title: Kitchen utensil

text: Aluminium's advantages over other materials for kitchen utensils is its good thermal conductivity (which is approximately an order of magnitude greater than that of steel), the fact that it is largely non-reactive with foodstuffs at low and high temperatures, its low toxicity, and the fact that its corrosion products are white and so (unlike the dark corrosion products of, say, iron) do not discolour food that they happen to be mixed into during cooking. However, its disadvantages are that it is easily discoloured, can be dissolved by acidic foods (to a comparatively small extent), and reacts to alkaline soaps if they are used for cleaning a utensil.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: In the European Union, the construction of kitchen utensils made of aluminium is determined by two European standards: EN 601 ("Aluminium and aluminium alloys — Castings — Chemical composition of castings for use in contact with foodstuffs") and EN 602 ("Aluminium and aluminium alloys — Wrought products — Chemical composition of semi-finished products used for the fabrication of articles for use in contact with foodstuffs").


title: Kitchen utensil

text: A great feature of non-enameled ceramics is that clay does not react with food, does not contain toxic substances, and is safe for food use because it does not give off toxic substances when heated. Clay is also a substance that occurs naturally.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: There are several types of ceramic utensils. Terracotta utensils, which are made of red clay and black ceramics. The clay utensils for preparing food can also be used in electric ovens, microwaves and stoves, we can also place them in fireplaces. It is not advised to put the clay utensil in the 220-250 temperature oven directly, because it will break. It also is not recommended to place the clay pot over an open fire.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Clay utensils do not like sharp change in temperature. The dishes prepared in clay pots come to be particularly juicy and soft – this is due to the clay’s porous surface. Due to this porous nature of the surface the clay utensils inhale aroma and grease. The coffee made in clay coffee boilers is very aromatic, but such pots need special care. It is not advised to scrub the pots with metal scrubs, it is better to pour soda water in the pot and let it stay there and afterwards to wash the pot with warm water. The clay utensils must be kept in a dry place, so that they will not get damp.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Plastics can be readily formed by molding into a variety of shapes useful for kitchen utensils. Transparent plastic measuring cups allow ingredient levels to be easily visible, and are lighter and less fragile than glass measuring cups. Plastic handles added to utensils improve comfort and grip. While many plastics deform or decompose if heated, a few silicone products can be used in boiling water or in an oven for food preparation. Non-stick plastic coatings can be applied to frying pans; newer coatings avoid the issues with decomposition of plastics under strong heating.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Heat-resistant glass utensils can be used for baking or other cooking. Glass does not conduct heat as well as metal, and has the drawback of breaking easily if dropped. Transparent glass measuring cups allow ready measurement of liquid and dry ingredients.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: "Of the culinary utensils of the ancients", wrote Mrs Beeton, "our knowledge is very limited; but as the art of living, in every civilized country, is pretty much the same, the instruments for cooking must, in a great degree, bear a striking resemblance to one another".


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Archaeologists and historians have studied the kitchen utensils used in centuries past. For example: In the Middle Eastern villages and towns of the middle first millennium AD, historical and archaeological sources record that Jewish households generally had stone measuring cups, a "meyḥam" (a wide-necked vessel for heating water), a "kederah" (an unlidded pot-bellied cooking pot), a "ilpas" (a lidded stewpot/casserole pot type of vessel used for stewing and steaming), "yorah" and "kumkum" (pots for heating water), two types of "teganon" (frying pan) for deep and shallow frying, an "iskutla" (a glass serving platter), a "tamḥui" (ceramic serving bowl), a "keara" (a bowl for bread), a "kiton" (a canteen of cold water used to dilute wine), and a "lagin" (a wine decanter).


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Ownership and types of kitchen utensils varied from household to household. Records survive of inventories of kitchen utensils from London in the 14th century, in particular the records of possessions given in the coroner's rolls. Very few such people owned any kitchen utensils at all. In fact only seven convicted felons are recorded as having any. One such, a murderer from 1339, is recorded as possessing only the one kitchen utensil: a brass pot (one of the commonest such kitchen utensils listed in the records) valued at three shillings. Similarly, in Minnesota in the second half of the 19th century, John North is recorded as having himself made "a real nice rolling pin, and a pudding stick" for his wife; one soldier is recorded as having a Civil War bayonet refashioned, by a blacksmith, into a bread knife; whereas an immigrant Swedish family is recorded as having brought with them "solid silver knives, forks, and spoons [...] Quantities of copper and brass utensils burnished until they were like mirrors hung in rows".


title: Kitchen utensil

text: The 19th century, particularly in the United States, saw an explosion in the number of kitchen utensils available on the market, with many labour-saving devices being invented and patented throughout the century. Maria Parloa's "Cook Book and Marketing Guide" listed a "minimum" of 139 kitchen utensils without which a contemporary kitchen would not be considered properly furnished. Parloa wrote that "the homemaker will find [that] there is continually something new to be bought".


title: Kitchen utensil

text: A growth in the range of kitchen utensils available can be traced through the growth in the range of utensils recommended to the aspiring householder in cookbooks as the century progressed. Earlier in the century, in 1828, Frances Byerley Parkes had recommended a smaller array of utensils. By 1858, Elizabeth H. Putnam, in "Mrs Putnam's Receipt Book and Young Housekeeper's Assistant", wrote with the assumption that her readers would have the "usual quantity of utensils", to which she added a list of necessary items:


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Copper saucepans, well lined, with covers, from three to six different sizes; a flat-bottomed soup-pot; an upright gridiron; sheet-iron breadpans instead of tin; a griddle; a tin kitchen; Hector's double boiler; a tin coffee-pot for boiling coffee, or a filter — either being equally good; a tin canister to keep roasted and ground coffee in; a canister for tea; a covered tin box for bread; one likewise for cake, or a drawer in your store-closet, lined with zinc or tin; a bread-knife; a board to cut bread upon; a covered jar for pieces of bread, and one for fine crumbs; a knife-tray; a spoon-tray; — the yellow ware is much the stringest, or tin pans of different sizes are economical; — a stout tin pan for mixing bread; a large earthen bowl for beating cake; a stone jug for yeast; a stone jar for soup stock; a meat-saw; a cleaver; iron and wooden spoons; a wire sieve for sifting flour and meal; a small hair sieve; a bread-board; a meat-board; a lignum vitae mortar, and rolling-pin, &c.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: The following list, supplied by Messrs Richard & John Slack, 336, Strand, will show the articles required for the kitchen of a family in the middle class of life, although it does not contain all the things that may be deemed necessary for some families, and may contain more than are required for others. As Messrs Slack themselves, however, publish a useful illustrated catalogue, which may be had at their establishment gratis, and which it will be found advantageous to consult by those about to furnish, it supersedes the necessity of our enlarging that which we give:


title: Kitchen utensil

text: Parloa, in her 1880 cookbook, took two pages to list all of the essential kitchen utensils for a well-furnished kitchen, a list running to 93 distinct sorts of item. The 1882 edition ran to 20 pages illustrating and describing the various utensils for a well-furnished kitchen. Sarah Tyson Rorer's 1886 "Philadelphia Cook Book" listed more than 200 kitchen utensils that a well-furnished kitchen should have.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: However, many of these utensils were expensive and not affordable by the majority of householders. Some people considered them unnecessary, too. James Frank Breazeale decried the explosion in patented "labour-saving" devices for the modern kitchen—promoted in exhibitions and advertised in "Household Guides" at the start of the 20th century—, saying that "the best way for the housewife to peel a potato, for example, is in the old-fashioned way, with a knife, and not with a patented potato peeler". Breazeale advocated simplicity over dishwashing machines "that would have done credit to a moderate sized hotel", and noted that the most useful kitchen utensils were "the simple little inexpensive conveniences that work themselves into every day use", giving examples, of utensils that were simple and cheap but indispensable once obtained and used, of a stiff brush for cleaning saucepans, a sink strainer to prevent drains from clogging, and an ordinary wooden spoon.


title: Kitchen utensil

text: The "labour-saving" devices didn't necessarily save labour, either. While the advent of mass-produced standardized measuring instruments permitted even householders with little to no cooking skills to follow recipes and end up with the desired result and the advent of many utensils enabled "modern" cooking, on a stove or range rather than at floor level with a hearth, they "also" operated to raise expectations of what families would eat. So while food was easier to prepare and to cook, ordinary householders at the same time were expected to prepare and to cook more complex and harder-to-prepare meals on a regular basis. The labour-saving effect of the tools was cancelled out by the increased labour required for what came to be expected as the culinary norm in the average household.


title: Riot

text: A riot is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property, or people.


title: Riot

text: Riots typically involve destruction of property, public or private. The property targeted varies depending on the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, and religious buildings.


title: Riot

text: Riots often occur in reaction to a grievance or out of dissent. Historically, riots have occurred due to poverty, unemployment, poor living conditions, governmental oppression, taxation or conscription, conflicts between ethnic groups (race riot) or religions (sectarian violence, pogrom), the outcome of a sporting event (sports riot, football hooliganism) or frustration with legal channels through which to air grievances.


title: Riot

text: While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently "chaotic and exhibit herd behavior." There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior (sometimes called mob mentality), but actually follow inverted social norms.


title: Riot

text: Dealing with riots is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters. Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest.


title: Riot

text: Food riots are caused by harvest failures, incompetent food storage, hoarding, poisoning of food, or attacks by pests like locusts. When the public becomes desperate from such conditions, groups may attack shops, farms, homes, or government buildings to obtain bread or other staple foods like grain or salt. T. S. Ashton, in his study of food riots among colliers, noted that "the turbulence of the colliers is, of course, to be accounted for by something more elementary than politics: it was the instinctive reaction of virility to hunger." Charles Wilson noted, "Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on the Tyne to riot in 1709, tin miners to plunder granaries at Falmouth in 1727." In the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots, hundreds of thousands of people rioted after food subsidies stopped and prices rose.


title: Riot

text: A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians. This term is commonly used to describe a police attack on civilians or provoking civilians into violence.


title: Riot

text: A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers, or other groups of prisoners. It is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape.


title: Riot

text: In a race riot, race or ethnicity is the key factor. The term had entered the English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the term referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races.


title: Riot

text: In a religious riot, the key factor is religion. The rioting mob targets people and properties of a specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion.


title: Riot

text: Sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team or athlete. Fans of the two teams may also fight. Sports riots may happen as a result of teams contending for a championship, a long series of matches, or scores that are close. Sports are the most common cause of riots in the United States, accompanying more than half of all championship games or series. Almost all sports riots in the United States occur in the winning team's city.


title: Riot

text: The economic and political effects of riots can be as complex as their origins. Property destruction and harm to individuals are often immediately measurable. During the 1992 Los Angeles riots, 2,383 people were injured, more than 12,000 were arrested, 63 people were killed and over 700 businesses burned. Property damage was estimated at over $1 billion. At least ten of those killed were shot by police or National Guard forces.


title: Riot

text: Similarly, the 2005 civil unrest in France lasted over three weeks and spread to nearly 300 towns. By the end of the incident, over 10,000 vehicles were destroyed and over 300 buildings burned. Over 2,800 suspected rioters were arrested and 126 police and firefighters were injured. Estimated damages were over €200 Million.


title: Riot

text: Riots are typically dealt with by the police, although methods differ from country to country. Tactics and weapons used can include attack dogs, water cannons, plastic bullets, rubber bullets, pepper spray, flexible baton rounds, and snatch squads. Many police forces have dedicated divisions to deal with public order situations. Some examples are the Territorial Support Group (London), Special Patrol Group (London), Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (France), Mobiele Eenheid (Netherlands), and Arrest units (Germany).


title: Riot

text: The policing of riots has been marred by incidents in which police have been accused of provoking rioting or crowd violence. While the weapons described above are officially designated as non-lethal, a number of people have died or been injured as a result of their use. For example, seventeen deaths were caused by rubber bullets in Northern Ireland over the thirty five years between 1970 and 2005.


title: Riot

text: A high risk of being arrested is even more effective against rioting than severe punishments. As more and more people join the riot, the risk of being arrested goes down, which persuades still more people to join.


title: Riot

text: Riot is a statutory offence in England and Wales. It is created by section 1(1) of the Public Order Act 1986. Sections 1(1) to (5) of that Act read:


title: Riot

text: A single person can be liable for an offence of riot when they "use" violence, provided that it is shown there were at least twelve present "using or threatening" unlawful violence.


title: Riot

text: The word "violence" is defined by section 8. The violence can be against the person or against property. The "mens rea" is defined by section 6(1).


title: Riot

text: Riot is an indictable-only offence. A person convicted of riot is liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding ten years, or to a fine, or to both.


title: Riot

text: In the case of riot connected to football hooliganism, the offender may be banned from football grounds for a set or indeterminate period of time and may be required to surrender their passport to the police for a period of time in the event of a club or international match, or international tournament, connected with the offence. This prevents travelling to the match or tournament in question. (The measures were brought in by the Football (Disorder) Act 2000 after rioting of England fans at Euro 2000.)


title: Riot

text: In the past, the Riot Act had to be read by an official - with the wording exactly correct - before violent policing action could take place. If the group did not disperse after the Act was read, lethal force could legally be used against the crowd. See also the Black Act.


title: Riot

text: Section 515 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894 formerly made provision for compensation for riot damage.


title: Riot

text: Riot is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.


title: Riot

text: There is an offence under the law of Scotland which is known both as "mobbing" and "mobbing and rioting".


title: Riot

text: In July 1981, both Dundee and Edinburgh saw significant disorder as part of the events of that July, while in 1994 and in 2013, two years after the English riots of August 2011, Edinburgh saw rioting, albeit localised to one specific area and not part of any bigger 'riot wave'. Events in 1981 were very similar to those in England, although sources are severely limited. Both Niddrie and Craigmillar saw riots in the 1980s.


title: Riot

text: In 1988 the Israeli army issued rules of engagement for the use of plastic bullets which defined a "violent riot" as : a disturbance with the participation of three or more persons, including stone throwing, erection of a barrier or barricade, burning a tire.


title: Riot

text: Each state may have its own definition of a riot. In New York, the term "riot" is not defined explicitly, but under § 240.08 of the N.Y. Penal Law, "A person is guilty of inciting to riot when one urges ten or more persons to engage in tumultuous and violent conduct of a kind likely to create public alarm."


title: LitRPG

text: LitRPG, short for literary role playing game, is a literary genre combining the conventions of computer RPGs with science-fiction and fantasy novels. The term was introduced in 2013. In LitRPG, games or game-like challenges form an essential part of the story, and visible RPG statistics (for example strength, intelligence, damage) are a significant part of the reading experience. This distinguishes the genre from novels that tie in with a game, like those set in the world of "Dungeons and Dragons"; books that are actual games, such as the choose-your-own-path "Fighting Fantasy" type of publication; or games that are literally described, like MUDs and interactive fiction. Typically, the main character in a LitRPG novel is consciously interacting with the game or game-like world and attempting to progress within it.


title: LitRPG

text: The literary trope of getting inside a computer game is not new. Larry Niven and Steven Barnes's "Dream Park" (1981) has a setting of LARP-like games as a kind of reality TV in the future (2051); Andre Norton's "Quag Keep" (1978) enters the world of the characters of a D&D game. With the rise of MMORPGs in the 1990s came science fiction novels that utilised virtual game worlds for their plots. Early examples are Tad Williams's 1996-2004 tetralogy "Otherland", Conor Kostick's 2004 "Epic" and Charles Stross's 2007 "Halting State". In Taiwan, the first of Yu Wo's nine "½ Prince" (½ 王子 Èrfēnzhīyī Wángzǐ) novels appeared, published in October 2004 by Ming Significant Cultural. In Japan, the genre has reached the mainstream with the release of the media phenomenon "Sword Art Online" in 2009. Also of note is the Korean "Legendary Moonlight Sculptor" series with over 50 volumes.


title: LitRPG

text: While these novels and others were precursors to a more stat-heavy form of novel, which is LitRPG proper, a Russian publishing initiative identified the genre and gave it a name. The first Russian novel in this style appeared in 2012 at the Russian self-publishing website samizdat.ru, the novel "Господство клана Неспящих" ("Clan Dominance: The Sleepless Ones") by Dem Mikhailov set in the fictional sword and sorcery game world of Valdira, printed by Leningrad Publishers later that year under the title "Господство кланов" ("The Rule of the Clans") in the series "Современный фантастический боевик" ("Modern Fantastic Action Novel") and translated into English as "The Way of the Clan" as a Kindle book in 2015. In 2013, EKSMO, Russia's major publishing house, started its multiple-author project entitled "LitRPG". According to Magic Dome Books, a major translator of Russian LitRPG, the term "LitRPG" was coined in late 2013 during a brainstorming session between writer Vasily Mahanenko, EKSMO's science fiction editor Dmitry Malkin and fellow LitRPG series editor and author . Since 2014, EKSMO has been running LitRPG competitions and publishing the winning stories.


title: LitRPG

text: Many of the post-2014 writers in this field insist that depiction of a character's in-game progression must be part of the definition of LitRPG, leading to the emergence of the term GameLit to embrace stories set in a game universe, but which don't necessarily embody leveling and skill raising. One of the earliest examples is Chris Van Allsburg's "Jumanji" which is a children's book about a magical board game.


title: LitRPG

text: Although released in 2011, Ernest Cline's novel "Ready Player One" which depicts a virtual reality world called OASIS filled with arcade references from the 1980s and 1990s, became an example of this new genre. Other examples include Marie Lu's 2017 novel "Warcross" which is about an online bounty hunter in an internet game, and Louis Bulaong's 2020 book "Escapist Dream" which tells the story of a virtual reality world where geeks can role-play and use the powers of their favorite comic book, anime, movie and video game characters.


title: Sangharsh (1999 film)

text: Sangharsh () is a 1999 Indian Hindi-language psychological horror thriller film directed by Tanuja Chandra. It stars Akshay Kumar, Preity Zinta, and Ashutosh Rana. As per the writer Mahesh Bhatt, the plot of this film was based on the 1991 film "The Silence of The Lambs". However, after a few years, the film's director and writer rejected this. Kumar's performance was critically acclaimed.


title: Sangharsh (1999 film)

text: A series of child abductions and murders have left the police force perplexed and unable to solve the case. Hence the case is handed over to the CBI, who designate trainee Reet Oberoi to solve the case. After some investigation the evidence points towards Lajja Shankar Pandey, a religious fanatic who believes in the sacrifice of children to gain immortality. Pandey's erratic behaviour and Reet's traumas (as a child she witnesses her older brother Jassi, a terrorist, being gunned down by the police in their home) forces Reet to seek help from a prisoner, an unjustly implicated genius by the name Professor Aman Verma.


title: Sangharsh (1999 film)

text: At first Aman is rude towards Reet and refuses to help her, but with some help she manages to sway him into helping her. The case gets even more tough as she finds out that the Home Minister's only child has been kidnapped by Pandey. Reet cannot handle the pressure alone due to her traumatic childhood and her phobias, she also faces opposition from the local police partly because of Verma's methods. As they begin to spend more time together, he helps her overcome her fears and both fall in love.


title: Sangharsh (1999 film)

text: They eventually track down Pandey, who is about to begin the last sacrifice on the day of a solar eclipse ("Soorya Grahan"), which he believes will finally help him attain immortality. Aman and Reet eventually save the child, killing Pandey in the process. However Aman is fatally injured. Reet and Aman share a kiss before he dies in her arms. Reet is given a hero's welcome and she finds a new sense of life in herself.


title: Sangharsh (1999 film)

text: Bella Jaisinghani of "The Indian Express" wrote, "This crime thriller is value for money," noting the performances: "Akshay Kumar and Preity Zinta have done an impressive job as a criminal and a CBI officer". R. Vasudevan of "Hindustan Times" noted the performances, believing it could be Kumar's turning point and mentioning Zinta for playing a role "different from the typical Bollywood heroine who is just an appendage of the hero." Rediff.com's reviewer Sharmila Taliculam gave the film a positive review, but concluded, "Sangharsh may or may not do well at the turnstiles. If you are a Mahesh Bhatt fan, you may find it watchable. If you are not, give it a miss." "India Today" critic Madhu Jain highly praised the film's performance, noting Kumar for delivering "quite a performance", Zinta for bringing "intelligence to her role", and Rana for a performance that "remains searingly etched on the mind". An article published by "The Tribune" at the time of release hailed Zinta's performance as "an amazing act", calling "Sangharsh" "an intense film". Mukhtar Anjoom of "Deccan Herald" wrote a positive review, noting that in spite of its possible lack of originality, "the treatment of the characters is first-rate" and "the build-up to the impending scare is brilliant". He further described Rana's performance as "outstanding" and praised Chandra for "bringing out the best" out of Kumar and Zinta. In 2013, Subhash K. Jha described it as one of the "rare ones in which top actors … agreed to play secondary roles" to the leading lady.


title: 2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: The 2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga, also known as Admiral Bundesliga for sponsorship reasons, was the 110th season of top-tier football in Austria. The title was won by Red Bull Salzburg for the sixteenth time in their history, and ninth time in a row.


title: 2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: St. Pölten was relegated to the 2021-22 Austrian Football Second League after finishing in last place in the 2020-21 Relegation Round. SK Austria Klagenfurt was promoted as champions of the 2020–21 Austrian Football Second League, despite finishing third in that competition. FC Blau-Weiß Linz finished in first, but did not apply for a Bundesliga license and FC Liefering took second place, but as a feeder team for FC Red Bull Salzburg, were also ineligible for promotion.


title: 2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: The points obtained during the regular season were halved (and rounded down) before the start of the playoff. As a result, the teams started with the following points before the playoff: Red Bull Salzburg 27, Sturm Graz 18, Wolfsberger AC 18, Austria Wien 16, Rapid Wien 15, and Austria Klagenfurt 15. The points of all teams but Austria Klagenfurt were rounded down – in the event of any ties on points at the end of the playoffs, a half point will be added for these teams.


title: 2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: The points obtained during the regular season were halved (and rounded down) before the start of the playoff. As a result, the teams started with the following points before the playoff: Ried 14, LASK 12, Tirol 11, Hartberg 11, Admira Wacker 10, and Rheindorf Altach 6. The points of Ried, LASK, Tirol, and Rheindorf Altach were rounded down – in the event of any ties on points at the end of the playoffs, a half point will be added for these teams.


title: 2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: The winner and runner-up of the relegation round, the fifth-placed team from the championship round play to determine the qualifier to the Europa Conference League second qualifying round.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake ("Pseudechis porphyriacus") is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae, indigenous to Australia. Originally described by George Shaw in 1794 as a species new to science, it is one of eastern Australia's most commonly encountered snakes. Averaging around in length, it has glossy black upperparts, bright red or orange flanks, and a pink or dull red belly. It is not aggressive and generally retreats from human encounters, but can attack if provoked. Although its venom can cause significant illness, no deaths have been recorded from its bite, which is less venomous than other Australian elapid snakes. The venom contains neurotoxins, myotoxins, and coagulants and has haemolytic properties. Victims can also lose their sense of smell.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Common in woodlands, forests and swamplands, the red-bellied black snake often ventures into nearby urban areas. It forages in bodies of shallow water, commonly with tangles of water plants and logs, where it hunts its main prey item, frogs, as well as fish, reptiles, and small mammals. The snake is a least-concern species according to the IUCN, but its numbers are thought to be declining due to habitat fragmentation and decline of frog populations.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake was first described and named by English naturalist George Shaw in "Zoology of New Holland" (1794) as "Coluber porphyriacus". Incorrectly assuming it was harmless and not venomous, he wrote, "This beautiful snake, which appears to be unprovided with tubular teeth or fangs, and consequently not of a venomous nature, is three, sometimes four, feet in nature." The species name is derived from the Greek "porphyrous", which can mean "dark purple", "red-purple" or "beauteous". It was the first Australian elapid snake described. The syntype is presumed lost. French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède described it under the name "Trimeresurus leptocephalus" in 1804. His countryman René Lesson described it as "Acanthophis tortor" in 1826. German biologist Hermann Schlegel felt it was allied with cobras and called it "Naja porphyrica" in 1837.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The genus "Pseudechis" was created for this species by German biologist Johann Georg Wagler in 1830; several more species have been added to the genus subsequently. The name is derived from the Greek words "pseudēs" "false", and "echis" "viper". Snake expert Eric Worrell, in 1961, analysed the skulls of the genus and found that of the red-bellied black snake to be the most divergent. Its position as an early offshoot from the rest of the genus has been confirmed genetically in 2017.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Snake handler Raymond Hoser described two extra subspecies in 2003: "P. p. eipperi" from the Atherton Tableland and surrounds in north-east Queensland, which he noted was smaller, rarely attaining 2 m (7 ft) and had a white or pale pink rather than red belly, and "P. p. rentoni" from southeastern South Australia, which has a variably coloured (often orange or even blueish-tinged) belly. He added that both were disjunct from the main red-bellied black snake population, and as the distinguishing traits of "P. p. rentoni" were not consistent, then location was the most reliable way of identifying it. These subspecies have not been recognized by other authors, and Hoser has been strongly criticized for identifying some taxa on location alone, and omitting, misinterpreting or inventing evidence of distinctness.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: In addition to red-bellied black snake, the species has been called common black snake, redbelly, and RBBS. It was known as "djirrabidi" to the Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake has a glossy black top body with a light-grey snout and brown mouth, and a completely black tail. It lacks a well-defined neck; its head merges seamlessly into the body. Its flanks are bright red or orange, fading to pink or dull red on the belly. All these scales have black margins. Snakes from northern populations tend to have lighter, more cream or pink bellies. The red-bellied black snake is on average around long, the largest individual recorded at . Males are generally slightly larger than females. A large specimen caught in Newcastle has been estimated to weigh around . The red-bellied black snake can have a strong smell, which some field experts have used to find the snakes in the wild.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Like all elapid snakes, it is proteroglyphous (front-fanged). Juveniles are similar to the eastern small-eyed snake ("Cryptophis nigrescens"), with which they can be easily confused, although the latter species lacks the red flanks. Other similar species include the blue-bellied black snake ("Pseudechis guttatus") and copperheads of the genus "Austrelaps". An early misconception was that the red-bellied black snake was sexually dimorphic, and that the eastern brown snake ("Pseudonaja textilis") was the female form. This error was recognised as such by Australian zoologist Gerard Krefft in his 1869 work "Snakes of Australia".


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The number and arrangement of scales on a snake's body are a key element of identification to species level. The red-bellied black snake has 17 rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 180 to 215 ventral scales, 48 to 60 subcaudal scales (the anterior—and sometimes all—subcaudals are undivided), and a divided anal scale. There are two anterior and two posterior temporal scales, and the rostral shield is roughly square-shaped.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake is native to the east coast of Australia, where it is one of the most commonly encountered snakes. It can be found in the urban forest, woodland, plains, and bushland areas of the Blue Mountains, Canberra, Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Cairns, and Adelaide. The Macquarie Marshes mark a western border to its distribution in New South Wales, and Gladstone in central Queensland marks the northern limit to the main population. To the south, it occurs across eastern and central Victoria, and extends along the Murray River into South Australia. Disjunct populations occur in the southern Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia and in North Queensland.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake is most commonly seen close to dams, streams, billabongs, and other bodies of water, although they can venture up to away,


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: including into nearby backyards. In particular, the red-bellied black snake prefers areas of shallow water with tangles of water plants, logs, or debris.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Red-bellied black snakes can hide in many places in their habitat, including logs, old mammal burrows, and grass tussocks. They can flee into water and hide there; one was reported as staying submerged for 23 minutes. When swimming, they may hold their full head or the nostrils above the water's surface. At times, they may float without moving on the water surface, thus looking like a stick. Within their habitat, red-bellied black snakes appear to have ranges or territories with which they are familiar and generally remain within. A 1987 field study in three New South Wales localities found that these areas vary widely, from in size. Within their territory, they may have some preferred places to reside.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake is generally not an aggressive species, typically withdrawing when approached. If provoked, it recoils into a striking stance as a threat, holding its head and front part of its body horizontally above the ground and widening and flattening its neck. It may bite as a last resort. It is generally active by day, though nighttime activity has occasionally been recorded. When not hunting or basking, it may be found beneath timber, rocks, and rubbish or down holes and burrows.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Snakes are active when their body temperatures are between . They also thermoregulate by basking in warm, sunny spots in the cool, early morning and rest in shade in the middle of hot days, and may reduce their activity in hot, dry weather in late summer and autumn. Rather than entering true hibernation, red-bellied black snakes become relatively inactive over winter, retreating to cover and at times emerging on warm, sunny days. Their dark colour allows them to absorb heat from sunshine more quickly. In July 1949, six large individuals were found hibernating under a concrete slab in marshland in Woy Woy, New South Wales. Groups of up to six hibernating red-bellied black snakes have been recorded from under concrete slabs around Mount Druitt and Rooty Hill in western Sydney. Males are more active in the Southern Hemisphere spring (early October to November) as they roam looking for mates; one reportedly travelled in a day. In summer, both sexes are less active generally.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: In spring, male red-bellied black snakes often engage in ritualised combat for 2 to 30 minutes, even attacking other males already mating with females. They wrestle vigorously, but rarely bite, and engage in head-pushing contests, where each snake tries to push his opponent's head downward with his chin.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The male seeks out a female and rubs his chin on her body, and may twitch, hiss, and rarely bite as he becomes aroused. The female indicates readiness to mate by straightening out and allowing their bodies to align. Pregnancy takes place any time from early spring to late summer. Females become much less active and band together in small groups in late pregnancy. They share the same retreat and bask in the sun together. The red-bellied black snake is ovoviviparous; that is, it gives birth to live young in individual membranous sacs, after 14 weeks' gestation, usually in February or March. The young, numbering between eight and 40, emerge from their sacs very shortly after birth, and have an average length around . Young snakes almost triple their length and increase their weight 18-fold in their first year of life, and are sexually mature when they reach SVL (snoutvent length) of for males or for females. Females can breed at around 31 months of age, while males can slightly earlier. Red-bellied black snakes can live up to 25 years.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The diet of red-bellied black snakes primarily consists of frogs, but they also prey on reptiles and small mammals. They also eat other snakes, commonly eastern brown snakes and even their own species. Fish are hunted in water. Red-bellied black snakes may hunt on or under the water surface, and prey can be eaten underwater or brought to the surface. They have been recorded stirring up substrate, possibly to disturb prey. As red-bellied black snakes grow and mature, they continue to eat the same size prey, but add larger animals, as well. Although they prefer live food, red-bellied black snakes have been reported eating frogs squashed by cars.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: They are susceptible to cane toad ("Rhinella marina") toxins. The introduction of cane toads in Australia dates to 1935, when they were introduced in an attempt at biological control of native beetles, which were damaging sugarcane fields (a non-native plant). The intervention failed, mostly because the toads are on the ground, while the beetles feed on leaves at the top of the plant. One research study concluded that in less than 75 years, the red-bellied black snake had evolved in toad-inhabited regions of Australia to have increased resistance to toad toxin and decreased preference for toads as prey.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Early settlers feared the red-bellied black snake, though it turned out to be much less dangerous than many other species. The murine median lethal dose (LD) is 2.52 mg/kg when administered subcutaneously. A red-bellied black snake yields an average of 37 mg of venom when milked, with the maximum recorded being 94 mg. It accounted for 16% of identified snakebite victims in Australia between 2005 and 2015, with no deaths recorded. Its venom contains neurotoxins, myotoxins, and coagulants and also has haemolytic properties.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: Bites from red-bellied black snakes can be very painful—needing analgesia—and result in local swelling, prolonged bleeding, and even local necrosis, particularly if the bite is on a finger. Severe local reactions may require surgical debridement or even amputation. Symptoms of systemic envenomation—including nausea, vomiting, headache, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, or excessive sweating—were thought to be rare, but a 2010 review found they occurred in most bite victims. Most people also go on to develop an anticoagulant coagulopathy in a few hours. This is characterised by a raised activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), and subsides over 24 hours. It resolves quickly with antivenom. A few people go on to develop a myotoxicity and associated generalised muscle pain and occasionally weakness, which may last up to 7 days. Patients may suffer a loss of sense of smell (anosmia); this is unrelated to the severity of the envenoming and can be temporary or permanent. Although the venom contains the three-finger toxin α-elapitoxin-Ppr1, which acts as a neurotoxin in laboratory experiments, neurotoxic symptoms are generally absent in clinical cases.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: A biologically active agent—pseudexin—was isolated from red-bellied black snake venom in 1981. Making up 25% of the venom, it is a single polypeptide chain with a molecular weight around 16.5 kilodaltons. In 1989, it was found to be composed of three phospholipase A2 isoenzymes. If antivenom is indicated, red-bellied black snake bites are generally treated with tiger snake antivenom. While black snake antivenom can be used, tiger snake antivenom can be used at a lower volume and is a cheaper treatment.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: It is the most commonly reported species responsible for envenomed dogs in New South Wales. In 2006, a 12-year-old golden retriever suffered rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury secondary to a red-bellied black snake bite. Laboratory testing has found that cats are relatively resistant to the venom, with a lethal dose as high as 7 mg/kg.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: The red-bellied black snake is considered to be a least-concern species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Its preferred habitat has been particularly vulnerable to urban development and is highly fragmented, and a widespread decline in frogs, which are its preferred prey, has occurred. Snake numbers appear to have declined. Feral cats are known to prey on red-bellied black snakes, while young snakes presumably are taken by laughing kookaburras ("Dacelo novaeguineae"), brown falcons ("Falco berigora"), and other raptors.


title: Red-bellied black snake

text: One of the snakes commonly kept as pets in Australia, the red-bellied black snake adapts readily to captivity and lives on a supply of mice, though it can also survive on fish fillets, chicken, and dog food.


title: Daniel Farke

text: Daniel Farke (; born 30 October 1976) is a German professional football manager and former player who played as a forward. He is currently the manager of German Bundesliga club Borussia Mönchengladbach.


title: Daniel Farke

text: He spent most of his playing career with SV Lippstadt, where he also began his management career. After a spell at Borussia Dortmund II, he led Norwich City for four years, twice winning the EFL Championship. In January 2022 he was appointed as head coach of Russian Premier League club Krasnodar, but resigned two months later due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Daniel Farke

text: Farke started his career with hometown club SV Steinhausen. He spent the majority of his playing career with SV Lippstadt 08, with whom he had three spells. Farke said that he "knew how to score" but was probably "the slowest striker in the whole of Western Europe". He played his whole career in the lower levels of German football.


title: Daniel Farke

text: Farke began his managerial career with SV Lippstadt 08. He was in charge for six years and took Lippstadt from the sixth tier of German football to the fourth, with his time in charge considered the most successful for Lippstadt football. He stepped down after six years, planning to take a year's sabbatical, before accepting the opportunity to take charge of Borussia Dortmund II, the reserve side of German club Borussia Dortmund. He managed the team for two seasons before he was recruited by Norwich City, having failed to agree a new contract at Dortmund.


title: Daniel Farke

text: On 25 May 2017, Farke was appointed as the head coach of Championship club Norwich City on a two-year contract. Farke's first league game for Norwich City ended in a 1–1 draw after a late equaliser from Nélson Oliveira at Craven Cottage and his first competitive game at Carrow Road saw Norwich beat Swindon Town 3–2 in the EFL Cup. Farke completed his inaugural season in the Championship winning 15 games, drawing 15, and losing 16 – finishing 14th in the league table.


title: Daniel Farke

text: The following season saw Norwich promoted as Championship title winners. Farke won the Manager of the Month award for November and in March 2019 signed a three-year contract extension, tying him to the club until June 2022. The team secured promotion to the Premier League on their penultimate match of the 2018–19 season, before securing the league title after the last match of the season.


title: Daniel Farke

text: Norwich were instantly relegated back, following a 4–0 home loss to West Ham United on 12 July 2020. In 2020–21, Norwich won the Championship and secured an immediate return to the Premier League with a club record 97 points. Farke was subsequently named EFL Championship Manager of the Season. On 21 July 2021, Farke signed a new four-year contract with the club, keeping him at Carrow Road until July 2025.


title: Daniel Farke

text: In September 2021, Farke lost his 15th consecutive Premier League game in charge of Norwich, a record for a club or a manager in English top-flight history. On 6 November, the day his team recorded their first league win of the season with a 2–1 away victory over Brentford, Farke was sacked after the game and replaced by former Aston Villa head coach Dean Smith on 15 November 2021.


title: Daniel Farke

text: On 13 January 2022, Krasnodar announced that Farke had been appointed as the club's new head coach on a contract until 30 June 2024. He left the club on 2 March, along with the rest of his coaching staff, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Due to the winter break and Krasnodar International Airport's military use, he did not manage in any matches for the club.


title: Daniel Farke

text: On 4 June 2022, Farke was appointed head coach of Borussia Mönchengladbach on a three-year deal. His first match was a 9–1 win at amateurs SV Oberachern in the DFB-Pokal first round; six days later he won 3–1 at home to 1899 Hoffenheim in the first Bundesliga match of his entire career.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: Mohammad Azam Khan (born 14 August 1948) is an Indian politician who has served as the Member of Parliament from Rampur. He is one of the founding members of the Samajwadi Party and was a member of the Seventeenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh. He was also the senior most Cabinet Minister in the Government of Uttar Pradesh and has been a member of the legislative assembly for ten terms from Rampur assembly constituency.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: Azam Khan was born in Rampur, Uttar Pradesh, India to Mumtaz Khan. He attended Aligarh Muslim University and attained Bachelor of Laws degree in 1974. Khan married Tazeen Fatma in 1981 and has two sons. Prior to entering politics, he worked as a lawyer. His son Abdullah Azam Khan was an MLA from Suar from 2017 to 2019.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: Azam Khan has been an MLA for ten terms; all from Rampur assembly constituency. He was also a cabinet minister in the government of Uttar Pradesh. Khan is currently a member of the Samajwadi Party but has been a member of four other political parties between 1980 and 1992. During his first term (8th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh), he was a member of Janata Party (Secular). During his second term (9th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh), he was a member of the Lok Dal. Khan was a member of Janata Dal during his third term (10th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh). In his fourth term (11th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh), Azam Khan was a member of Samajwadi Janata Party. Since 1993 (his fifth term and 12th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh), he has been a member of the Samajwadi Party.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: Azam Khan also was a post holder in Samajwadi Party however on 17 May 2009 he resigned from the general secretary post of the party. However, during the 15th Loksabha elections, his opposition to the Samajwadi Party candidate, Jaya Prada, and the surrounding controversies resulted in a crisis in the party, and on 24 May 2009, he claimed to have been expelled for six years although the party chief claimed he himself resigned. The Samajwadi Party later revoked his expulsion and he rejoined on 4 December 2010. After his successful win in 2014, Khan has been given ticket from Rampur constituency by the Samajwadi Party for the Lok Sabha elections of 2019.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: Khan has 80 legal cases against him related to land encroachment and criminal intimidation registered against him.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: Rampur SP Ajay Pal Singh has been investigating one of the cases of land acquisition. There are several cases of land grab registered against the NGO ‘Jauhar Trust’ founded by Khan.


title: Azam Khan (politician)

text: In January 2019, a case of forgery was lodged against Khan, his wife Tazeen Fatma and son with respect to the birth certificate of his son Abdullah at a local police station in Uttar Pradesh. However in March 2019, the Allahabad High Court stayed their arrest until the probe was completed by the police. Khan was supported by party leader Akhilesh Yadav who claimed the cases were politically motivated, however in January 2020, the court declared the three, Abdullah and his parents, to be absconders for failing to appear in the court during case hearings. Following this, the Enforcement Directorate will be attaching the properties of Khan from the first week of February onward. On 26 February 2020, Khan was sentenced to imprisonment along with his wife and son for forging a fake birth certificate for his son. The Supreme Court granted interim bail on 19 May 2022 in an alleged cheating case. The interim bail will continue till his regular bail plea is decided, clearing the way for his release.


title: Honda H engine

text: The Honda H engine was Honda's larger high-performance engine family from the 1990s and early 2000s. It is largely derived from the Honda F engine with which it shares many design features. Like Honda's other 4-cylinder families of the 1980s and 1990s, It has also enjoyed some success as a racing engine, forming the basis of Honda's touring car racing engines for many years, and being installed in lightweight chassis (such as the Honda CR-X) for use in drag racing. The F20B is a part of the F-series family of engines; it is basically a cast-iron sleeved down destroked version of the H22A. It was developed by Honda to be able to enter into the 2-liter class of international racing.


title: Honda H engine

text: H-Series consisted of two different displacements; H22 and H23 . Both versions were using the same block; different crankshafts and connecting rods were utilized to achieve displacement variation.


title: Honda H engine

text: The H22 debuted in the U.S. in 1993 as the H22A1 for use in the Honda Prelude VTEC. Since then, versions of the H22 would become the Prelude's signature high-performance engine worldwide until the end of Prelude production in 2001. In 1994, Honda of Europe used the H22A cylinder head and the H22A engine block as the Formula 3 engine which was an H22A engine destroked from 2.2 liters to 2.0 liters (F3-2000cc) to compete in the European F3 series. It was then used by Mugen Motorsports as the F20B(MF204B) from 1997-2001. In 1995-1997, Honda of Europe used the same H22A-based F3 engine in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) Honda Accord. Also, in 1996-1997 Honda of Japan used the same H22A-based F3 engine in the Japan Touring Car Championship (JTCC) Honda Accord and won the JTCC for both years. Honda of Europe hired Neil Brown Engineering of England to convert the H22A engine into an F3 engine which would be later used in BTCC and JTCC.


title: Honda H engine

text: The H23 was an increased-stroke, non-VTEC version of the H22, used in Japan, North America, and Europe. It shared the same Fiber Reinforced Metal (FRM) cylinder wall liners with the H22.


title: Honda H engine

text: In 1998, Honda of Japan produced a rare DOHC VTEC version of the H23A engine for use in Japan only. It has been factory modified with an internal oil passage in the H23A block to operate the VTEC solenoid in the H22A head. It has the same horsepower rating as the H22A engine but a lower redline of 7200rpms because it has a longer stroke than the H22A. The H23A DOHC VTEC has (bore and stroke) and the H22A DOHC VTEC has (bore and stroke). It also lacked the oil squirters found on the H22A and H22Z VTEC engines, but there are provisions for the oil squirters to be installed, as the main oil galley feeding the squirters has been tapped, the holes for the bolts that hold the squirters at the bottom of each bore have been tapped. Installation of the squirters is possible but the actual squirters need to be bent to clear the larger stroke crank of the H23A VTEC engine. The H23A DOHC VTEC Engine is largest displacement in the H Series engines with a compression ratio of 10.6:1.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: Carol Kirkwood (née MacKellaig) (born 29 May 1962) is a Scottish weather presenter, trained by the Met Office, and employed by the BBC, on "BBC Breakfast". In 2015, she participated in the 13th series of BBC One's "Strictly Come Dancing", finishing in 10th place.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: Born Carol MacKellaig on 29 May 1962 in Morar, Inverness-shire, she was one of eight children of parents who were hoteliers in Morar. After attending Lochaber High School in Fort William, Kirkwood gained a BA in commerce from Napier College of Commerce and Technology (now Edinburgh Napier University) in Edinburgh.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: After graduation, Kirkwood joined the BBC's secretarial reserve in London. After a series of internal moves, she presented short slots on BBC Radio Scotland, and then BBC Radio 2 and BBC Radio 4. Following her marriage to Jimmy Kirkwood, she left the BBC and subsequently worked in recruitment and then as a training consultant for a management consultancy in Cheshire. In 1992, she spent time on a now defunct cable TV channel, Windsor TV, latterly called Wire TV, along with Sacha Baron Cohen.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: Kirkwood rejoined the BBC at the corporation's Elstree Studios training department in 1993 as a freelance presenter, during which time she also presented a bi-monthly programme "Talking Issues" for HTV West. In 1996 Kirkwood joined the new UK operation of The Weather Channel, but after it closed down she underwent training under the guidance of the BBC at the Met Office, before joining BBC News in April 1998 as a weather presenter. She has since appeared regularly across all of BBC Weather's output on both radio and television, including BBC News, BBC World News, "BBC News at Six" and the live forecasts as part of the BBC's coverage of the Wimbledon Tennis Championships.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: Kirkwood is the main weather presenter on "BBC Breakfast". The programme moved from London to MediaCityUK in Salford in 2013 but Kirkwood stayed in London presenting the weather on "Breakfast" via video link. She presented the BBC's "The Weather Show" and is also a regular contributor and reporter for "The One Show". In 2011, Kirkwood co-presented the BBC One series "The Great British Weather". She also presented the weather on BBC Radio 2's "The Chris Evans Breakfast Show".


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: Kirkwood has appeared as a guest on CBBC's show "Hacker Time". In 2014, she appeared on BBC One panel show "Would I Lie to You?" In October 2018, Kirkwood had a cameo appearance on "Hollyoaks".


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: In August 2015, it was announced that Kirkwood would be taking part in the thirteenth series of "Strictly Come Dancing", which began in September 2015. She was partnered with professional dancer Pasha Kovalev.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: She was married to Jimmy Kirkwood; they divorced in 2008. Kirkwood announced her engagement to her new partner, live on "BBC Breakfast" from the Chelsea Flower Show, on 23 May 2022.


title: Carol Kirkwood

text: Kirkwood won the TRIC award for best TV Weather Presenter in 2003, 2008, 2009 and 2012–2017. She received an Honorary Fellowship from Princess Anne for "contributions to broadcasting" at Inverness College, part of the University of the Highlands and Islands, on 17 November 2015.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: Christopher Vincent Kinahan, Sr. (born 23 March 1957) better known as Christy 'the Dapper Don' Kinahan; is an Irish drug dealer with convictions for ecstasy and heroin smuggling.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: The "Guardian" newspaper states that Christy Kinahan was born in St Teresa's Gardens, Dublin, in the south inner city, though an Irish passport cited by the U.S. Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) lists his primary place of birth as Cabra, Dublin further north. The OFAC also note that he uses a British passport stating his place of birth as Perivale. The "Irish Independent" states that his father was a dairy farm manager.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: He was arrested for crimes related to the seizure of heroin in Marino in the 1980s and served a six-year jail sentence. He studied for two degrees whilst in prison. While inside, he refused early release to complete a degree. As well, while in prison he learned to speak both Spanish and Russian.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: He is suspected of setting up drug routes into Western Europe for Mexican and Colombian cartels, and the Russian mafia.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: His ex-wife lived in Dublin and died in 2015. His son Daniel is a boxing promoter, lives in a villa in Guadalmina and allegedly runs the day-to-day aspects of his father's gang. He was probably the main target of the Regency Hotel shooting. His son Christopher Jr is also involved in boxing.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: Gary Hutch was blamed for an attempt on Daniel Kinahan's life, so the Kinahans ordered him to be shot. He was murdered in Málaga in late 2015.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: Gary Hutch was the nephew of Gerry 'The Monk' Hutch, the most successful armed robber in Ireland, and the Monk is said to have taken the murder very personally, refusing any attempt at a 'sit down' made by the Kinahans.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: In January 2016, in an event that received international media attention, hitmen working for the Monk dressed up as Gardaí before attacking a boxing weigh-in at the Regency Hotel in North Dublin. It is believed they were aiming for Christy Kinahan's son Daniel, who was in attendance at the weigh-in.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: On New Year's Eve 2015, gunmen associated with Kinahan are believed to have targeted Gerry 'The Monk' Hutch at a pub in Lanzarote. Hutch had, however, already left the bar.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: He is believed, by UK detectives, to have laundered drug-dealing profits by funding 27 fixed horse races between December 2002 and August 2004. As a result of the alleged conspiracy, jockeys Kieren Fallon, Darren Williams and Fergal Lynch, faced criminal horse race-fixing charges at the Old Bailey.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: In March 2016 Julio Martinez, the chief prosecutor for the Marbella area, told El País that charges against Kinahan for money laundering were imminent. Christy Kinahan already has convictions for money laundering in Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: In April 2022 the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the United States Department of the Treasury imposed sanctions on Christy Kinahan, his sons Daniel and brother Christy Jr. as well as several associates of the Kinahan family. The OFAC notice refers to the family and its associates collectively as the "Kinahan Organized Crime Group" or "KOCG." The action adds the Crime Group to the Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List, pursuant to the United States International Emergency Economic Powers Act and .


title: Christy Kinahan

text: The addition to SDN List blocks any property of the designated persons within the United States financial system, and prohibits United States persons from business dealings with them. Violations of the sanctions, including assisting in their evasion, come with a maximum criminal penalty of twenty years imprisonment.


title: Christy Kinahan

text: On 12 April 2022, the United States Department of State announced the offering of rewards of up to $5 million USD under the Narcotics Rewards Program for information leading to the arrest and/or conviction of the Kinahan family members. The reward is offered jointly with the Garda Síochána, National Crime Agency, and Drug Enforcement Administration.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The University of San Francisco (USF) is a private Jesuit university in San Francisco, California. The university's main campus is located on a setting between the Golden Gate Bridge and Golden Gate Park. The main campus is nicknamed "The Hilltop" and is split into two sections. Part of the main campus is located on Lone Mountain, one of San Francisco's major geographical features. Its close historical ties with the City and County of San Francisco are reflected in the university's traditional motto, "Pro Urbe et Universitate" ('For the City and University').


title: University of San Francisco

text: Founded by the Jesuits in 1855 as St. Ignatius Academy, USF started as a one-room schoolhouse along Market Street in what later became downtown San Francisco. Father Anthony Maraschi, S.J. (1820-1897) was the college's founder and first president, a professor, the college's treasurer, and the first pastor of St. Ignatius Church. Under Maraschi, St. Ignatius Academy received its charter to issue college degrees on April 30, 1859, from the State of California, and signed by governor John B. Weller. In that year, the school changed its name to St. Ignatius College.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The original curriculum included Greek, Spanish, Latin, English, French, Italian, algebra, arithmetic, history, geography, elocution, and bookkeeping.


title: University of San Francisco

text: A new building was constructed in 1862 to replace the first frame building. In June 1863, the university awarded its first Bachelor of Arts degree. In 1880, the college moved from Market Street to a new site on the corner of Hayes Street and Van Ness Avenue (currently occupied by the Davies Symphony Hall).


title: University of San Francisco

text: The third St. Ignatius College received moderate damage in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, but was completely destroyed in the ensuing fire. The campus moved west, to the corner of Hayes and Shrader Streets, close to Golden Gate Park. It occupied a hastily constructed structure known as the Shirt Factory (for its resemblance to similar manufacturing buildings of the era) for the next 21 years. The college moved to its present site on Fulton Street in 1927, on the site of a former Masonic Cemetery.


title: University of San Francisco

text: To celebrate its diamond jubilee in 1930, St. Ignatius College changed its name to the University of San Francisco. The change from college to university was sought by many alumni groups and by long-time San Francisco Mayor James Rolph Jr.


title: University of San Francisco

text: A male-only school for most of its history, USF became fully coeducational in 1964, though women started attending the evening programs in business and law as early as 1927. In 1969, the high school division, already wholly separate from the university, moved to the western part of San Francisco and became St. Ignatius College Preparatory. In 1978, the university acquired Lone Mountain College. October 15, 2005, marked the 150th anniversary of the university's founding. In the fall of 2017, USF enrolled 11,080 undergraduate and graduate students in all of its programs housed in four schools (Law; Management; Education; Nursing and Health Professions) and one college (Arts and Sciences).


title: University of San Francisco

text: USF's Center for Global Education advises students on international programs sponsored by USF or external organizations and schools and facilitates the process. USF has more than 40 institutional partnerships with other universities throughout the world, including in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, the Czech Republic, Chile, China, El Salvador, England, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, the Philippines, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, and Uruguay. USF offers 133 semester-long international programs to its students. During the 2016–2017 academic year, 721 USF students earned academic credit through study abroad, exchange, intern, or social justice programs. Several USF students have received the Gilman Award for their participation in study abroad programs through the center.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The University of San Francisco offers more than 230 undergraduate, graduate, professional, and certificate programs on its main Hilltop Campus. USF also offers programs at several additional campuses.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The USF Downtown San Francisco Campus, founded in the Folger Coffee Company Building at 101 Howard Street in 2012, offers the MBA and the Executive MBA, MBA Dual Degree programs, and master's degrees in Entrepreneurship and Innovation, Financial Analysis, Global Entrepreneurial Management, Nonprofit Administration, Organization Development, and Public Administration.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The Orange County Campus, founded in Orange in 1983, offers the Master's in Sport Management and the Master's in Nursing for Non-Nurses.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The Pleasanton Campus, founded in San Ramon in 1986, then moved to Pleasanton in 2012, offers a Bachelor's in Management (Degree Completion), the Master's in Nursing for the Registered Nurse, and the Master's in Teaching with the Single or Multiple Subject Teaching Credential.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The Presidio Campus, founded at the San Francisco Presidio in 2003, offers the Master in Behavior Health, the Master of Public Health, and the Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) in Clinical Psychology.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The Sacramento Campus, founded in 1975, offers the Bachelor of Science in Nursing, the Master of Public Health, the Master's in Counseling with an Emphasis in Marriage and Family Therapy, and the Master's in Teaching with the Single or Multiple Subject Teaching Credential.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The San Jose Campus, founded in 1980, offers the Master's in Information Systems, the Master's in Teaching with the Single or Multiple Subject Teaching Credential, the Master's in Counseling with an Emphasis in Marriage and Family Therapy, and the RN to MSN Nursing/Clinical Nurse Leader.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The Santa Rosa Campus, founded in 1989, offers the Master's in Counseling with an Emphasis in Marriage and Family Therapy, and the Master's in Teaching with the Single or Multiple Subject Teaching Credential.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The University of San Francisco is chartered as a non-profit organization and is governed by a privately appointed board of trustees, along with the university president, the university chancellor, the university provost and vice-presidents, and the deans. The board currently has 43 voting members who serve three, three-year terms and is chaired by Stephen A. Hamill. The board of trustees elects a president to serve as the general manager and chief executive of the university. The current president (since August 1, 2014) is Paul J. Fitzgerald, S.J. The president, according to USF Bylaws, is specifically responsible for articulating and advancing the Jesuit Catholic character of the university.


title: University of San Francisco

text: USF's faculty and librarians are unionized. The University of San Francisco Faculty Association, a local of the California Federation of Teachers, represents its members in all matters concerning wages, benefits, and enforcing the Collective Bargaining Agreement. The USFFA is consulted by the USF administration on matters affecting the working conditions of the faculty and librarians. Economics professor Michael Lehmann was the founding president of the Union in 1975.


title: University of San Francisco

text: USF is home to over 90 clubs and organizations, including academic/professional, governance, cultural, service, social, political, athletic, and special interest. The missions and goals of USF's student clubs and organizations are to provide programs and services that support students' leadership development and promote student engagement in co-curricular activities.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The Associated Students of the University of San Francisco (ASUSF) Senate is the student body governance organization responsible for organizing major campus events, voicing student concern, and reviewing the ASUSF budget. USF's professional and academic organizations include chapters of many national and international groups, including the Professional Business Fraternity Delta Sigma Pi, the Lambda Iota Tau English Honor Society, Sigma Tau Delta, Jesuit Honor Society Alpha Sigma Nu, the National Society of Collegiate Scholars, National Political Science Honor Society Pi Sigma Alpha, Biological Honor Society Tri Beta, Accounting and Finance Honor Society Beta Alpha Psi and Psychology Honor Society Psi Chi. Professional organizations include the Family Business Association, Pre-Professional Health Committee, Pre-Dental Society, Hospitality Management Association, the Nursing Students Association, and the Entrepreneurship Club. Religious and spiritual organizations on campus include the Muslim Student Union, the USF chapter of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, and the USF . USF leisure and hobby organizations include a chapter of many national organizations: Best Buddies, Outdoors and Environmental Education Club, Prism (formerly USF Queer Alliance), San Quentin TRUST Alliance, Knitting for Neighbors, Back to the Roots, Surf and Skate Club, and the Animation Comics and Video Games (ACV) Club. Cultural and multicultural organizations around campus serve international students, Indian students, Black students (the Black Student Union), Latin American students and Hawaiian Students. There are also groups specifically for women of color and Latinx women. Social justice clubs on campus include chapters of Amnesty International, School of the Americas Watch, Up 'til Dawn, Student Outreach for Refugees, Asylees and Immigrants, and Invisible Children. There is also a Politics Society, Philosophy Club, Women in Media Club, Women in Math Club (AWM), and Women in Science Club.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The "San Francisco Foghorn" is the official student weekly newspaper and is sponsored by ASUSF. The "Foghorn" was founded in 1903 and was first called "The Ignatian". In the 1930s when the college name was changed, the newspaper became the "San Francisco Foghorn." The "Foghorn" has played a significant role on campus throughout the years and has some notable alumni: Pierre Salinger, editor of the "San Francisco Chronicle" and Press Secretary for President John F. Kennedy; well-known author and historian Kevin Starr; and Leo T. McCarthy, former California Lieutenant Governor. In 1961, the "Foghorn" received the American Newspaper Publishers Association "Pacemaker Award". In 1998, Associated Collegiate Press named it "College Paper of the Year".


title: University of San Francisco

text: From 1977, USF radio station KUSF broadcast online until 2011 when its license was sold to a Southern California-based classical radio station. KUSF had garnered international attention for its diverse musical programming, which varied from rock to hip hop to world music. It received numerous awards, including public service awards, for its weekly community service series. USF's other radio station, KDNZ, is student-run.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The University of San Francisco television station USFTV, founded in 2006 and entirely student-run, is broadcast on Channel 35 in the dormitories and around campus, with news, sports, and cultural programming. In 2008, USFtv students collaborated with Wyclef Jean to create a music video for his song, "If I Was President".


title: University of San Francisco

text: "The Ignatian" is USF's annual literary magazine published every spring, with a wide array of content from philosophical pieces to personal essays, short fiction, poetry, and photography.


title: University of San Francisco

text: USF has numerous student clubs for the performing arts, including a theater group (College Players), two-time Golden Gate Regional winning improvisational team (Awkward Silence), choir (ASUSF Voices), USF Don Marching Band, contemporary mass ensemble, and a dance program that focuses on social justice.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The College Players, founded in 1863, is considered one of the oldest student-run theater groups in the United States. Their annual production of "The Vagina Monologues" gives all its proceeds to women's charities in the Bay Area.


title: University of San Francisco

text: ASUSF Voices, in collaboration with the Performing Arts Department, contains a variety of choral ensembles, including jazz and popular. The USF Contemporary Mass Ensemble (vocal and instrumental) are USF alumni who perform at Sunday Masses in St. Ignatius Church. The USF dance program is affiliated with the Performing Arts and Social Justice Major. Students can enroll in traditional and modern dance classes and participate in the USF Dance Ensemble under professional choreographers.


title: University of San Francisco

text: All social sororities and fraternities recognized by the university must participate in the Greek Council, which tends to the development of these organizations and their members. Chapters have some common mixers and socials, Thanksgiving potluck, Christmas clothing drive, Homecoming, and Greek Games.


title: University of San Francisco

text: Among the total USF student population in the fall of 2017, 19.9 percent were Asian American, 5.1 percent were African American, 20.6 percent were Latino, 0.2 percent were Native American, 0.7 percent were Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, 15.5 percent were international, 6.0 percent were of multiple races, and 28.0 percent were white. There was a 50.4 percent increase in the overall student enrollment from the fall of 2000 to the fall of 2017. By ethnicity, the number of Latino students increased by 233.0 percent during this period, the number of Asian American students increased by 78.8 percent, and the number of international students increased by 160.7 percent. The African American student population increased 36.4 percent, and the overall white student population decreased by 5.5 percent since 2000. The ethnic composition of all USF students in the fall of 2017 is displayed in Table 1.


title: University of San Francisco

text: Notable students marked the early years of student diversity at the USF. Chan Chung Wing, whose parents had immigrated from near Canton, was in the first law class at then St. Ignatius College of Law. In 1929, the Filipino Ignatians was founded. In 1930, the African American Isaiah Fletcher was a starting tackle on the football team, years before most colleges became integrated. In 1936, Earl Booker, another African American, won the Intercollegiate Boxing Championship.


title: University of San Francisco

text: International students made up 15.5% of the student body in the fall of 2017. International students have a special orientation period and a variety of student groups like the International Student Association, Global Living Community, an International Advisory Council, and an International Network Program. USF sponsors an annual International Education Week with an international fair featuring consulates in the San Francisco area, storytelling opportunities, educational speakers, and a performance event called "Culturescape".


title: University of San Francisco

text: USF's undergraduate admissions are categorized as more selective by "U.S. News & World Report", and ranks among the top 10% most selective of all colleges and universities in the United States. Also according to "U.S. News & World Report," USF is ranked #1 in student body ethnic diversity for all non-historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). 63% of the USF student body is from California.


title: University of San Francisco

text: For freshman enrolling in the fall of 2022, the average high school grade point average (GPA) was 3.68. 77% of all applicants admitted to University of San Francisco have an SAT score of 1200 or higher, an ACT score of 27 or higher.


title: University of San Francisco

text: In the 2019–2020 financial aid year, 82.0% of freshmen were given financial aid and/or scholarships at University of San Francisco, averaging $23,895 per person, placing USF in the top 20th percentile of all accredited colleges and universities nationwide. In addition to scholarships, 26.0% of first year students received federal grant aid, for an average of about $5,970 per person.


title: University of San Francisco

text: For the 2023–2023 year, tuition for full-time undergraduates is $54,980. The total estimated cost for one year, including fees, housing, and dining, is $77,854.


title: University of San Francisco

text: USF competes in NCAA Division I and is a charter member of the West Coast Conference, along with local rivals Santa Clara University and Saint Mary's College of California. Sports offered are men's and women's basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, tennis, track and field, as well as men's baseball and women's volleyball and sand volleyball. USF's mascot is the Don and its colors are green and gold.


title: University of San Francisco

text: Athletics at USF dates back to its founding in 1855, when founder Anthony Maraschi, S.J., organized ball games as recreation for the first students. Intercollegiate competition dates back to 1907, when then St. Ignatius College began playing organized baseball, basketball, and rugby against other local colleges and high schools. Rivalries with neighboring Santa Clara University and Saint Mary's College of California have their origins in this early period.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The 1951 University of San Francisco Dons football team, coached by Joe Kuharich, went undefeated with a record of 9–0, and produced nine future NFL players. Five became NFL Pro-Bowlers, and Gino Marchetti, Ollie Matson, and Bob St. Clair later were inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame – a record for one college team. Also the team's Burl Toler became the first African American official in the NFL. Future NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle played a role as the Dons' Athletic Publicist. At the height of their success, due to the team having two African-American star players, Ollie Matson and Burl Toler, they were not invited to play in any of the college football bowl games hosted by the SEC (Southeastern Conference). The team, less Toler and Matson, was invited to the Orange Bowl but declined. Guard Dick Columbini said, "'No, we're not going to leave ‘em at home’ ... ‘We're going to play with ‘em or we’re not going to play.’" The USF Athletic Department was forced to drop its football program in 1952, due to a deficit in department funds.


title: University of San Francisco

text: The men's basketball program won three national championships: the 1949 NIT Championship, with Don Lofgran as MVP, and the 1955 and 1956 NCAA National Championships, going undefeated in the 1956 season. Led by NBA Hall of Famers Bill Russell and K.C. Jones, the 1956 Dons became the first undefeated team to win a national championship, winning a then-record 60 games in a row from 1954 to 1956 before losing an exhibition game to the USA Men's Olympic Basketball team. Also of note, the 1954-1955 USF basketball teams became the first major college or university basketball team to win a national title with three African American starters (Russell, Jones, and Hal Perry).


title: University of San Francisco

text: The soccer program began at USF in 1931, and they succeeded from the start, winning five titles from 1932 to 1936. The team captain was All-American Gus Donoghue, who returned to the university as head coach in 1946, winning several titles, including a co-championship with Penn State in 1949.


title: University of San Francisco

text: At Donoghue's retirement in 1960, Stephen Negoesco, All-American and Holocaust survivor took over, having played under Donoghue in the 50s. He coached the team from 1962 to 2000, and led them to 540 wins and four national championships (1966, 1975, 1976, and 1980). Negoesco was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame in 2003, having set a US record for games won in intercollegiate soccer competition.


title: University of San Francisco

text: Under Negoesco's successor, alumnus Erik Visser, the men's team earned the 2004, 2005, and 2008 WCC titles.


title: Pathophysiology

text: Pathophysiology ( physiopathology) – a convergence of pathology with physiology – is the study of the disordered physiological processes that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with a disease or injury. Pathology is the medical discipline that describes conditions typically "observed" during a disease state, whereas physiology is the biological discipline that describes processes or mechanisms "operating" within an organism. Pathology describes the abnormal or undesired condition, whereas pathophysiology seeks to explain the functional changes that are occurring within an individual due to a disease or pathologic state.


title: Pathophysiology

text: The term "pathophysiology" comes from the Ancient Greek πάθος ("pathos") and φυσιολογία ("phusiologia").


title: Pathophysiology

text: In Germany in the 1830s, Johannes Müller led the establishment of physiology research autonomous from medical research. In 1843, the Berlin Physical Society was founded in part to purge biology and medicine of vitalism, and in 1847 Hermann von Helmholtz, who joined the Society in 1845, published the paper "On the conservation of energy", highly influential to reduce physiology's research foundation to physical sciences. In the late 1850s, German anatomical pathologist Rudolf Virchow, a former student of Müller, directed focus to the cell, establishing cytology as the focus of physiological research, while Julius Cohnheim pioneered experimental pathology in medical schools' scientific laboratories.


title: Pathophysiology

text: By 1863, motivated by Louis Pasteur's report on fermentation to butyric acid, fellow Frenchman Casimir Davaine identified a microorganism as the crucial causal agent of the cattle disease anthrax, but its routinely vanishing from blood left other scientists inferring it a mere byproduct of putrefaction. In 1876, upon Ferdinand Cohn's report of a tiny spore stage of a bacterial species, the fellow German Robert Koch isolated Davaine's "bacterides" in pure culture —a pivotal step that would establish bacteriology as a distinct discipline— identified a spore stage, applied Jakob Henle's postulates, and confirmed Davaine's conclusion, a major feat for experimental pathology. Pasteur and colleagues followed up with ecological investigations confirming its role in the natural environment via spores in soil.


title: Pathophysiology

text: Also, as to sepsis, Davaine had injected rabbits with a highly diluted, tiny amount of putrid blood, duplicated disease, and used the term "ferment of putrefaction", but it was unclear whether this referred as did Pasteur's term "ferment" to a microorganism or, as it did for many others, to a chemical. In 1878, Koch published "Aetiology of Traumatic Infective Diseases", unlike any previous work, where in 80 pages Koch, as noted by an historian, "was able to show, in a manner practically conclusive, that a number of diseases, differing clinically, anatomically, and in aetiology, can be produced experimentally by the injection of putrid materials into animals." Koch used bacteriology and the new staining methods with aniline dyes to identify particular microorganisms for each. Germ theory of disease crystallized the concept of cause—presumably identifiable by scientific investigation.


title: Pathophysiology

text: The American physician William Welch trained in German pathology from 1876 to 1878, including under Cohnheim, and opened America's first scientific laboratory —a pathology laboratory— at Bellevue Hospital in New York City in 1878. Welch's course drew enrollment from students at other medical schools, which responded by opening their own pathology laboratories. Once appointed by Daniel Coit Gilman, upon advice by John Shaw Billings, as founding dean of the medical school of the newly forming Johns Hopkins University that Gilman, as its first president, was planning, Welch traveled again to Germany for training in Koch's bacteriology in 1883. Welch returned to America but moved to Baltimore, eager to overhaul American medicine, while blending Vichow's anatomical pathology, Cohnheim's experimental pathology, and Koch's bacteriology. Hopkins medical school, led by the "Four Horsemen" —Welch, William Osler, Howard Kelly, and William Halsted— opened at last in 1893 as America's first medical school devoted to teaching German scientific medicine, so called.


title: Pathophysiology

text: The first biomedical institutes, Pasteur Institute and Berlin Institute for Infectious Diseases, whose first directors were Pasteur and Koch, were founded in 1888 and 1891, respectively. America's first biomedical institute, The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, was founded in 1901 with Welch, nicknamed "dean of American medicine", as its scientific director, who appointed his former Hopkins student Simon Flexner as director of pathology and bacteriology laboratories. By way of World War I and World War II, Rockefeller Institute became the globe's leader in biomedical research.


title: Pathophysiology

text: The 1918 pandemic triggered frenzied search for its cause, although most deaths were via lobar pneumonia, already attributed to pneumococcal invasion. In London, pathologist with the Ministry of Health, Fred Griffith in 1928 reported pneumococcal transformation from virulent to avirulent and between antigenic types —nearly a switch in species— challenging pneumonia's specific causation. The laboratory of Rockefeller Institute's Oswald Avery, America's leading pneumococcal expert, was so troubled by the report that they refused to attempt repetition.


title: Pathophysiology

text: When Avery was away on summer vacation, Martin Dawson, British-Canadian, convinced that anything from England must be correct, repeated Griffith's results, then achieved transformation "in vitro", too, opening it to precise investigation. Having returned, Avery kept a photo of Griffith on his desk while his researchers followed the trail. In 1944, Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty reported the transformation factor as DNA, widely doubted amid estimations that something must act with it. At the time of Griffith's report, it was unrecognized that bacteria even had genes.


title: Pathophysiology

text: The first genetics, Mendelian genetics, began at 1900, yet inheritance of Mendelian traits was localized to chromosomes by 1903, thus chromosomal genetics. Biochemistry emerged in the same decade. In the 1940s, most scientists viewed the cell as a "sack of chemicals" —a membrane containing only loose molecules in chaotic motion— and the only especial cell structures as chromosomes, which bacteria lack as such. Chromosomal DNA was presumed too simple, so genes were sought in chromosomal proteins. Yet in 1953, American biologist James Watson, British physicist Francis Crick, and British chemist Rosalind Franklin inferred DNA's molecular structure —a double helix— and conjectured it to spell a code. In the early 1960s, Crick helped crack a genetic code in DNA, thus establishing molecular genetics.


title: Pathophysiology

text: In the late 1930s, Rockefeller Foundation had spearheaded and funded the molecular biology research program —seeking fundamental explanation of organisms and life— led largely by physicist Max Delbrück at Caltech and Vanderbilt University. Yet the reality of organelles in cells was controversial amid unclear visualization with conventional light microscopy. Around 1940, largely via cancer research at Rockefeller Institute, cell biology emerged as a new discipline filling the vast gap between cytology and biochemistry by applying new technology —ultracentrifuge and electron microscope— to identify and deconstruct cell structures, functions, and mechanisms. The two new sciences interlaced, "cell and molecular biology".


title: Pathophysiology

text: Mindful of Griffith and Avery, Joshua Lederberg confirmed bacterial conjugation —reported decades earlier but controversial— and was awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. At Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in Long Island, New York, Delbrück and Salvador Luria led the Phage Group —hosting Watson— discovering details of cell physiology by tracking changes to bacteria upon infection with their viruses, the process transduction. Lederberg led the opening of a genetics department at Stanford University's medical school, and facilitated greater communication between biologists and medical departments.


title: Pathophysiology

text: In the 1950s, researches on rheumatic fever, a complication of streptococcal infections, revealed it was mediated by the host's own immune response, stirring investigation by pathologist Lewis Thomas that led to identification of enzymes released by the innate immune cells macrophages and that degrade host tissue. In the late 1970s, as president of Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center, Thomas collaborated with Lederberg, soon to become president of Rockefeller University, to redirect the funding focus of the US National Institutes of Health toward basic research into the mechanisms operating during disease processes, which at the time medical scientists were all but wholly ignorant of, as biologists had scarcely taken interest in disease mechanisms. Thomas became for American basic researchers a patron saint.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: Crush is a 2022 American coming-of-age romantic comedy film directed by Sammi Cohen (in her feature directorial debut) and written by Kirsten King and Casey Rackham. The film stars Rowan Blanchard and Auliʻi Cravalho in a story about a teenage girl joining her high-school track team to get closer to her crush, only to discover she is getting closer to another teammate. "Crush" was released digitally on April 29, 2022, on Hulu.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: Paige Evans is a student at Miller High School who has a passion for art and hopes to study at a summer program at her dream school, CalArts. She struggles with the prompt which is to describe her happiest moment; she considers her unrequited long-time crush on popular student Gabby Campos as a possible topic. Further complicating matters is ‘KingPun’, an anonymous artist who vandalizes the school with pun-based graffiti. Paige is widely suspected by students and school administration of being the culprit due to her interest in art. In order to avoid suspension, she agrees to join the track team while also discovering who the real KingPun is.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: With no other athletic aptitude to speak of, Paige is placed in the 4x100 relay along with Gabby and her sister AJ, with AJ tasked with training her. She goes to a house party that she believes KingPun is also attending, and recruits AJ to help her investigation. While staging a stakeout at the school, Paige and Gabby share an awkward kiss, Paige’s first. Paige's friend Dillon suggests that the kiss was uncomfortable because Paige’s crush has passed, and she and AJ gradually become closer. The track team travels for a meet; at a party, members of the team play seven minutes in heaven. Paige and AJ are paired together and share a kiss, which AJ believes is the first for both of them. Later, Paige meets Gabby in the hotel hallway and Gabby attempts to kiss her, which Paige rebuffs.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: At the track meet, Miller High places second in the relay. After the race, Gabby approaches Paige to apologize for the previous night, inadvertently revealing to AJ that the two previously kissed. AJ is heartbroken, and reveals that she was KingPun all along. In an effort to protect AJ, Paige attempts to confess to being KingPun, only to find out that AJ has already confessed and been suspended. With Gabby’s help, Paige stages an apology at a school assembly, creating a large mural of moments the two shared together, which Paige submits to CalArts for her prompt. They reconcile, and AJ’s suspension is reversed, with the two sharing another kiss.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: By July 2021, Kirsten King and Casey Rackham had written a script based on their own life experiences, telling a LGBTQ story that would show more queer joy growing up rather than the tales typically told simply about coming out. Sammi Cohen identified with the project, initially called "Love in Color", and signed on to direct. Rowan Blanchard and Auliʻi Cravalho were cast as the leads shortly afterward, and shooting began in the Syracuse area of New York that summer. In March 2022, the final title was set as "Crush" with a release date set for April 29, 2022, on Hulu.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: According to Whip Media, "Crush" was the 3rd most streamed film across all platforms in the United States, during the week of April 29, 2022.


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100 based on seven critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Crush (2022 film)

text: Tomris Laffly of "Variety" praised the diversity and inclusivity within the cast compared to other teen romantic comedy films, and stated that Rowan Blanchard and Auli'i Carvalho's performances successfully establish chemistry between their characters, but found the movie too fearful to take a more plausible approach on the characters and their personas. Monita Mohan of "Collider" praised the film for focusing on coming of age more than coming out and for creating well-rounded characters, and complimented how the movie depicts same-sex relationships and gender identity as accepted in a modern society. Christy Lemire of "RogerEbert.com" rated the movie 3 out of 4 stars, praised the idea of depicting same-sex relationships as conventional in a contemporary society, and complimented the cast's performance, especially Megan Mullally's portrayal of her character. Jude Dry of "IndieWire" gave the film a B− rating, stated that the movie stands out delivering a fresh approach on queer teen films due to its trope and humor, while saying it also manages to keep a love story and happy ending which can appeal to a broad audience.


title: Jo Dee Messina

text: Jo Dee Marie Messina (born August 25, 1970) is an American country music artist. She has charted six number-one singles on the "Billboard" country music charts. She has been honored by the Country Music Association and the Academy of Country Music, and has been nominated for two Grammy Awards. She was the first female country artist to score three multiple-week number-one songs from the same album. To date, she has two platinum and three gold-certified albums by the RIAA.


title: Jo Dee Messina

text: Messina debuted in 1996 with the single "Heads Carolina, Tails California." Her album was certified gold by the RIAA. Her second album, "I'm Alright", produced five top-10 country hits between 1998 and 1999, and sold over a million copies in America. Since her debut, six of her singles have peaked at number one on the Billboard country singles chart and five of her albums have received a certification by the RIAA or the CRIA. She has sold over 5 million records worldwide.