title: Residual neural network

text: the gating mechanisms facilitate information flow across many layers ("information highways"), or to mitigate the Degradation (accuracy saturation) problem; where adding more layers to a suitably deep model leads to higher training error. During training, the weights adapt to mute the upstream layer, and amplify the previously-skipped layer. In the simplest case, only the weights for the adjacent layer's connection are adapted, with no explicit weights for the upstream layer. This works best when a single nonlinear layer is stepped over, or when the intermediate layers are all linear. If not, then an explicit weight matrix should be learned for the skipped connection (a HighwayNet should be used).


title: Residual neural network

text: Skipping effectively simplifies the network, using fewer layers in the initial training stages. This speeds learning by reducing the impact of vanishing gradients, as there are fewer layers to propagate through. The network then gradually restores the skipped layers as it learns the feature space. Towards the end of training, when all layers are expanded, it stays closer to the manifold and thus learns faster. A neural network without residual parts explores more of the feature space. This makes it more vulnerable to perturbations that cause it to leave the manifold, and necessitates extra training data to recover.


title: Residual neural network

text: A residual neural network was used to win the ImageNet 2015 competition, and has become the most cited neural network of the 21st century.


title: Residual neural network

text: Given a weight matrix formula_1 for connection weights from layer formula_2 to formula_3, and a weight matrix formula_4 for connection weights from layer formula_5 to formula_3, then the forward propagation through the activation function would be (aka "HighwayNets")


title: Residual neural network

text: If the number of vertices on layer formula_5 equals the number of vertices on layer formula_3 and if formula_4 is the identity matrix, then forward propagation through the activation function simplifies to formula_19 In this case, the connection between layers formula_5 and formula_3 is called an identity block.


title: Residual neural network

text: In the cerebral cortex such forward skips are done for several layers. Usually all forward skips start from the same layer, and successively connect to later layers. In the general case this will be expressed as (aka "DenseNets")


title: Residual neural network

text: If the skip path has fixed weights (e.g. the identity matrix, as above), then they are not updated. If they can be updated, the rule is an ordinary backpropagation update rule.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: Ny is a digraph in a number of languages such as Catalan, Ganda, Filipino/Tagalog, Hungarian, Swahili and Malay. In most of these languages, including all of the ones named above, it denotes the palatal nasal (). To represent the palatal nasal in other languages, the letter nj is used, such as in Albanian and the countries using Gaj's Latin alphabet and the countries that make up the former Yugoslavia.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: It has had widespread use for languages of West Africa, though in some countries, the IPA letter "ɲ" is now used.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: It is sometimes used in modern Spanish where "ñ" cannot be used, such as in earlier computer programming or Internet domain names.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: The writing of the palatal nasal in Aragonese has been a matter of debate since the first orthographic codification of the language ("grafía de Uesca") in 1987 by the "Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa" at a convention in Huesca. Medieval Aragonese had used several different digraphs, but the two most common spellings used were "ñ" (as in Spanish) or "ny" (as in Catalan). "Ñ" was the one chosen and has been used in almost all texts of the last decades, but the subject remained controversial, and some writers continued to promote the use of the digraph "ny". The use of "ny" was also proposed in an alternative Aragonese orthography, the "grafía SLA" devised in 2004 by the "Sociedat de Lingüistica Aragonesa" in 2004. According to the 2010 "Orthographic Proposal" of the Academia de l'Aragonés, created in 2006, the palatal nasal phoneme should be written as "ny".


title: Ny (digraph)

text: In Catalan, "ny" is not considered a single letter but a consonantal digraph ("n" followed by "y") to represent . The letter "y", in Catalan, is used only to form "ny" and has no other purpose.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: It is found in any position in a word: at the beginning ("nyap" "rubbish", "nyaufar" "to dent"), in intervocalic position ("Catalunya" "Catalonia"; "canya" "reed", "steem") and at the end of a word ("any" "year", "estany" "lagoon", "seny" "sense").


title: Ny (digraph)

text: "Ny" is the twenty-third letter of the Hungarian alphabet. Its name is "eny" (), and it represents the palatal nasal (). Even mere sequences of "n" and "y" that represent different sounds are considered instances of this letter; this holds true in acronyms as well.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: Below are examples of Hungarian words that use the letter "ny" along with their English translations:


title: Ny (digraph)

text: In Malaysian and Indonesian Malay, "ny" represents the palatal nasal ; for example, Spain is called "Spanyol" (compare with "España" in Spanish).


title: Ny (digraph)

text: In Old Spanish scripts, the graph "ny" was widely used, along with "nn" and "ni", to represent the same palatal sound as Catalan, ; however since standardization it has been replaced with "ñ". Despite this, "ny" may be found in modern Spanish where "ñ" is not available, such as in earlier computer programming or Internet domain names.


title: Ny (digraph)

text: In Swahili, ny represents the palatal nasal /ɲ/. As other consonant sounds, it can only appear at the beginning of a syllable. Examples:


title: Mixolydian mode

text: Mixolydian mode may refer to one of three things: the name applied to one of the ancient Greek "harmoniai" or "tonoi", based on a particular octave species or scale; one of the medieval church modes; or a modern musical mode or diatonic scale, related to the medieval mode. (The Hypomixolydian mode of medieval music, by contrast, has no modern counterpart.)


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The modern diatonic mode is the scale forming the basis of both the rising and falling forms of Harikambhoji in Carnatic music, the classical music form of southern India.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The idea of a Mixolydian mode comes from the music theory of ancient Greece. The invention of the ancient Greek Mixolydian mode was attributed to Sappho, the poet and musician. However, what the ancient Greeks thought of as Mixolydian is very different from the modern interpretation of the mode. The prefix "mixo"- (μιξο-) means "half", referring to its resemblance to the Lydian mode.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: In Greek theory, the Mixolydian "tonos" (the term "mode" is a later Latin term) employs a scale (or "octave species") corresponding to the Greek Hypolydian mode inverted. In its diatonic genus, this is a scale descending from "paramese" to "hypate hypaton." In the diatonic genus, a whole tone ("paramese" to "mese") followed by two conjunct inverted Lydian tetrachords (each being two whole tones followed by a semitone descending). This diatonic genus of the scale is roughly the equivalent of playing all the white notes of a piano from B to B, which is also known as modern Locrian mode.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: In the chromatic and enharmonic genera, each tetrachord consists of a minor third plus two semitones, and a major third plus two quarter tones, respectively.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The term "Mixolydian" was originally used to designate one of the traditional "harmoniai" of Greek theory. It was appropriated later (along with six other names) by 2nd-century theorist Ptolemy to designate his seven "tonoi" or transposition keys. Four centuries later, Boethius interpreted Ptolemy in Latin, still with the meaning of transposition keys, not scales.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: When chant theory was first being formulated in the 9th century, these seven names plus an eighth, Hypermixolydian (later changed to Hypomixolydian), were again re-appropriated in the anonymous treatise "Alia Musica". A commentary on that treatise, called the "Nova expositio", first gave it a new sense as one of a set of eight diatonic species of the octave, or scales. The name "Mixolydian" came to be applied to one of the eight modes of medieval church music: the seventh mode. This mode does not run from B to B on white notes, as the Greek mode, but was defined in two ways: as the diatonic octave species from G up one octave to the G above, or as a mode whose final was G and whose ambitus runs from the F below the final to the G above, with possible extensions "by licence" up to A above and even down to E below, and in which the note D (the tenor of the corresponding seventh psalm tone) had an important melodic function. This medieval theoretical construction led to the modern use of the term for the natural scale from G to G.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The seventh mode of western church music is an authentic mode based on and encompassing the natural scale from G to G, with the perfect fifth (the D in a G to G scale) as the dominant, reciting note or "tenor".


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The plagal eighth mode was termed "Hypomixolydian" (or "lower Mixolydian") and, like the Mixolydian, was defined in two ways: as the diatonic octave species from D to the D an octave higher, divided at the mode final, G (thus D–E–F–G + G–A–B–C–D); or as a mode with a final of G and an ambitus from C below the final to E above it, in which the note C (the tenor of the corresponding eighth psalm tone) had an important melodic function.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The modern Mixolydian scale is the fifth mode of the major scale (Ionian mode). That is, it can be constructed by starting on the fifth scale degree (the dominant) of the major scale. Because of this, the Mixolydian mode is sometimes called the "dominant scale".


title: Mixolydian mode

text: This scale has the same series of tones and semitones as the major scale, but with a minor seventh. As a result, the seventh scale degree is a subtonic, rather than a leading-tone. The flattened seventh of the scale is a tritone away from the mediant (major-third degree) of the key. The order of whole tones and semitones in a Mixolydian scale is


title: Mixolydian mode

text: In the Mixolydian mode, the tonic, subdominant, and subtonic triads are all major, the mediant is diminished, and the remaining triads are minor. A classic Mixolydian chord progression is I-VII-IV-V.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: The Mixolydian mode is common in non-classical harmony, such as folk, jazz, funk, blues, and rock music. It is often prominently heard in music played on the Great Highland bagpipes.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: As with natural and harmonic minor, Mixolydian is often used with a major seventh degree as a part of the dominant and perfect cadences. "Wild Thing" by The Troggs is a, "perfect example," while others include "Tangled Up in Blue" by Bob Dylan; "Shooting Star" by Bad Company, and "Bold as Love" by Jimi Hendrix.


title: Mixolydian mode

text: Klezmer musicians refer to the Mixolydian scale as the Adonai malakh mode. In Klezmer, it is usually transposed to C, where the main chords used are C, F, and G7 (sometimes Gm).


title: No-fly zone

text: A no-fly zone, also known as a no-flight zone (NFZ), or air exclusion zone (AEZ), is a territory or area established by a military power over which certain aircraft are not permitted to fly. Such zones are usually set up in an enemy power's territory during a conflict, similar in concept to an aerial demilitarized zone, and usually intend to prohibit the enemy's military aircraft from operating in the region. Military action is employed by the enforcing state and, depending on the terms of the NFZ, may include preemptive attacks to prevent potential violations, reactive force targeted at violating aircraft, or surveillance with no use of force. Air exclusion zones and anti-aircraft defences are sometimes set up in a civilian context, for example to protect sensitive locations, or events such as the 2012 London Olympic Games, against terrorist air attack.


title: No-fly zone

text: No-fly zones are a modern phenomenon established in the 1990s. They can be distinguished from traditional air power missions by their coercive appropriation of another nation's airspace only, to achieve aims on the ground within the target nation. While the Royal Air Force (RAF) conducted prototypical air control operations over various contentious colonies between the two World Wars, no-fly zones did not assume their modern form until the end of the Gulf War in 1991.


title: No-fly zone

text: During the Cold War, the risk of local conflict escalating into nuclear showdown made military intervention as a tool of United States statecraft unappealing. Furthermore, air power was a relatively blunt instrument until the operational maturation of stealth and precision-strike technologies. Before the Gulf War of 1991, it had not been possible to perform nuanced attacks against transitory, difficult-to-reach targets, and air power thus lacked the ability to produce decisive political effects short of total war. However, the demise of the Soviet Union and technological advances in aerospace capabilities made no-fly zones viable in both political and military contexts.


title: No-fly zone

text: Following the 1991 Gulf War, the United States along with other Coalition nations established two no-fly zones in Iraq. U.S. and Coalition officials stated that the northern no-fly zone was intended to prevent attacks against the Kurdish people by the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein, and that the southern no-fly-zone was intended to protect Iraq's Shia population. On 16 March 1988, the Iraqi Air Force deployed chemical weapons against Kurdish civilians during the Halabja chemical attack, killing roughly 5,000. This air-to-ground event served as part of the motivation used by Coalition Forces in order to extend and expand the NFZs, as well as citing parts of Article 42 within the U.N. Charter. The southern no-fly zone originally extended to the 32nd parallel, but was extended to the 33rd parallel in 1996. By 1999, over 1,800 bombs had reportedly been dropped on Iraq.


title: No-fly zone

text: This military action was not authorised by the United Nations. The Secretary-General of the United Nations at the time the resolution was passed, Boutros Boutros-Ghali called the no-fly zones "illegal" in a February 2003 interview with John Pilger for ZNet. In 1998, France withdrew from the operation, with French Foreign Minister Hubert Vedrine saying that "there is no basis in international law for this type of bombing".


title: No-fly zone

text: The United Nations reported that, in 1999 alone, 144 civilians had been killed during Coalition bombing efforts. An internal UN Security Sector report found that, in one five-month period, 41% of the victims were civilians.


title: No-fly zone

text: In 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 781, prohibiting unauthorized military flights in Bosnian airspace. This led to Operation Sky Monitor, where NATO monitored violations of the no-fly zone but did not take action against violators of the resolution. In response to 500 documented violations by 1993, including one combat violation, the Security Council passed Resolution 816, which prohibited all unauthorized flights and allowed all UN member states to "take all necessary measures...to ensure compliance with [the no-fly zone restrictions]." This led to Operation Deny Flight, during which the Banja Luka incident, the shooting down of at least four of a flight of six Serbian jets, occurred; the engagement was not only the first combat engagement of the operation, but also the first combat engagement in the history of NATO. NATO later launched air strikes during Operation Deny Flight and during Operation Deliberate Force. As many as 400 NATO aircraft participated in the air campaign.


title: No-fly zone

text: As part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the United Nations Security Council approved a no-fly zone on 17 March 2011. The resolution includes provisions for further actions to prevent attacks on civilian targets. On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone. Shortly thereafter, several NATO members proceeded to mount an aerial offensive campaign, in which numerous Libyan government positions would be intentionally bombed. Some NATO members did not contribute or did little to participate in the air campaign, leading to public criticism from US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates. The NATO no fly zone was terminated on 27 October after a unanimous vote by the UNSC, despite requests made by the Libyan National Transitional Council for its mission to be extended to the end of the year.


title: No-fly zone

text: A no-fly zone was declared by the Libyan National Army (LNA) over the country's south during the LNA's offensive in the region in 2018. It was later re-implemented for 10 days in 2019 as the LNA established control over oil fields in the region. The LNA declared another no-fly zone across the country's west during the 2019 Western Libya offensive.


title: No-fly zone

text: Shortly after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Ukrainian leadership repeatedly urged NATO to enforce a no-fly zone over Ukraine, but the alliance rejected the request on account of risking further escalation and direct military confrontation with Russia. There were also questions over the effectiveness of implementing such a zone for the purpose of protecting the Ukrainian settlements, which have been subject to heavy and indiscriminate attacks from Russian artillery and other largely ground-based forces. On 18 March, the Russian-backed separatist government of the Donetsk People's Republic claimed that Russia would establish a no-fly zone over the Donbas region of Ukraine.


title: No-fly zone

text: A 2004 Stanford University paper published in Journal of Strategic Studies, "Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-fly Zones," reviewed the effectiveness of the air-based campaigns in achieving military objectives. The paper's findings were: 1) A clear, unified command structure is essential. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, during "Operation Deny Flight," a confusing dual-key coordination structure provided inadequate authority and resulted in air forces not being given authority to assist in key situations; 2) To avoid a "perpetual patrol problem," states must know in advance their policy objectives and the exit strategy for no-fly zones; 3) The effectiveness of no-fly zones is highly dependent on regional support. A lack of support from Turkey for the 1996 Iraq no-fly zone ultimately constrained the coalition's ability to effectively enforce it.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" is a song by the American rock band Nirvana, written by vocalist and guitarist Kurt Cobain. It is the fourth song on the band's third and final studio album, "In Utero", released in September 1993.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" was released as the album's second single in December 1993, packaged as a double A-side with "All Apologies". It reached number 32 on the UK Singles Chart, and was the band's final single before Cobain's suicide in April 1994.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" was written by Cobain on an acoustic guitar in Los Angeles in May 1991, around the time the band's second album, "Nevermind", was being mixed. It was first performed live on June 18, 1991, at The Catalyst in Santa Cruz. The earliest live versions of the song featured a guitar solo instead of a bridge.


title: Rape Me

text: The song's lyrics led to controversy even before it had been officially released. The band had wanted to play it during their appearance at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards, but according to Nirvana manager Danny Goldberg in his 2019 Cobain biography "Serving the Servant", MTV president Judy McGrath was worried that the song "would make it seem like MTV was normalizing rape." Goldberg recalled reminding McGrath on the phone of Cobain's "commitment to feminism" and assured her that "Rape Me" was an anti-rape song, like "Polly" on "Nevermind", but said McGrath "wasn't having it" and wanted the band to play their latest single, "Lithium," instead. The band eventually agreed, but Cobain still played a few seconds of "Rape Me" at the start of the performance, which resulted in the live broadcast almost going to commercial. In "Serving the Servant", Goldberg refuted common reports that the network threatened to fire Amy Finnerty, an MTV employee and friend of the band, or boycott other artists signed to Geffen Records, if Nirvana played "Rape Me," saying that "the MTV people were under a lot of pressure to get good ratings, but they weren't bullies, just noodges."


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" was first recorded in the studio in October 1992, during a two-day demo session with Jack Endino at Word of Mouth in Seattle, Washington. Two takes of the song were recorded, one of which was instrumental, the other of which featured lead vocals by Cobain and backing vocals by drummer Dave Grohl. Cobain was holding his then-infant daughter Frances Bean Cobain on his lap when he recorded his vocals on the second take, and she can be heard crying on the recording. This version of the song was released on the Nirvana rarities box set, "With the Lights Out", in November 2004, and on the compilation album "" in November 2005.


title: Rape Me

text: The final studio version of "Rape Me" was recorded in February 1993 by Steve Albini at Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls, Minnesota, for the band's third and final studio album, "In Utero". The instruments for the song were recorded on February 15. The following day, Cobain completed his vocals for the album during a reported six-hour session.


title: Rape Me

text: According to Albini, Cobain's screaming during the song's ending was intentionally recorded so that it "just overwhelms the band and becomes this really uncomfortable presence." However, the album's more abrasive vocals in general were softened in the mastered version.


title: Rape Me

text: On September 25, 1993, the band performed the song, along with "Heart-Shaped Box," on "Saturday Night Live" at NBC Studios in New York City. It was the band's first show with second guitarist Pat Smear. The song was again performed on television on February 4, 1994 for the show "Nulle Part Ailleurs" in Paris, France.


title: Rape Me

text: The final live performance of "Rape Me" was at Nirvana's last concert, at Terminal 1 of Munich-Riem Airport in Munich, Germany on March 1, 1994.


title: Rape Me

text: The song's instrumental opening bars, which features Cobain using pick scratching while playing the verse chord progression, has led to frequent comparisons to the guitar riff of the band's 1991 breakthrough single, "Smells Like Teen Spirit." Will Bryant of "Pitchfork" wrote that "the four-chord riff that drags the song through the motions is an almost direct inversion of the famous 'Smells Like Teen Spirit' riff," while Cobain biographer Charles R. Cross described the song as having "the same catchy soft/loud dynamic as "Teen Spirit," which "created a perfect Cobain aesthetic – beautiful, haunting and disturbing." "Rape Me" was written after "Smells Like Teen Spirit," but before "Nevermind" had been released.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" is an anti-rape song, written from the point of view of the victim. "It's like she's saying, 'Rape me, go ahead, rape me, beat me,'" Cobain told Darcey Steinke of "Spin" in 1993, "'You'll never kill me. I'll survive this and I'm gonna fucking rape you one of these days and you won't even know it. Gillian G. Garr described the song's lyrics as "part submissive invitation, part defiant taunt, a mix that confused and disturbed many listeners", and led to Cobain frequently having to explain the song's meaning.


title: Rape Me

text: When asked by MUCH's Erica Ehm in an August 1993 interview how the band was helping to raise awareness about sexism, Cobain replied, "By writing songs as blunt as 'Rape Me.'" He stated that it was a song meant to be so blunt that no one could misinterpret its meaning.


title: Rape Me

text: American musician Tori Amos commented on the song in a 1994 interview with the "NME", saying that she "thought it was very clear what it was about...It's a defiant song. But the scariest thing to a rape victim are the words 'rape me'. When I first heard it I broke out in a cold sweat, but when you get over that you realize he's turning it back on people." In 1996, Jim Dillon, reverend of the hoaxical Church of Kurt Cobain, stated that "in essence, the real message [of "Rape Me"] is one of a Christian theme – treat me the way you want me to treat you".


title: Rape Me

text: The song has also been interpreted as an attack on the press for its perceived mistreatment of Cobain and his wife, Courtney Love. While most of the song was written before "Nevermind" was released, the bridge, which was written later, contains lyrics that address his occasionally contentious relationship with the press. As Cobain explained to Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad, "It was actually about rape ... but now I could definitely use it as an example of my life for the past six months or year, easily." In line with this interpretation, Azerrad suggested that the chorus lyric "I'm not the only one" was Cobain's way of saying that Love and their infant daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, were being hurt along with him by the press and public attention. According to Azerrad, the bridge lyric "My favorite inside source" was a reference to the manager of an unnamed Seattle band Cobain and Love suspected of being anonymously interviewed for a controversial "Vanity Fair" profile of the couple published in September 1992.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" was released as a double A-side single with "All Apologies" on December 6, 1993 on CD, cassette, and 7" and 12" vinyl record formats. The single was not released commercially in the United States.


title: Rape Me

text: The song was relabeled "Waif Me" on the censored Wal-Mart and Kmart version of "In Utero", released in March 1994. The chain stores had originally refused to carry the album because of the song's title, as well as the fetus collage on the back cover, which was also edited. Cobain had originally wanted to retitle the song "Sexually Assault Me," but decided on the meaningless title "Waif Me," knowing that another four-letter word was required in order to make a quick graphic change. The song's uncensored title was listed in the booklet, and the recording remained the same. Cobain defended the band's decision to release a censored version of the album by explaining, "One of the main reasons I signed to a major label was so people would be able to buy our records at Kmart. In some towns, that's the only place kids can buy records."


title: Rape Me

text: In her "Spin" cover story on the band, Steinke described the song as carrying a "quiet biblical angst." David Fricke, in his review of "In Utero" for "Rolling Stone", wrote that "'Rape Me' opens as a disquieting whisper, Cobain intoning the title verse in a battered croon, which sets you up beautifully to get blind-sided by the explosive hook line."


title: Rape Me

text: In November 1993, "Rape Me" was voted the third "Most Wanted to be Heard" song by listeners of the Hawaii Free Radio.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" has occasionally received criticism for its intentionally blunt handling of sensitive subject matter. John Mulvey of the "NME" wrote that "while you can't doubt Cobain's personal political correctness, there's a distinct moral dubiousness about welding the words 'RAPE ME!' to "In Utero"s best sing-along chorus." "Pitchfork's" Will Bryant wrote that the song, despite its victim-empowering intent, "comes off as a shallow and transparent attempt to court controversy."


title: Rape Me

text: In 2019, Jenna Bush Hager revealed that her father, George W. Bush, prior to becoming U.S. President, broke one of her Nirvana CDs due to the lyrics of "a really bad song" implied to be "Rape Me."


title: Rape Me

text: In 1999, "Rape Me" was voted number 90 in "Kerrang!"s "100 Greatest Rock Tracks Ever!". In 2015, "Rolling Stone" placed it at number 31 on their ranking of 102 Nirvana songs, with Julianne Escobedo Shepherd calling it "the closest to an actual Bikini Kill song that [Cobain] would ever write, using the lyrics as a woman-empowering taunt to show would-be rapists that their victims' spirits would not be tamped." In 2019, "The Guardian" ranked it at number 17 on their list of 'Nirvana's 20 greatest songs'.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" was re-released on both of Nirvana's greatest hits albums, "Nirvana" (2002) and "Icon" (2010).


title: Rape Me

text: Although no music video was made for "Rape Me", two treatments for a proposed video were published posthumously in Cobain's "Journals" in 2002. They included scenes set in a prison, footage of flowers and seahorses as well as a man being prepared for a gynecological exam. A 23-page "Rape Me" music video script, listing Jerry Plansker as director, sold on eBay in January 2003 for $620.


title: Rape Me

text: In 1999, the "Saturday Night Live" version of "Rape Me" began being aired as a music video on MTV2 to promote the album, "Saturday Night Live: The Musical Performances, Volume 2", on which it appeared as the opening track. Video of the performance was released on the DVD of the same name.


title: Rape Me

text: "Rape Me" was parodied by American animated sitcom "The Simpsons" in the January 2008 episode, "That '90s Show," which featured the song "Shave Me" being performed by Sadgasm, a grunge band fronted by lead character Homer Simpson, in the early 1990s. It also featured "Shave Me" later being parodied by guest star "Weird Al" Yankovic as "Brain Freeze".


title: Rape Me

text: In the "South Park" episode "Hummels & Heroin", Cartman, Kenny, Kyle, and Butters perform a Barbershop Quartet cover of "Rape Me" for a retirement home.


title: Rape Me

text: In October 2021, the American drama "Succession" used "Rape Me" in the episode "The Disruption" when Kendall ordered his assistants to play the song on the speakers to counter Shiv addressing the sexual assault allegations made against Waystar. Love praised the show's use of the song in an Instagram post, saying that she had "never been so proud of approving one of Kurt’s songs" and that it was "as if they truly understood" the song's meaning.


title: Marine iguana

text: The marine iguana ("Amblyrhynchus cristatus"), also known as the sea iguana, saltwater iguana, or Galápagos marine iguana, is a species of iguana found only on the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Unique among modern lizards, it is a marine reptile that has the ability to forage in the sea for algae, which makes up almost all of its diet. Marine iguanas are the only extant lizard that spends time in a marine environment. Large males are able to dive to find this food source, while females and smaller males feed during low tide in the intertidal zone. They mainly live in colonies on rocky shores where they bask after visiting the relatively cold water or intertidal zone, but can also be seen in marshes, mangrove swamps and beaches. Large males defend territories for a short period, but smaller males have other breeding strategies. After mating, the female digs a nest hole in the soil where she lays her eggs, leaving them to hatch on their own a few months later.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas vary in appearance between the different islands and several subspecies are recognized. Although relatively large numbers remain and it is locally abundant, this protected species is considered threatened, primarily from El Niño cycles, introduced predators and chance events like oil spills.


title: Marine iguana

text: The marine iguana was first described in 1825 as "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" by Thomas Bell. He recognized several of its distinctive features, but believed that the specimen he had received was from Mexico, a locality now known to be erroneous.


title: Marine iguana

text: Its generic name, "Amblyrhynchus", is a combination of two Greek words, Ambly- from "Amblus" (ἀμβλυ) meaning "blunt" and "rhynchus" (ρυγχος) meaning "snout". Its specific name is the Latin word "cristatus" meaning "crested," and refers to the low crest of spines along the animal's back.


title: Marine iguana

text: Researchers theorize that land iguanas (genus "Conolophus") and marine iguanas evolved from a common ancestor since arriving on the islands from Central or South America, presumably by rafting. The land and marine iguanas of the Galápagos form a clade, the nearest relatives of which are the "Ctenosaura" iguanas of Mexico and Central America. Based on a study that relied on mtDNA, the marine iguana was estimated to have diverged from land iguanas some 8–10 million years ago, which is older than any of the extant Galápagos islands. It has therefore traditionally been thought that the ancestral species inhabited parts of the volcanic archipelago that are now submerged. However, a more recent study that included both mtDNA and nDNA indicates that the two split about 4.5 million years ago, which is near the age of the oldest extant Galápagos islands (Española and San Cristóbal).


title: Marine iguana

text: The marine iguana and Galápagos land iguana remain mutually fertile in spite of being separated by millions of years and assigned to distinct genera. They have been known to hybridize where their ranges overlap, resulting in the so-called hybrid iguana. This is very rare and has only been documented a few times on South Plaza, a tiny island where the usually separated breeding territories and seasons of the two species overlap. The hybrids have intermediate features, stay on land and are infertile.


title: Marine iguana

text: The different marine iguana populations fall into three main clades: western islands, northeastern islands and southeastern islands. These can be further divided, each subclade generally matching marine iguanas from one or two primary island, except on San Cristóbal where there are two subclades (a northeastern and a southwestern). However, even the oldest divergence between marine iguana populations is quite recent; no more than 230,000 years and likely less than 50,000 years. On occasion one makes it to another island than its home island, resulting in hybridization between different marine iguana populations. There is one confirmed record of a marine iguana outside the Galápagos Islands; in 2014 an individual appeared on Isla de la Plata near the Ecuadorian mainland.


title: Marine iguana

text: Seven or eight subspecies of the marine iguana, listed alphabetically, have traditionally been recognized:


title: Marine iguana

text: In 2017, the first comprehensive taxonomic review of the species in more than 50 years came to another result based on morphological and genetic evidence, including recognizing five new subspecies (three of these are small-island populations that were not previously assigned to any subspecies):


title: Marine iguana

text: Early visitors to the Galápagos Islands considered the marine iguanas ugly and disgusting. In 1798, captain James Colnett of the British Royal Navy wrote:


title: Marine iguana

text: On his visit to the islands in 1835, despite making extensive observations on the creatures, Charles Darwin was revolted by the animals' appearance, writing:


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas have a thickset body and relatively short, robust limbs. Adults have a row of spines extending from the nape, along the back to the tail. Males have longer spines, and larger bony plates on the top of their head than females. There are some differences in the spines depending on the island and they are most elaborate on Fernandina (subspecies "cristatus"). The scales on the top of the head of the marine iguana are quite conical and pointed. Although less extreme, the same can be seen in the Galápagos land iguanas (genus "Conolophus"), while these scales at most are slightly domed in other iguanas. Overall the skeleton of the marine iguana shows many similarities with the chuckwallas (genus "Sauromalus"), but this is an example of homoplasy, as the two are not closely related.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas are not always black; the young have a lighter coloured dorsal stripe, and some adult specimens are grey. Dark tones allow the lizards to rapidly absorb heat to minimize the period of lethargy after emerging from the water. The marine iguana lacks agility on land but is a graceful swimmer. Its laterally flattened tail provides propulsion and the row of spines along the back provide stability, while its long, sharp claws allow it to hold onto rocks in strong currents. Adult males vary in colour with the season, becoming brighter when breeding. There are also major differences in the colour of the adult males depending on the subspecies. Males of the relatively small southern islands of Española, Floreana and Santa Fé (subspecies "venustissimus" and "trillmichi") are the most colourful, with bright pinkish-red and turquoise markings. In comparison, those of the relatively small northern islands of Genovesa, Marchena, Pinta, Wolf and Darwin ("jeffreysi", "hayampi", "sielmanni" and "nanus") are almost all blackish without contrasting markings. Other subspecies tend to resemble duller versions of "venustissimus" and "trillmichi", or are blackish with markings in pale yellowish, ochre, greenish or grey (sooty to near white). It is suspected that the exact algal diet of each population plays a role in their colour. Females show much less variation between the islands and are typically dark with less contrasting colours than the males. In most places, females do not change colour conspicuously between the breeding and non-breeding season, but at least on Española (subspecies "venustissimus") they do assume relatively bright male-like colours when nesting, which is possibly related to their need of defending the nest from other females on an island with few suitable sites.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas typically range from in snout-to-vent length and have a tail length from . There are major geographical differences, as iguanas from large islands tend to grow relatively large as adults, while those from small islands are smaller in size. In one study, the average snout-to-vent length on Wolf and Darwin Islands (subspecies "jeffreysi") was about , and those on Genovesa Island (subspecies "nanus") were only slightly larger. In comparison, Santa Cruz marine iguanas ("hassi") had an average snout-to-vent length of about , and those of Isabela and Fernandina ("cristatus") were only slightly smaller. Other subspecies were of intermediate size, in between the small Wolf, Darwin and Genovesa iguanas and the large Santa Cruz, Isabela and Fernandina iguanas. In another study, the largest were from western San Cristóbal Island ("mertensi"), followed by those from Isabela ("cristatus", in part), Floreana ("venustissimus", in part), eastern San Cristóbal ("godzilla"), Fernandina ("cristatus", in part) and Santa Cruz ("hassi"). The smallest by far were from Genovesa ("nanus"), but this study did not include any marine iguanas from Wolf and Darwin Islands. The remaining island populations were of intermediate size.


title: Marine iguana

text: The maximum weight of adult males ranges from on southern Isabela to on Genovesa. This difference in body size of marine iguanas between islands is due to the amount of food available, which depends on sea temperature and algae growth.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas are sexually dimorphic with adult males on average being significantly longer and weighing about twice as much as adult females. Additionally, males have broader heads and larger tubercles than females. However, the largest females are only about 20–40% shorter than the largest males. There is a correlation between longevity and body size, particularly for adult males. Large body size in males is selected sexually, but can be detrimental during El Niño events when resources are scarce. This results in large males suffering higher mortality than females and smaller adult males. The mortality rates of marine iguanas are explained through the size difference between the sexes.


title: Marine iguana

text: Female marine iguanas reach sexual maturity at the age of 3–5 years, while males reach sexual maturity at the age of 6–8 years. Sexual maturity is marked by the first steep and abrupt decline in bone growth cycle thickness. Marine iguanas can reach an age of up to 60 years, but average is 12 years or less.


title: Marine iguana

text: Reproduction in the marine iguana begins during the last part of the cold and dry season, with breeding from December to March and nesting from January to April. The exact timing varies with location, depending on algal growth and the nutrient-rich Cromwell Current. It occurs earliest on islands like Fernandina, Isabela, Santa Fé and Genovesa, and latest on islands like Española. An adult marine iguana, whether male or female, will typically breed every other year, but if there is plenty of food a female may breed each year.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas live in coastal colonies that typically range from 20 to 500 animals, but sometimes more than 1,000. Their bodies often touch each other, but there are no social interactions like grooming, as commonly seen in social mammals and birds. Females are always highly gregarious and males are gregarious outside the breeding season. However, large males defend territories for up to three months during the breeding season, and in this period they sometimes fight other males. A territory can be up to almost , but is usually less than half that size, and can be as small as . A territory is often delimited by geographic features, like boulders or crevices. The territories tend to occur in clusters with several located adjacent to each other, forming a lek, but they can occur singly. Medium-sized males roam areas near the territories of large males or walk along beaches looking for females, while small "sneaky" males may enter the territories of large males. To threaten another male, a male will bob his head, walk on stiff legs, raise the spiny crest along the back and open the mouth to reveal the reddish interior. In most cases the suitor will turn away, but if he responds with the same behavior a fight ensues. During fights they typically do not bite each other, instead thrusting their heads together in an attempt to push the other away. The bony plates on the top of their heads are especially suited for interlocking. Fights between males may last for hours, and are often interrupted by periodic breaks. Once a winner has been established through the headbutting, the loser assumes a submissive position and retreats. In general fights between males are harmless and highly ritualized, but on occasion they will bite and injure each other.


title: Marine iguana

text: Males are primarily selected by females on the basis of their body size. Females display a stronger preference for mating with bigger males. It is precisely because of body size that reproductive performance increases and "is mediated by higher survival of larger hatchlings from larger females and increased mating success of larger males." Other factors involved in the female's choice of partner are the display frequency by a male (especially head-bobbing) and the quality of a male's territory. Females prefer male territories that include or are near their own resting places, which they choose based on proximity to the sea, access to shade, low midday temperature and the possibility of sunbathing in the afternoon. Males with territories that are near the center of the lek tend to have a greater mating success than males with peripheral territories, but the size of a territory does not affect mating success. Large territorial males that frequently display also emit higher levels of certain acidic compounds (including 11-Eicosenoic acid) from their femoral pores, which may function as pheromones that enhance their chance of attracting females. Females can move freely between different territories, but receive less harassment from opportunistic non-territorial males when inside another male's territory. Medium-sized males attempt to mate by force and small males by stealth and force, but they have a low mating success rate compared to the large males that maintain a territory. During courtship display, a territorial male nods at the female, may open his mouth, and performs a slow sideways walk towards her. If she accepts, the male will mount her while holding her by the neck. A mating lasts no more than 20 minutes, typically 3 to 4 minutes, but it is comparatively rapid in the small "sneaky" males, which easily are overlooked because their size, general morphology and colours are similar to those of a female. This rapid mating is necessary because large males will chase them out of their territory as soon as they are discovered. During each breeding season, a male will mate with many females if given the chance, but the female only mates once. Once a female has mated, she rejects other suitors by nodding her head at them.


title: Marine iguana

text: Roughly one month after copulation, the female lays between one and six eggs, typically two or three. The leathery white eggs measure about and weigh . This is large for an iguana, and altogether the eggs may weigh up to one-quarter the weight of the female. The nest sites can be as much as inland, but typically are much closer to the coast. They are occasionally as little as inland, although they have to be above the high tide water mark. The nest is deep and dug in sand or volcanic ash by the female. On islands where there are few suitable sites and digging is difficult due to a relatively hard soil and many rocks, the female guards the nest for several days after the eggs have been buried, ensuring that they are not dug up by other nesting females. As in males defending their territory from other males, females defending their nest site from other females begin with a threat display. If this fails to scare the opponent away, the fights between females involve much biting and are less ritualized than the territorial fights between males. Where there are more suitable sites and the soil is loose, females are less likely to fight for a location and do not guard their nest after the eggs have been buried. The eggs hatch after about three to four months. The hatchlings are in snout-to-vent length, and weigh . As soon as they emerge from the nest they run for cover, and begin their trip to locations that provides optimum conditions for feeding, temperature regulation and shelter. Some hatchlings have been recorded moving as far as in two days.


title: Marine iguana

text: The marine iguana forages almost exclusively on red and green algae in the inter- and subtidal zones. At least 10 genera of algae are regularly consumed, including the red algae "Centroceras", "Gelidium", "Grateloupia", "Hypnea", "Polysiphonia" and "Pterocladiella". In some populations the green algae "Ulva" dominates the diet. The algal diet varies depending on algal abundance, individual preferences, foraging behaviour, season and exact island of feeding. Some species with chemical deterrents, such as "Bifurcaria", "Laurencia" and "Ochtodes", are actively avoided, but otherwise algal food choice mainly depends on energy content and digestibility. On Santa Cruz Island, 4–5 red algal species are the food of choice. During neap low tides, however, they usually avoided green algae "Ulva lobata" is eaten more often since the preferred red algae is not easily available. Brown algae have occasionally also been recorded in their diet, but marine iguanas are unable to easily digest these and will starve if it is the only type present. A marine iguana typically eats about dry weight or fresh weight of algae per day. At Punta Espinoza on northeastern Fernandina Island it has been estimated that the almost 1,900 marine iguanas eat about 27–29 tonnes (fresh weight) of algae per year, a rate of consumption that is counterbalanced by the very high growth rate of the algae. They may feed on crustaceans, insects, and sea lion feces and afterbirth on rare occasions. The population on North Seymour Island will supplement their diet with land plants, primarily "Batis maritima", or other coastal succulents like "Sesuvium portulacastrum". These North Seymour iguanas have a higher survival rate during periods where their normal algal food is reduced. However, the hindgut of marine iguanas is specially adapted to algae feeding, likely restricting the possibility of efficiently switching to other plant types. The algae are digested with the help of endosymbiotic bacteria in their gut.


title: Marine iguana

text: In the first months after hatching, the juveniles mainly feed on feces from larger marine iguanas, gaining the bacteria needed for digesting algae. It has been suggested that young iguanas up to about two years old are unable to swim, but studies have shown that even newly hatched marine iguanas are good swimmers; they just strongly try to avoid entering the water. At about 1–2 years old the young may voluntarily swim in shallow water and tide pools, but they do not dive.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas can dive as deep as , and can spend up to one hour underwater. When diving to or deeper, they regularly remain submerged from 15 to more than 30 minutes. Most dives are much shorter in duration and shallower than . Individuals foraging near-shore, often less than deep, typically only spend about 3 minutes underwater. Only 5% of marine iguanas dive for algae offshore and these individuals are the large males. The minimum size of these divers vary with island and subspecies, ranging from on Genovesa Island ("A. c. nanus") to on Fernandina Island ("A. c. cristatus"). They are slow swimmers, averaging just . The highest recorded speed is only about twice that figure and this can typically only be sustained in bursts that last less than a minute. Most females and smaller males feed on exposed algae in the intertidal zone during low tide, retreating once the water returns and starts washing over them. They often scurry back-and-forth repeatedly, running to a patch of algae to take a few bites and then return fast to higher ground to avoid incoming waves. The separation in feeding behavior is advantageous because the large offshore feeding males experience less competition for food from smaller males and females. A few individuals of intermediate size may use both feeding strategies. In general, each marine iguana has a specific feeding site it returns to day after day. Most feed daily, but large offshore feeding males often only every second or third day. During bad weather with high waves marine iguanas do not feed, sometimes for more than a week. Large males often do not feed for several weeks when maintaining a breeding territory, resulting in them losing up to about one-quarter of their weight. It takes many months for them to return to their original weight. In captivity, individuals have remained strong and active even after fasting for as much as 100 days.


title: Marine iguana

text: Foraging behavior changes in accordance to the seasons and foraging efficiency increases with temperature. These environmental changes and the ensuing occasional food unavailability have caused marine iguanas to evolve by acquiring efficient methods of foraging in order to maximize their energy intake and body size. During an El Niño cycle in which food diminished for two years, some were found to decrease their length by as much as 20%. When food supply returned to normal, iguana size followed suit. It is speculated that the bones of the iguana actually shorten as shrinkage of connective tissue could only account for a 10% change in length.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas have several adaptions that aid their feeding. Their flattened tail is the primary means of propulsion in the water. When on the surface, they may use their legs for maintaining balance. Although their partially webbed feet often are mentioned, this webbing is very marginal and no greater in extent than in the green iguana, a species that also shares the flattened tail. Marine iguanas have powerful limbs with long, sharp claws for climbing, holding onto rocks and pulling themselves forward when at the sea bottom (adding to the propulsion provided by the tail). They are buoyant and float to the ocean surface if they are not actively swimming or holding on to rocks underwater. However, they have unusually compact (osteosclerose) limb bones compared to the land iguana, especially those from the front limbs, providing ballast to help with diving.


title: Marine iguana

text: Other adaptions in marine iguanas are blunt heads ("flat noses") and sharp teeth allowing them to easier graze algae off rocks. Together with a few "Ctenosaurus" species, it is the only iguana that never has more than three tips (tricuspid) on each tooth. Uniquely, the side-tips on the marine iguana's teeth are quite large, only somewhat smaller than the central tip. It also appears to replace its teeth at a higher rate than other iguanas. As a sea reptile, much salt is ingested. The salt is filtered from their blood and then excreted by specialised cranial exocrine glands at the nostrils, expelled from the body in a process much like sneezing. The marine iguana's cranium has an unusually large nasal cavity compared to other iguanas, which is necessary to accommodate the large salt glands. The head may appear white from encrusted salt.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas have mutualistic and commensal relationships with several other animals. Lava lizards may scurry over marine iguanas when hunting flies, and Darwin's finches, mockingbirds and Sally lightfoot crabs sometimes feed on mites and ticks that they pick off their skin. Marine iguanas typically ignore these visits. When underwater, they are often cleaned by fish, like Pacific sergeant majors that pick off moulting skin. Although there are no apparent benefits to either species, marine iguanas commonly live close together with the much larger Galápagos sea lions. The two species generally ignore each other and an iguana may even crawl over the body of a sea lion.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas are unique as they are marine reptiles that forage on inter- and subtidal algae almost exclusively. They forage in the relatively cold waters around the Galápagos Islands, which typically are between at the sea surface. As their preferred body temperature is from and the temperature declines throughout a foraging trip to the sea, sometimes by as much as , the marine iguana has several behavioral adaptations for thermoregulation. At cold temperatures their muscles are less efficient, but their relatively high temperature preference is also related to the optimal temperature for digesting the algal food in their gut.


title: Marine iguana

text: As an ectothermic animal, the marine iguana can spend only a limited time in cold water diving for algae. Afterwards it basks in the sun to warm up. Until it can do so it is unable to move effectively, making it vulnerable to predation. However, this is counteracted by their highly aggressive nature consisting of biting and expansive bluffs when in this disadvantageous state. Their dark shade aids in heat reabsorption. In colder periods with cloudy weather and much wind, juveniles will stay in the lee of rocks, still gaining the heat from the sun. Adults may move inland to low-lying sites with less wind because of bushes and lava ridges but still exposed to direct sun. When in the water and their temperature is falling, their blood circulation is reduced because of a low heart rate of about 30 beats per minute, allowing them to better conserve their warmth. When on land and heating up, the higher heart rate of about 100 beats per minute aids in spreading the heat throughout the body. To conserve heat during the night, they often sleep closely together in groups that may number up to 50 individuals, while others sleep alone below plants or in crevices.


title: Marine iguana

text: In general, the time of each foraging trip is directly related to the water temperature; the colder the water the shorter the foraging trip. Additionally, marine iguanas that forage in or near the intertidal zone prefer to do so during low tides, allowing them to remain on land (on rocks exposed by the tide) or return to land faster. Individuals that forage further from the shore by diving are large males, which mainly feed during the hot midday (although it may occur from late morning to early evening), are less affected by the cool water because of their body size and are more efficient swimmers.


title: Marine iguana

text: Under the tropical sun, overheating can also be a problem. To avoid this, they pant, and adopt a posture where they face the sun and lift their body up, thereby exposing as little as possible of their body to direct sun and allowing cooling air to pass underneath.


title: Marine iguana

text: The marine iguana has a relatively small range and is currently considered vulnerable by the IUCN. Most subpopulations have the same IUCN rating, but those of San Cristóbal, Santiago and Genovesa Islands are considered endangered.


title: Marine iguana

text: On some shorelines they can be very numerous, with densities as high as 8,000 per kilometer (almost 13,000 per mile), and their biomass compared to the area they occupy may surpass that of any known reptile. However, their distribution is patchy, and colonies are generally found within of the ocean, naturally limiting their range. The total population for the entire archipelago is estimated to be 200,000–300,000 individuals, although this number is labelled with considerable uncertainty. Most subpopulations have not been surveyed in detail because their lifestyle and habitat make it difficult to survey with a high level of accuracy. By far the largest subpopulation—likely including around of all marine iguanas—lives on Fernandina Island, but estimates vary greatly from 15,000 to 120,000 individuals. In contrast, the maximum size of the subpopulations on the islands of San Cristóbal, Darwin and Pinzon is estimated to be 400, 800 and 900, respectively. It is estimated that Marchena Island has 4,000–10,000 marine iguanas, Rabida Island has 1,000–2,000 and Santa Fé Island has 15,000–30,000. Although individuals may on occasion be transferred between islands by ocean currents, marine iguanas are unable to swim between all but the nearest islands in the archipelago because of their slow speed and limited stamina in the relatively cold water.


title: Marine iguana

text: The periodic El Niño events reduce the cold water needed for algae to grow and this can drastically reduce the marine iguana population, on some islands with as much as 90%. Population recoveries after El Niños are fast; even when reduced by 30–50%, the population is generally able to recover within four years. However, recoveries can be partially impeded by the invasive brown algae "Giffordia mitchelliae". When their food algae (red and green algae) disappears during El Niños, the areas may be taken over by this brown algae, causing starvation among the marine iguanas. With global warming, it is expected that El Niño events will be stronger and occur more frequently.


title: Marine iguana

text: Introduced predators, to which they have little or no protection, include animals such as pigs, dogs, cats and rats. Dogs may take adult marine iguanas, while the others may feed on their young or eggs. This inhibits reproduction and the long-term survival of the species. Introduced predators represent a major problem on the islands of Santa Cruz, Santiago, Isabela, Floreana and San Cristóbal where very few marine iguana hatchlings survive. Marine iguanas are ecologically naïve and have not developed efficient anti-predator strategies against the introduced species. For example, the first dogs were introduced to the Galápagos Islands more than 100 years ago, but marine iguanas have not developed an anti-predator strategy against them. In general, native predators represent a less serious threat to the marine iguana. Natural land predators include the Galápagos hawk, short-eared owl, lava gull, herons and Galápagos racer snakes that may take small marine iguanas. When swimming, marine iguanas are occasionally attacked and eaten by sharks, although the two often behave indifferently to each other, even when close together. Of the native predators, the Galápagos hawk is likely the most important, and it may also take weakened adults (not just young), but this hawk is quite rare with a total population numbering only a few hundred individuals. Marine iguanas have anti-predator strategies that reduce the impact of the Galápagos hawk, including an increased vigilance when hearing the alarm call of the Galápagos mockingbird, another species that is sometimes preyed upon by the hawk.


title: Marine iguana

text: Marine iguanas can easily be approached by humans as they are very tame and generally make little or no attempt to escape. Individuals that have been caught before are only slightly more wary when again encountering humans. Even when repeatedly caught and deliberately mishandled each time, they do not attempt to bite or lash with their tail in self-defense (although the sharp claws can cause painful scratches when the iguana attempts to gain a grip) and only move a few feet once released, allowing themselves to be caught again with ease. Pathogens introduced to the archipelago by humans pose a serious threat to this species. The marine iguana has evolved over time in an isolated environment and lacks immunity to many pathogens. As a result, the iguanas are at higher risk of contracting infections, contributing to their threatened status.


title: Marine iguana

text: Occasional oil spills in the region also present a threat. For example, the Santa Fé population was reduced by almost as a result of the MV "Jessica" oil spill in 2001, and even low-level oiling may kill marine iguanas. It is suspected that the primary cause of death during these events is starvation due to the loss of their sensitive gut bacteria, which they rely on to digest algae.


title: Marine iguana

text: The marine iguana is completely protected under the laws of Ecuador, and is listed under CITES Appendix II. Almost all its land range is in the Galápagos National Park (only the 3% human-inhabited sections in the archipelago are excluded) and all its sea range is in the Galápagos Marine Reserve. Certain coastal roads have lower speed limits to reduce the risk posed by cars, especially to the young. There have been attempts of removing introduced predators from some places, but this has not been without problems. Feral dogs mostly feed on large marine iguanas, but also limit the feral cat population. When feral dogs are removed feral cats can thrive and they feed on small marine iguanas. In 2012, the last black rats were eradicated from Pinzón Island.


title: Marine iguana

text: Studies and research have been done on marine iguanas that can help and promote conservation efforts to preserve the endemic species. Monitoring levels of marine algae, both dimensionally and hormonally, is an effective way to predict the fitness of the marine iguana species. Exposure to tourism affects marine iguanas, and corticosterone levels can predict their survival during El Niño events. Corticosterone levels in species measure the stress that they face in their populations. Marine iguanas show higher stress-induced corticosterone concentrations during famine (El Niño) than feast conditions (La Niña). The levels differ between the islands, and show that survival varies throughout them during an El Niño event. The variable response of corticosterone is one indicator of the general public health of the populations of marine iguanas across the Galápagos Islands, which is a useful factor in the conservation of the species.


title: Marine iguana

text: Another indicator of fitness is the levels of glucocorticoid. Glucocorticoid release is considered beneficial in helping animals survive stressful conditions, while low glucocorticoid levels are an indicator of poor body condition. Species undergoing a large measure of stress, resulting in elevated glucocorticoid levels can cause complications such as reproduction failure. Human activity has been considered a cause of elevated levels of glucocorticoid in species. Results of a study show that marine iguanas in areas central to tourism are not chronically stressed, but do show lower stress response compared to groups undisturbed by tourism. Tourism, thus, does affect the physiology of marine iguanas. Information of glucocorticoid levels are good monitors in predicting long term consequences of human impact.


title: Marine iguana

text: Although marine iguanas have been kept in captivity, the specialised diet represents a challenge. They have lived for more than a decade in captivity, but have never bred under such conditions. The development of a captive breeding program (as already exists for the Galápagos land iguana) possibly is a necessity if all the island subspecies are to survive.


title: David Scott

text: David Randolph Scott (born June 6, 1932) is an American retired test pilot and NASA astronaut who was the seventh person to walk on the Moon. Selected as part of the third group of astronauts in 1963, Scott flew to space three times and commanded Apollo 15, the fourth lunar landing; he is one of four surviving Moon walkers and the last surviving crew member of Apollo15.


title: David Scott

text: Before becoming an astronaut, Scott graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point and joined the Air Force. After serving as a fighter pilot in Europe, he graduated from the Air Force Experimental Test Pilot School (Class 62C) and the Aerospace Research Pilot School (Class IV). Scott retired from the Air Force in 1975 with the rank of colonel, and more than 5,600 hours of logged flying time.


title: David Scott

text: As an astronaut, Scott made his first flight into space as a pilot of the Gemini 8 mission, along with Neil Armstrong, in March 1966, spending just under eleven hours in low Earth orbit. He would have been the second American astronaut to walk in space had Gemini8 not made an emergency abort. Scott then spent ten days in orbit in March 1969 as Command Module Pilot of Apollo 9, a mission that extensively tested the Apollo spacecraft, along with Commander James McDivitt and Lunar Module Pilot Rusty Schweickart.


title: David Scott

text: After backing up Apollo 12, Scott made his third and final flight into space as commander of the Apollo15 mission, the fourth crewed lunar landing and the first J mission. Scott and James Irwin remained on the Moon for three days. Following their return to Earth, Scott and his crewmates fell from favor with NASA after it was disclosed that they had carried four hundred unauthorized postal covers to the Moon. After serving as director of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center in California, Scott retired from the agency in 1977. Since then, he has worked on a number of space-related projects and served as a consultant for several films about the space program, including "Apollo13".


title: David Scott

text: Scott was born June 6, 1932, at Randolph Field (for which he received his middle name) near San Antonio, Texas. His father was Tom William Scott (1902–1988), a fighter pilot in the United States Army Air Corps who would rise to the rank of brigadier general; his mother was Marian Scott (; 1906–1998). Scott lived his earliest years at Randolph Field, where his father was stationed, before moving to an air base in Indiana, and then in 1936 to Manila in the Philippines, then under U.S. rule. David remembered his father as a strict disciplinarian. The family returned to the United States in December 1939. By the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the family was living in San Antonio again; shortly thereafter Tom Scott was deployed overseas.


title: David Scott

text: As it was felt that he needed more discipline than he would receive with his father gone for three years, David was sent to Texas Military Institute, spending his summers at Hermosa Beach in California with his father's college friend, David Shattuck, after whom he had been named. Determined to become a pilot like his father, David built many model airplanes and watched with fascination war films about flying. By the time of Tom Scott's return, David was old enough to be allowed to go up in a military aircraft with him, and in David Scott's autobiography remembered it as "the most exciting thing I had ever experienced".


title: David Scott

text: David Scott was active in the Boy Scouts of America, achieving its second-highest rank, Life Scout. With Tom Scott assigned to March Air Force Base near Riverside, California, David attended Riverside Polytechnic High School, where he joined the swimming team and set several state and local records. Before David could finish high school, Tom Scott was transferred to Washington, D.C., and after some discussion as to whether he should remain in California to graduate, David attended Western High School in Washington, graduating in June 1949.


title: David Scott

text: David Scott wanted an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point but lacked connections to secure one. He took a government civil service examination for competitive appointments and accepted a swimming scholarship to the University of Michigan where he was an honor student in the engineering school. In the spring of 1950, he received and accepted an invitation to attend West Point. Scott attended Michigan on a swimming scholarship, set a freshman record in the 440-yard freestyle, and the team captain during Scott's year there, Jack Craigie, recalled that the West Point swimming coach, Gordon Chalmers, was happy to get Scott from Michigan, one of the dominant programs of the time.


title: David Scott

text: Scott still wanted to fly and wanted to be commissioned in the newly established United States Air Force (USAF). The Air Force Academy was founded in 1954, the year Scott graduated from West Point; an interim arrangement had been made whereby a quarter of West Point and United States Naval Academy graduates could volunteer to be commissioned as Air Force officers. Earning a Bachelor of Science degree in military science, Scott graduated 5th in his class of 633 and was commissioned in the Air Force.


title: David Scott

text: Scott did six months of primary pilot training at Marana Air Base in Arizona, beginning there in July 1954. He completed Undergraduate Pilot Training at Webb Air Force Base, Texas, in 1955, then went through gunnery training at Laughlin Air Force Base, Texas, and Luke Air Force Base, Arizona.


title: David Scott

text: From April 1956 to July 1960, Scott flew with the 32d Tactical Fighter Squadron at Soesterberg Air Base, Netherlands, flying F-86 Sabres and F-100 Super Sabres. The weather there was often poor, and Scott's piloting skills were tested. Once, he had to land his plane on a golf course after a flameout. On another, he barely made it to a Dutch base on the edge of the North Sea. Scott served in Europe during the Cold War and tensions were often high between the U.S. and Soviet Union. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, his squadron was placed on the highest alert for weeks but was stood down without going into combat.


title: David Scott

text: Scott hoped to advance his career by becoming a test pilot, to be trained at Edwards Air Force Base. He was counseled that the best way to get into test pilot school was to gain a graduate degree in aeronautics. Accordingly, he applied to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and was accepted. He received both a Master of Science degree in Aeronautics/Astronautics and the degree of Engineer in Aeronautics/Astronautics (the E.A.A. degree) from MIT in 1962.


title: David Scott

text: After receiving these degrees, Scott was stunned to receive orders from the Air Force to report to the new Air Force Academy as a professor, rather than to test pilot school. Although challenging orders was strongly discouraged, Scott went to the Pentagon and found a sympathetic ear from a colonel. Scott received changed orders to report to Edwards.


title: David Scott

text: Scott reported to the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards in July 1962. The commandant of the school was Chuck Yeager, the first person to break the sound barrier, whom Scott idolized; Scott got to fly several times with him. Scott graduated top pilot in his class. He was selected for the Aerospace Research Pilot School, also at Edwards, where those intended as Air Force astronauts were trained. There he learned how to control aircraft, such as the Lockheed NF-104A, at altitudes of up to .


title: David Scott

text: In applying to be part of the third group of astronauts in 1963, Scott intended only a temporary detour from a mainstream military career; he expected to fly in space a couple of times and then return to the Air Force. He was accepted as one of the fourteen Group3 astronauts later that year.


title: David Scott

text: Scott's initial assignment was as an astronaut representative at MIT supervising the development of the Apollo Guidance Computer. He spent most of 1964 and 1965 in residence in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He served as backup CAPCOM during Gemini 4 and as a CAPCOM during Gemini 5.


title: David Scott

text: After the conclusion of Gemini 5, Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton informed Scott that he would fly with Neil Armstrong on Gemini 8. This made Scott the first Group3 astronaut to become a member of a prime crew, and this without having served on a backup crew. Scott was highly regarded by his colleagues for his piloting credentials; another Group3 astronaut, Michael Collins, wrote later that Scott's selection to fly with Armstrong helped convince him that NASA knew what it was doing.


title: David Scott

text: Scott found Armstrong something of a taskmaster, but the two men greatly respected each other and worked well together. They spent most of the seven months before launch in each other's company. One part of the training that Scott undertook without Armstrong was riding the Vomit Comet, where he practiced in preparation for a planned spacewalk.


title: David Scott

text: On March 16, 1966, Armstrong and Scott were launched into space, a flight originally planned to last three days. The Agena rocket with which they were to dock had been launched an hour and forty minutes earlier. They carefully approached and docked with the Agena, the first docking ever accomplished in space. However, after the docking, there was unexpected movement by the joined craft. Mission Control was out of touch during this portion of the orbit, and the astronauts' belief that the Agena was causing the problem proved incorrect, for once they performed an emergency undocking, the spin only got worse. With the spacecraft spinning, there was a risk of the astronauts blacking out or the Gemini vehicle disintegrating. The problem was one of the craft's Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS) thrusters firing unexpectedly; the crew shut down those thrusters, and Armstrong activated the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to negate the spin. The RCS thrusters were to be used for reentry, and the mission rules said if they were activated early, Gemini8 had to return to Earth. Gemini8 splashed down in the Western Pacific on the day of launch; the mission lasted only ten hours, and the early termination meant that Scott's spacewalk was scrubbed.


title: David Scott

text: According to Francis French and Colin Burgess in their book on NASA and the Space Race, "Scott, in particular, had shown incredible presence of mind during the unexpected events of the Gemini8 mission. Even in the middle of an emergency, out of contact with Mission Control, he had thought to reenable ground control command of the Agena before the two vehicles separated." This allowed NASA to check the Agena from the ground, and use it for a subsequent Gemini mission. Scott's competence was recognized by NASA when, five days after the brief flight, he was assigned to an Apollo crew. Along with Armstrong, Scott received the NASA Exceptional Service Medal and the Air Force awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross as well. He was also promoted to lieutenant colonel.


title: David Scott

text: Scott's Apollo assignment was as backup senior pilot/navigator for what would become known as Apollo 1, scheduled for launch in February 1967, with Jim McDivitt as backup commander and Russell Schweickart as pilot. In that capacity, they spent much of their time at North American Rockwell's plant in Downey, California, where the command and service module (CSM) for that mission was under construction.


title: David Scott

text: By January 1967, Scott's crew had been assigned as prime crew for a subsequent Apollo mission and were at Downey on January 27 when a fire took the lives of the Apollo1 prime crew during a pre-launch test. During the fire, the inward-opening hatch had proved impossible for the astronauts to open, and Scott's post-fire assignment, with all flights put on hold amid a complete review of the Apollo program, was to serve on the team designing a simpler, outward-opening hatch.


title: David Scott

text: After the pause, Scott's crew was assigned to Apollo8, intended to be an Earth-orbit test of the full Apollo spacecraft, including the Lunar Module (LM). There were delays in the development of the lunar module and in August 1968, NASA official George Low proposed that if Apollo 7 in October went well, Apollo8 should go to lunar orbit without a Lunar Module, so as not to hold up the program. The Earth-orbit test would become Apollo9. McDivitt was offered Apollo8 by Slayton, but turned it down on behalf of his crew (who fully agreed), preferring to wait for Apollo9, which would involve extensive testing of the spacecraft and was dubbed "a test pilot's dream".


title: David Scott

text: As command module pilot for Apollo9 Scott's responsibilities were heavy. The LM was to separate from the CSM during the mission; if it failed to return, Scott would have to run the entire spacecraft for reentry, normally a three-man job. He would also have to go rescue the LM if it could not perform the rendezvous, and if it could not dock, would have to assist McDivitt and Schweickart in performing an extravehicular activity (EVA) or spacewalk, back to the CSM. Scott was somewhat unhappy, though, that CSM-103, which he had worked on extensively, would stay with Apollo8, with Apollo9 given CSM-104.


title: David Scott

text: The planned February 28, 1969, launch date was postponed as all three astronauts had head colds, and NASA was wary of medical issues in space after problems on Apollo7 and Apollo8. The launch took place on March 3, 1969. Within hours of launch, Scott had performed a maneuver essential to the lunar landing by piloting the CSM "Gumdrop" away from the S-IVB rocket stage, then turned "Gumdrop" around and docked with the LM "Spider" still attached to the S-IVB, before the combined spacecraft separated from the rocket.


title: David Scott

text: Schweickart vomited twice on the third day in space, suffering from space adaptation syndrome. He was supposed to do a spacewalk from the LM's hatch to that of the CM the following day, proving that this could be done under emergency conditions, but because of concerns about his condition, simply exited the LM while Scott stood in the CM's hatch, bringing in experiments and photographing Schweickart. On the fifth day in space, March 7, McDivitt and Schweickart in the LM "Spider" flew away from the CSM while Scott remained in "Gumdrop", making him the first American astronaut to be alone in space since the Mercury program. After the redocking, "Spider" was jettisoned. The LM had gone over 100 miles (160km) from the CSM during the test.


title: David Scott

text: The remainder of the mission was devoted to tests of the command module, mostly performed by Scott; Schweickart called these days "Dave Scott's mission"; McDivitt and Schweickart had much time to observe the Earth as Scott worked. The mission stayed in space one orbit longer than planned due to rough seas in the Atlantic Ocean recovery zone. Apollo9 splashed down on March 13, 1969, less than four nautical miles (7km) from the helicopter carrier USS "Guadalcanal", east of the Bahamas.


title: David Scott

text: Scott was deemed to have performed his duties well, and on April 10, 1969, was named backup commander of Apollo 12, with Al Worden as command module pilot and James Irwin as lunar module pilot. McDivitt had chosen to go into NASA management, and Slayton had seen Scott as a potential crew commander; Worden and Irwin were working on the support crews for Apollo9 and Apollo10, respectively. Schweickart was ruled out due to the space sickness episode. This put the three in line to be the prime crew for Apollo 15. Scott's status as backup commander of the next flight allowed him to sit in the Mission Control room as Apollo 11, with his old crewmate Armstrong in command, landed on the Moon. That Scott, Worden, and Irwin would be the crew of Apollo15 was announced on March 26, 1970.


title: David Scott

text: Apollo 15 would be the first J Mission, which emphasized scientific research, with longer stays on the Moon's surface and the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). Already having an interest in geology, Scott made time during the training for his crew to go on field trips with Caltech geologist Lee Silver. The scientists were divided over where Apollo15 should land; Scott's argument for the area of Hadley Rille won the day. As time dwindled towards the launch date, Scott pushed to make the field trips more like what they would encounter on the lunar surface, with mock backpacks simulating what they would wear on the Moon, and from November 1970 onwards, the training version of the LRV.


title: David Scott

text: Apollo 15 launched from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A on July 26, 1971. The outward flight to the Moon's orbit saw only minor difficulties, and the mission entered lunar orbit without incident. The descent to the Moon by the LM "Falcon", with Scott and Irwin aboard, took place on the late afternoon of July 30, with Scott as commander attempting the landing. Despite difficulties caused by the computer-controlled flight path being to the south of what was planned, Scott assumed manual control for the final descent, and successfully landed the "Falcon" within the designated landing zone.


title: David Scott

text: After landing, Scott and Irwin donned the helmets and gloves of their pressure suits and Scott performed the first and only stand-up EVA on the lunar surface, by poking his head and upper body out of the docking port on top of the LM. He took panoramic photographs of the surrounding area from an elevated position and scouted the terrain they would be driving across the next day. After deploying the LRV from its folded-up position on the side of the LM's descent stage, Scott drove with Irwin in the direction of Hadley Rille. Once there, Scott marveled at the beauty of the scene. While their exploits were followed by a television camera mounted on the Rover and controlled from Earth, Scott and Irwin took samples of the lunar surface, including the rock Great Scott named after the astronaut, before returning to the LM to set up the ALSEP, the experiments that were to continue to run after their departure.


title: David Scott

text: The second traverse, the following day (August 1) was to the slope of Mount Hadley Delta. At Spur Crater, they discovered one of the most famous lunar samples, a plagioclase-rich anorthosite from the early lunar crust, that was later dubbed the Genesis Rock by the press. On the third day, August 2, they went on their final moonwalk, an excursion cut short by problems with retrieving a core sample. On their return to the LM, Scott, before the television camera, dropped a hammer and a feather to demonstrate Galileo's theory that objects in a vacuum will drop at the same rate. After driving the LRV to a position where the camera could view "Falcon" takeoff, Scott left a memorial to the astronauts and cosmonauts who had died to advance space exploration. This consisted of a plaque bearing their names, and a small aluminum sculpture, "Fallen Astronaut", by Paul Van Hoeydonck. Once this was done, Scott re-entered the LM, and soon thereafter, "Falcon" lifted off from the Moon.


title: David Scott

text: Apollo 15 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean north of Honolulu on August 7, 1971. The first crew to land on the Moon and not be quarantined on return, the astronauts were flown to Houston, and after debriefing, were sent off on the usual circuit of addresses to Congress, celebrations, and foreign trips that met returning Apollo astronauts. Scott regretted the lack of quarantine, which he felt would have given them time to recover from the flight, as the demands on their time were heavy.


title: David Scott

text: The crew had arranged with a friend named Horst Eiermann to carry postal covers to the Moon in exchange for about $7,000 for each astronaut. Slayton had issued regulations that personal items taken in spacecraft must be listed for his approval; this was not done for the covers through an error. Scott carried the covers into the CM in his spacesuit; they were transferred to the LM en route to the Moon and landed there with the astronauts. Scott sent 100 of them to Eiermann, and in late 1971, against the astronauts' wishes, the covers were offered for sale by West German stamp dealer Hermann Sieger. The astronauts returned the money, but in April 1972, Slayton learned of the unauthorized covers and had Scott, Worden, and Irwin removed as backup crew members for Apollo 17. The matter became public in June 1972, and the astronauts were reprimanded for poor judgment by NASA and the Air Force the following month. The covers that the crew still had were initially impounded by NASA but were in 1983 returned to the astronauts in an out-of-court settlement, as the government felt it could not successfully defend the lawsuit, and that NASA either authorized the covers to be flown or was aware of them.


title: David Scott

text: The press release that announced the reprimands, dated July 11, 1972, stated that the astronauts' "actions will be given due consideration in their selection for future assignment", something that made it extremely unlikely that they would be selected to fly in space again. "Newsweek" reported that "there are no forthcoming missions for which he [Scott] is being considered". Scott related in his autobiography that Alan Shepard, then head of the Astronaut Office, had offered him the choice between backing up Apollo17 or serving as a special assistant on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, the first joint mission with the Soviet Union; Scott had chosen the latter. Although a NASA spokesman had stated that Scott had no choice but to leave the Astronaut Corps, and this was reproduced in the press, Slayton's supervisor, Christopher C. Kraft, stated that the Public Affairs Office at NASA had erred, and the transfer was not a further rebuke.


title: David Scott

text: In his role with Apollo-Soyuz, Scott traveled to Moscow, leading a team of technical experts. There he met the commander of the Soviet part of the mission, Alexei Leonov, with whom he would later write a joint autobiography. In 1973 Scott was offered the job of deputy director of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, located at Edwards, a place Scott had long loved. This allowed Scott to fly aircraft that reached the edge of space, and let him renew his acquaintance with the retired Chuck Yeager who was there as a consulting test pilot, and to whom Scott granted flying privileges.


title: David Scott

text: On April 18, 1975, at age 42, Scott became the Center Director at Dryden. This was a civilian appointment, and to accept it, Scott retired from the Air Force in March 1975 with the rank of colonel. Kraft wrote in his memoirs that Scott's appointment "pissed off Deke to his eyebrows". Scott found the work interesting and exciting, but with budget cuts and the forthcoming end of Approach and Landing Tests for the Space Shuttle, in 1977 he decided it was time to leave NASA and retired from the agency on September 30, 1977.


title: David Scott

text: Entering the private sector, Scott founded Scott Science and Technology, Inc. In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Scott worked on several government projects, including designing the astronaut training for a proposed Air Force version of the Space Shuttle. One of Scott's firms went out of business after the 1986 "Challenger" disaster; though the company played no part in the disaster, subsequent redesign of parts of the shuttle eliminated Scott's firm's role. After "Challenger", Scott served four years on the Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee, formed to advise the Secretary of Transportation on the possible conversion of ICBMs to launch vehicles. In 1992 Scott was found by a Prescott, Arizona, court to have defrauded nine investors in a partnership organized by him. He was ordered to pay roughly $400,000 to investors in the partnership, which was to create technology to prevent aircraft mechanical breakdowns, but which was never developed.


title: David Scott

text: Scott was a commentator for British television on the first Space Shuttle flight (STS-1) in April 1981. He also was a consultant on the film "Apollo13" and for the 1998 HBO miniseries "From the Earth to the Moon", in which he was portrayed by Brett Cullen. Scott consulted on the 3D IMAX film, (2005), showing Apollo astronauts on the Moon, and produced by Tom Hanks and the IMAX Corporation. He is one of the astronauts featured in the 2007 book and documentary "In the Shadow of the Moon".


title: David Scott

text: From 2003 to 2004 Scott was a consultant on the BBC TV series "". In 2004, he and Leonov began work on a dual biography/history of the "Space Race" between the United States and the Soviet Union. The book, "Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race", was published in 2006. Armstrong and Hanks both wrote introductions to the book. Scott has worked on the Brown University science teams for the Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter. For NASA, he has worked on the 500-Day Lunar Exploration Study and as a collaborator on the research investigation entitled "Advanced Visualization in Solar System Exploration and Research (ADVISER): Optimizing the Science Return from the Moon and Mars".


title: David Scott

text: Scott had taken two Bulova timepieces, a wristwatch and a stopwatch, with him to the Moon without advance authorization from Slayton. Scott wore the wristwatch on the third EVA, after his NASA-issued Omega Speedmaster lost its crystal. He sold the Bulova watch in 2015 for $1.625million, after which the company marketed similar timepieces, whose accompanying material mentioned Scott and Apollo15. Scott sued in federal court in 2017, alleging Bulova and Kay Jewelers were wrongfully using his name and image for commercial purposes, and in April 2018, a federal magistrate ruled he could proceed on some of his claims. The case was dismissed by agreement of the parties in August 2018, and in 2021, Bulova marked the fiftieth anniversary of Apollo15 with the issuance of a commemorative watch.


title: David Scott

text: In 1959 Scott married his first wife, Ann Lurton Ott. He had two children with her: Tracy (born 1961) and Douglas (born 1963). In 2000, it was reported that he was engaged to British TV presenter Anna Ford; at the time he was still married to Ann Scott, although separated. His relationship with Ford had begun in 1999. By 2001, Scott and Ford had separated. He subsequently married Margaret Black, former vice-chairman of Morgan Stanley. David Scott and Margaret Black-Scott reside in Los Angeles.


title: David Scott

text: Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans presented Scott and Armstrong the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1966 for their Gemini flight. Scott was also awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for the Gemini8 flight. Vice President Spiro Agnew presented the Apollo9 crew with the NASA Distinguished Service Medal. At the ceremony, Agnew said, "I am proud that America has forged to the forefront and established the leadership in space to match our new leadership on Earth." Scott received the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal for the Apollo9 mission.


title: David Scott

text: Agnew also gave the Apollo 15 crew the NASA Distinguished Service Medal. Scott earned his second Air Force Distinguished Service Medal for Apollo15. On September 15, 1971, the city of Chicago hosted the Apollo15 crew in a parade attended by more than 200,000 people. Mayor Daley presented the crew with honorary citizenship medals. On August 25, 1971, the Apollo15 crew were honored with a ticker-tape parade in New York City. The city bestowed them with gold medals. Later that day, U.N. Secretary General Thant awarded the trio the first United Nations Peace Medal. At the Air Force Association's annual dinner dance in September 1971, the Apollo15 crew were presented with the David C. Schilling Trophy, the association's top flight award. Scott presented the Air Force and Air Force Association with items they flew to the Moon: sheet music of "Into the Wild Blue Yonder" and a U.S. Air Force flag. The Apollo15 crew and Robert Gilruth (director of the Manned Spacecraft Center) were awarded the 1971 Robert J. Collier Trophy, an annual award for the greatest achievement in aeronautics or astronautics. Scott received the De la Vaulx Medal, the Gold Space Medal, and the V.M. Komorav Diploma from Fédération Aéronautique Internationale for 1971 for his role in the Apollo15 flight. Scott was awarded his third NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1978.


title: David Scott

text: Scott, Worden, and Irwin were granted honorary Doctorates of Astronautical Science from the University of Michigan in 1971. Scott was awarded an honorary doctor of science and technology degree from Jacksonville University in 2013. It was the first honorary degree bestowed by the university.


title: David Scott

text: Scott is a fellow of the American Astronautical Society, an associate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and a member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Xi, and Sigma Gamma Tau.


title: David Scott

text: In 1982 Scott was inducted with nine other Gemini astronauts into the International Space Hall of Fame in the New Mexico Museum of Space History. Along with twelve other Gemini astronauts, Scott was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1993.


title: Kris Allen

text: Kristopher Neil Allen (born June 21, 1985) is an American singer and songwriter from Conway, Arkansas, and the winner of the eighth season of "American Idol".


title: Kris Allen

text: Allen's "Idol" coronation song, "No Boundaries" and his version of "Heartless" both charted within the Top 20 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. Allen's post-"Idol" self-titled album was released on November 17, 2009, by Jive Records. The album debuted at number 11 on the U.S. "Billboard" 200. The album's lead single, "Live Like We're Dying", was released on September 21, 2009, and peaked at number 18 in the U.S. with combined sales of over 1.7 million. Allen's second major-label album "Thank You Camellia" was released on May 22, 2012, and the lead single "The Vision of Love" was released March 26, 2012.


title: Kris Allen

text: Allen was born in Jacksonville, Arkansas, to Kimberly (née Wood) and Neil Allen. He is the elder of two sons; his younger brother, Daniel, is a college cheerleading coach.


title: Kris Allen

text: Allen's interest in music began very early. He began playing the viola in elementary school and went on to play the instrument in the Mills University Studies High School orchestra, eventually winning a spot in the Arkansas all-state orchestra. Additionally, he taught himself to play the guitar at age 13, and also plays the piano. His musical influences, as stated in his "Idol" confessionals, include the Beatles, Jamie Cullum, Jason Mraz, Pat Monahan, John Mayer and Michael Jackson. Allen played publicly for several years before trying out for "Idol", even opening for earlier "Idol" contestant Sean Michel on multiple occasions. He has described his decision to audition for "American Idol" as a "last hurrah" before giving up his pursuit of a music career.


title: Kris Allen

text: After high school, Allen moved to Conway, Arkansas, to attend the University of Central Arkansas, where he was a business major and a member of Chi Alpha campus ministries. During college, he participated in Christian missionary work around the world, including in Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, South Africa, Spain and Thailand. Allen also served as a worship leader for New Life Church in Conway and Little Rock, AR, as well as for the Chi Alpha campus ministry. He dropped out of college in the middle of his junior year to pursue music professionally, performing in local bars and working as a shoe salesman to make ends meet. Allen planned to go back to college to finish his degree and "get a real job", but instead was persuaded to audition for "American Idol" along with his brother Daniel and his friend Cale Mills. Kris stated that "If I had not made it through in American Idol, I would have gone back to college and gotten my business degree."