title: C. W. McCall

text: Fries died on April 1, 2022, at age 93 from complications of cancer. In an interview he conducted on February 9 he gave his blessing for the use of his signature song "Convoy" for the Freedom Convoy protests in Canada, with Taste of Country noting that he was "energized and enthusiastic" about the revival of interest in the song and its message.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (, ; 27 July 187016 July 1953) was a Franco-English writer and historian of the early twentieth century. Belloc was also an orator, poet, sailor, satirist, writer of letters, soldier, and political activist. His Catholic faith had a strong effect on his works.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc became a naturalised British subject in 1902 while retaining his French citizenship. While attending Oxford, he served as President of the Oxford Union. From 1906 to 1910, he served as one of the few openly Catholic members of the British Parliament.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc was a noted disputant, with a number of long-running feuds. He was also a close friend and collaborator of G. K. Chesterton. George Bernard Shaw, a friend and frequent debate opponent of both Belloc and Chesterton, dubbed the pair the "Chesterbelloc".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc's writings encompassed religious poetry and comic verse for children. His widely sold "Cautionary Tales for Children" included "Jim, who ran away from his nurse, and was eaten by a lion" and "Matilda, who told lies and was burned to death". He wrote historical biographies and numerous travel works, including "The Path to Rome" (1902).


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc was born in La Celle-Saint-Cloud, France to a French father, Louis Belloc (1830–1872) and an English mother. His sister Marie Adelaide Belloc Lowndes also became a writer.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc's mother Bessie Rayner Parkes (1829–1925) was a writer, activist and an advocate for women's equality, a co-founder of the "English Woman's Journal" and the Langham Place Group. As an adult, Belloc campaigned against women's suffrage as a member of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc's maternal grandfather was Joseph Parkes (1796–1865). Belloc's grandmother, Elizabeth Rayner Priestley (1797–1877), was born in the United States, a granddaughter of Joseph Priestley.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In 1867, Bessie Rayner Parkes married attorney Louis Belloc, son of Jean-Hilaire Belloc. In 1872, five years after they wed, Louis died but not before being wiped out financially in a stock market crash. The young widow then brought her children back to England.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc grew up in England; his boyhood was spent in Slindon, Sussex. He wrote about his home in poems such as "West Sussex Drinking Song", "The South Country", and "Ha'nacker Mill". After graduating from John Henry Newman's Oratory School in Edgbaston, Birmingham.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In September of 1889, Belloc's sister Marie made the accidental acquaintance of a Catholic widow, Mrs. Ellen Hogan, who was traveling from California on a European tour, with two of her children, her daughters, Elizabeth and Elodie. The travelers were both devoutly Catholic and keenly interested in literature, and Marie kindly arranged a visit with her mother, Bessie, who in turn arranged an audience with Cardinal Henry Manning. These acts of generosity cemented a strong friendship, further deepened when Marie and Bessie accompanied the Hogans on their tour of France, visiting Paris with them. Hilaire was absent touring the French provinces as a correspondent for the "Pall Mall Gazette," but when the Hogans stopped back in London on their return from another European trip the following year, Belloc met Elodie for the first time, and was well and truly smitten.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Shortly after this meeting, Ellen Hogan was called back to California prematurely to take care of another of her children who was stricken with illness. She left her two daughters, who wished to remain in London, under the care of the Belloc family, and, Bessie asked her own son to squire the Hogan daughters around London. Belloc's interest in Elodie grew more fervid by the day. This was the beginning of a long, intercontinental, and star-crossed courtship, made all the more difficult by the opposition of Elodie's mother, who wished Elodie to enter the convent, and Hilaire's mother, who thought her son was too young to marry. Belloc pursued Elodie with letters, and, after her return to the United States, in 1891, he pursued her in person.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: The impoverished Belloc, still only twenty years old, sold nearly everything he had to purchase a steamship ticket to New York, ostensibly to visit relatives in Philadelphia. Belloc's true reason for the trek to America soon became apparent when, after spending a few days in Philadelphia, he began to make his way across the American continent. Part of his journey was by train, but when the money ran out, Belloc just walked. An athletic man who hiked extensively in Britain and Europe, Belloc made his way on foot for a significant part of the 2870 miles from Philadelphia to San Francisco. While walking, he paid for lodging at remote farm houses and ranches by sketching the owners and reciting poetry.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Hilaire's first letter on his arrival in San Francisco is effervescent, happy to see Elodie and full of hopes for their future, but his manifestly zealous courtship was to go unrewarded. The joy he felt at seeing Elodie soon gave way to disappointment, when the apparently insurmountable opposition of her mother to the marriage manifested itself. After a stay of only a few weeks, far shorter than the time he had spent in his journey to California, the crestfallen Belloc made his way back across the United States, after a fruitless journey of thousands of miles. His biographer, Joseph Pearce, aptly compares the return to Napoleon's long, winter retreat from Moscow. When Belloc finally reached the East Coast at Montclair, New Jersey, he received a letter from Elodie on April 30, 1891, definitively rejecting him in favor of a religious vocation; the steamship trip home was tainted with despair.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: The gloomy Belloc threw himself into restless activity. Determined to fulfill the obligation of military service necessary to retain his French citizenship, Belloc served his term with an artillery regiment near Toul in 1891. While he was serving in France, Elodie's mother Ellen, died, removing a significant obstacle to Hilaire's hopes, but, Elodie, although torn between her affection for Hilaire and her desire to serve God in the religious life, was unwilling to cross her mother's wishes so soon after her mother's untimely death and persisted in refusing Belloc's advances.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: After his year of service was concluded, still pining for Elodie, and still writing her, he took the entrance exam to Oxford and matriculated to Balliol College, Oxford in January of 1893. Belloc would later write in a poem


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: While at Oxford he was bestowed by his fellow students with a great honor: he was elected and served as President of the Oxford Union, the University debating society. He and another undergraduate, Anthony Henley, also achieved the record-breaking and still amazing athletic feat of walking from Carfax Tower in Oxford, to Marble Arch in London, a distance of some 55 miles, more than double that of a marathon, in only 11 and 1/2 hours! He graduated as a history scholar, securing a first-class honours degree in June of 1895.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: That autumn, Elodie, finally took the plunge into religious life and joined the Sisters of Charity at Emmitsburg, Maryland as a postulant. She left a month later, writing Belloc that she had failed in her religious vocation. In March of 1896, having secured financing as an Oxford Extension lecturer in Philadelphia, Germantown, Baltimore, and New Orleans, Belloc took a steamship to New York, and started making his way to Elodie in California. He expected to receive letters from her on his journey, but received none. To his shock and dismay, when he finally arrived in California in May, he discovered Elodie was deathly ill, worn out by the stress of the previous year. Belloc, thinking that after all their suffering, he and his beloved would be denied one another by her death, also collapsed. Over the next few weeks, however, Elodie recovered and


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: after a tumultuous, six-year courtship, Hilaire and Elodie were married at St. John the Baptist Catholic church in Napa, California on June 15, 1896. The happy couple settled initially in Oxford.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In 1906, Belloc purchased land and a house called King's Land at Shipley in the United Kingdom. The couple had five children before Elodie's untimely death on the Feast of the Purification, February 2, 1914, likely from cancer. She was only 45 years old, and Belloc, at age 43, had more than 40 years of life ahead of him. He wore mourning garb for the rest of his life and kept her room as she had left it.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Five years later, his son Louis was killed in 1918 while serving in the Royal Flying Corps in northern France. Belloc placed a memorial tablet at the nearby Cambrai Cathedral. It is in the same side chapel as the icon Our Lady of Cambrai.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: On 2 April 1941, Belloc's son Peter Gilbert Marie Sebastian Belloc died at age 36 of pneumonia. He fell ill while on active service with the 5th Battalion, Royal Marines in Scotland. He is buried in West Grinstead at Our Lady of Consolation and St. Francis churchyard.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In 1937, Belloc was invited to be a visiting professor at Fordham University in New York City by university president Robert Gannon. Belloc delivered a series of lectures at Fordham which he completed in May of that year. The experience ended up leaving him physically exhausted, and he considered stopping the lectures early.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In 1941, Belloc suffered a stroke and never recovered from its effects. In the same year, he also suffered burns and shock after falling on his fireplace. He died on 16 July 1953 at Mount Alvernia Nursing Home in Guildford, Surrey.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc was buried at the Shrine Church of Our Lady of Consolation and St Francis at West Grinstead, where he had regularly attended Mass as a parishioner. His estate was probated at £7,451. At his funeral Mass, homilist Monsignor Ronald Knox observed, "No man of his time fought so hard for the good things". Boys from the Choir and Sacristy of Worth Preparatory School sang and served at the Mass.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Recent biographies of Belloc have been written by A. N. Wilson and Joseph Pearce. Jesuit political philosopher James Schall's "Remembering Belloc" was published by St. Augustine Press in September 2013. A memoir of Belloc was written by Henry Edward George Rope.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: At Balliol College, Belloc served as President of the Oxford Union. He went into politics after he became a naturalised British subject. A great disappointment in his life was his failure to gain a fellowship of All Souls College, Oxford in 1895. This failure may have been caused in part by his producing a small statue of the Virgin and placing it before him on the table during the interview for the fellowship.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: From 1906 to 1910, Belloc was a Liberal Party Member of Parliament for Salford South. During one campaign speech, he was asked by a heckler if he was a "papist." Retrieving his rosary from his pocket, he responded:


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: "Gentlemen, I am a Catholic. As far as possible, I go to Mass every day. This [taking a rosary out of his pocket] is a rosary. As far as possible, I kneel down and tell these beads every day. If you reject me on account of my religion, I shall thank God that He has spared me the indignity of being your representative." The crowd cheered and Belloc won the election, despite his Catholic faith.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc's only period of steady employment after that was from 1914 to 1920 as editor of "Land and Water". Otherwise he lived by his writing and was often financially insecure.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc first came to public attention shortly after arriving at Balliol College, Oxford as a recent French army veteran. Attending his first debate of the Oxford Union Debating Society, he saw that the affirmative position was wretchedly and half-heartedly defended. As the debate drew to its conclusion and the division of the house was called, he rose from his seat in the audience, and delivered a vigorous, impromptu defence of the proposition. Belloc won that debate from the audience, as the division of the house then showed, and his reputation as a debater was established. He was later elected president of the Union. He held his own in debates there with F. E. Smith and John Buchan, the latter a friend.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In the 1920s, Belloc attacked H. G. Wells's "The Outline of History". Belloc criticised what he termed Wells‘s secular bias and his belief in evolution by means of natural selection, a theory that Belloc asserted had been completely discredited. Wells remarked that "Debating Mr. Belloc is like arguing with a hailstorm". Belloc's review of "Outline of History" observed that Wells's book was a powerful and well-written volume, "up until the appearance of Man, that is, somewhere around page seven". Wells responded with a small book, "Mr. Belloc Objects". Not to be outdone, Belloc followed with, "Mr. Belloc Still Objects".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: G. G. Coulton wrote "Mr. Belloc on Medieval History" in a 1920 article. After a long simmering feud, Belloc replied with a booklet, "The Case of Dr. Coulton", in 1938.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc's style during later life fulfilled the nickname he received in childhood, "Old Thunder". Belloc's friend, Lord Sheffield, described his provocative personality in a preface to "The Cruise of the Nona".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: During his later years, Belloc would sail when he could afford to do so and became a well-known yachtsman. He won many races and was on the French sailing team.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In the early 1930s, he was given an old pilot cutter called "Jersey". He sailed this for some years around the coasts of England, with the help of younger men. One sailor, Dermod MacCarthy, wrote a book about it, called "Sailing with Mr Belloc".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc wrote over 150 books, the subjects ranging from warfare to poetry to the many current topics of his day. He has been called one of the Big Four of Edwardian Letters, along with H. G. Wells, George Bernard Shaw, and G. K. Chesterton, all of whom debated with each other into the 1930s. Belloc was closely associated with Chesterton, and Shaw coined the term "Chesterbelloc" for their partnership. Belloc was co-editor with Cecil Chesterton of the literary periodical the "Eye-Witness",


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Asked once why he wrote so much, Belloc responded, "Because my children are howling for pearls and caviar." Belloc observed that "The first job of letters is to get a canon," that is, to identify those works a writer sees as exemplary of the best of prose and verse. For his own prose style, he claimed to aspire to be as clear and concise as "Mary had a little lamb."


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In 1902, Belloc published "The Path to Rome", an account of a walking pilgrimage from Central France across the Alps to Rome. "The Path to Rome" contains descriptions of the people and places he encountered, his drawings in pencil and in ink of the route, humour, poesy. In 1909, Belloc published "The Pyrenees", providing many details of that region.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: As an essayist he was one of a small group (with Chesterton, E. V. Lucas and Robert Lynd) of popular writers.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: His "Cautionary Tales for Children", humorous poems with an implausible moral, illustrated by Basil Temple Blackwood (signing as "B.T.B.") and later by Edward Gorey, are the most widely known of his writings. Supposedly for children, they, like Lewis Carroll's works, are more to adult and satirical tastes: "Henry King, Who chewed bits of string and was early cut off in dreadful agonies". A similar poem tells the story of "Rebecca, who slammed doors for fun and perished miserably".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: The tale of "Matilda who told lies and was burned to death" was adapted into the play "Matilda Liar!" by Debbie Isitt. Quentin Blake, the illustrator, described Belloc as at one and the same time the overbearing adult and mischievous child. Roald Dahl was a follower. But Belloc has broader if sourer scope. For example, with Lord Lundy (who was "far too freely moved to Tears"):


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Of more weight is Belloc's "Sonnets and Verse", a volume that deploys the same singing and rhyming techniques of his children's verses. Belloc's poetry is often religious, often romantic; throughout "The Path to Rome" he writes in spontaneous song.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Three of his best-known non-fiction works are "The Servile State" (1912), "Europe and Faith" (1920) and "The Jews" (1922).


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: From an early age Belloc knew Cardinal Henry Edward Manning, who was responsible for the conversion of his mother to Roman Catholicism. In "The Cruise of the "Nona"" (1925), he mentions a "profound thing" that Manning said to him when he was just twenty years old: ""All human conflict is ultimately theological."" What Manning meant, Belloc explains, is "that all wars and revolutions, and all decisive struggles between parties of men arise from a difference in moral and transcendental doctrine." Belloc adds that he never met any man, "arguing for what should be among men, but took for granted as he argued that the doctrine he consciously or unconsciously accepted was or should be a similar foundation for all mankind. Hence battle." Manning's involvement in the London Dock Strike of 1889 made a major impression on Belloc and his view of politics, according to biographer Robert Speaight. He became a trenchant critic both of capitalism and of many aspects of socialism.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: With others (G. K. Chesterton, Cecil Chesterton, Arthur Penty) Belloc had envisioned the socioeconomic system of distributism. In "The Servile State", written after his party-political career had come to an end, and other works, he criticised the modern economic order and parliamentary system, advocating distributism in opposition to both capitalism and socialism. Belloc made the historical argument that distributism was not a fresh perspective or program of economics but rather a proposed return to the economics that prevailed in Europe for the thousand years when it was Catholic. He called for the dissolution of Parliament and its replacement with committees of representatives for the various sectors of society, an idea that was also popular among fascists, under the name of corporatism.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc held republican views, but became increasingly sympathetic to monarchism as he grew older. In his youth, Belloc had initially been loyal to the nature of French republicanism, seeing it as a patriotic duty. Michael Hennessy, Chairman of the Hilaire Belloc Society, wrote that "In some respects, Belloc remained a republican until his death, but increasingly realized that there were not enough republicans to make a republic function effectively. Belloc thus felt that monarchy was the most practicable, superior form of government." Belloc explores some of these ideas in his work "Monarchy: A Study of Louis XIV". Within it, Belloc also wrote that democracy "is possible only in small states, and even these must enjoy exceptional defences, moral or material, if they are to survive."


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: With these linked themes in the background, he wrote a long series of contentious biographies of historical figures, including Oliver Cromwell, James II, and Napoleon. They show him as an ardent proponent of orthodox Catholicism and a critic of many elements of the modern world.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Outside academe, Belloc was impatient with what he considered axe-grinding histories, especially what he called "official history." Joseph Pearce notes also Belloc's attack on the secularism of H. G. Wells's popular "Outline of History":


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc objected to his adversary's tacitly anti-Christian stance, epitomized by the fact that Wells had devoted more space in his "history" to the Persian campaign against the Greeks than he had given to the figure of Christ.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: He wrote also substantial amounts of military history. In alternative history, he contributed to the 1931 collection "If It Had Happened Otherwise" edited by Sir John Squire.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Ignatius Press of California and IHS Press of Virginia have reissued Belloc. TAN Books of Charlotte, North Carolina, publishes a number of Belloc's works, particularly his historical writings.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: One of Belloc's most famous statements was "the faith is Europe and Europe is the faith"; those views were expressed in many of his works from the period 1920 to 1940. These are still cited as exemplary of Catholic apologetics. They have also been criticised, for instance by comparison with the work of Christopher Dawson during the same period.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: As a young man, Belloc moved away from Catholicism. However, he later stated that a spiritual event, which he never discussed publicly, prompted his return to it. Belloc alludes to this return to Catholicism in a passage in "The Cruise of the Nona".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: According to his biographer A. N. Wilson ("Hilaire Belloc", Hamish Hamilton), Belloc never wholly apostatised from the faith (ibid p. 105). The momentous event is fully described by Belloc in "The Path to Rome" (pp. 158–61). It took place in the French village of Undervelier at the time of Vespers. Belloc said of it, "not without tears", "I considered the nature of Belief" and "it is a good thing not to have to return to the Faith". (See "Hilaire Belloc" by Wilson at pp. 105–06.) Belloc believed that the Catholic Church provided hearth and home for the human spirit. More humorously, his tribute to Catholic culture can be understood from his well-known saying, "Wherever the Catholic sun does shine, there's always laughter and good red wine."


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc had a disparaging view of the Church of England, and used sharp words to describe heretics, such as, "Heretics all, whoever you may be/ In Tarbes or Nimes or over the sea/ You never shall have good words from me/ Caritas non-conturbat me". Indeed, in his "Song of the Pelagian Heresy" he described how the Bishop of Auxerre, "with his stout Episcopal staff/ So thoroughly thwacked and banged/ The heretics all, both short and tall/ They rather had been hanged".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc sent his son Louis to Downside School (1911–1915). Louis's biography and death in August 1918 is recorded in "Downside and the War".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In "The Great Heresies" (1938), Belloc argued that although "Muslim culture happens to have fallen back in material applications; there is no reason whatever why it should not learn its new lesson and become our equal in all those temporal things which now "alone" give us our superiority over it—whereas in "Faith" we have fallen inferior to it."


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: "There is no reason why its recent inferiority in mechanical construction, whether military or civilian, should continue indefinitely. Even a slight accession of material power would make the further control of Islam by an alien culture difficult. A little more and there will cease that which our time has taken for granted, the physical domination of Islam by the disintegrated Christendom we know." Belloc considered that Islam was permanently intent on destroying the Christian Faith, as well as the West, which Christendom had built. In "The Great Heresies", Belloc grouped the Protestant Reformation together with Islam as one of the major heresies threatening the "Universal Church".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc took a leading role in denouncing the Marconi scandal of 1912. Belloc emphasized that key players in both the government and the Marconi corporation had been Jewish. American historian Todd Endelman identifies Catholic writers as central critics. In his opinion:The most virulent attacks in the Marconi affair were launched by Hilaire Belloc and the brothers Cecil and G.K. Chesterton, whose hostility to Jews was linked to their opposition to liberalism, their backward-looking Catholicism, and the nostalgia for a medieval Catholic Europe that they imagined was ordered, harmonious, and homogeneous. The Jew baiting at the time of the Boer War and the Marconi scandal was linked to a broader protest, mounted in the main by the Radical wing of the Liberal Party, against the growing visibility of successful businessmen in national life and their challenges to what were seen as traditional English values.A. N. Wilson's biography expresses the belief that Belloc tended to allude to Jews negatively in conversation, sometimes obsessively. Anthony Powell mentions in his review of that biography that in his view Belloc was thoroughly anti-Semitic, at all but a personal level.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: In "The Cruise of the Nona", Belloc reflected equivocally on the Dreyfus Affair after thirty years. Norman Rose's book "The Cliveden Set" (2000) asserts that Belloc 'was moved by a deep vein of hysterical anti-semitism'.In his 1922 book, "The Jews", Belloc argued that "the continued presence of the Jewish nation intermixed with other nations alien to it presents a permanent problem of the gravest character," and that the "Catholic Church is the conservator of an age-long European tradition, and that tradition will never compromise with the fiction that a Jew can be other than a Jew. Wherever the Catholic Church has power, and in proportion to its power, the Jewish problem will be recognized to the full."Robert Speaight cited a letter by Belloc in which he condemned Nesta Webster because of her accusations against "the Jews". In February 1924, Belloc wrote to an American Jewish friend regarding an anti-Semitic book by Webster. Webster had rejected Christianity, studied Eastern religions, accepted the supposed Hindu concept of the equality of all religions and was fascinated by theories of reincarnation and ancestral memory. Speaight also points out that when faced with anti-Semitism in practice—as at elitist country clubs in the United States before World War II—he voiced his disapproval. Belloc also condemned Nazi anti-Semitism in "The Catholic and the War" (1940).


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc grew up in Slindon and spent most of his life in West Sussex. He always wrote of Sussex as if it were the crown of England and the western Sussex Downs the jewel in that crown. He loved Sussex as the place where he was brought up, considering it his earthly "spiritual home".


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc wrote several works about Sussex including "Ha'nacker Mill", "The South Country", the travel guide "Sussex" (1906) and "The County of Sussex" (1936). One of his best-known works relating to Sussex is "" (1911), in which the four characters, each aspects of Belloc's personality, travel on a pilgrimage across the county from Robertsbridge to Harting. The work has influenced others including musician Bob Copper, who retraced Belloc's steps in the 1980s.


title: Hilaire Belloc

text: Belloc was also a lover of Sussex songs and wrote lyrics for some songs which have since been put to music. Belloc is remembered in an annual celebration in Sussex, known as Belloc Night, that takes place on the writer's birthday, 27 July, in the manner of Burns Night in Scotland. The celebration includes reading from Belloc's work and partaking of a bread and cheese supper with pickles.


title: Republic TV

text: Republic TV is a free-to-air Indian right-wing English-language news channel launched in May 2017. It was co-founded by Arnab Goswami and Rajeev Chandrasekhar, before the latter relinquished his stake in May 2019, leaving Goswami as the majority stakeholder. Chandrasekhar was an independent legislator from the National Democratic Alliance who later joined the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Goswami was the former editor-in-chief of Times Now. The venture was funded primarily by Chandrashekhar through his company Jupiter Capital Private Limited.


title: Republic TV

text: Republic TV has been accused of practicing biased reporting in favour of the ruling BJP and stifling dissent; fake news and Islamophobic rhetoric were published on multiple occasions. It has been convicted of breaching Telecom Regulatory Authority of India and News Broadcasting Standards Authority rules. Republic TV is being investigated by the Mumbai Police after being accused of manipulating the viewership ratings. The inflated TRP was allegedly used to bargain higher revenues from advertisers.


title: Republic TV

text: Arnab Goswami resigned as editor-in-chief of Times Now on 1 November 2016, citing editorial differences, lack of freedom and newsroom politics. He hosted the last edition of his show, "The Newshour Debate", a fortnight later. Incidentally, the show had been subject to an investigation by Ofcom, the UK broadcasting regulatory authority, in August and September; the investigation had held Times Now guilty of violating the impartiality clause of its broadcast code.


title: Republic TV

text: On 16 December, Goswami announced his next venture — a news channel called Republic; the name was later changed to Republic TV in the face of complaints by Subramanian Swamy. Republic TV was hyped as India's first independent media outlet which would 'democratize' news and compete with global media giants whilst being unabashedly pro-India.


title: Republic TV

text: Republic TV was funded in part by Asianet (ARG Outlier Asianet News Private Limited), which was primarily owned by Rajeev Chandrasekhar, a then-independent member of Rajya Sabha who had political links with Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and was vice-chairman of the National Democratic Alliance in Kerala. Among other major investors were Goswami himself, his wife Samyabrata Goswami, educationists Ramdas Pai and Ramakanta Panda — all of whom invested through SARG Media Holding Private Ltd.


title: Republic TV

text: Chandrasekhar resigned from the board, after he officially joined the BJP in April 2018; Goswami purchased back Asianet's shares in May 2019.


title: Republic TV

text: "The Wire" and "Newslaundry" had come across an internal memo floated by Chandrasekhar's group that asked for selective recruitment of right-of-center pro-military voices, who were conducive to his ideology.


title: Republic TV

text: S. Sundaram, who had served as the CFO for Times Now between 2005 and 2012, was named the Group CFO. Chief Business Officer of Reliance Broadcast Network Vikas Khanchandani, who had earlier stints as Senior Vice President of NDTV, was made the CEO and co-founder of "The News Minute", Chitra Subramaniam was roped in as the editorial adviser. Others who joined included senior anchor of Thanthi TV S. A. Hariharan, retired army officer and television personality Gaurav Arya, former chief correspondent from Jammu and Kashmir for Times Now Aditya Raj Kaul, writer and founder-editor of "Gentleman", Minhaz Merchant and actor Anupam Kher.


title: Republic TV

text: The channel was launched on 6 May 2017 as a free-to-air channel through most direct-to-home television in India and cable television operators, alongside over mobile platforms such as JioTV and Hotstar. Reporting on its launch, "Business Standard" wrote "The company has already hired 300 people, of whom 215 are on board. A state-of-the-art-studio is being built in Mumbai's Lower Parel area."


title: Republic TV

text: Reporters from the channel have been banned from attending any press conference of the Indian National Congress, citing them being subject to incessantly aggressive attacks by the channel.


title: Republic TV

text: In May 2017, parliamentarian Shashi Tharoor filed a civil defamation case in the Delhi High Court against Goswami and Republic TV in connection with the channel's broadcast of news items from 8 to 13 May claiming him to be involved in his wife Sunanda Pushkar's unnatural death. Seeking the channel's response, Justice Manmohan of the High Court noted: "Bring down the rhetoric. You can put out your story, you can put out the facts. You cannot call him names. That is uncalled for."


title: Republic TV

text: In May 2017, Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd. (BCCL) lodged a complaint against Goswami and Prema Sridevi, a journalist with Republic TV, under the Indian Penal Code and Information Technology Act, 2000 accusing them of copyright infringement. BCCL alleged that the two, previously employed with Times Now, that it owns and operates, had used its intellectual property (IP) in telecasting certain audio tapes that were in their possession during their time at the former Channel. Alongside IP infringement, the complaint also alleged the commission of offenses of theft, criminal breach of trust and misappropriation of property, on the two, on multiple occasions days after the channel's launch.


title: Republic TV

text: In 2018, News Broadcasting Standards Authority (NBSA), the broadcasting regulator of India, demanded Republic TV to tender a full-screen apology for use of multiple objectionable words to describe a bunch of people at a political rally, who were harassing one of his journalists. Republic TV "removed the video from its website and YouTube account" after receiving the complaint but refused to comply with the NBSA order, instead filing an appeal.


title: Republic TV

text: Around a year later, it once again asked Republic TV to broadcast a public apology, after the channel declined to cooperate in another case accusing it of violating the standard prohibitions on racial and religious stereotyping, and instead commented on the body being engaged in "intense pseudo-judicial oversight". Republic TV did not abide by the order yet again; incidentally, Goswami was the convener of the committee that drafted the code, years back. Two weeks after, Goswami along with other media-personas formed the National Broadcasting Federation (NBF) as a new regulatory body; this has since nulled the authority of NBSA to regulate Republic TV.


title: Republic TV

text: In India, the Broadcast Audience Research Council is the industry body responsible for television-audience measurement. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India received complaints from the News Broadcasters Association against Republic TV alleging that it was violating the telecom authority's broadcast sector regulations with its unfair practices and sought an investigation into it.


title: Republic TV

text: According to the complaint, Republic Bharat had declared its genre as English news, but it was appearing in additional genres after registering itself in those genres. For example, in Delhi, the channel was appearing in both English and Hindi news category. Each "impression" that is reported in the TV viewership data, is an individual instance of viewing of the channel, even if it is a fleeting view. When a viewer cycled through the channels, Republic TV would appear twice, giving it double impressions as compared to other channels. Some cable network had set Republic TV as the default channel (i.e. landing channel) displayed whenever the TV was turned on, thereby increasing the impressions. These practices were seen as a deliberate attempt to illegally garner higher Broadcast Audience Research Council ratings and increase viewership.


title: Republic TV

text: The complainants, NBA also sought from the Broadcast Audience Research Council that it withhold publishing viewership data for Republic until its unfair practices stopped. The Broadcast Audience Research Council did not act on the request. Subsequently, multiple leading English-language news channels exited from the Broadcast Audience Research Council system. A news network also approached the Delhi high court against the unfair practices by Republic TV to inflate their ratings.


title: Republic TV

text: In October 2020, upon receiving a complaint accusing some channels of fraudulently inflating their viewership ratings, Mumbai Police launched an investigation into Republic TV's viewership ratings. The police allege that the channel inflated its ratings by bribing low-income individuals, including people who did not comprehend English, to keep their televisions tuned to Republic TV; logs of WhatsApp chats between Goswami and the former chief executive of Broadcast Audience Research Council (the agency responsible for measuring TRP) were published to provide further evidence of collusion. The inflated TRP was leveraged to bargain for higher revenues from advertisers.


title: Republic TV

text: Goswami denies the allegations and has accused the Mumbai Police of retaliating against the channel's recent criticism of their activities. On 21 October, Central Bureau of Investigation got involved in the investigation, with the case now potentially covering every news channel in India. On 13 December, Republic TV CEO was arrested in Mumbai, before being granted bail.


title: Republic TV

text: After the Taliban took over Kabul in August 2021, Indian media (including Republic TV) started an aggressive anti-Pakistan campaign on social media calling for foreign sanctions on Pakistan. Republic TV in particular later aired footage of an alleged Pakistan Air Force airplane supporting Taliban troops in their fight against resistance forces in panjshir. Some time later fact checkers including France 24 announced that it was a gameplay footage from a video game called ARMA 3.


title: Republic TV

text: In 25 September 2022, Republic TV used a sarcastic thread of German reporter Georg Fahrion to report on a "political coup" on Chinese President Xi Jinping in their news report as "First and Exclusive News" and Breaking News. The reports were taken down from Republic World's Youtube channel but got viral circulating on Twitter. Fahrion when informed that his sarcastic thread was picked up and published as real news by Republic TV, he replied, "Since an Indian TV channel is now "reporting" on this thread, let me repeat: Two things are infinite, the universe and man's stupidity."


title: Republic TV

text: Republic TV allegedly became the most-watched English news channel in India in its first week of airing in May 2017 with 21.1 lakh (2.11 million) impressions and accounted for 51.9 per cent viewership as per data released for the week by the Broadcast Audience Research Council. "The Financial Express" noted Republic TV to be the most-watched English news channel in India for 100 weeks in a row since its founding. The top news channel spot was taken over by DD India, a public service broadcaster, in February 2019, according to the Indian newspaper "Mint".


title: Republic TV

text: The News Broadcasters Association (NBA) subsequently lodged a complaint with the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India accusing the group of using unethical tactics for high viewership. It claimed that the channel ran multiple feeds over various multi-system operator (MSO) platforms and listed itself at multiple locations across various genres in the electronic program guide, in contravention of the telecom authority's rules. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India cautioned the channel against such practices and determined the viewership numbers to have been inflated.


title: Republic TV

text: These data have been since further challenged, after the channel found itself embroiled in a viewership-manipulation scam around late 2020.


title: Republic TV

text: The channel has been noted for its right-wing opinionated reporting in support of BJP and Hindutva across a wide spectrum of situations, including by presenting political opponents in a negative light and avoiding criticism of figures from ruling parties. The channel has aided in developing and popularizing the neologisms of "Urban Naxal" and "tukde tukde gang" to denote anti-establishment voices critical to right wing sentiments, advocate government repression, and evoke hyper-nationalism among the audience. Attempts to polarize the audience and quell communal tensions by direct and indirect amplification of Islamophobic rhetoric (Love Jihad etc.) situated within a post-truth discourse have been noted as well.


title: Republic TV

text: The channel has been compared to North Korean media for its extreme pro-government affinity and muzzling of dissent. Noted political scientist Christophe Jaffrelot, journalist Dexter Filkins and others compare it to Fox News, an American cable news channel that practices biased reporting in favor of the Republican Party.


title: Republic TV

text: Vanita Kohli-Khandekar, on "Business Standard", noted it to be a "noisy, chaotic place where coherent debate without shouting, screaming and name-calling is impossible"; others have noted of its shows to be a "battle of babble", judgmental, brash and hawkish. Vaishnavi Chandrashekhar, in a "Foreign Policy" article, noted its coverage of the 2019 India-Pakistan conflict, to put jingoism ahead of journalism. Historian Ramachandra Guha notes it to be a pro-government channel, which ignored issues of joblessness, agrarian distress et al. and instead took to demonizing Pakistan along with opposition parties, furthering religious bigotry in the process. Jaffrelot reiterated accusations of pliability after undertaking a detailed analysis of all debates held by the channel until April 2020 (and contrasting it with NDTV); he held the venture to have a negative consequence on India's democracy and raised concerns about the manner in which broader issues of socio-economic order were pushed away from the discourse-sphere. Fifty percent of the debates were solely focused on criticizing the opposition and Modi was extensively lauded all-around whilst not a single debate was construable as being explicitly in the opposition's favor.


title: Midshipman

text: A midshipman is an officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Canada (Naval Cadet), Australia, Bangladesh, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Kenya.


title: Midshipman

text: In the 17th century, a midshipman was a rating for an experienced seaman, and the word derives from the area aboard a ship, amidships, either where he worked on the ship, or where he was berthed. Beginning in the 18th century, a commissioned officer candidate was rated as a midshipman, and the seaman rating began to slowly die out. By the Napoleonic era (1793–1815), a midshipman was an apprentice officer who had previously served at least three years as a volunteer, officer's servant or able seaman, and was roughly equivalent to a present-day petty officer in rank and responsibilities. After serving at least three years as a midshipman or master's mate, he was eligible to take the examination for lieutenant. Promotion to lieutenant was not automatic, and many midshipmen took positions as master's mates for an increase in pay and responsibility aboard ship. Midshipmen in the United States Navy were trained and served similarly to midshipmen in the Royal Navy, although unlike their counterparts in the Royal Navy, a midshipman was a warrant officer rank until 1912.


title: Midshipman

text: During the 19th century, changes in the training of naval officers in both the Royal Navy and the United States Navy led to the replacement of apprenticeship aboard ships with formal schooling in a naval college. Midshipman began to mean an officer cadet at a naval college. Trainees now spent around four years in a college and two years at sea prior to promotion to commissioned officer rank. Between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, time at sea declined to less than a year as the entry age was increased from 12 to 18.


title: Midshipman

text: Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in many other navies. Using US midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, the equivalent rank would be a naval cadet in training to become a junior commissioned officer. Using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a US ensign in role and responsibility. In many Romance languages, the literal translation of the local term for "midshipman" into English is "Navy Guard", including the French "garde marine", Spanish "guardia marina", Portuguese "guarda-marinha", and Italian "guardiamarina". Today, these ranks all refer to naval cadets, but historically they were selected by the monarchy, and were trained mostly on land as soldiers.


title: Midshipman

text: The rank of midshipman originated during the Tudor and Stuart eras, and originally referred to a post for an experienced seaman promoted from the ordinary deck hands, who worked in between the main and mizzen masts and had more responsibility than an ordinary seaman, but was not a military officer or an officer in training. The first published use of the term midshipman was in 1662. The word derives from an area aboard a ship, amidships, but it refers either to the location where midshipmen worked on the ship, or the location where midshipmen were berthed.


title: Midshipman

text: By the 18th century, four types of midshipman existed: midshipman (original rating), midshipman extraordinary, midshipman (apprentice officer), and midshipman ordinary. Some midshipmen were older men, and while most were officer candidates who failed to pass the lieutenant examination or were passed over for promotion, some members of the original rating served, as late as 1822, alongside apprentice officers without themselves aspiring to a commission. By 1794, all midshipmen were considered officer candidates, and the original rating was phased out.


title: Midshipman

text: Beginning in 1661, boys who aspired to become officers were sent by their families to serve on ships with a "letter of service" from the crown, and were paid at the same rate as midshipmen. The letter instructed the admirals and captains that the bearer was to be shown "such kindness as you shall judge fit for a gentleman, both in accommodating him in your ship and in furthering his improvement". Their official rating was volunteer-per-order, but they were often known as King's letter boys, to distinguish their higher social class from the original midshipman rating.


title: Midshipman

text: Beginning in 1677, Royal Navy regulations for promotion to lieutenant required service as a midshipman, and promotion to midshipman required some time at sea. By the Napoleonic era, the regulations required at least three years of services as a midshipman or master's mate and six years of total sea time. Sea time was earned in various ways, most boys served this period at sea in any lower rating, either as a servant of one of the ship's officers, a volunteer, or a seaman.


title: Midshipman

text: By the 1730s, the rating volunteer-per-order was phased out and replaced with a system where prospective midshipmen served as servants for officers. For example, a captain was allowed four servants for every 100 men aboard his ship; many of these servants were young men destined to become officers.


title: Midshipman

text: In 1729, the Royal Naval Academy in Portsmouth – renamed the Royal Naval College in 1806 – was founded, for 40 students aged between 13 and 16, who would take three years to complete a course of study defined in an illustrated book, and would earn two years of sea time as part of their studies. The rating of midshipman-by-order, or midshipman ordinary, was used specifically for graduates of the Royal Naval College, to distinguish them from midshipmen who had served aboard ship, who were paid more. The school was unpopular in the Navy, because officers enjoyed the privilege of having servants and preferred the traditional method of training officers via apprenticeship.


title: Midshipman

text: In 1794, officers' servants were abolished and a new class of volunteers called 'volunteer class I' was created for boys between the ages of 11 and 13 who were considered future midshipmen and lived in the gunroom on a ship-of-the-line or with the midshipmen on a frigate or smaller vessel. Volunteers were paid £6 per year. By 1816, the rating of midshipman ordinary was phased out, and all apprentice officers were rated as midshipmen.


title: Midshipman

text: In the 18th century Royal Navy, rank and position on board ship was defined by a mix of two hierarchies, an official hierarchy of ranks and a conventionally recognized social divide between gentlemen and non-gentlemen. Boys aspiring for a commission were often called young gentlemen instead of their substantive rating to distinguish their higher social standing from the ordinary sailors. Generally, aboard most warships common seamen berthed in the gundeck, while officers were quartered at the stern. Occasionally, a midshipman would be posted aboard a ship in a lower rating such as able seaman but would eat and sleep with his social equals in the cockpit.


title: Midshipman

text: Approximately 50 percent of midshipmen were the sons of professional men, which included the sons of naval officers, and there were notable sailing families throughout the Age of Sail, such as the Saumarez, Hood, and Parker families. The niceties of preferment and promotion made family connections an obvious advantage for prospective officers. Members of the peerage and landed gentry formed the next largest group, about 27 percent of officers. The numbers were smaller, but similarly, their connections gave them excellent prospects for promotion, and they had a considerable influence on the Royal Navy. A notable member of this group was Prince William, later William IV, who served as a midshipman from 1780 to 1785. The rest were from commercial or working class backgrounds, and because of the advantages possessed by the nobility and professional sailors, their chances of promotion to lieutenant were slim.


title: Midshipman

text: Since most midshipmen were from the gentry or had family connections with sailing ships, many used their connections to have their names placed on a ship's books. The practice, known colloquially as "false muster" was common even though it was technically illegal and frowned upon. This allowed some boys to be promoted to midshipmen, or in some cases lieutenant, without having completed the required amount of time at sea. A notable example was Thomas Cochrane, whose uncle had him entered at the age of five; his name was carried on various ships until he was 18 and received his commission.


title: Midshipman

text: When uniforms were introduced in the Navy in 1748, midshipmen started wearing the same uniform as commissioned officers. They also began wearing their traditional badge of rank, a white patch of cloth with a gold button and a twist of white cord on each side of the coat collar. The uniform emphasized that midshipmen were gentlemen and officers under instruction.


title: Midshipman

text: Midshipmen were expected to work on the ship, but were also expected to learn navigation and seamanship. They were expected to have learned already, as able seamen and volunteers, to rig sails, other duties included keeping watch, relaying messages between decks, supervising gun batteries, commanding small boats, and taking command of a sub-division of the ship's company under the supervision of one of the lieutenants. On smaller ships, midshipmen were instructed by a senior master's mate, often a passed midshipman, who taught them mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. Larger ships would carry a schoolmaster, who was rated as a midshipman but usually was a civilian like the chaplain. Midshipmen were expected to keep detailed navigational logs, which were shown to the captain to assess their progress.


title: Midshipman

text: Prior to promotion to lieutenant, a commissioned officer candidate in the Royal Navy had to pass a formal examination. Officially, a prospective lieutenant was at least 19, and was expected to produce proof of his service, which would include certificates from his commanders and journals kept while a midshipman. However, most midshipmen aspired to take the lieutenant examination at age 17 or 18, and the typical age of a midshipman was between 15 and 22. The candidate was summoned before a board of three captains and questioned about seamanship, navigation, and discipline. The board would ask questions such as:


title: Midshipman

text: An enemy is observed; give orders for clearing your ship, and make all the necessary preparations for engaging.


title: Midshipman

text: Like the board, which might be an "ad hoc" affair, the actual exam questions were not standardized and their content depended mostly on individual captains. In seamanship, the candidate was expected to be able to splice ropes, reef a sail, work a ship in sailing and shift his tides. In navigation, he was expected to be able to keep a reckoning of the ship's way by plane sailing, to use Mercator projection maps and observation of the sun and stars to determine the course and position of the ship, and to understand the variation of the compass. He was also expected to be qualified to do the duty of an able seaman and midshipman.


title: Midshipman

text: Failure usually meant six more months of sea service before the examination could again be attempted. Some men never passed it. Successful completion made the midshipman a 'passed midshipman'. From the 18th century until the second half of the 19th century, a midshipman in the Royal Navy who passed the lieutenant's examination did not automatically receive a commission. Midshipmen with political connections were promoted first, while others would wait their turn on a roster. During wartime, when large numbers of ships and men might be lost in battle, most passed midshipman would be promoted in a year or two, but during peacetime the wait might be so long that the midshipman would eventually be considered too old and lose his chance for a commission.


title: Midshipman

text: Passed midshipmen awaiting promotion often elected to become master's mates, a high-ranking petty officer who assisted the master with his duties, served on watch as deputy to the lieutenants, and commanded small boats. A midshipman who became master's mate earned an increase in pay from £2 5s to £3 16s per month but initially reduced his chances at a commission because master's mates, along with masters, were assumed to have a working-class background. Over time, however, appointment to master's mate became considered a normal part of the path to a commission; the situation caused some confusion during the last part of the 18th century, when two parallel roles – master's mates trying to become masters, and former midshipmen working toward a commission – held the same title and responsibilities aboard ship.


title: Midshipman

text: By the first years of the 19th century, the term 'mate', without the prefix master's, was used for passed midshipmen, to distinguish them from master's mates who had not served as midshipmen. In 1824, the rating of master's assistant replaced master's mate, and mate continued to be used unofficially by passed midshipmen. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigator's branch. In 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant. In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant.


title: Midshipman

text: When Congress created the United States Navy in 1794, midshipman was listed as a rank of warrant officer in the Naval Act of 1794, and they were appointed by the President of the United States. Midshipmen had similar duties and responsibilities as in the Royal Navy, and were typically young men between the age of 14 and 22 in training to become a naval officer. "Passed midshipman" was first used in 1819, and was an official rank of the US Navy.


title: Midshipman

text: During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846 midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion, and their warrants were often obtained via patronage. The poor quality of officer training in the US Navy became visible after the Somers Affair, an alleged mutiny aboard the training ship USS "Somers" in 1842, and the subsequent execution of midshipman Philip Spencer. Spencer had gained his post aboard the "Somers" via the influence of his father, United States Secretary of War John C. Spencer.


title: Midshipman

text: The original Royal Naval College closed in 1837, after which the only method for training midshipmen in the Royal Navy was aboard ships. In 1844 the rank of naval cadet was created, and to qualify as a midshipman a candidate had to be 14 years old, successfully pass an admiralty examination and have two years of service as a naval cadet or three years of service in the Navy. A decline in qualified officers prompted the Navy to order training in a ship at anchor for all cadets, which began in 1857 aboard HMS "Illustrious", which was replaced by HMS "Britannia" in 1859. "Britannia" was moved to Portland in 1862, and to the present location of the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth in 1863.


title: Midshipman

text: Beginning in the 1840s, the normal entry age for executive officer cadets, those destined to command ships and fleets, was between 12 and 13, and instruction consisted of two years of classroom training, during which time trainees were rated as naval cadets. Cadets who received a first-class passing grade in studies, seamanship and conduct on their final examination could receive a credit for up to a year of sea time, and could be rated as midshipmen immediately after passing out of the college. After passing out of the college, cadets served aboard a special training vessel for one year. Cadets were then rated as midshipmen, and served aboard the fleet another two years. Midshipmen lived in the gunroom, kept watches, and ran the ship's boats. They received instruction in navigation every day. After five total years of training and having reached the age of 19, the midshipmen were eligible to take the examination for lieutenant. After passing the examination for lieutenant, midshipmen were commissioned as sub-lieutenants, and were transferred to the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, which opened in 1873 as the 'University of the Navy'.


title: Midshipman

text: Beginning in 1903, officer training of military and engineering students was reformed by the Selborne-Fisher scheme, and engineering and executive officer candidates began to enter the Navy in the same way, which was termed 'Common Entry'. Previously, engineer cadets had been trained separately at the Royal Naval Engineering College, Keyham which was closed in 1910. In 1903 a new preparatory college was opened at the Royal Naval College, Osborne, in part of Queen Victoria's favorite residence but not a favorite of her successor Edward VII who had donated it to the nation in 1902. Training initially consisted of two years at Osborne and two years at Dartmouth as cadets, later four years at Dartmouth, followed by approximately 3 years of sea duty as midshipmen prior to promotion to sub-lieutenant. In 1905, a new building was completed on shore to replace "Britannia", which was named Britannia Royal Naval College. In 1913, increasing demand for officers led to recruitment of 18-year-old graduates of public schools, which was called 'Special Entry', and was conducted separately from Selborne scheme cadets. Special entry cadets trained for approximately 6 months prior to service in the fleet as midshipmen. When World War I began in 1914, all the cadets at Dartmouth were quickly mobilized as midshipmen in the Reserve Fleet. During the war, two midshipmen, George Drewry and Wilfred Malleson were awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award of the British Commonwealth for gallantry, during the Landing at Cape Helles. After World War I ended, opposition to the Selborne-Fisher scheme led to re-segregating executive and engineering officers into separate branches, while common entry and special entry were maintained.


title: Midshipman

text: After World War II another series of reforms, influenced by the quality of officers produced by the special entry scheme and other nations' experience with training officer candidates in a university setting, were initiated to increase the quality of officers in the Navy. In 1949 the entry age was increased to 16, and by 1955 the entry age was increased to 18 and entry required a minimum of two A levels. After 1957 midshipmen no longer served in the fleet. In 1972, all cadets became midshipmen when the rank of cadet was abolished.


title: Midshipman

text: Congress formally authorized the establishment of the United States Military Academy in 1802, but it took almost 50 years to approve a similar school for naval officers. One major reason for the delay was that Navy leaders preferred the apprenticeship system, citing famous officers such as Nelson and the captains of the War of 1812 who did not attend a formal naval school. However, after the Somers Affair, officers realized that the system for training officers had to change to be more efficient.


title: Midshipman

text: George Bancroft, appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845, decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers. He formed a council led by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers, and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy in 1851. Midshipmen studied at the academy for four years and trained aboard ships each summer. Midshipman began to mean "passed midshipman" at this time, and a student at the Naval Academy was a cadet midshipman. The rank of ensign was created in 1862, and passed midshipmen were promoted to ensign when vacancies occurred.


title: Midshipman

text: In 1865, the Department of Steam Enginery was created and cadet engineers were admitted to the academy for the first time. In 1874, Congress changed the curriculum to include four years of classroom training and two years of sea duty aboard a regular vessel prior to examinations as warranted midshipmen. In 1882, Congress eliminated the distinction in training between engineer and naval cadets, and designated the student officers as naval cadets; the name reverted to midshipmen in 1902. By an act of Congress passed in 1903, two appointments as midshipmen were allowed for each senator, representative, and delegate in Congress, two for the District of Columbia, and five each year at large. In 1912, Congress authorized commissioning midshipmen as ensigns on graduation day, and ended the previously required two years of post-graduation sea service as warrant officers.


title: Midshipman

text: In 1930, the Naval Academy received accreditation as an approved technological institution. In 1933, a new law enabled the Naval, Military, and Coast Guard Academies to award bachelor of science degrees, and the class of 1933 was the first to receive this degree and have it written in the diploma. In 1937, the superintendent of the Naval Academy was granted the authority to award Bachelor of Science degrees to all living graduates.


title: Midshipman

text: As Dominions of the British Empire formed their own navies during the 20th century, further countries began using the rank of midshipman. Today Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Kenya use the rank. Prior to 1968 Canada also used the rank of midshipman, until the National Defence Act consolidated the Royal Canadian Navy with the Army and Air Force into a single military, called the Canadian Forces. As part of the act, the rank of midshipman was replaced with the rank of naval cadet.


title: Midshipman

text: In Royal Navy slang, a midshipman is sometimes referred to as a "snotty". Two popular stories give origins for the term: the first claims that it arose from a shortage of handkerchiefs among midshipmen, who would consequently use their sleeves to wipe their noses. Prince William, later William IV, is sometimes cited as a notorious example of this practice among midshipmen. The other story claims that the three buttons formerly sewn onto midshipmen's jacket cuffs were placed there to prevent them from wiping their noses on their sleeves.


title: Midshipman

text: In the modern Royal Navy, a midshipman is the lowest rank of officer, and ranks with second lieutenant in the British Army and pilot officer in the Royal Air Force and above all enlisted and warrant ranks. A midshipman's rank insignia, which has changed little since Napoleonic times, is called a "turnback": a white patch of cloth with a gold button and a twist of white cord on each side of the coat collar.


title: Midshipman

text: Prospective officers must have at least five GCSEs, including English and maths, plus at least 72 (new tariff) UCAS points from at least two A levels or other suitable qualifications (each qualification must be over 45 (old tariff) UCAS points). They must pass a two-and-a-half-day assessment, called the Admiralty Interview Board, and a medical examination. As of 2013, it is no longer the case that those joining the Navy as university graduates start as sub-lieutenants, with non-graduates joining as midshipmen. Graduates and non-graduates all start as midshipmen, and wait to be promoted at the same time.


title: Midshipman

text: General basic training (initial officer training) for Royal Navy officers takes place at the Britannia Royal Naval College. Training takes up to a year depending on specialisation; all midshipmen participate in at least the first two terms, which are 14 weeks each. Until they have completed initial fleet training, both midshipmen and sub-lieutenants at Britannia Royal Naval College do not use their substantive ranks, but instead use the rank of officer cadet.


title: Midshipman

text: During the first seven weeks of training, officer cadets learn militarisation and sea sense, focusing on learning about the military environment, along with team and leadership skills. During the second seven weeks, officer cadets learn essential sea officer skills, including navigation and the marine environment, strategic studies, and basic sea survival. During the second term officer cadets spend 6 weeks in Initial Sea Time (IST), serving aboard capital warships as junior ratings. Upon completion of Initial Sea Time, officer cadets return to Dartmouth for four weeks to complete their final leadership assessment, the Maritime Leadership Exercise (MARL). MARL may be completed prior to IST depending on scheduling. If they have been successful, officers of all branches then pass out of the college.


title: Midshipman

text: Upon completion of initial officer training, university cadet entrants, engineering, logistics and flight specialisation officer cadets move to their second phase of training elsewhere within the Royal Navy. Midshipmen specializing in warfare remain at the college for the Initial Warfare Officer's Foundation course, which completes part of a foundation degree in naval studies (equating to two thirds of a bachelor's degree), on completion of initial professional training. Officers can complete degrees via distance learning with the Open University, although completion is not required.


title: Midshipman

text: A midshipman in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) holds a commission, which is effective from the date of their appointment. Officer candidates enter the RAN at various ranks depending on previous experience or degree qualifications; graduates from a three-year course, non-degree qualified entrants, and sailor changeovers below the rank of leading seaman enter as midshipman.


title: Midshipman

text: On joining the RAN, midshipmen complete six months' initial officer training (New Entry Officers' Course) at the Royal Australian Naval College. Following this, all members serve six months in the fleet completing Primary Qualification (PQ) continuation training. Direct entry midshipmen continue their normal training and Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) entry midshipmen post to Canberra to study at the ADFA in their second year in the Navy. Midshipmen undertake an undergraduate degree over the course of three years, whilst also completing elements of their naval training. ADFA midshipmen are also undergraduate students of the University of New South Wales (UNSW). When they graduate from UNSW at ADFA at the completion of their three- or four-year undergraduate program, they do so with a fully recognized degree from UNSW – the same degree received by graduates of UNSW's campus in Sydney. During Single Service Training (SST) at ADFA, midshipmen have the opportunity to return to sea during the SST period as well as visiting shore establishments for PQ related training.


title: Midshipman

text: In the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN), midshipman is the lowest officer rank for officers under training and retained upon completion of initial training by those without a university degree. Unlike officer cadet ranks in the Army, midshipmen are treated as officers but do not hold a commission. The RNZN has approximately 60 midshipmen in service at a time.


title: Midshipman

text: Midshipman begin their career at Junior Officer Common Training, which lasts 23 weeks. After completing their initial training course, midshipmen serve aboard ships for a short time, followed by specialty training for 16 weeks. After approximately two years in the Navy, midshipmen are promoted to ensign. Officers who entered the service with a university degree are promoted to sub-lieutenant after completion of Junior Officer Common Training. Officers without a degree have the option of earning a university degree while serving in the Navy.


title: Midshipman

text: A midshipman in the South African Navy (SAN) is an officer of the lowest rank. Officer candidates are citizens between the ages of 18 and 22, either in grade 12 or graduated from high school with an academic background in mathematics and science. Cadets initially spend a year training at the South African Naval College in Gordon's Bay, about 55 km southeast of Cape Town, and upon graduation are commissioned as midshipmen. Midshipmen can then study for three more years at the South African Military Academy, and upon graduation receive a B Mil degree from Stellenbosch University.


title: Midshipman

text: Midshipmen in the Indian Navy begin their career as cadets at the National Defence Academy or the Indian Naval Academy, where they study for approximately three years. After graduation they receive a BTech degree from Jawaharlal Nehru University and are assigned to training ships for one year. After six months aboard the training ship, the cadets are promoted to midshipman. At the end of their training midshipmen are examined by a board and are cleared for promotion to sub-lieutenant.


title: Midshipman

text: Cadets in the Pakistan Navy undertake an initial 18 months' training at the Pakistan Naval Academy. They study humanities, engineering, professional and technical subjects. After passing out they are appointed midshipmen, and undertake another six months of training at sea. They are assigned to operations, weapons engineering, mechanical engineering, or logistics. After passing the final fleet examination, they are promoted to the rank of sub-lieutenant.


title: Midshipman

text: In the modern United States Navy, a midshipman is classified as an officer of the line, though their exercise of authority is limited by their training status. Legally, midshipmen are a special grade of uncommissioned officer that ranks between the senior noncommissioned enlisted grade (E-9) and the lowest grade of chief warrant officer (W-2, in the U.S. Coast Guard, which does not currently use the grade of warrant officer (W-1)) or warrant officer (W-1), U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, or U.S. Marine Corps.


title: Midshipman

text: Students at the United States Naval Academy (USNA) are appointed to Office as midshipmen, United States Navy, by the President, alone, without Senate confirmation. Students at the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA) are appointed to Office as midshipmen, United States Navy Reserve, by the Secretary of the Navy, using delegated Presidential authority, and are likewise not subject to Senate confirmation. Students in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) are also appointed to Office as midshipmen, United States Navy Reserve, by the Secretary of the Navy, without Senate confirmation. The student body at the USNA is the Brigade of Midshipmen, and the student body at the USMMA is the Regiment of Midshipmen.


title: Midshipman

text: Generally, a nomination from a member of Congress or the Vice President is required to receive an appointment to the USNA. A nomination does not guarantee an appointment; in a typical year about 38% of nominees receive an appointment. Currently each member of Congress and the Vice President can have five appointees attending the Naval Academy at any time. Other nomination sources include the Secretary of the Navy, who may appoint 170 enlisted members of the regular and reserve Navy and Marine Corps to the Naval Academy each year, and the President may nominate an unlimited number of children of career military personnel for up to 100 appointments each year. Additionally, children of Medal of Honor recipients and select cadets of JROTC Honor Unit with Distinction units do not need a nomination but need only qualify for admission. The United States Merchant Marine Academy only accepts nominations from members of Congress. There are currently no Presidential, Vice-Presidential, military-affiliated, JROTC-honor unit, ROTC or Unit Commander, or Medal of Honor nominations permitted to the USMMA.


title: Midshipman

text: Midshipmen at the US Naval Academy, US Merchant Marine Academy, and in the NROTC wear uniforms that comply with standards established for commissioned officers of the Navy, with shoulder board and sleeve insignia varying by school year or midshipman officer rank as prescribed by Chapter 6 of Navy Uniform Regulations. Midshipmen wear gold fouled anchors as the primary insignia on caps and shoulder boards and gold plain anchors as collar insignia on service dress and full dress uniforms. Marine-option midshipmen in the NROTC wear gold Eagle, Globe and Anchor insignia in place of the fouled anchor insignia worn by all other midshipmen.


title: Midshipman

text: Midshipmen at the US Naval Academy study a core curriculum of engineering, natural sciences, the humanities, and social sciences, and participate in a required "surface cruise" with an active vessel during the summer. Upon graduation, midshipmen are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or second lieutenants in the Marine Corps.


title: Midshipman

text: Midshipmen at the United States Merchant Marine Academy study a similar core curriculum, except they are split into deck (navigation oriented) and engineering programs. Additionally, they typically spend a year at sea working as cadets on U.S. flagged merchant ships, visiting ports around the world. At graduation they have two options: (1) a job in the maritime industry ashore or sailing aboard commercial US-flagged vessels, plus a US Navy Reserve commission, or (2) an active-duty commission in any of the United States Uniformed Services (Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, or United States Public Health Service) as an ensign or second lieutenant.


title: Midshipman

text: Today, ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in many countries. Using U.S. midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, the equivalent rank would be a naval cadet in training to become a junior commissioned officer. Using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a U.S. ensign in role and responsibility.


title: Midshipman

text: The Dutch navy has since the early 17th century included a midshipman rank which literally means 'young gentleman' (); today, "adelborsten" train at the Royal Netherlands Naval College () for 3 years. Officer cadets in the German navy begin their training at the Naval Academy Mürwik () in Flensburg-Mürwik holding enlisted ranks with the qualifier officer candidate (), abbreviated as OA. After about a year, they are promoted to "Seekadetten", equivalent to the non-commissioned officer (NCO) rank Mate (), and move to the University of the German Federal Armed Forces. About nine months later, they are promoted to "Fähnrich zur See" rank, equivalent to the NCO rank Boatswain (). After 30 months of total training they are promoted to the final officer candidate rank, "Oberfähnrich zur See", equivalent to the NCO rank "Hauptbootsmann", and after about 4 years of total training graduate with a master's degree.


title: Midshipman

text: In many romance languages, the literal translation of the local term for "midshipman" into English is "Navy Guard", including the French "garde-marine", Spanish "guardia marina", Portuguese "guarda-marinha", and Italian "guardiamarina", and in most cases the term refers to the lowest ranking commissioned naval officer. The French rank of "garde de la marine" was established in 1670, when an office of the monarchy selected young gentlemen from the nobility to serve the King in the Gardes de la Marine. The concept of the "Gardes" was borrowed from the various guards units within the Maison militaire du roi de France. In 1686 these guards were organized into companies of cadets at the ports of Brest, Rochefort and Toulon. Unlike midshipmen in the Royal Navy, the "Gardes" trained mostly on shore and focused on military drill and theory rather than practical skills in gunnery, navigation and seamanship. After the succession of the Bourbon Philip V of Spain to the Spanish throne, the French system of naval officer education spread to Spain. The Spanish Navy created the rank of "guardia marina" in 1717, with the formation at Cadiz of the Royal Company of Midshipmen ().


title: Midshipman

text: By restricting the French officer corps to members of the nobility, there were not enough "Gardes" to man all of the ships during wartime. To fill the gaps, volunteers were temporarily recruited from the merchant service; they were allowed to hold permanent rank in the navy starting in 1763. These professional officers wore blue uniforms to distinguish them from the "Gardes de la Marine" who wore red uniforms. After the revolution, the royal connotations of the term "garde marine" led to its replacement with "aspirant" (officer cadet), and later "élèves de la Marine" (naval officer candidate). Contemporary French naval officer training still reflects this structure: students at the begin their first year as "", are promoted in their second year to "", and in their third year are commissioned as an acting sub-lieutenant (). In a modern French-English dictionary, "élève officier" translates to midshipman, but both the historical term "garde-marine" and the modern term for an officer candidate, "aspirant", are also equivalent to midshipman.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Bollea v. Gawker was a lawsuit filed in 2013 in the Circuit Court of the Sixth Judicial Circuit in and for Pinellas County, Florida, delivering a verdict on March 18, 2016. In the suit, Terry Eugene Bollea, known professionally as Hulk Hogan, sued Gawker Media, publisher of the Gawker website, and several Gawker employees and Gawker-affiliated entities, for posting portions of a sex tape of Bollea with Heather Clem, at that time the wife of radio personality Bubba the Love Sponge. Bollea's claims included invasion of privacy, infringement of personality rights, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Prior to trial, Bollea's lawyers said the privacy of many Americans was at stake while Gawker's lawyers said that the case could hurt freedom of the press in the United States.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Bollea sought $100 million in damages. In March 2016, the jury found Gawker Media liable and awarded Bollea $115 million in compensatory damages and $25 million in punitive damages. Three months after the verdict, Gawker filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and put itself up for sale. Gawker Media's assets, not including the namesake website, were subsequently sold to Univision Communications. On November 2, 2016, Gawker reached a $31 million settlement with Bollea.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: In 2006, Bollea was videotaped while having sex with Heather Clem; at trial he claimed that the videotaping was without his knowledge or consent. On "The Howard Stern Show", Hogan told Stern that he had slept with Heather with Bubba Clem's blessing and his encouragement because he was so burnt-out from the trauma of his coming divorce that he finally gave in to the "relentless" come-ons from Heather who "kept going down that road." Bollea said that he knew that Clem had "an alternative lifestyle" and that he had stopped by their house "just to say hello" when Heather tempted him. Bollea later testified: "I was depressed. I gave up and gave in. I felt that those people loved me."


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: On October 4, 2012, Gawker editor A.J. Daulerio published a two-minute extract from the 30-minute video, including 10 seconds of explicit sexual activity.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Bollea originally sued Gawker for copyright infringement in the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida, seeking a temporary injunction. Bollea's lawyer was Charles Harder. U.S. District Judge James D. Whittemore denied Bollea's motion, ruling that the validity of the copyright was in question, and that given the degree to which Bollea had already put his own private life into the public arena, the publication of the video might be protected by fair use.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Bollea withdrew his case in the US district court and sued Gawker in Florida state court. There, his request for an injunction was granted by Judge Pamela Campbell in 2013. Gawker announced that it would not comply with the part of the court order requiring the removal of the post and associated commentary because it deemed the order "risible and contemptuous of centuries of First Amendment jurisprudence." Gawker removed the video itself, but linked readers to another site hosting the video.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: The injunction was quickly stayed on appeal, and was denied in 2014 by the appeals court, which ruled that under the circumstances it was an unconstitutional prior restraint on speech under the First Amendment. Gawker tried to get Judge Campbell to dismiss the case based on that ruling, but the case went to trial.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: The six-person jury consisted of four women and two men. The trial lasted two weeks. During the trial, Gawker argued that Bollea made his sex life a public matter, although on cross-examination, when asked by Bollea's lawyer whether a depiction of his genitalia had any "news value," former Gawker editor AJ Daulerio responded "no". Bollea said that comments made in interviews were done in his professional wrestling character, an on-air persona different from his own. The court was shown a taped deposition where Daulerio said that he would consider a celebrity sex tape non-newsworthy if the subject was under the age of four. Daulerio later told the court he was being flippant in his response.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: On March 18, 2016, the jury delivered a verdict in favor of Bollea. The jury awarded him $115 million in compensatory damages, which included $60 million for emotional distress. The jury awarded Bollea an additional $25 million in punitive damages on March 21.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Reactions to the verdict ranged from those supporting it and decrying voyeuristic publications, to those describing it as of limited scope which doesn't damage free speech, to those describing the verdict and the large judgment as having a deeply chilling effect on journalism when courts can decide newsworthiness.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Gawker CEO Nick Denton said the company would appeal the verdict. In early April 2016, Gawker Media filed two post-trial motions in the trial court. In one motion, the company sought to throw out the jury verdict, arguing that "key evidence was wrongly withheld" and the jury instructions on the constitutional standards for newsworthiness were improper. In another motion, Gawker argued that even if the verdict stands, the amount of damages should be greatly reduced, arguing that the emotional damage award exceeded amounts found to be excessive in severe personal injury cases and that the economic damages were improperly calculated. In late May 2016, the trial judge denied both motions.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: In May 2016, it was reported that Bollea had sued Gawker again, alleging that they were responsible for leaking sealed court documents that had quoted him using racial slurs. The transcripts were published by the "National Enquirer," and World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) subsequently fired him. Gawker denied being responsible for the leak. Bollea would be re-signed by WWE on July 15, 2018.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Billionaire Peter Thiel, a co-founder of PayPal and former Facebook board member, paid $10 million to help finance lawsuits against Gawker Media, including the Bollea lawsuit. He called his financial support of Bollea's case "one of my greater philanthropic things that I've done." Gawker had published an article in 2007 outing Thiel as gay.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: On June 9, 2016, Gawker filed a motion for a stay of execution of judgment pending appeal. In the motion and accompanying affidavits from Gawker Media personnel, the company stated that it could not afford to pay the $140.1 million judgment or the $50 million appeal bond.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: On June 10, 2016, Gawker filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and put itself up for sale. Denton personally filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on August 1.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Univision Communications bought Gawker Media's assets for $135 million at a bankruptcy auction on August 16, 2016. The sale to Univision included six Gawker websites—Deadspin, Gizmodo, Jalopnik, Jezebel, Kotaku and Lifehacker—which were not involved with the publication of the Bollea materials. The sale did not include the continued operations of the flagship Gawker website. On August 18, 2016, it was announced that the main Gawker site would be shut down by the next week. Gawker's article archive would remain online and its employees will either be transferred to the remaining six websites or elsewhere in Univision.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: On November 2, 2016, Gawker Media and Bollea reached a $31 million settlement. As a result of the settlement, Gawker forwent its appeal and three articles from "gawker.com" were taken down, including the one involving Bollea.


title: Bollea v. Gawker

text: Other lawsuits followed naming Hiscox Insurance, Cox Radio, Terry Bollea, Mike Calta (of the "Mike Calta Show") and Matthew Christian Lloyd (a radio personality formerly employed by Bubba the Love Sponge).


title: Entity component system

text: Entity Component System (ECS) is a software architectural pattern mostly used in video game development for the representation of game world objects. An ECS comprises "entities" composed from "components" of data, with "systems" which operate on entities' components.


title: Entity component system

text: ECS follows the principle of composition over inheritance, meaning that every entity is defined not by a type hierarchy, but by the components that are associated with it. Systems act globally over all entities which have the required components.


title: Entity component system

text: Entity: An entity represents a general-purpose object. In a game engine context, for example, every coarse game object is represented as an entity. Usually, it only consists of a unique id. Implementations typically use a plain integer for this.


title: Entity component system

text: Component: A component labels an "entity" as possessing a particular aspect, and holds the data needed to model that aspect. For example, every game object that can take damage might have a Health component associated with its entity. Implementations typically use structs, classes, or associative arrays.


title: Entity component system

text: System: A system is a process which acts on all entities with the desired components. For example a physics system may query for entities having mass, velocity and position components, and iterate over the results doing physics calculations on the sets of components for each entity.


title: Entity component system

text: The behavior of an entity can be changed at runtime by systems that add, remove or modify components. This eliminates the ambiguity problems of deep and wide inheritance hierarchies often found in Object Oriented Programming techniques that are difficult to understand, maintain, and extend. Common ECS approaches are highly compatible with, and are often combined with, data-oriented design techniques. Data for all instances of a component are commonly stored together in physical memory, enabling efficient memory access for systems which operate over many entities.


title: Entity component system

text: In 2007, the team working on "" experimented with ECS designs, including those inspired by Bilas/"Dungeon Siege", and Adam Martin later wrote a detailed account of ECS design, including definitions of core terminology and concepts. In particular, Martin's work popularized the ideas of systems as a first-class element, entities as identifiers, components as raw data, and code stored in systems, not in components or entities.


title: Entity component system

text: In 2015, Apple Inc. introduced GameplayKit, an API framework for iOS, macOS and tvOS game development that includes an implementation of ECS.


title: Entity component system

text: In October 2018 the company Unity released its megacity demo that utilized a tech stack built on an ECS. It had 100,000 audio sources—one for every car, neon sign, and more—creating a large, complex soundscape.


title: Entity component system

text: The data layout of different ECSs can differ as well as the definition of components, how they relate to entities, and how systems access entities' components.


title: Entity component system

text: An entity only consists of an ID for accessing components. It is a common practice to use a unique ID for each entity. This is not a requirement, but it has several advantages:


title: Entity component system

text: Components have no game code (behavior) inside of them. The components don't have to be located physically together with the entity, but should be easy to find and access using the entity.


title: Entity component system

text: "Each System runs continuously (as though each System had its own private thread) and performs global actions on every Entity that possesses a Component or Components that match that System's query."


title: Entity component system

text: Unity's layout has tables each with columns of components. In this system an entity "type" is based on the components it holds. For every entity "type" there is a table (called an "archetype") holding columns of components that match the components used in the entity. To access a particular entity one must find the correct archetype (table) and index into each column to get each corresponding component for that entity.


title: Entity component system

text: Apparatus is a third-party ECS implementation for Unreal Engine that has introduced some additional features to the common ECS paradigm. One of those features is the support of the type hierarchy for the components. Each component can have a base component type (or a base class) much like in OOP. A system can then query with the base class and get all of its descendants matched in the resulting entities selection. This can be very useful for some common logic to be implemented on a set of different components and adds an additional dimension to the paradigm.


title: Entity component system

text: Flecs is a fast and lightweight Entity Component System (ECS) for C & C++ that lets you build games and simulations with millions of entities.


title: Entity component system

text: The normal way to transmit data between systems is to store the data in components, and then have each system access the component sequentially. For example, the position of an object can be updated regularly. This position is then used by other systems. If there are a lot of different infrequent events, a lot of flags will be needed in one or more components. Systems will then have to monitor these flags every iteration, which can become inefficient. A solution could be to use the observer pattern. All systems that depend on an event subscribe to it. The action from the event will thus only be executed once, when it happens, and no polling is needed.


title: Entity component system

text: The ECS architecture has no trouble with dependency problems commonly found in Object Oriented Programming since components are simple data buckets, they have no dependencies. Each system will typically query the set of components an entity must have for the system to operate on it. For example, a render system might register the model, transform, and drawable components. When it runs, the system will perform its logic on any entity that has all of those components. Other entities are simply skipped, with no need for complex dependency trees. However this can be a place for bugs to hide, since propagating values from one system to another through components may be hard to debug. ECS may be used where uncoupled data needs to be bound to a given lifetime.


title: Entity component system

text: The ECS architecture uses composition, rather than inheritance trees. An entity will be typically made up of an ID and a list of components that are attached to it. Any game object can be created by adding the correct components to an entity. This allows the developer to easily add features of one object to another, without any dependency issues. For example, a player entity could have a "bullet" component added to it, and then it would meet the requirements to be manipulated by some "bulletHandler" system, which could result in that player doing damage to things by running into them.


title: Entity component system

text: The merits of using ECSs for storing the game state have been proclaimed by many game developers like Adam Martin. One good example is the blog posts by Richard Lord where he discusses the merits and why ECS designed game data storage systems are so useful.


title: Entity component system

text: This article defines ECS as a software architecture pattern with three first-class parts: entities, components, and systems.


title: Entity component system

text: Due to an ambiguity in the English language, however, a common interpretation of the name is that an ECS is a system comprising entities and components. For example, in the 2013 talk at GDC, Scott Bilas compares a C++ object system and his new custom component system. This is consistent with a traditional use of "system" term in general systems engineering with Common Lisp Object System and type system as examples. Therefore, the idea of "Systems" as first-class elements is a contestable one.


title: Entity component system

text: The practical difference in such an entity-component architecture is that behaviors will be defined on the components and/or entities. This will have trade-offs making it more or less suitable depending on the application.


title: Entity component system

text: To avoid ambiguity in this article, we follow the words "Entity Component System" with a noun such as "framework" or "architecture". The word "system" is singular in this context.


title: Entity component system

text: ECS combines orthogonal, well-established ideas in general computer science and programming language theory. For example, components can be seen as a mixin idiom in various programming languages. Components are a specialized case under the general delegation (object-oriented programming) approach and meta-object protocol. That is, any complete component object system can be expressed with the "templates" and "empathy" model within The Orlando Treaty vision of object-oriented programming. But whatever the theoretical utility of the concept is, the widespread use of Entity Component System frameworks, particularly in games programming, make its practical utility indisputable.


title: Ash Sarkar

text: Ashna Sarkar (born 1992) is a British journalist and libertarian communist political activist. She is a senior editor at Novara Media and teaches at the Sandberg Institute in Amsterdam. Sarkar is a contributor to "The Guardian" and "The Independent".


title: Ash Sarkar

text: Ashna Sarkar was born in London in 1992. Her great-great-aunt, Pritilata Waddedar, was a Bengali nationalist who participated in armed struggle against the British Empire in 1930s Bengal. Her grandmother is a hospital carer. Her mother is a social worker who was an anti-racist and trade union activist in the 1970s and 1980s, helping to organise marches after the racially motivated murder of Altab Ali.


title: Ash Sarkar

text: She attended Enfield County School, an all-girls comprehensive school, before moving to the Latymer School, a selective grammar school for sixth form education. She has undergraduate and master's degrees in English literature from University College London.


title: Ash Sarkar

text: Sarkar is a senior editor at Novara Media and teaches at the Sandberg Institute in Amsterdam. In 2017, she taught global politics at Anglia Ruskin University as an associate lecturer.