviations from the ideal thread form causing "interference" and to expedite hand assembly up to the length of engagement. Such allowances, or "fundamental deviations", as ISO standards call them, are provided for in various degrees in corresponding "classes" of fit for ranges of thread sizes. At one extreme, no allowance is provided by a class, but the maximum PD of the external thread is specified to be the same as the minimum PD of the internal thread, within specified tolerances, ensuring that the two can be assembled, with some looseness of fit still possible due to the margin of tolerance. A class called "interference fit" may even provide for negative allowances, where the PD of the screw is greater than the PD of the nut by at least the amount of the allowance.


title: Screw thread

text: The way in which male and female fit together, including play and friction, is classified (categorized) in thread standards. Achieving a certain class of fit requires the ability to work within tolerance ranges for dimension (size) and surface finish. Defining and achieving classes of fit are important for interchangeability. Classes include 1, 2, 3 (loose to tight); A (external) and B (internal); and various systems such as H and D limits.


title: Screw thread

text: Thread limit or pitch diameter limit is a standard used for classifying the tolerance of the thread pitch diameter for taps. For imperial, H or L limits are used which designate how many units of 0.0005 inch over or undersized the pitch diameter is from its basic value, respectively. Thus a tap designated with an H limit of 3, denoted "H3", would have a pitch diameter 0.0005 × 3 = 0.0015 inch larger than base pitch diameter and would thus result in cutting an internal thread with a looser fit than say an H2 tap. Metric uses D or DU limits which is the same system as imperial, but uses D or DU designators for over and undersized respectively, and goes by units of .


title: Screw thread

text: The pitch diameter of a thread is measured where the radial cross section of a single thread equals half the pitch, for example: 16 pitch thread = in = 0.0625in the pitch actual pitch diameter of the thread is measured at the radial cross section measures 0.03125in.


title: Screw thread

text: To achieve a predictably successful mating of male and female threads and assured interchangeability between males and between females, standards for form, size, and finish must exist and be followed. Standardization of threads is discussed below.


title: Screw thread

text: Screw threads are almost never made perfectly sharp (no truncation at the crest or root), but instead are truncated, yielding a final "thread depth" that can be expressed as a fraction of the pitch value. The UTS and ISO standards codify the amount of truncation, including tolerance ranges.


title: Screw thread

text: A perfectly sharp 60° V-thread will have a depth of thread ("height" from root to crest) equal to 0.866 of the pitch. This fact is intrinsic to the geometry of an equilateral triangle — a direct result of the basic trigonometric functions. It is independent of measurement units (inch vs mm). However, UTS and ISO threads are not sharp threads. The major and minor diameters delimit truncations on either side of the sharp V.


title: Screw thread

text: The nominal diameter of Metric (e.g. M8) and Unified (e.g.  in) threads is the theoretical major diameter of the male thread, which is truncated (diametrically) by of the pitch from the dimension over the tips of the "fundamental" (sharp cornered) triangles. The resulting flats on the crests of the male thread are theoretically one eighth of the pitch wide (expressed with the notation "p" or 0.125"p"), although the actual geometry definition has more variables than that. A full (100%) UTS or ISO thread has a height of around 0.65"p".


title: Screw thread

text: Threads can be (and often are) truncated a bit more, yielding thread depths of 60% to 75% of the 0.65"p" value. For example, a 75% thread sacrifices only a small amount of strength in exchange for a significant reduction in the force required to cut the thread. The result is that tap and die wear is reduced, the likelihood of breakage is lessened and higher cutting speeds can often be employed.


title: Screw thread

text: This additional truncation is achieved by using a slightly larger tap drill in the case of female threads, or by slightly reducing the diameter of the threaded area of workpiece in the case of male threads, the latter effectively reducing the thread's major diameter. In the case of female threads, tap drill charts typically specify sizes that will produce an approximate 75% thread. A 60% thread may be appropriate in cases where high tensile loading will not be expected. In both cases, the pitch diameter is not affected. The balancing of truncation versus thread strength is similar to many engineering decisions involving the strength, weight and cost of material, as well as the cost to machine it.


title: Screw thread

text: Tapered threads are used on fasteners and pipe. A common example of a fastener with a tapered thread is a wood screw.


title: Screw thread

text: The threaded pipes used in some plumbing installations for the delivery of fluids under pressure have a threaded section that is slightly conical. Examples are the NPT and BSP series. The seal provided by a threaded pipe joint is created when a tapered externally threaded end is tightened into an end with internal threads. For most pipe joints, a good seal requires the application of a separate sealant into the joint, such as thread seal tape, or a liquid or paste pipe sealant such as pipe dope.


title: Screw thread

text: The screw thread concept seems to have occurred first to Archimedes, who briefly wrote on spirals as well as designed several simple devices applying the screw principle. Leonardo da Vinci understood the screw principle, and left drawings showing how threads could be cut by machine. In the 1500s, screws appeared in German watches, and were used to fasten suits of armor. In 1569 Besson invented the screw-cutting lathe, but the method did not gain traction and screws continued to be made largely by hand for another 150 years. In the 1800s, screw manufacturing began in England during the Industrial Revolution. In these times, there was no such thing as standardization. The bolts made by one manufacturer would not fit the nuts of another.


title: Screw thread

text: Standardization of screw threads has evolved since the early nineteenth century to facilitate compatibility between different manufacturers and users. The standardization process is still ongoing; in particular there are still (otherwise identical) competing metric and inch-sized thread standards widely used. Standard threads are commonly identified by short letter codes (M, UNC, etc.) which also form the prefix of the standardized designations of individual threads.


title: Screw thread

text: Additional product standards identify preferred thread sizes for screws and nuts, as well as corresponding bolt head and nut sizes, to facilitate compatibility between spanners (wrenches) and other tools.


title: Screw thread

text: The most common threads in use are the ISO metric screw threads (M) for most purposes, and BSP threads (R, G) for pipes.


title: Screw thread

text: These were standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1947. Although metric threads were mostly unified in 1898 by the International Congress for the standardization of screw threads, separate metric thread standards were used in France, Germany, and Japan, and the Swiss had a set of threads for watches.


title: Screw thread

text: In particular applications and certain regions, threads other than the ISO metric screw threads remain commonly used, sometimes because of special application requirements, but mostly for reasons of backward compatibility:


title: Screw thread

text: The first historically important intra-company standardization of screw threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity. During the next 40 years, standardization continued to occur on the intra- and inter-company levels. No doubt many mechanics of the era participated in this zeitgeist; Joseph Clement was one of those whom history has noted.


title: Screw thread

text: In 1841, Joseph Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British railway companies, became a standard for the United Kingdom and British Empire called British Standard Whitworth. During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards. In April 1864, William Sellers presented a paper to the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, proposing a new standard to replace the US' poorly standardized screw thread practice. Sellers simplified the Whitworth design by adopting a thread profile of 60° and a flattened tip (in contrast to Whitworth's 55° angle and rounded tip). The 60° angle was already in common use in America, but Sellers's system promised to make it and all other details of threadform consistent.


title: Screw thread

text: The Sellers thread, easier for ordinary machinists to produce, became an important standard in the U.S. during the late 1860s and early 1870s, when it was chosen as a standard for work done under U.S. government contracts, and it was also adopted as a standard by highly influential railroad industry corporations such as the Baldwin Locomotive Works and the Pennsylvania Railroad. Other firms adopted it, and it soon became a national standard for the U.S., later becoming generally known as the United States Standard thread (USS thread). Over the next 30 years the standard was further defined and extended and evolved into a set of standards including "National Coarse (NC), National Fine (NF)," and "National Pipe Taper (NPT)."


title: Screw thread

text: Meanwhile, in Britain, the British Association screw threads were also developed and refined for small instrumentation and electrical equipment. These were based on the metric Thury thread, but like Whitworth etc. were defined using Imperial units.


title: Screw thread

text: During this era, in continental Europe, the British and American threadforms were well known, but also various metric thread standards were evolving, which usually employed 60° profiles. Some of these evolved into national or quasi-national standards. They were mostly unified in 1898 by the International Congress for the standardization of screw threads at Zurich, which defined the new international metric thread standards as having the same profile as the Sellers thread, but with metric sizes. Efforts were made in the early 20th century to convince the governments of the U.S., UK, and Canada to adopt these international thread standards and the metric system in general, but they were defeated with arguments that the capital cost of the necessary retooling would drive some firms from profit to loss and hamper the economy. (The mixed use of dueling inch and metric standards has since cost much, much more, but the bearing of these costs has been more distributed across national and global economies rather than being borne up front by particular governments or corporations, which helps explain the lobbying efforts.)


title: Screw thread

text: Sometime between 1912 and 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) created an "SAE series" of screw thread sizes reflecting parentage from earlier USS and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standards.


title: Screw thread

text: During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, engineers found that ensuring the reliable interchangeability of screw threads was a multi-faceted and challenging task that was not as simple as just standardizing the major diameter and pitch for a certain thread. It was during this era that more complicated analyses made clear the importance of variables such as pitch diameter and surface finish.


title: Screw thread

text: A tremendous amount of engineering work was done throughout World War I and the following interwar period in pursuit of reliable interchangeability. Classes of fit were standardized, and new ways of generating and inspecting screw threads were developed (such as and optical comparators). Therefore, in theory, one might expect that by the start of World War II, the problem of screw thread interchangeability would have already been completely solved. Unfortunately, this proved to be false. Intranational interchangeability was widespread, but international interchangeability was less so. Problems with lack of interchangeability among American, Canadian, and British parts during World War II led to an effort to unify the inch-based standards among these closely allied nations, and the Unified Thread Standard was adopted by the Screw Thread Standardization Committees of Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States on November 18, 1949, in Washington, D.C., with the hope that they would be adopted universally. (The original UTS standard may be found in ASA (now ANSI) publication, Vol. 1, 1949.) UTS consists of Unified Coarse (UNC), Unified Fine (UNF), Unified Extra Fine (UNEF) and Unified Special (UNS). The standard was widely taken up in the UK, although a small number of companies continued to use the UK's own British standards for Whitworth (BSW), British Standard Fine (BSF) and British Association (BA) microscrews.


title: Screw thread

text: However, internationally, the metric system was eclipsing inch-based measurement units. In 1947, the ISO was founded; and in 1960, the metric-based International System of Units (abbreviated "SI" from the French "Système International") was created. With continental Europe and much of the rest of the world turning to SI and ISO metric screw thread, the UK gradually leaned in the same direction. The ISO metric screw thread is now the standard that has been adopted worldwide and is slowly displacing all former standards, including UTS. In the U.S., where UTS is still prevalent, over 40% of products contain at least some ISO metric screw threads. The UK has completely abandoned its commitment to UTS in favour of ISO metric threads, and Canada is in between. Globalization of industries produces market pressure in favor of phasing out minority standards. A good example is the automotive industry; U.S. auto parts factories long ago developed the ability to conform to the ISO standards, and today very few parts for new cars retain inch-based sizes, regardless of being made in the U.S.


title: Screw thread

text: Even today, over a half century since the UTS superseded the USS and SAE series, companies still sell hardware with designations such as "USS" and "SAE" to convey that it is of inch sizes as opposed to metric. Most of this hardware is in fact made to the UTS, but the labeling and cataloging terminology is not always precise.


title: Screw thread

text: In American engineering drawings, ANSI Y14.6 defines standards for indicating threaded parts. Parts are indicated by their nominal diameter (the nominal major diameter of the screw threads), pitch (number of threads per inch), and the class of fit for the thread. For example, “.750-10 UNC-2A” is male (A) with a nominal major diameter of 0.750 inches, 10 threads per inch, and a class-2 fit; “.500-20 UNF-1B” would be female (B) with a 0.500-inch nominal major diameter, 20 threads per inch, and a class-1 fit. An arrow points from this designation to the surface in question.


title: Screw thread

text: There are many ways to generate a screw thread, including the traditional subtractive types (for example, various kinds of cutting [single-pointing, taps and dies, die heads, milling]; molding; casting [die casting, sand casting]; forming and rolling; grinding; and occasionally lapping to follow the other processes); newer additive techniques; and combinations thereof.


title: Screw thread

text: Another common inspection point is the straightness of a bolt or screw. This topic comes up often when there are assembly issues with predrilled holes as the first troubleshooting point is to determine if the fastener or the hole is at fault. ASME B18.2.9 "Straightness Gage and Gaging for Bolts and Screws" was developed to address this issue. Per the scope of the standard, it describes the gage and procedure for checking bolt and screw straightness at maximum material condition (MMC) and provides default limits when not stated in the applicable product standard.


title: Surgical mask

text: A surgical mask, also known by other names such as a medical face mask or procedure mask, is a personal protective equipment used by healthcare professionals that serves as a mechanical barrier that interferes with direct airflow in and out of respiratory orifices (i.e. nose and mouth). This helps reduce airborne transmission of pathogens and other aerosolized contaminants between the wearer and nearby people via respiratory droplets ejected when sneezing, coughing, forceful expiration or unintentionally spitting when talking, etc. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental or medical procedure masks.


title: Surgical mask

text: Although the material of which surgical masks are made will filter out some viruses and bacteria by trapping the aerosol suspended in breathed air, they only provide partial protection from airborne diseases because of the typically loose fit between the mask edges and the wearer's face. Surgical masks are distinct from filtering respirators, such as those made to the American N95 standard, which are more airtight and purposefully designed to protect against finer airborne particles.


title: Surgical mask

text: Evidence from randomized controlled trials that surgical masks reduce infection from diseases such as influenza is weak. Although a recent very large (over 300,000 people) study found some evidence that they reduced transmission in the community, surgical masks can vary greatly in quality which may make these studies less useful. The effect of surgical masks is partially attributed to filtering out some of aerosol particles that are how airborne diseases are transmitted. Surgical masks are highly variable but the material of which they are made typically filter out more aerosol particles than do cloth masks but much less than does the material of which N95, FFP2 and similar masks, are made. This combined with the poor fit suggests that surgical masks offer some protection to airborne diseases such as COVID-19 but less than do N95, FFP2 and similar masks.


title: Surgical mask

text: There are standards for the materials masks are made from. For example, the European EN 14683 Type II standard requires the material of the mask to filter particles (mean diameter close to 3 micrometres) containing the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. The bacterial filtration efficiency of the mask material is the fractional reduction in the number of colony-forming units (CFUs) when the aerosol is passed through the material. For a Type II mask under this standard, the material must filter enough of the aerosol particles containing the bacteria to achieve a CFU reduction of at least 98%.


title: Surgical mask

text: ASTM International has an F2100 standard with similar bacterial filtering standard to the European Type II standard but in addition uses a test aerosol of 0.1 micrometre particles. The Level 3 standard F2100 standard requires that these particles must be filtered out with at least 98% efficiency. Neither the European nor the ASTM standard tests performance as worn, they just test the material — the difference being the air leakage. This is different to personal protection equipment standards such as N95 and FFP, which do test performance as worn.


title: Surgical mask

text: Surgical masks are made of a nonwoven fabric created using a melt blowing process. They came into use in the 1960s and largely replaced cloth facemasks in developed countries. The colored (usually dark blue, green, or occasionally yellow) side of the mask (fluid-repellant layer) is to be worn outwards, and the white side (absorbent layer) inwards.


title: Surgical mask

text: In some East Asian countries, masks have often customarily been worn by people who are sick in order to avoid spreading it, to protect against air pollution or allergens, as a fashion statement, or to deter social interaction. The use of surgical masks during the COVID-19 pandemic was a subject of debate, as mask shortage was a central issue.


title: Surgical mask

text: A surgical mask serves as a mechanical barrier that interferes with direct airflow in and out of respiratory orifices (i.e. nose and mouth). Most commonly used surgical masks are designed to only trap respiratory droplets, and therefore do not filter or block fine airborne particles that are smaller than the designed filtration ratings, which may be transmitted by coughs, sneezes, unintentional spitting during talking, or certain aerosol-generating medical procedures (e.g. bronchoscopy, laryngoscopy or dental procedures). Surgical masks also cannot provide complete protection from germs and other contaminants because of the often loose fit between the mask edges and the wearer's face, especially when the mask is worn outright incorrectly (e.g. low with the nose and/or mouth exposed).


title: Surgical mask

text: A surgical mask is a disposable device that creates a physical barrier between the respiratory tract openings (nose and mouth) of the wearer and potentially pathogenic contaminants in the immediate environment. If worn properly, surgical masks are meant to help block out most (if not all) large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping them from entering the wearer's nose and mouth., and conversely are also effective barriers for retaining large droplets released from the wearer's the mouth and nose. Surgical masks help reduce exposure of the wearer's saliva and respiratory secretions to others that could otherwise travel up to . Surgical mask also remind wearers not to touch their mouth or nose, which could otherwise transfer viruses and bacteria after having touched a contaminated surface.


title: Surgical mask

text: A surgical mask is not to be confused with a respirator (which is specifically rated for sub-micron particles) and is not certified as such. Surgical masks are not designed to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne bacteria or virus particles and are less effective than respirators, which are designed for this purpose. Collection efficiency of surgical mask filters can range from less than 10% to nearly 90% for different manufacturers’ masks when measured using the test parameters for NIOSH certification. However, a study found that even for surgical masks with "good" filters, 80–100% of subjects failed an OSHA-accepted qualitative fit test, and a quantitative test showed 12–25% leakage.


title: Surgical mask

text: Modern surgical masks are made from paper or other non-woven material and should be discarded after each use.


title: Surgical mask

text: The design of the surgical masks depends on the intended usages. Usually, the masks are rectangular-shaped with pleats to allow the wearer to expand and curve the mask so it can better cover all the area from the nose to around the chin. The outward-facing side of the mask are typically colored (usually blue, green or yellow) and made thicker, tougher and water-impermeable. The inner layers of the mask are made of three-ply (three layers) melt-blown polymer (most commonly polypropylene) placed between non-woven fabric. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from penetrating and exiting the mask. Some masks have an attached thin polyethylene faceshield (known as "splash shield") to provide additional spray protection over the eye area.


title: Surgical mask

text: A different type of masks, known as "duckbill" masks, uses a trapezoid pouch-like design that has significantly shortened side edges — sometimes none at all — to minimize loose gaps that pathogens can leak past. These masks are typically made to the N95/P2 standards, and are commonly used for clinical situations that demand fine particulates protection, such as tuberculosis.


title: Surgical mask

text: Small strips of foam or thickened fabric are often sewn along the top edge of the mask to help better seal away exhaled water vapors (which can fog up eyewears and faceshields) and soak up excess perspiration dripping from above. Small bendable metal strips are frequently added to the top edge to better fit over the nasal bridge. Occasionally adhesive tapes can also be added to secure the seal and prevent the mask from slipping up and down.


title: Surgical mask

text: The masks are typically fastened to the head with straps or elastic bands that are attached to the mask's four corners. Straps come in four free-hanging ribbons that are manually tied in two pairs horizontally around the back of the head, and are most frequently used in surgical operations due to the ability to customize the strap length and tension comfortably to the wearer's face shape and head movements. Elastic bands come in a pair of loops that can either be horizontally or vertically attached. Horizontal loops go around the head like tied straps, designed to exert tension on the top and bottom edges of the mask for firmer contact seal, and are usually seen on duckbill masks; while vertical loops hook around the ears with less tension (due to the weaker rigidity of the elastocartilaginous auricles compared to the bony skull) and thus less firmly secured to the face, but are more popular in non-procedural usages due to the ease of putting on and taking off.


title: Surgical mask

text: Filter material in the middle layer may be made of microfibers with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are electrets. An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture). While there is some development work on making electret filtering materials that can stand being washed and reused, current commercially produced electret filters are ruined by many forms of disinfection, including washing with soap and water or alcohol, which destroys the electric charge. During the COVID-19 pandemic, public health authorities issued guidelines on how to save, disinfect and reuse electret-filter masks without damaging the filtration efficiency. Standard disposible surgical masks are not designed to be washed.


title: Surgical mask

text: Performance of surgical masks is evaluated based on such parameters as filtration (mask capture of exhaled aerosols), exposure (transfer of aerosols from outside), mask airflow resistance (pressure difference during breathing, ΔP, also known as breathability), liquid penetration resistance, air and water vapor permeability, water repellency (for outer and inner surfaces).


title: Surgical mask

text: Filtration and exposure is typically measured in bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) using particles of size 3.0 μm. Particulate filtration efficiency (PFE) using particles of size 0.3 μm is only measured in China.


title: Surgical mask

text: Face masks for use in surgery were developed in Europe by several physicians, including Jan Mikulicz-Radecki at the University of Breslau and Paul Berger in Paris, in the late nineteenth century, as a result of increasing awareness of germ theory and the importance of antiseptic procedures in medicine. In response to a pneumonic plague in Manchuria and Mongolia in 1910, Chinese-Malaysian epidemiologist Dr. Wu Lien-teh greatly improved on the designs he had seen in Europe to develop a face mask of layers of gauze and cotton that would protect both the wearer and others.


title: Surgical mask

text: Modern surgical masks began to be used in the 1960s. Their adoption caused cloth facemasks, which had been used since the late 19th century, to completely fall out of use in the developed world. However, cloth masks and surgical masks both continued to be used in developing countries.


title: Surgical mask

text: As the pandemic raged on, healthcare workers were required to continue wearing surgical masks for 12 or more hours a day. This caused the ear loops of the masks to chafe the back of their ears. Ear savers, plastic straps and hooks that go around wearer's heads, were invented to move the ear loops away from the wearer's ears. They could be made on demand by using 3D printing process.


title: Surgical mask

text: A surgical mask is intended to be worn by health professionals during surgery and certain health care procedures to catch microorganisms shed in liquid droplets and aerosols from the wearer's mouth and nose. Evidence supports the effectiveness of surgical masks in reducing the risk of infection among other healthcare workers and in the community. However, a Cochrane review found that there is no clear evidence that disposable face masks worn by members of the surgical team would reduce the risk of wound infections after clean surgical procedures.


title: Surgical mask

text: Healthcare workers are trained in how to put on, handle, remove, and dispose of surgical masks. For healthcare workers, safety guidelines recommend the wearing of a face-fit tested N95 or FFP3 respirator mask instead of a surgical mask in the vicinity of pandemic-flu patients, to reduce the exposure of the wearer to potentially infectious aerosols and airborne liquid droplets.


title: Surgical mask

text: In community and home settings, the use of facemasks and respirators generally are not recommended, with other measures preferred such as avoiding close contact, maintaining good hand hygiene, and wearing cloth face coverings.


title: Surgical mask

text: In Japan and Taiwan, surgical masks have commonly been worn in winter months during the flu season by those who have respiratory illnesses as a courtesy intended to prevent viral transmission. Surgical masks provide some protection against the spread of diseases, and improvised masks provide about half as much protection. People in Japan as well as Korea and China may also wear masks in any season because of air pollution or allergies. Some younger Japanese people wear masks and audio headsets to signal a desire to avoid interaction. It has been suggested that mask-wearing as a custom appeared in East Asia rather than other parts of the world also facing pollution and disease due to the historical influence of Traditional Chinese Medicine and its ideas about air and wind.


title: Surgical mask

text: More recently, due to the rising issue of smog in South and Southeast Asia, surgical masks and air filtering face masks are now frequently used in major cities in India, Nepal and Thailand when air quality deteriorates to toxic levels. Additionally, face masks are used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore during the Southeast Asian haze season. Air filtering surgical-style masks are quite popular across Asia and as a result, many companies have released masks that not only prevent the breathing in of airborne dust particles but are also fashionable. In Japan, some use masks as fashion statements, at times as a result of influence from K-pop stars.


title: Surgical mask

text: Surgical masks may also be worn to conceal identity. In the United States banks, convenience stores, etc. have banned their use as a result of criminals repeatedly doing so, but allowed facemasks due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, some protestors wore surgical masks amongst other types of mask to avoid recognition, and the government tried to ban such use.


title: Surgical mask

text: Researchers are developing face-masks which may help reduce viral spread better than existing ones and/or have possibly useful properties such as biodegradability or better breathability. Some are exploring whether attachments could be added to existing face-masks to make them more effective such as due to virus-deactivating fabrics or impregnations.<ref name="10.1038/s41598-021-98577-6"></ref> The COVID-19 pandemic increased efforts to develop such masks.


title: Surgical mask

text: There also is an experimental face mask with an embedded biosensor that can detect a pathogenic signature (such as one of SARS-CoV-2) and face masks that glow under ultraviolet light if they contain SARS-CoV-2 when the filter is taken out and sprayed with a fluorescent dye that contains antibodies from ostrich eggs.


title: Surgical mask

text: Other research investigated environmental pollution associated with face mask waste management and weak spots of masks with product designs of the widely applied FFP standards, in particular variants with exhalation valves.


title: Surgical mask

text: In the United States, surgical masks are cleared for marketing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In the European Economic Area (EEA), surgical masks have to be certified through the CE marking process in order to be commercialized. CE marking of surgical masks involves the respect of many obligations indicated in the Medical Device Regulation (Council Regulation 2017/745 of 5 April 2017 concerning medical devices, OJ No L 117/1 of 2017-05-05).


title: Surgical mask

text: Surgical masks for use in the US and the EEA conform to ASTM F2100 and EN 14683 respectively. In both standards, a mask must have a Bacterial Filtration Efficiency (BFE) of more than 95%, for an aerosol of particles of size approximately 3.0 μm.


title: Surgical mask

text: In China, two types of masks are common: surgical masks that conform to YY 0469 standard (BFE ≥ 95%, PFE ≥ 30%, splash resistance) and single-use medical masks that conform to YY/T 0969 standard (BFE ≥ 95%). Daily protective masks conforming to GB/T 32610 standard is yet another type of masks that can have similar appearance to surgical masks.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: Dorothy Walker Bush Koch (born August 18, 1959) is an American author and philanthropist. She is the sixth child of the late 41st president of the United States, George H. W. Bush, and former First Lady Barbara Bush.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: Dorothy Walker Bush was born on August 18, 1959, in Harris County, Texas. Her father, George H. W. Bush, was the 41st President of the United States, and her mother, Barbara Bush, was the First Lady. She was named after her paternal grandmother, Dorothy Walker Bush. Her brother, George W. Bush, was the 43rd President of the United States. Her other four siblings are Pauline Robinson "Robin" Bush, who died of leukemia in 1953; former Florida governor Jeb Bush; Neil Bush; and Marvin Bush. Since she was a child, she has spent summers and holidays at the Bush compound, a seacoast estate in Kennebunkport, Maine.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: Bush was educated at Miss Porter's School, a private all-girl college-preparatory school in Farmington, Connecticut.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: In 1975, during a visit to Beijing, she became the first person to be publicly baptized in the People's Republic of China since its government began discouraging foreign religious practices in 1949.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: Bush is an event organizer and fundraiser for charities and other nonprofit organizations. She co-chairs the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy along with her brother Jeb. She also served as a pioneer fundraiser for her brother's presidential campaigns.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: She is the author of the book "My Father, My President: A Personal Account of the Life of George H. W. Bush" (2006).


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: She sponsored the commission of , a United States Navy aircraft carrier named after her father, who in World War II was a naval aviator serving on an aircraft carrier. On January 10, 2009, she gave the first orders to the ship's company at Norfolk, Virginia.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: In 1982, Bush married William Heekin LeBlond (b. January 11, 1957). They had two children, Samuel Bush "Sam" LeBlond (b. 1985) and Nancy Ellis "Ellie" LeBlond (b. 1988). They divorced in 1990.


title: Dorothy Bush Koch

text: In June 1992, she married Robert P. "Bobby" Koch (b. 1960), today a Washington, D.C. lobbyist on behalf of the wine industry. The wedding took place at Camp David. They have two children, Robert David (b. 1993) and Georgia "Gigi" Grace (b. 1996). Robert P. Koch was an aide to House Democratic leader Richard Gephardt, and is president of the California-based Wine Institute. He has a substantial equity interest in Central European Distribution Corp., a company that manufactures and distributes vodka in Poland.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The Indian Forest Service (IFS) is one of the three All India Services of the Government of India. The other two All India Services being the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian Police Service. It was constituted in the year 1966 under the All India Services Act, 1951, by the Government of India.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The service implements the National Forest Policy in order to ensure the ecological stability of the country through the protection and participatory sustainable management of natural resources. The members of the service also manage the National Parks, Tiger Reserve, Wildlife Sanctuaries and other Protected Areas of the country. A Forest Service officer is wholly independent of the district administration and exercises administrative, judicial and financial powers in their own domain. Positions in state forest department, such as District/Divisional Forest Officer (DFO), Conservator of Forests, Chief Conservator of Forests and Principal Chief Conservator of Forests etc., are held, at times, by Indian Forest Service officers. The highest-ranking Forest Service official in each state is the Head of Forest Forces.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Earlier, the British Government in India had constituted the Imperial Forest Service in 1867 which functioned under the Federal Government until the Government of India Act 1935 was passed and responsibility was transferred to the provinces.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Administration of the Service is the responsibility of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: In 1864, the British Raj established the Imperial Forest Department; Dietrich Brandis, a German forest officer, was appointed Inspector General of Forests. The Imperial Forestry Service was organised subordinate to the Imperial Forest Department in 1867.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Officers appointed from 1867 to 1885 were trained in Germany and France, and from 1885 to 1905 at Cooper's Hill, London, also known as Royal Indian Engineering College. From 1905 to 1926, the University of Oxford (Sir William Schlich), University of Cambridge, and University of Edinburgh trained Imperial Forestry Service officers.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The modern Indian Forest Service was established in 1966, after independence, under the All India Services Act 1951. The first Inspector General of Forests, Hari Singh, was instrumental in the development of the Forest Service.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: India has an area of 635,400 km designated as forests, about 19.32% of the country. India's forest policy was created in 1894 and revised in 1952 and again in the year 1988.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Officers are recruited through an open competitive examination conducted by the UPSC and then trained for about two years by the Central Government at Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy. Their services are placed under various State cadres and joint cadres, being an All India Service they have the mandate to serve both under the State and Central Governments.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: They are eligible for State and Central deputations as their counterpart IAS and IPS officers. Deputation of Forest Service officers to the Central Government includes appointments in Central Ministries at the position of Deputy Secretary, Director, Joint Secretary and Additional Secretary etc.; appointments in various Public Sector Units, Institutes and Academies at the position of Chief Vigilance Officer, Regional passport officers, Managing Directors, Inspector General, Director General etc.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Forest Service officers are recruited via an open competitive examination conducted by the UPSC and then trained for about two years by the Central Government at Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy. Their services are placed under various State cadres and joint cadres, even though they have the mandate to serve both under the State and Central Governments.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: On acceptance to the Forest Service, new entrants undergo a probationary period (and are referred to as Officer Trainees). Training begins at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie, where members of many civil services are trained for the period of 15 weeks.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: On completion of which they go to the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy at Dehradun, for a more intensive training in a host of subjects important to Forestry, Wildlife Management, Biodiversity, Environment Protection, Climate Change, Forest Policies and Laws, Remote Sensing and GIS, Forest Dwellers and Scheduled Tribes. After completion of their training, the officers are awarded a master's degree in Science (Forestry) of Forest Research Institute. The officers are taught more than 56 subjects of life sciences in these two years.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: They are also taught Weapon handling, Horse riding, Motor Vehicle Training, Swimming, Forest and Wildlife Crime Detection. They also go on attachments with different government bodies and institutes such as Indian Military Academy, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy, Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History Society etc. They also undertake extensive tours both in India and a short tour abroad.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: After completing training at the academy, candidates go through a year of on-the-job field training in the state to which he or she is assigned, during which they are posted as Assistant Conservators of Forests/ Assistant Deputy Conservators of Forest or Deputy Conservator of Forests.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The Union Government announced a new cadre allocation policy for the All India Services in August 2017.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Under the new policy, a candidate has to rank the five zones in order of preference. Subsequently, the candidate has to indicate one preference of cadre from each preferred zone. The candidate indicates their second cadre preference for every preferred zone subsequently. The process continues till a preference for all the cadres is indicated by the candidate.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: Till 2008 there was no system of preference of state cadre by the candidates; the candidates, if not placed in the insider vacancy of their home states, were allotted to different states in alphabetic order of the roster, beginning with the letters A, H, M, T for that particular year. For example, if in a particular year the roster begins from 'A', which means the first candidate on the roster will go to the Andhra Pradesh state cadre of the Forest Service, the next one to Bihar, and subsequently to Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, and so on in alphabetical order. The next year the roster starts from 'H', for either Haryana or Himachal Pradesh (if it has started from Haryana on the previous occasion when it all started from 'H', then this time it would start from Himachal Pradesh). This highly intricate system, in vogue since the mid-1980s, had ensured that officers from different states are placed all over India.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The system of permanent State cadres has also resulted in wide disparities in the kind of professional exposure for officers, when we compare officers in small and big and also developed and backward states. Changes of state cadre was permitted on grounds of marriage to an All India Service officer of another state cadre or under other exceptional circumstances. The officer may go to their home state cadre on deputation for a limited period, after which one has to invariably return to the cadre allotted to him or her.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: From 2008 to 2017 Forest Service officers were allotted to State cadres at the beginning of their service. There was one cadre for each Indian state, except for two joint cadres: Assam–Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh–Goa–Mizoram–Union Territories (AGMUT). The "insider-outsider ratio" (ratio of officers who were posted in their home states) is maintained as 1:2, with one-third of the direct recruits as 'insiders' from the same state. The rest were posted as outsiders according to the 'roster' in states other than their home states, as per their preference.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Hindi: प्रधान मुख्य वन संरक्षक) is the highest-ranking officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service who is responsible for managing the Forests, Environment and Wild-Life related issues of a state of India.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: At times the states may have more than one post of PCCF and in that case, one of them is designated as the Head of Forest Force (HOFF). HOFF/PCCF is supported by APCCFs, Chief Conservator of Forests, Conservator of Forests, and field level functionaries, such as DFOs and Range Forest officers in their work.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: As per media reports, some Forest Service officers have been found corrupt and have been arrested by Central Bureau of Investigation for bribing and corruption. In 2015, Tehelka reported that more than 30 names of Forest Service officers who might have been awarded dubious or suspect Ph.D. degrees.


title: Indian Forest Service

text: The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes has proposed the idea of renaming the Indian Forest Service as the ‘Indian Forest and Tribal Service’.


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier () is a brand of cognac, with production based in the town of Jarnac in the Charente region of France. It is the youngest and smallest of the "big four" cognac houses (the others are Hennessy, Rémy Martin, and Martell).


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier has also been described as the most untypical of the big four. It controls every step of its production process but does no distilling of its own, changes the process for different vintages and regional variations in "eaux-de-vie", and has never owned vines. In 2019, it exported approximately 1.4 million nine-litre cases of its cognacs.


title: Courvoisier

text: in 1835, Frenchman Emmanuel Courvoisier started a wine and spirit company in the Parisian suburb of Bercy with Louis Gallois, then the mayor of Bercy. Originally, the pair would act as traders for the best cognacs of the region. Eventually they decided that the only way they could guarantee the very finest cognac was relocate to the region and become producers themselves. The 200-year-old crafting process has not changed since Courvoisier's establishment in Bercy.


title: Courvoisier

text: Napoleon Bonaparte visited Bercy in 1811 as documented in a historic painting by Etienne Bouhot, and later was credited with saying he wanted his artillery companies to have a ration of cognac during the Napoleonic Wars. Legend has it that Napoleon I later took several barrels of cognac with him to St Helena, a treat much appreciated by the English officers on the ship, who named it "the Cognac of Napoleon". In 1869, Napoleon Bonaparte's heir Napoleon III personally requested Courvoisier and bestowed the honourable title of "Official Supplier to the Imperial Court" which is still displayed at the Courvoisier museum in Jarnac.


title: Courvoisier

text: In 1828, Felix Courvoisier and Jules Gallois, the sons of Emmanuel and Louis, wanted to improve the quality of cognac, moving the company to the heart of the Cognac region in the town of Jarnac. After Felix's passing in 1866, his nephews, the Curlier brothers, took over the management of the business. By 1909, the business was sold to the Simon family from England, but still maintained its production and headquarters in the Jarnac region.


title: Courvoisier

text: Located ten minutes from the town of Cognac, the main Courvoisier business operations still operate from the Château on the banks of the Charente river which was established in the 1870s. Courvoisier sources eaux-de-vie from the following crus to create its blends: Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies and Fin Bois. The harvest season begins in October, followed up by distillation from November to March. Courvoisier cognac is aged in barrels handmade from 200-year-old oak sourced from the Tronçais forest in France.


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier headquarters are still stationed in Jarnac, about ten minutes from the Cognac region. Courvoisier is run from the original Château Felix Courvoisier and Jules Gallois moved to in 1828. Today, the Courvoisier Château has a boutique and museum, offering private tastings and exclusive tours. The museum features several items linked to Napoleon I.


title: Courvoisier

text: In the 1990s radio personality Leon Phelps served as brand ambassador and introduced this brand to a new generation of the ladies and Da Buttè.


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier launched the Josephine bottle in 1951, named after Napoleon's first wife. The shape of the bottle, with a thin neck and wide base, has become synonymous with Courvoisier, and speculation still exists whether the shape is meant to mimic Josephine's love of corsets or an inverted replica of early brandy glasses.


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier was the first cognac brand to appear on TV with an advertisement on UK television broadcast to nine million viewers. In 2009, Courvoisier was the first alcohol brand to release a 3D advertisement, titled "Cognac With Another Dimension", on TV and in cinemas, ahead of the viewing of the biggest-grossing film of all time, "Avatar". A special iPod app was created to teach consumers how to use Courvoisier as an ingredient in cocktails as part of the "Mixability" promotion.


title: Courvoisier

text: In 2009 Courvoisier created an "Architectural Punchbowl" in conjunction with Bompas & Parr. It was intended as immersive brand experience, featuring cocktails served from a structure filled with 4,000 litres of a punch containing Courvoisier. The event was a homage to Admiral Edward Russell, who in 1694 created a large punchbowl that had to be served by a boy rowing across it.


title: Courvoisier

text: Le Nez de Courvoisier, one of the first examples of sensory marketing, recognised the dominant aromas in each of the Courvoisier cognacs and used them to deliver food pairing initiatives in partnership with leading chefs and music.


title: Courvoisier

text: In 1988, famed Art Deco designer Erté was commissioned to create limited edition Courvoisier bottles containing Grande Champagne cognac dating back to the year of his birth, 1892. The seven unique designs represented various stages of the cognac distillation process interpreted by Erté's unique designs.


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier's next fashion partnership was in 2005 with English designer Vivienne Westwood. Sold exclusively at Harvey Nichols, The Courvoisier XO dressed by Vivienne Westwood only released 150 limited edition bottles.


title: Courvoisier

text: The oldest bottle of Courvoisier, with liquid dating back to 1789, was unveiled at Harrod's for the Alchimie L'Atelier event. Discovered in Dutch collector Bay van der Bunt's vault, the bottle went on sale for €90,000.


title: Courvoisier

text: Courvoisier was granted the 'Prestige de la France' in 1984 for providing quality products in France and remains the only cognac house to have received the award. Liquor ratings aggregator Proof66 lists the Courvoisier 21 among the Top 20 rated brandies/cognacs in the world.


title: Because the Internet

text: Because the Internet is the second studio album by American recording artist Donald Glover, under the stage name Childish Gambino. It was released on December 10, 2013, by Glassnote Records. The recording process began in 2012 and ended in October 2013. Recording primarily took place at a mansion owned by basketball player Chris Bosh, which Gambino rented. The album features guest appearances from Chance the Rapper, Jhené Aiko, and Azealia Banks, with production primarily handled by Gambino himself, Stefan Ponce, and Ludwig Göransson, among others.


title: Because the Internet

text: "Because the Internet" was supported by four singles: "3005", "Crawl", "Sweatpants", and "Telegraph Ave.". Gambino also released a short film titled "Clapping for the Wrong Reasons" and a 72-page screenplay to go along with the album in promotion of it.


title: Because the Internet

text: "Because the Internet" received generally positive reviews from critics. It also performed well commercially, debuting at number seven on the US "Billboard" 200 and number 12 on the Canadian Albums Chart. The album received a Grammy nomination for Best Rap Album. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in February 2016. As of November 2016, the album has sold 992,000 album-equivalent units in the United States.


title: Because the Internet

text: In July 2013, Gambino signed on to create a music-themed show for FX titled "Atlanta", a series which premiered on September 6, 2016, and which he stars in, writes, and executive produces. Consequently, he decided to reduce his work for NBC, and only appeared in five episodes of "Community"s 13-episode fifth season. His role was reduced in order to work more on his music career.


title: Because the Internet

text: On October 4, 2013, Gambino announced on Twitter that his second studio album was completed. He further revealed details at Homecoming Week at Penn State on October 7, stating that "I got a new album coming out soon, so this is the last time we're gonna play a lot of this shit." The same day, he premiered a new song titled "Yaphet Kotto".


title: Because the Internet

text: On October 8, 2013, Gambino released a teaser video for the album, which he announced as being titled "Because the Internet" and that it would be released in December 2013. Gambino told MTV that singer Beck gave him the idea for the album title. He explained the title, saying: "Because the internet I'm here, because of the internet we're all here. It's the language of earth. Everyone keeps saying by this or that year, Mandarin or Spanish will be the most dominant language, but the internet is already a language we are all connected to; even my dad can understand the meme format. But the thing is, there are no rules, which is also the awesome thing."


title: Because the Internet

text: After the release date announcement, Gambino stated he was upset since Glassnote Records wanted to push back its release to 2014, which he said was because "it's not a holiday record and I'm not a big artist". He responded to this, saying: "If it wasn't gonna be released then, I was gonna release it myself. What's the point of waiting? I feel like that's the only time people would be able to listen to it. December is the perfect time. Albums made a really big impact on me when I was alone and everything was quiet, and I know that's when students go home, that's when everything is closed, so it's a good time to just listen to something and be yourself." On October 21, he announced a release date of December 10, 2013, for the album.


title: Because the Internet

text: On November 4, 2012, producer Ludwig Göransson said in an interview, he and Gambino were in his studio coming up with new ideas for Gambino's next album. Göransson said it was to be a bigger album than his debut, "Camp", with more people involved. Over the following months, Gambino disappeared from social media, remaining reclusive while recording material for the album. The album was primarily recorded in Miami Heat player Chris Bosh's mansion in Los Angeles, which Gambino dubbed "The Temple". There, he kept strict rules, which included "no tweeting or instagramming", "no shoes", and "work begins at 10 am". In October 2013, he revealed that he had collaborated with Kid Cudi on a song, but the song would not be featured on the album. In October 2013, during a Toronto listening session, Gambino revealed Jhené Aiko as one of the album's guest appearances. He also collaborated with American rappers Chance the Rapper and Azealia Banks on the album.


title: Because the Internet

text: The cover is an animated GIF of Gambino staring at the viewer, which quickly fuzzes out after a few seconds (with strong brush-like strokes blurring his features to the point where he is unrecognizable) as if it had jumped at the viewer, in a process similar to zooming in. The GIF format is a reference to the internet, which made it popular. Certain physical versions of the album function with lenticular printing to mimic the animation effect.


title: Because the Internet

text: On January 11, 2012, Gambino announced he would be releasing a new mixtape soon. The mixtape "Royalty" was released on July 4, 2012, to positive critical reception. The mixtape featured guest appearances by Nipsey Hussle, Schoolboy Q, Ab-Soul, Danny Brown, Tina Fey, Chance the Rapper, Beck, Ghostface Killah and RZA, among others.


title: Because the Internet

text: On July 23, 2013, Gambino released a promotional single named "Centipede". The song opens with Gambino singing a cappella before "giving way to a spacey beat built around a chunky piano riff" and Gambino's confident rap delivery. The outro of "Centipede" samples a part from an online mini-documentary about and featuring Charles Hamilton, "Behind the Lava Lamp". On August 15, 2013, Gambino released a short film, "Clapping for the Wrong Reasons". In the film Gambino previews new music and it features cameo appearances by producer Flying Lotus, actor Danielle Fishel, porn star Abella Anderson, and fellow rappers Trinidad James and Chance the Rapper.


title: Because the Internet

text: On October 25, 2013, in an interview with Power 105, Gambino stated he wanted to have a "dope roll out" for the album, which he said would also include a film. Later that week, he told "XXL" that the album would also come with a screenplay. On December 6, 2013, Gambino released a 72-page screenplay designed to sync up with the album. It was revealed on the website becausetheinter.net. The screenplay, which is light on dialogue and involves stage directions that are written out Internet-speak and emojis, was accompanied by short, silent clips from "Clapping for the Wrong Reasons", and songs from the album were included to be played as the story unfolds. The central character, The Boy, lives in a mansion and spends his days tweeting at celebrities and posting videos to WorldStarHipHop. Everywhere The Boy goes, he sees the words "Roscoe's Wetsuit." Eventually, he's forced to sell drugs. Gambino prefaces the screenplay with a notice indicating that "Clapping for the Wrong Reasons" is considered a prelude, intending it to be viewed before reading the screenplay.


title: Because the Internet

text: On January 7, 2014, Gambino used a video chat with Abella Anderson to announce The Deep Web tour. The tour featured 22 concerts and ran from February 27, through May 3, 2014.


title: Because the Internet

text: On October 21, 2013, Gambino released "3005", the album's first official single. The following day it was released for digital download on iTunes. The introspective song was produced by Gambino himself, along with Stefan Ponce and Ludwig Göransson. On November 15, 2013, the song's lyric video was premiered on Vevo. The music video was released on December 6, 2013.


title: Because the Internet

text: On February 7, 2014, one of the album's promotional singles "Crawl", was serviced to urban contemporary radio in the United Kingdom as the album's second official single.


title: Because the Internet

text: On November 25, 2013, "Sweatpants" which features ad-libs from rapper Problem was leaked online, which Gambino responded unfavorably to. Shortly after, it was made available to those who pre-order the album on iTunes, as the album's first promotional single. The music video for "Sweatpants" was released on April 14, 2014, which concludes with a dream sequence for "Urn". "Sweatpants" would later be serviced to urban contemporary radio in the UK as the album's third official single on June 9, 2014.


title: Because the Internet

text: On August 19, 2014, the song "Telegraph Ave.", was serviced to rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States as the album's fourth single.


title: Because the Internet

text: "Because the Internet" was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 64, based on 26 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 5.5 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Because the Internet

text: Writing for "The Boston Globe", Franklin Soults said, "Love Donald Glover or hate him, this writer/actor/comedian/rapper unquestionably ranks among America's most accomplished performers. [...] The production is as rich as the raps, spanning pop, underground R&B, club music, and psychedelic experimentation. The project is further heightened by Glover's knowing irony, his gift for hooks, and his visionary theme. Without making it a burdensome concept to explain and belabor, the Internet figures prominently throughout the disc in ways empowering and emasculating." Killian Fox, writing for "The Observer", said, "Glover reflects on some unsettling phenomena of our internet-addled age, such as the 3D printing of guns – and his restless delivery is matched by jerky, off-kilter production. The results are intriguing, occasionally frustrating, rarely boring." Jabbari Weekes of "Exclaim!" said, ""Because the Internet" is a vast improvement over his debut effort, showcasing an artist who has confidently found a way to coalesce his love for music and films into one hybrid effort." Christian Lee of "HipHopDX" said, "He raps because, well, he can. Most of all, in his ambitious second album "Because The Internet", he raps as if to pass the time. Anxious introverts may recognize what Childish Gambino does here, repeatedly: flit around, try to be sociable, but then flee. Childish Gambino still manages to mostly hold our attention, though, because he concerns himself instead with his own terms." David Jeffries of AllMusic said, "Connecting with the album is nearly impossible, understanding it is difficult, and often enough, its inflated ego is irksome, but "Because the Internet" is too free and fascinating to be dragged down by these complaints, so if a "Yeezus" with more flash and fun is what's required, Gambino's got the good stuff."


title: Because the Internet

text: Perry Kostidakis of the "FSView & Florida Flambeau" wrote, "From a purely musical standpoint, "Because the Internet" finds itself in contention for best rap album of 2013. Produced almost solely by Gambino (with help from Community composer Ludwig Goransson), it seems as if BTI is the first rap album this year that is completely confident in what it is." Lizzie Plaugic of "CMJ" stated in a mixed review, ""Because The Internet" is not easily dismissible, because it's so self-awarely annoying. It trips over its own feet hoping the cool kids will roll their eyes at it, because behind those eye rolls is a jealousy that Gambino can fall with such nonchalance. Even though "Because The Internet" is kind of strange and kind of a bummer, it does show Glover's range as a musician." Craig Jenkins of "Pitchfork" stated, "With Gambino's wordplay ping-ponging from caustic wit to message board snark, the enduring strength of the album is its production. Gambino and Göransson handle the bulk of it here alongside usual suspect Stefan Ponce and alley oops from twin act Christian Rich and Flying Lotus associate Thundercat. "Because the Internet"s production team not only ensures the sounds are pretty, spacey, and jarring in all the right places, but they also effortlessly nail the album's "Dark Side of the Moon"/"Wizard of Oz" synchronicity gambit."


title: Because the Internet

text: Dom Sinacola of "Slant Magazine" said, "More than that, it furthers the general message of the whole album, which is that for all his posturing and charm, Glover may not have it in him to participate in the kind of bacchanalia required of his position as a young, burgeoning, multi-talented rap star. Halfway between throwaway wordplay and trenchant comment about fame, the lyric says a lot about where Glover's head is at: As a former sketch comedian, writer on "30 Rock", and star of the sitcom "Community", he leans on his wit as his most formidable weapon." Philip Cosores of "Consequence" stated, "Yes, the dedication that Glover has seemingly displayed in the project is admirable. But he just doesn't seem to get music on this album. Maybe it's because of his taste, or because he is trying too hard to stand out, or because of his hubris, or because he has lost touch with reality, or maybe it is because of the internet." Phillip Mlynar of "Spin" said, "The only reaction that "Because the Internet" elicits is the uncontrollable urge to skip to the next song, in hopes that things couldn't possibly get any sloppier. But they do, beginning with the cod-wailing that blights "Crawl" and volleying with the psychedelic muzak of "The Worst Guys" (co-starring Chance the Rapper) and "Zealots of Stockholm (Free Information)," which sounds like Glover has inadvertently locked himself in his practice space and is attempting to muster up a loud enough mess so that some kindly passerby will hear his cries for help. As the album collapses into itself with the closing cut, "Life: The Biggest Troll (Andrew Auernheimer)," we're resigned to existence as a gloopy mess of random thoughts. "Where's the line between Donny G and Gambino?" the rapper muses, but it's unclear whether this is meant as a genuine identity crisis or an all-knowing middle finger to critics. Maybe the entire album is a meme itself, a grand existential joke critiquing the all-conquering rise of Internet culture by parodying its overwhelming randomness. Whatever it is, though, it's a bad rap record."


title: Because the Internet

text: It was named the tenth best album of 2013 by "Complex". They commented saying, ""Because The Internet" is unlike any other rap album this year. Musically, it's as ambitious as something Kanye might do. [...] It only leaked last week, but it's some of the most engaging, rewarding music we've heard all year." "XXL" ranked it at number 15 on their list of best albums of 2013. They elaborated saying, "One of the most creative albums of the year, actor/rapper Childish Gambino meshes both his talents together for a very innovate and impressive album. He ditches the goofy-comedic rap lyrics with introspective bars that tell a story about a boy who is trying to find himself in life. [...] The music itself is really polished and well-produced, showcasing his growth lyrically and musically as he frequently sings on records."


title: Because the Internet

text: "Because the Internet" debuted at number seven on the "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 96,000 copies in the United States. This would be an 84% increase in first week sales in his home country, compared to his debut album "Camp". In its second week, the album dropped to number 25, selling 28,000 more copies. In its third week, the album rose to number 20 selling 33,000 more copies in the United States. In its fourth week, the album moved up to number 18 on the chart, selling 16,000 more copies in the United States. Due to Record Store Day, the week ending April 20, 2014, the album peaked at number one on the US Top Vinyl LPs, selling 3,000 vinyl copies. On February 18, 2016, "Because the Internet" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over 500,000 copies. As of November 2016, the album has sold 992,000 album-equivalent units in the United States, and on-demand audio and video streams that totaled 1.1 billion.


The Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI) is a regulatory body under the jurisdiction of Ministry of Finance , Government of India and is tasked with regulating and licensing the insurance and re-insurance industries in India. It was constituted by the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act, 1999, an Act of Parliament passed by the Government of India. The agency's headquarters are in Hyderabad, Telangana, where it moved from Delhi in 2001.


title: Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority

text: IRDAI is a 10-member body including the chairman, five full-time and four part-time members appointed by the government of India.


text: In India insurance was mentioned in the writings of many historical documents, which examined the pooling of resources for redistribution after fire, floods, epidemics and famine. The life-insurance business began in 1818 with the establishment of the Oriental Life Insurance Company in Calcutta; the company failed in 1834. In 1829, Madras Equitable began conducting life-insurance business in the Madras Presidency. The British Insurance Act was enacted in 1870, and Bombay Mutual (1871), Oriental (1874) and Empire of India (1897) were founded in the Bombay Presidency. The era was dominated by British companies.


text: In 1914, the government of India began publishing insurance-company returns. The Indian Life Assurance Companies Act, 1912 was the first statute regulating life insurance. In 1928 the Indian Insurance Companies Act was enacted to enable the government to collect statistical information about life- and non-life-insurance business conducted in India by Indian and foreign insurers, including provident insurance societies. In 1938 the legislation was consolidated and amended by the Insurance Act, 1938, with comprehensive provisions to control the activities of insurers.


text: The Insurance Amendment Act of 1950 abolished principal agencies, but the level of competition was high and there were allegations of unfair trade practices. The Government of India decided to nationalise the insurance industry.


text: An ordinance was issued on 19 January 1956, nationalising the life-insurance sector, and the Life Insurance Corporation was established that year. The LIC absorbed 154 Indian and 16 non-Indian insurers and 75 provident societies. The LIC had a monopoly until the late 1990s, when the insurance industry was reopened to the private sector.


text: General insurance in India began during the Industrial Revolution in the West and the growth of sea-faring commerce during the 17th century. It arrived as a legacy of British occupation, with its roots in the 1850 establishment of the Triton Insurance Company in Calcutta. In 1907 the Indian Mercantile Insurance was established, the first company to underwrite all classes of general insurance. In 1957 the General Insurance Council (a wing of the Insurance Association of India) was formed, framing a code of conduct for fairness and sound business practice.


text: Eleven years later, the Insurance Act was amended to regulate investments and set minimum solvency margins and the Tariff Advisory Committee was established. In 1972, with the passage of the General Insurance Business (Nationalisation) Act, the insurance industry was nationalized on 1 January 1973. One hundred seven insurers were amalgamated and grouped into four companies: National Insurance Company, New India Assurance Company, Oriental Insurance Company and United India Insurance Company. The General Insurance Corporation of India was incorporated in 1971, effective on 1 January 1973.


text: The re-opening of the insurance sector began during the early 1990s. In 1993, the government set up a committee chaired by former Reserve Bank of India governor R. N. Malhotra to propose recommendations for insurance reform complementing those initiated in the financial sector. The committee submitted its report in 1994, recommending that the private sector be permitted to enter the insurance industry. Foreign companies should enter by floating Indian companies, preferably as joint ventures with Indian partners.


text: Following the recommendations of the Malhotra Committee, in 1999 the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) was constituted to regulate and develop the insurance industry and was incorporated in April 2000. Objectives of the IRDA include promoting competition to enhance customer satisfaction with increased consumer choice and lower premiums while ensuring the financial security of the insurance market.


text: The IRDA opened up the market in August 2000 with an invitation for registration applications; foreign companies were allowed ownership up to 26 percent. The authority, with the power to frame regulations under Section 114A of the Insurance Act, 1938, has framed regulations ranging from company registrations to the protection of policyholder interests since 2000.


text: In December 2000, the subsidiaries of the General Insurance Corporation of India were restructured as independent companies and the GIC was converted into a national re-insurer. Parliament passed a bill de-linking the four subsidiaries from the GIC in July 2002. There are 28 general insurance companies, including the Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India and the Agriculture Insurance Corporation of India, and 24 life-insurance companies operating in the country. With banking services, insurance services add about seven percent to India’s GDP.


text: In 2013 the IRDAI attempted to raise the foreign direct investment (FDI) limit in the insurance sector to 49 percent from the existing 26 percent. The FDI limit in the insurance sector has been raised to 74 percent according to the 2021 union budget.


text: Section 4 of the IRDAI Act 1999 specifies the authority's composition. It is a ten-member body consisting of a chairman, five full-time and four part-time members appointed by the government of India. At present ( 1 Sept, 2018 ), the authority is chaired by Dr. Subhash C. Khuntia and its full-time members are Mrs T.L.Alamelu, K.Ganesh, Pournima Gupte, Praveen Kutumbe and Sujay Banarji.


text: The prime minister of India announced an insurance repository system, helping policyholders buy and maintain insurance policies in electronic form rather than on paper. Insurance repositories, like share depositories or mutual fund transfer agencies, will hold electronic records of insurance policies issued to individuals as electronic policies or e-policies.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections, including tuberculosis, "Mycobacterium avium" complex, endocarditis, brucellosis, "Burkholderia" infection, plague, tularemia, and rat bite fever. For active tuberculosis it is often given together with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide. It is administered by injection into a vein or muscle.


title: Streptomycin

text: Common side effects include vertigo, vomiting, numbness of the face, fever, and rash. Use during pregnancy may result in permanent deafness in the developing baby. Use appears to be safe while breastfeeding. It is not recommended in people with myasthenia gravis or other neuromuscular disorders. Streptomycin is an aminoglycoside. It works by blocking the ability of 30S ribosomal subunits to make proteins, which results in bacterial death.


title: Streptomycin

text: Albert Schatz first isolated streptomycin in 1943 from "Streptomyces griseus". It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies it as critically important for human medicine.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin is traditionally given intramuscularly, and in many nations is only licensed to be administered intramuscularly, though in some regions the drug may also be administered intravenously.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin also is used as a pesticide, to combat the growth of bacteria beyond human applications. Streptomycin controls bacterial diseases of certain fruit, vegetables, seed, and ornamental crops. A major use is in the control of fireblight on apple and pear trees. As in medical applications, extensive use can be associated with the development of resistant strains. Streptomycin could potentially be used to control cyanobacterial blooms in ornamental ponds and aquaria. While some antibacterial antibiotics are inhibitory to certain eukaryotes, this seems not to be the case for streptomycin, especially in the case of anti-fungal activity.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin, in combination with penicillin, is used in a standard antibiotic cocktail to prevent bacterial infection in cell culture.


title: Streptomycin

text: When purifying protein from a biological extract, streptomycin sulfate is sometimes added as a means of removing nucleic acids. Since it binds to ribosomes and precipitates out of solution, it serves as a method for removing rRNA, mRNA, and even DNA if the extract is from a prokaryote.


title: Streptomycin

text: The most concerning side effects, as with other aminoglycosides, are kidney toxicity and ear toxicity. Transient or permanent deafness may result. The vestibular portion of cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve) can be affected, resulting in tinnitus, vertigo, ataxia, kidney toxicity, and can potentially interfere with diagnosis of kidney malfunction.


title: Streptomycin

text: Common side effects include vertigo, vomiting, numbness of the face, fever, and rash. Fever and rashes may result from persistent use.


title: Streptomycin

text: Use is not recommended during pregnancy. Congenital deafness has been reported in children whose mothers received streptomycin during pregnancy. Use appears to be okay while breastfeeding.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin functions as a protein synthesis inhibitor. It binds to the small 16S rRNA of the 30S ribosomal subunit irreversibly, interfering with the binding of formyl-methionyl-tRNA to the 30S subunit. This causes codon misreading, inhibition of protein synthesis, and ultimately death of the cell through mechanisms that are not well understood. Speculation indicates that the binding of the molecule to the 30S subunit interferes with 30S subunit association with the mRNA strand. This results in an unstable ribosomal-mRNA complex, leading to premature stopping of protein synthesis, leading to cell death. As human and bacteria both have ribosomes, streptomycin has significant side effects in humans. At low concentrations, however, streptomycin inhibits only bacterial growth.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin is an antibiotic that inhibits both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and is therefore a useful broad-spectrum antibiotic.


title: Streptomycin

text: Streptomycin was first isolated on October 19, 1943, by Albert Schatz, a PhD student in the laboratory of Selman Abraham Waksman at Rutgers University in a research project funded by Merck and Co. Waksman and his laboratory staff discovered several antibiotics, including actinomycin, clavacin, streptothricin, streptomycin, grisein, neomycin, fradicin, candicidin, and candidin. Of these, streptomycin and neomycin found extensive application in the treatment of numerous infectious diseases. Streptomycin was the first antibiotic cure for tuberculosis (TB). In 1952 Waksman was the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in recognition "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic active against tuberculosis". Waksman was later accused of playing down the role of Schatz who did the work under his supervision, claiming that Elizabeth Bugie had a more important role in its development. Schatz sued both Dr. Waksman and the Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, wanting to be given credited as co-discover and receive the royalties for the streptomycin. By the end of the settlement, Waksman would receive a 10% royalty, while Schatz got 3% and compensation for his missed royalties. The rest of the lab shared the remaining 7% of the royalties, in which Bugie received 0.2%.


title: Streptomycin

text: Bugie was pursuing a master's degree in Waksman's lab at Rutgers University at this time. Prior to this, she received her bachelor's degree in microbiology at New Jersey College for Women. Although Bugie was considered to be the second author on the "Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology" paper, she was not listed on the patent submission. Bugie's contributions to Wakeman's lab were great. In addition to her work on streptomycin, she also helped develop other antimicrobial substances, had two peer-reviewed publications, and researched the use of antimicrobals against plant pathogens, among several other important contributions to the scientific field, particularly in regard to microbiology.


title: Streptomycin

text: The Rutgers team reported streptomycin in the medical literature in January 1944. Within months they began working with William Feldman and H. Corwin Hinshaw of the Mayo Clinic with hopes of starting a human clinical trial of streptomycin in tuberculosis. The difficulty at first was even producing enough streptomycin to do a trial, because the research laboratory methods of creating small batches had not yet been translated to commercial large-batch production. They managed to do an animal study in a few guinea pigs with just 10 grams of the scarce drug, demonstrating survival. This was just enough evidence to get Merck & Co. to divert some resources from the young penicillin production program to start work toward streptomycin production.


title: Streptomycin

text: At the end of World War II, the United States Army experimented with streptomycin to treat life-threatening infections at a military hospital in Battle Creek, Michigan. The first person who was treated with streptomycin did not survive; the second person survived but became blind as a side effect of the treatment. In March 1946, the third person—Robert J. Dole, later Majority Leader of the United States Senate and presidential nominee—experienced a rapid and robust recovery.


title: Streptomycin

text: The first randomized trial of streptomycin against pulmonary tuberculosis was carried out in 1946 through 1948 by the MRC Tuberculosis Research Unit under the chairmanship of Geoffrey Marshall (1887–1982). The trial was neither double-blind nor placebo-controlled. It is widely accepted to have been the first randomized curative trial.


title: Streptomycin

text: Results showed efficacy against TB, albeit with minor toxicity and acquired bacterial resistance to the drug.


title: Streptomycin

text: Because streptomycin was isolated from a microbe discovered on New Jersey soil, and because of its activity against tuberculosis and Gram negative organisms, and in recognition of both the microbe and the antibiotic in the history of New Jersey, "S. griseus" was nominated as the Official New Jersey state microbe. The draft legislation was submitted by Senator Sam Thompson (R-12) in May 2017 as bill S3190 and Assemblywoman Annette Quijano (D-20) in June 2017 as bill A31900. The bill was passed on 2018-01-08 The bill designates Streptomyces griseus as New Jersey State Microbe (New Jersey Senate Bill 3190 (2017). Passed in January 2018.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: Guardians of the Galaxy are a superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The Guardians first appear in "Marvel Super-Heroes" #18 (January 1969). The initial roster consisted of Vance Astro, Martinex T'Naga, Captain Charlie-27, and Yondu Udonta. Later members included Stakar Ogord, Aleta Ogord, and Nikki.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: The team first appeared in the partial reprint title "Marvel Super-Heroes" with issue #18 (January 1969), written by Arnold Drake and penciled by Gene Colan. Despite strong sales on this issue, the Guardians of the Galaxy would not appear again for over five years, in "Marvel Two-In-One" #5 (June 1974). The story's writer, Steve Gerber, liked the team enough to use them again in "Giant Size Defenders" #5 and "The Defenders" #26–29 (July–November 1975). In each case, other heroes such as Captain America, the Thing, and the Defenders aid them in their war against the alien Badoon, necessitating the liberal use of time travel in these stories.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: The Guardians were finally given their own series in the existing title "Marvel Presents", starting with issue #3 (February 1976). Steve Gerber, still handling the writing, reflected, "Most of the stories I was scripting were set in the present. I wanted to do something that combined the standard superhero elements with something a little different, so that I could give my imagination a bit more play. We had Dave Cockrum redesign the costumes, we created a new starship for them to pilot, and we revised the premise of the strip, so that they were no longer fighting the Badoon on Earth, and sent them off amongst the stars." Gerber left the series after seven issues, and Roger Stern took over with "Marvel Presents" #10. The series was cancelled shortly afterwards due to poor sales, with the final issue being #12 (August 1977). The team then made guest appearances in "Thor" Annual #6 (1977), "The Avengers" #167–177 (January–November 1978) and #181 (March 1979), "Ms. Marvel" #23, "Marvel Team-Up" #86 (October 1979), and "Marvel Two-in-One" #61–63 & #69 (November 1980). "Marvel Two-in-One" #69 drastically changed the Guardians of the Galaxy's story; due to changes made to the past of one of the members, the future which the Guardians of the Galaxy come from and the mainstream Marvel Universe are permanently separated, becoming alternate timelines to each other. After this, the Guardians of the Galaxy were absent from published stories for over a decade.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: In 1989, Marvel editor-in-chief Tom DeFalco revived the Guardians of the Galaxy in order to cash in on the popularity of the TV series "". DeFalco worked out a series concept using a new team of Guardians, but when he saw a series proposal for the original team that writer/artist Jim Valentino had coincidentally been working on at the same time, he green lit Valentino's idea instead. The Guardians' first self-titled comic launched in June 1990 and ran for 62 issues. This series was initially written and illustrated by Valentino, who deliberately gave it an action-oriented, "fun" feel that stood out from the typical "grim 'n' gritty" comics of the 1990s. Though Valentino had plotted the series ahead as far as issue #50, his run was cut short when he co-founded Image Comics. Having taken on two new series and the foundation of a publication company, Valentino asked editor Craig Anderson if he could switch to just writing "Guardians of the Galaxy", and in response Anderson dismissed him from the series.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: With issue #29 (October 1992) Michael Gallagher commenced writing the title, and continued until its cancellation with issue #62 (July 1995). According to Kevin West, who became the penciller with issue #30 (Nov. 1992), he and Gallagher worked together closely on the series, employing the Marvel method of creation, and became good friends. A spin-off four-issue miniseries, "Galactic Guardians" (July–October 1994), also by Gallagher and West, appeared during this time. West explained why he did not draw the final issue of "Guardians of the Galaxy": "When I heard we were getting the hook, I naturally started looking for a new job. I ended up at Malibu [Comics]. There was a hold-up getting the "Guardians" plot finished so by the time I got it, I had to pass because I had a Malibu deadline to meet. Arrgh. Despite any minor qualms I had, I really did enjoy working on the series."


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: A second volume was published in May 2008, written by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning. The title, set in a different timeline, features a new team, drawn from participants in the "" storyline. The 1969 team made guest appearances in #12–17 and #25.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: A new ongoing series starring the original Guardians, titled "Guardians 3000" and written by Abnett, launched in 2014.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: The Guardians are active in the 31st century in an alternative time-line of the Marvel Universe known as Earth-691. The original members of the team include Major Vance Astro (later known as Major Victory), an astronaut from 20th century Earth who spends a thousand years travelling to Alpha Centauri in suspended animation. He is also the future alternative universe counterpart of Vance Astrovik, the hero known as Justice.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: Other original team members are Martinex T'Naga, a crystalline being from Pluto; Captain Charlie-27, a soldier from Jupiter; and Yondu Udonta, a blue-skinned "noble savage" from Centauri-IV (the fourth planet orbiting the star Alpha Centauri B). Each is apparently the last of their kind and they are forced to unite as a team against the actions of the Badoon, an alien race which attempts to conquer Earth's Solar System.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: During the course of the war against the Badoon, the team gains three more members—the mysterious husband and wife duo, Starhawk and Aleta, as well as Nikki, a genetically engineered young girl from Mercury seeking excitement in her life—and travel back in time, where they encounter several of the heroes of 20th century Earth, including Captain America and the Thing.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: The guardians eventually defeat the Badoon, but soon find themselves facing a new foe called Korvac, who was in part a creation of the Badoon. After teaming with the thunder god Thor to defeat Korvac in the 31st century, the guardians then follow Korvac to 20th century mainstream Earth, where together with the Avengers they fight a final battle.


title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: The guardians reappear years later and have a series of adventures in their future, with several others eventually joining the team: the Inhuman Talon, the Skrull Replica, the second Yellowjacket (alias Rita DeMara of the 20th century), and an aged Simon Williams (now called Hollywood, Man of Wonder).