title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: The US ambassador at the time, Lincoln Gordon, and the military attaché, Colonel Vernon A. Walters, kept in constant contact with President Lyndon B. Johnson as the crisis progressed. Johnson urged taking action to support the overthrow of João Goulart by the military, as action against the "left-wing" Goulart government. Despite President Johnson's concerns about Goulart, the coup was originally devised by the John F. Kennedy Administration. Starting in 1961, the CIA initiated a psychological warfare campaign against Goulart in an effort to disrupt his ability to hold power. Taped White House conversations revealed that President Kennedy began plans to "strengthen the spine" of Brazil's military in July 1962 and later told his top aides in March 1963 that "We've got to do something about Brazil." Many of the Kennedy Administration coup planners, such as Gordon, U.S. Attorney General Robert Kennedy and U.S Latin America Advisor Richard N. Goodwin, were also serving in the Johnson Administration when it commenced.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: Operation Brother Sam was the codename given to Kennedy's plan to "prevent Brazil from becoming another China or Cuba". Kennedy believed Goulart was getting too friendly with anti-American radicals in the Brazilian government. Declassified transcripts of communications between Lincoln Gordon and the US government show that predicting an all-out civil war, and with the opportunity to get rid of a left-wing government in Brazil, Johnson authorized logistical materials to be in place and a US Navy task force led by an aircraft carrier to support the coup against Goulart. These included ammunition, motor oil, gasoline, aviation gasoline, and other materials to help in a potential civil war in sending US Navy tankers that were coming from Aruba. About 110 tons of ammunition and CS gas were made ready in New Jersey for a possible airlift to Viracopos Airport in Campinas. Potential support was also made available in the form of an ""aircraft carrier" (USS "Forrestal")" and two guided missile destroyers (expected arrive in area by April 10), (and) four destroyers"", which sailed to Brazil under the guise of a military exercise.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: In the telegraphs, Gordon also acknowledges US involvement in ""covert support for pro-democracy street rallies...and encouragement [of] democratic and anti-communist sentiment in Congress, armed forces, friendly labor, and student groups, church, and business"" and that he ""may be requesting modest supplementary funds for other covert action programs in the near future."".


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: The actual operational files of the CIA remain classified, preventing historians from accurately gauging the CIA's direct involvement in the coup.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: On March 28, 1964, several US government officials including Ralph Burton, Richard Helms, McGeorge Bundy, and Alexis Johnson met to discuss the situation in Brazil. The conversation emphasized discussion concerning Ambassador Gordon's message the day before. The memorandum of the conversation expressed the dilemma of Brazil's election. While it was considered preferable to "waffle through to the next election" the decision concluded that the US government did not want to "watch Brazil dribble down the drain while [waiting for the next election]." Concerning the Brazilian military, Bundy felt that it was a cause for worry if the military did not react. The principle concern was the military's response to Goulart. In response to Ambassador Gordon's request for military action, the officials at the meeting felt puzzled because they believed the Brazilian military to be adequately equipped.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: A Department of the State telegram to US Ambassador to Brazil, Lincoln Gordon, in Rio shows the US preparing to aid anti-Goulart forces. The US informs Gordon that three things have occurred. Four American Navy tankers were directed to Brazil and expected between April 8 and the 13th. The US dispatched a naval task force to Brazil which included: an aircraft carrier, four destroyers, two destroyer escorts, and task force tankers. This was later corrected to one aircraft carrier, two guided missile destroyers, four destroyers, and task force tankers. The US assembled 110 tons of ammunition and sent it to São Paulo via airlift, as well as tear gas (later corrected to CS Agent). This airlift would incorporate ten cargo planes, six tankers, six fighters. Later, the number of cargo planes was reduced to six. The airlift would take 24–25 hours to occur upon request while involving ten cargo planes.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: At a White House Meeting on April 1, 1964, Colonel King of the CIA began the briefing stating that the latest intelligence gathered showed a more favorable situation for the insurgents. This was largely due to indications that General Kruel was moving Second Army troops to the São Paulo Border.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: A "Washington Daily News" article, titled "Castro Plots in Brazil Confirmed", asserts that "Brazil's new anticommunist regime has discovered hard evidence that Castro's Cuba was aiding subversion in their country." The article's premise is that this news firmly classifies Brazil as newly anti-Castro/Cuba. The author of the piece, Virginia Prewett, does not detail how this information was obtained, nor how (or whether) it was independently verified. Rather, the piece extrapolates from this initial statement implication for other Organization of American States (OAS: the world's oldest regional organization, dating back to ... 1948 ... established in order to achieve among its member states..."an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence") member states. Prewett mentions two upcoming OAS meetings; the first was slated to deal with a "showdown over Cuban subversion," the second dealing with "the problem of coups." The article goes on to describe Venezuela as being highly involved in OAS proceedings. Confusingly, though, the article says that Venezuela does not recognize the governments of Haiti, Guatemala, Ecuador, or the Dominican Republic, as they were the products of coups; the new Brazilian government, however, was likely to be deemed as legitimate by Venezuela. The article concludes by commenting on other OAS member states' reactions to Brazil's anti-Cuban stance: Bolivia, Chile, and Mexico will look to Brazil for leadership, rather than listening to the United States or Venezuela; Argentina and Uruguay, though fence-straddlers, were expected to back Brazil and its new government (rather than Cuba or Venezuela), too.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: In November 2021, "Declassified UK" revealed that the United Kingdom had played a role in the coup as well. The Information Research Department (IRD), a unit of the Foreign Office that acted as Britain's covert propaganda arm during the Cold War, was used to push anti-communist propaganda in Brazil. The British government supported the Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Sociais (IPES), a right-wing think tank whose aim was "organizing opposition to Goulart and maintaining dossiers on anyone de Paiva considered an enemy".


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: In July 1972, a three-page telegram from the American Embassy in Brasilia to the US Secretary of State's office outlined the "Allegation of Torture in Brazil." The memo alludes to the "peak" of "allegations" of torture, as acknowledged by "high Brazilian officials," stretched from 1968 until the "first half of 1971." The memo credits the marked "reduction" in torture or allegations of torture to the "great part of GOB success in substantially reducing [the] number of active terrorists," but the memo acknowledges that "ample evidence" continues to reveal "harsh interrogation techniques are still being employed at regional and local levels, in some areas and by some security units more flagrantly than in others." "Rightly or wrongly," the telegram continued, "many Brazilians attribute the success of anti-terrorism program to the strength of measures employed against subversives and there are indications that most Brazilians exercising influence upon the regime are prepared to accept international criticism so long as the government considers these measures to be necessary." The American Embassy warned through the memo that US relations with Brazil remained fragile, arguing that "efforts by any branch of US government or by US political figures to bring pressure on Brazil would not only damage our general relations but, by equating reduction in anti-terror measures with weakness under pressure, could produce opposite of intended result." "[With] respect to new formulation contained in state 117951," the memo predicts, "it obviously would be impossible now or at any time in the future to be in a position realistically to certify that the GOB is not engaged in torture of political prisoners."


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: A number of reports reveal the numbers of suspects arrested in Brazil and the different techniques used to torture suspects during the process of interrogation. A report written on April 16, 1973 to the U.S. Department of State, "Widespread Arrests And Psychophysical Interrogation Of Suspected Subversive," gave specific details that accounted for what happened in Brazil. According to the report, there had been a dramatic increase in arrests in 1973, with a specific week period. The majority of the suspects were university students. These students were arrested within several weeks in the Rio area. When arrested and interrogated, the suspects were "submitted to the old methods of physical violence, which sometimes cause death." The increase in the number of suspects stemmed from the police report, especially on individuals who were jailed before.


title: 1964 Brazilian coup d'état

text: Another report, dated April 18, 1973, highlighted that over 300 individuals were arrested for subversive activities. Though the report listed students as the most substantial portion of the arrests, individuals such as university professors, journalists, and physicians were also detained. The method for torture upon a suspect who was picked up usually began with the suspect being forced into a car at gunpoint by an undercover policeman. A veil was then placed over the detainee's head and he was then instructed to lie down in the back of the police vehicle while he was being transported. Upon arrival the captive was stripped naked and forced to sit in either a refrigerated or darken cell for several hours, with loudspeakers broadcasting screaming, sirens, and whistles at high-decibel levels. The suspect was then interrogated by agents, who informed him of the charges and told him how far they would go to extract the information from him. If the detainee was still unco-operative, he was subjected to increasingly-painful physical and mental torture, such as being placed in a room nude with a metal floor that had an electrical current pulsating through it. The suspect would be kept in that room for several hours. If the suspect did not yet confess, he would be transferred to other "special effects" room, all while he was denied food and water. Though the document references trials by military tribunals and arrests made by members of the military, the document also makes note of the use of the Brazilian police in the interrogation and torture process. Individuals labeled as hardened terrorists or known radical subversives usually faced an expedited execution process. A common practice for executions was to use a technique known as "the shootout technique," in which the executed subject was deemed to have died in a "shootout" with the police.


title: Anal cancer

text: Anal cancer is a cancer which arises from the anus, the distal opening of the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include bleeding from the anus or a lump near the anus. Other symptoms may include pain, itchiness, or discharge from the anus. A change in bowel movements may also occur.


title: Anal cancer

text: Risk factors include human papillomavirus (HPV), HIV/AIDS, receptive anal sex, smoking, and many sexual partners. Anal cancer is typically a squamous cell carcinoma. Other types include adenocarcinoma, small cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Diagnosis is suspected based on physical examination and confirmed by tissue biopsy.


title: Anal cancer

text: Prevention includes avoiding risk factors and HPV vaccination. Standard treatment may include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery. About 8,300 people are diagnosed a year in the United States, representing about 0.5% of new cancers. Onset is typically after the age of 45. Women are affected more often than men. The number of cases has increased since the 1990s. The five-year survival rate in the United States is 68%.


title: Anal cancer

text: Symptoms of anal cancer can include pain or pressure in the anus or rectum, a change in bowel habits, a lump near the anus, rectal bleeding, itching or discharge. Bleeding may be severe.


title: Anal cancer

text: Most anal cancers are squamous cell carcinomas (epidermoid carcinomas), that arises near the squamocolumnar junction. It may be keratinizing (basaloid) or non-keratinizing (cloacogenic).


title: Anal cancer

text: Since many, if not most, anal cancers derive from HPV infections, and since the HPV vaccine before exposure to HPV prevents infection by some strains of the virus and has been shown to reduce the incidence of potentially precancerous lesions, scientists surmise that HPV vaccination may reduce the incidence of anal cancer.


title: Anal cancer

text: In 2010, Gardasil was approved in the US to prevent anal cancer and pre-cancerous lesions in males and females aged 9 to 26 years. The vaccine has been used before to help prevent cervical, vulvar, and vaginal cancer, and associated lesions caused by HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18 in women.


title: Anal cancer

text: As the incidence of anal cancer has increased in recent years, screening and early detection of anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) has become a necessity in patients at risk. This screening detects premalignant lesions, which are highly prevalents, and improves the staging of lesions after treatment.


title: Anal cancer

text: Anal Pap smears similar to those used in cervical cancer screening have been studied for early detection of anal cancer in high-risk individuals. In 2011, an HIV clinic implemented a program to enhance access to anal cancer screening for HIV-positive men. Nurse practitioners perform anal Papanicolaou screening, and men with abnormal results receive further evaluation with high-resolution anoscopy. The program has helped identify many precancerous growths, allowing them to be safely removed. A similar study was performed in women with a history of cervical cancer or high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. More than 30% had abnormal anal Pap smears and one third of those already had anal intraepithelial neoplasia.


title: Anal cancer

text: Localised disease (carcinoma-in-situ) and the precursor condition, anal intraepithelial neoplasia (anal dysplasia or AIN) can be ablated with minimally invasive methods such as infrared photocoagulation.


title: Anal cancer

text: Previously, anal cancer was treated with surgery, and in early-stage disease (i.e., localised cancer of the anus without metastasis to the inguinal lymph nodes), surgery is often curative. The difficulty with surgery has been the necessity of removing the internal and external anal sphincter, with concomitant fecal incontinence. For this reason, many patients with anal cancer have required permanent colostomies.


title: Anal cancer

text: Current gold-standard therapy is chemotherapy and radiation treatment to reduce the necessity of debilitating surgery. This "combined modality" approach has led to the increased preservation of an intact anal sphincter, and therefore improved quality of life after definitive treatment. Survival and cure rates are excellent, and many patients are left with a functional sphincter. Some patients have fecal incontinence after combined chemotherapy and radiation. Biopsies to document disease regression after chemotherapy and radiation were commonly advised, but are not as frequent any longer. Current chemotherapy consists of continuous infusion 5-FU over four days with bolus mitomycin given concurrently with radiation. 5-FU and cisplatin are recommended for metastatic anal cancer.


title: Anal cancer

text: 10 to 20% of patients treated for anal cancer will develop distant metastatic disease following treatment. Metastatic or recurrent anal cancer is difficult to treat, and usually requires chemotherapy. Radiation is also employed to palliate specific locations of disease that may be causing symptoms. Chemotherapy commonly used is similar to other squamous cell epithelial neoplasms, such as platinum analogues, anthracyclines such as doxorubicin, and antimetabolites such as 5-FU and capecitabine. JD Hainsworth developed a protocol that includes Taxol and Carboplatinum along with 5-FU.


title: Anal cancer

text: Median survival rates for people with distant metastases range from 8 to 34 months. Surgical resection with permanent colostomies was the standard treatment until the 1970s, yielding 5-year overall survival of approximately 50%. The best overall survival rates are seen after combined radiation therapy combined with chemotherapy (5-FU + Mitomycin) in people with T2N0 and T3N0 categories of disease (5-y overall survival: 82%). The 5-year overall survival rates of patients with T4 with no involved lymph nodes, T3 with involved lymph nodes, and T4 with involved lymph nodes disease after the combined treatment is 57%, 57%, and 42%, respectively.


title: Anal cancer

text: Worldwide in 2002 there were an estimated 30,400 new cases of anal cancer. With approximately equal fractions in the developing (15,900) and developed (14,500) countries. An estimated 90% (27,400) were attributable to human papillomavirus (HPV).


title: Anal cancer

text: In 2014 about 7,060 new cases of anal cancer were diagnosed in the United States (4,430 in women and 2,630 in men). It is typically found in adults, average age early 60s. In 2019, an estimated 8,300 adults will be diagnosed with anal cancer.


title: Anal cancer

text: Anal cancer accounts for less than 1% of all cancer cases and deaths in the United Kingdom. Around 1,200 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011, and around 310 people died in 2012.


title: Shelley Hack

text: Shelley Marie Hack (born July 6, 1947) is an American actress, model and producer. She is best known as the face of Revlon's Charlie perfume from the mid-1970s until the early 1980s, and for her role as Tiffany Welles in the fourth season of "Charlie's Angels" (1979–80).


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack was born in Greenwich, Connecticut on July 6, 1947, the eldest of six children. Her father was a Wall Street financial analyst, and her mother was a former Conover model. She graduated from Greenwich Academy and Smith College, where she spent her junior year studying archeology at the University of Sydney.


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack began her career as a teen fashion model; her first job was the cover of "Glamour" magazine. Later she became the face of Revlon's "Charlie" perfume from the mid-1970s until the early 1980s. "Life" proclaimed her one of the "million-dollar faces" in the beauty industry able to negotiate previously unheard-of lucrative and exclusive deals with giant cosmetics companies, were instantly recognizable, and whose names became known to the general public. Hack ranked among a handful of 1970s "supermodels".


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack's feature-film debut was a bit part in Woody Allen's Academy Award-winning film "Annie Hall" (1977), as "Street Stranger". In Hack's second film appearance, she was the leading lady in the Joe Brooks romance drama "If Ever I See You Again" ("A bomb", she admitted). Shortly thereafter she was cast as Kate Jackson's replacement on the television series "Charlie's Angels" playing the sophisticated character Tiffany Welles for one season (1979–1980). She beat out many competitors for the role, including Michelle Pfeiffer and Barbara Bach. Although there was an initial rise in the ratings (her debut episode was number one in the weekly Nielson ratings), they began to decline. Responding to the fallen ratings, ABC released Hack from her contract in February 1980. A statement later issued by Spelling-Goldberg read: "When she signed her contract for the series, Miss Hack had a personal agreement that she could review her continuation with the show at the end of her first season since series television represented an enormous change in her career and lifestyle", implying that Hack was included in the decision to exit "Charlie's Angels". In an interview, Hack said, "They can say I didn't work out, but it isn't true. What happened was a network war. A business decision was made. Change the timeslot or bring on some new publicity. How to get publicity? A new Angel hunt. Who is the obvious person to replace? I am — the new kid on the block." Hack later said she "never expected to be there more than a year and I wasn't. I did my year and I moved on."


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack thereafter played a variety of starring and supporting roles. She starred with Annette O'Toole and Meredith Baxter Birney in "Vanities" (1981), a television production of the comedy-drama stage play about the lives, loves and friendship of three Texas cheerleaders starting from high school to post-college graduation; it aired as a part of "Standing Room Only", a series on the premium-television channel HBO. She received positive reviews for her portrayal of Cathy Long in Martin Scorsese's film "The King of Comedy" (1983). She had leading roles in two cult films: the comedy-horror film, "Troll" (1986) and the horror film "The Stepfather" (1987). She was also a regular on two short-lived TV series of the 1980s, "Cutter to Houston" (1983) and "Jack and Mike" (1986–87). She had several more notable appearances in film and television and on stage. Additionally, Hack narrated the audiobook "The Lord of Hawkfell Island", for which "AudioFile" stated "Shelley Hack's mellifluous voice brings this Viking tale alive."


title: Shelley Hack

text: In 1987, Hack, a former smoker, was named the national chairperson for the National Lung Association's and American Medical Association's campaign to educate young women on the dangers of cigarette smoking.


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack completed a master's degree in business administration from New York Institute of Technology and shortly afterwards (unofficially) retired from acting.


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack became a voting registration and polling station supervisor in the 1997 elections in Bosnia-Herzegovina and produced the first-ever televised presidential debates there as well. She also produced the debates in Sarajevo, Mostar, and the two in Banja Luka. In 1997, Hack founded the Shelley Hack Media Consultancy (SHMC), where she worked with the largest media conglomerate in Eastern Europe, primarily focused on the television sector for 10 years, creating ethnically diverse television programs in Eastern Europe. She established herself as a media consultant for pre- and post-conflict countries. Among her duties was to help spread independent media such as newspapers, radio and television, citing the fact that with autocratic governments, the population is often fed state television, which delivers biased content. Additionally, she became a member of the Pacific Council on International Policy (PCIP).


title: Shelley Hack

text: In October 2000, appearing as herself, Hack returned to the "Charlie's Angels" Townsend Agency office as a guest host on "Biography", which featured profiles of several "Charlie's Angels" stars during '"Hello Angels Week". In January 2008, Hack appeared on "The Oprah Winfrey Show". The episode, "Classic Americana", featured Hack as Revlon's Charlie perfume model in a 1976 television ad with Bobby Short at the piano. "It was a time when women were changing", Hack said; "women looked at [the ad] and said 'I want to be like that.'" Additionally, referring to the Revlon Charlie commercials and "Charlie's Angels", she said, "I was lucky. There were two things I was in that were about making women feel a little more empowered."


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack and her husband Harry Winer are co-presidents of the production company Smash Media, which develops and produces content for motion pictures, television and new media.


title: Shelley Hack

text: Hack has been married to Harry Winer since 1990. The couple have one child, daughter Devon Rose Winer (b. 1990).


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: An ulcer is a sore on the skin or a mucous membrane, accompanied by the disintegration of tissue. Ulcers can result in complete loss of the epidermis and often portions of the dermis and even subcutaneous fat. Ulcers are most common on the skin of the lower extremities and in the gastrointestinal tract. An ulcer that appears on the skin is often visible as an inflamed tissue with an area of reddened skin. A skin ulcer is often visible in the event of exposure to heat or cold, irritation, or a problem with blood circulation.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: They can also be caused due to a lack of mobility, which causes prolonged pressure on the tissues. This stress in the blood circulation is transformed to a skin ulcer, commonly known as bedsores or decubitus ulcers. Ulcers often become infected, and pus forms.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Skin ulcers appear as open craters, often round, with layers of skin that have eroded. The skin around the ulcer may be red, swollen, and tender. Patients may feel pain on the skin around the ulcer, and fluid may ooze from the ulcer. In some cases, ulcers can bleed and, rarely, patients experience fever. Ulcers sometimes seem not to heal; healing, if it does occur, tends to be slow. Ulcers that heal within 12 weeks are usually classified as acute, and longer-lasting ones as chronic.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Ulcers develop in stages. In stage 1 the skin is red with soft underlying tissue. In the second stage the redness of the skin becomes more pronounced, swelling appears, and there may be some blisters and loss of outer skin layers. During the next stage, the skin may become necrotic down through the deep layers of skin, and the fat beneath the skin may become exposed and visible. In stage 4, deeper necrosis usually occurs, the fat underneath the skin is completely exposed, and the muscle may also become exposed. In the last two stages the sore may cause a deeper loss of fat and necrosis of the muscle; in severe cases it can extend down to bone level, destruction of the bone may begin, and there may be sepsis of joints.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Chronic ulcers may be painful. Most patients complain of constant pain at night and during the day. Chronic ulcer symptoms usually include increasing pain, friable granulation tissue, foul odour, and wound breakdown instead of healing. Symptoms tend to worsen once the wound has become infected.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Venous skin ulcers that may appear on the lower leg, above the calf or on the lower ankle usually cause achy and swollen legs. If these ulcers become infected they may develop an unpleasant odour, increased tenderness and redness. Before the ulcer establishes definitively, there may be a dark red or purple skin over the affected area as well as a thickening, drying, and itchy skin.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Although skin ulcers do not seem of great concern at a first glance, they are worrying conditions especially in people with diabetes, as they are at risk of developing diabetic neuropathy.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Ulcers may also appear on the cheeks, soft palate, the tongue, and on the inside of the lower lip. These ulcers usually last from 7 to 14 days and can be painful.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: The wounds from which ulcers arise can be caused by a wide variety of factors, but the main cause is impaired blood circulation. Especially, chronic wounds and ulcers are caused by poor circulation, either through cardiovascular issues or external pressure from a bed or a wheelchair. A very common and dangerous type of skin ulcer is caused by what are called pressure-sensitive sores, more commonly called bed sores, which are frequent in people who are bedridden or who use wheelchairs for long periods.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Other causes producing skin ulcers include bacterial and viral infections, fungal infections and cancers. Blood disorders and chronic wounds can result in skin ulcers as well. Venous leg ulcers due to impaired circulation or a blood flow disorder are more common in the elderly.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Rare causes of skin ulcers include pyoderma gangraenosum, lesions caused by Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, morbus Behçet and infections that are usually seen in those who are immunocompromised, for example ecthyma gangraenosum. It is important to consider such causes if the skin ulcerations don't show improvement with antibiotic treatments and when other systemic symptoms are present. It is advised not to use surgical procedures on ulcerations caused by Behçet or pyoderma gangraenosum since those diseases usually exhibit pathergy.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Skin ulcers may take a very long time to heal. Treatment is typically to avoid the ulcer getting infected, remove any excess discharge, maintain a moist wound environment, control the edema, and ease pain caused by nerve and tissue damage.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Topical antibiotics are normally used to prevent the ulcer getting infected, and the wound or ulcer is usually kept clear of dead tissue through surgical debridement.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Commonly, as a part of the treatment, patients are advised to change their lifestyle if possible and to change their diet. Improving the circulation is important in treating skin ulcers, and patients are consequently usually recommended to exercise, stop smoking, and lose weight.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: In recent years, advances have been made in accelerating healing of chronic wounds and ulcers. Chronic wounds produce fewer growth hormones than necessary for healing tissue, and healing may be accelerated by replacing or stimulating growth factors while controlling the formation of other substances that work against them.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: Leg ulcers can be prevented by using compression stockings to prevent blood pooling and back flow. It is likely that a person who has had a skin ulcer will have it again; use of compression stockings every day for at least 5 years after the skin ulcer has healed may help to prevent recurrence.


title: Ulcer (dermatology)

text: There is limited evidence that negative pressure wound therapy may be effective in reducing the time to healing of leg ulcers.


title: Soundgarden discography

text: The discography of Soundgarden, an American rock band, consists of six studio albums, two live albums, six compilation albums, eight extended plays, 24 singles and 23 music videos.


title: Soundgarden discography

text: Soundgarden was formed in Seattle, Washington in 1984 by vocalist Chris Cornell, guitarist Kim Thayil, and bassist Hiro Yamamoto. The drummer position was originally filled by Cornell until 1986 when Matt Cameron became the band's permanent drummer. The band signed with the independent label Sub Pop and released the "Screaming Life" EP in 1987 and the "Fopp" EP in 1988. In 1988, the band signed with legendary punk record label SST Records and released its debut full-length album, "Ultramega OK". The band subsequently signed with A&M Records, becoming the first grunge band to sign with a major label. In 1989, the band released its first album for a major label, "Louder Than Love".


title: Soundgarden discography

text: In 1990, the band was joined by a new bassist, Ben Shepherd. The new line-up released "Badmotorfinger" in 1991. The album brought the band to a new level of commercial success, and Soundgarden found itself amidst the sudden popularity and attention given to the Seattle music scene. The band's next album was to be its breakthrough. "Superunknown", released in 1994, debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 and launched several successful singles, including "Spoonman" and "Black Hole Sun". In 1996, the band released its fifth studio album, "Down on the Upside"; while successful, the album could not emulate the precedent set by "Superunknown". In 1997, the band broke up due to internal strife over its creative direction. Soundgarden has sold 14 million records in the US, and an estimated 30 worldwide. Cornell announced Soundgarden's reunion on January 1, 2010, The band's first studio album in 16 years, "King Animal", was released on November 13, 2012. It debuted and peaked at number five on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Edessa

text: Edessa (; ) was an ancient city ("polis") in Upper Mesopotamia, founded during the Hellenistic period by King Seleucus I Nicator (), founder of the Seleucid Empire. It later became capital of the Kingdom of Osroene, and continued as capital of the Roman province of Osroene. In Late Antiquity, it became a prominent center of Christian learning and seat of the Catechetical School of Edessa. During the Crusades, it was the capital of the County of Edessa.


title: Edessa

text: The city was situated on the banks of the Daysan River (; ), a tributary of the Khabur, and was defended by Şanlıurfa Castle, the high central citadel.


title: Edessa

text: Ancient Edessa is the predecessor of modern Urfa (; ; ; ), in the Şanlıurfa Province, Turkey. Modern names of the city are likely derived from Urhay or Orhay (), the site's Syriac name before the re-foundation of the settlement by Seleucus I Nicator. After the defeat of the Seleucids in the Seleucid–Parthian Wars, Edessa became capital of the Kingdom of Osroene, with a mixed Hellenistic and Semitic civilization. The origin of the name of Osroene itself is probably related to Orhay.


title: Edessa

text: The Roman Republic began exercising political influence over the Kingdom of Osroene and its capital Edessa from 69 BC. It became a Roman "colonia" in 212 or 213, though there continued to be local kings of Osroene until 243 or 248. In Late Antiquity, Edessa was an important city on the Roman–Persian frontier with the Sasanian Empire. It resisted the attack of Shapur I () in his third invasion of Roman territory. The 260 Battle of Edessa saw Shapur defeat the Roman emperor Valerian () and capture him alive, an unprecedented disaster for the Roman state. The Late Antique "Laterculus Veronensis" names Edessa as the capital of the Roman province of Osroene. The Roman soldier and Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus described the city's formidable fortifications and how in 359 it successfully resisted the attack of Shapur II ().


title: Edessa

text: The city was a centre of Greek and Assyrian (Syriac) theological and philosophical thought, hosting the famed School of Edessa. Edessa remained in Roman hands until its capture by the Persians during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, an event recorded by the Greek "Chronicon Paschale" as occurring in 609. Roman control was restored by the 627 and 628 victories of Heraclius () in the Byzantine–Sasanian War, but the city was lost by the Romans again in 638, to the Rashidun Caliphate during the Muslim conquest of the Levant. It did not return to the Romans' control until the Byzantine Empire temporarily recovered the city in the mid-10th century after a number of failed attempts.


title: Edessa

text: The Byzantine Empire regained control in 1031, though it did not remain under their rule long and changed hands several times before the end of the century. The County of Edessa, one of the Crusader states set up after the success of the First Crusade, was centred on the city, the crusaders having seized the city from the Seljuks. The county survived until the 1144 Siege of Edessa, in which Imad al-Din Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty, captured the city and, according to Matthew of Edessa, killed many of the Edessenes. The Turkic Zengid dynasty's lands were eventually absorbed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517 after the 1514 Battle of Chaldiran.


title: Edessa

text: The earliest name of the city was "Admaʾ" (also written "Adme", "Admi", "Admum"; ), recorded in Assyrian cuneiform in the second millennium BC. It is recorded in Syriac as ܐܕܡܐ "Adme."


title: Edessa

text: The ancient town was refounded as a Hellenistic military settlement by Seleucus I Nicator in BC, and named "Edessa" after the ancient capital of Macedonia, perhaps due to its abundant water, just like its Macedonian eponym. It was later renamed "Callirrhoe" or "Antiochia on the Callirhoe" (; ) in the 2nd century BC (found on Edessan coins struck by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, r. 175–164 BC).


title: Edessa

text: After Antiochus IV's reign, the name of the city reverted to Edessa, in Greek, and also appears in Armenian as "Urha" or "Ourha" (), in Aramaic (Syriac) as "Urhay" or "Orhay" (), in local Neo-Aramaic (Turoyo) as "Urhoy", in Arabic as "ar-Ruhā" (), in the Kurdish languages as , Latinized as "Rohais", and finally adopted into Turkish as "Urfa" or "Şanlıurfa" ("Glorious Urfa"), its present name. This originally Aramaic and Syriac name for the city may have been derived from the Persian name "Khosrow".


title: Edessa

text: It was named "Justinopolis" in the early 6th century. According to some Jewish and Muslim traditions, it is Ur of the Chaldees, the birthplace of Abraham.


title: Edessa

text: Edessa was situated on a ridge in the middle of a ring of hills surrounded by a fertile plain, and was therefore considered to be favourably situated. The ridge in turn was an extension of Mount Masius, part of the Taurus Mountains of southern Asia Minor. The city was located at a crossroads; the east–west highway from Zeugma on the Euphrates to the Tigris, and the north–south route from Samosata (modern-day Samsat) to the Euphrates via Carrhae (modern-day Harran) met at the ridge where Edessa was located.


title: Edessa

text: In the second half of the second century BC, as the Seleucid Empire disintegrated during wars with Parthia (145–129 BC), Edessa became the capital of the Abgarid dynasty, who founded the kingdom of Osroene (also known as Edessa). This kingdom was established by Arabs from the northern Arabian Peninsula and lasted nearly four centuries (c. 132 BC to A.D. 214), under twenty-eight rulers, who sometimes called themselves "king" on their coinage. Edessa was at first more or less under the protectorate of the Parthians, then of Tigranes of Armenia, Edessa was Armenian Mesopotamia's capital city, then from the time of Pompey under the Roman Empire. Following its capture and sack by Trajan, the Romans even occupied Edessa from 116 to 118, although its sympathies towards the Parthians led to Lucius Verus pillaging the city later in the 2nd century.


title: Edessa

text: Christianity is attested in Edessa in the 2nd century; the gnostic Bardaisan was a native of the city and a philosopher at its court. From 212 to 214 the kingdom was a Roman province.


title: Edessa

text: The Roman emperor Caracalla was assassinated on the road from Edessa to Carrhae (now Harran) by one of his guards in 217. Edessa became one of the frontier cities of the province of Osroene and lay close to the border of the Sasanian Empire. The Battle of Edessa took place between the Roman armies under the command of the emperor Valerian and the Sasanian forces under emperor Shapur I in 260. The Roman army was defeated and captured in its entirety by the Persian forces, including Valerian himself, an event which had never previously happened.


title: Edessa

text: The literary language of the tribes that had founded this kingdom was Aramaic, from which Syriac developed. Traces of Hellenistic culture were soon overwhelmed in Edessa, which employed Syriac legends on coinage, with the exception of the client king Abgar IX (179–214), and there is a corresponding lack of Greek public inscriptions.


title: Edessa

text: According to the "Chronicle of Edessa", a Syriac chronicle written after 540, the cathedral church of Edessa was founded immediately after the end of the Diocletianic Persecution and the 313 "Letter of Licinius", which ended the general persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The cathedral church was dedicated to the Holy Wisdom. Around 23 different monasteries and churches are known to have existed in the city, with at least as many again just outside town; these attracted many pilgrims. Eusebius of Caesarea even claimed in his "Church History" that "the whole city" was "devoted to the name of Christ" in the early 4th century; in fact the city had at least some pagan inhabitants into the early 5th century, as well as Jewish ones.


title: Edessa

text: Eusebius also claimed to quote the "Letter of Abgar to Jesus" and the "Letter of Jesus to Abgar" in the state archives of Edessa, foundational texts of the Abgar Legend.


title: Edessa

text: Egeria, a high-status Roman lady and author, visited Edessa in 384 on her way to Jerusalem; she saw a "martyrium" of Thomas the Apostle and the text of the "Letter of Jesus" inscribed on the city walls, said to protect the city. She saw a longer version of the "Letters" than she was previously familiar with, and was assured that the holy words had repelled a Persian assault on the city. According to the "Chronicle of Edessa", in 394 the relics of Saint Thomas were translated into the great Church of St Thomas and in 442 they were encased in a silver casket. According to the late-6th-century Frankish hagiographer and bishop Gregory of Tours, the relics had themselves been brought from India, while in Edessa an annual fair (and alleviation of customs duties) was held at the church in July in the saint's honour (the feast of St Thomas was observed on 3 July) during which, Gregory alleged, water would appear in shallow wells and flies disappeared. According to Joshua the Stylite, a shrine to some martyred saints was built outside the city walls in 346 or 347.


title: Edessa

text: A more elaborate version of the Abgar Legend is recorded in the early 5th-century Syriac "Doctrine of Addai", purportedly based on the state archives of Edessa, and including both a pseudepigraphal letter from Abgar V to Tiberius () and the emperor's supposed reply. This text is the earliest to allege that a painting (or icon) of Jesus was enclosed with the reply to Abgar and that the city of Edessa was prophesied never to fall. According to this text, Edessenes were early adopters of Christianity; the inhabitants of the neighbouring city of Carrhae (Harran), by contrast, were pagans. According to the "Chronicle of Edessa", the early 5th-century theologian and bishop Rabbula built a church dedicated to Saint Stephen in a building that had been a synagogue.


title: Edessa

text: When Nisibis (Nusaybin) was ceded to the Persians along with the five Transtigritine provinces in 363, Ephrem the Syrian left his native town for Edessa, where he founded the celebrated School of Edessa. This school, largely attended by the Christian youth of Persia, and closely watched by Rabbula, the friend of Cyril of Alexandria, on account of its Nestorian tendencies, reached its highest development under bishop Ibas, famous through the Three-Chapter Controversy, was temporarily closed in 457, and finally in 489, by command of Emperor Zeno and Bishop Cyrus, when the teachers and students of the School of Edessa repaired to Nisibis and became chief writers of the Church of the East. Miaphysitism prospered at Edessa after the Arab conquest.


title: Edessa

text: Under the Sasanian emperor Kavad I (), the Persians attacked Edessa, and according to Joshua the Stylite the shrine outside the walls set up in the 340s was burnt.


title: Edessa

text: Edessa was rebuilt by Justin I (), and renamed Justinopolis after him. The Greek historian Procopius, in his "Persian Wars", describes the inscription of the "Letter of Jesus"'s text on the city gates of Edessa, which he stated made the defences impregnable.


title: Edessa

text: An unsuccessful Sasanian siege occurred in 544. The city was taken in 609 by the Sasanian Empire, and retaken by Heraclius, but lost to the Muslim army under the Rashidun Caliphate during the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 638.


title: Edessa

text: The precise date of the introduction of Christianity into Edessa is not known. However, there is no doubt that even before AD 190 Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that shortly after the royal house joined the church.


title: Edessa

text: According to a legend first reported by Eusebius in the fourth century, King Abgar V was converted by Thaddeus of Edessa, who was one of the seventy-two disciples, sent to him by "Judas, who is also called Thomas". However, various sources confirm that the Abgar who embraced the Christian faith was Abgar IX. Under him Christianity became the official religion of the kingdom.


title: Edessa

text: He was succeeded by Aggai, then by Saint Mari, who was ordained about 200 by Serapion of Antioch. Thence came to us in the second century the famous "Peshitta", or Syriac translation of the Old Testament; also Tatian's "Diatessaron", which was compiled about 172 and in common use until Rabbula, Bishop of Edessa (412–435), forbade its use. Among the illustrious disciples of the School of Edessa, Bardaisan (154–222), a schoolfellow of Abgar IX, deserves special mention for his role in creating Christian religious poetry, and whose teaching was continued by his son Harmonius and his disciples.


title: Edessa

text: A Christian council was held at Edessa as early as 197. In 201 the city was devastated by a great flood, and the Christian church was destroyed. In 232 the relics of the apostle Thomas were brought from Mylapore, India, on which occasion his Syriac Acts were written. Under Roman domination many martyrs suffered at Edessa: Sharbel and Barsamya, under Decius; Sts. Gûrja, Shâmôna, Habib, and others under Diocletian. In the meanwhile Christian priests from Edessa had evangelized Eastern Mesopotamia and Persia, and established the first Churches in the Sasanian Empire. Atillâtiâ, Bishop of Edessa, assisted at the First Council of Nicaea (325). The "Peregrinatio Silviae" (or Etheriae) gives an account of the many sanctuaries at Edessa about 388.


title: Edessa

text: As metropolis of Osroene, Edessa had eleven suffragan sees. Michel Le Quien mentions thirty-five bishops of Edessa, but his list is incomplete.


title: Edessa

text: The Eastern Orthodox episcopate seems to have disappeared after the 11th century. Of its Jacobite bishops, twenty-nine are mentioned by Le Quien (II, 1429 sqq.), many others in the "Revue de l'Orient chrétien" (VI, 195), some in "Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft" (1899), 261 sqq. Moreover, Nestorian bishops are said to have resided at Edessa as early as the 6th century.


title: Edessa

text: The Armenian chronicler Sebeos, bishop of Bagratid Armenia writing in the 660s, gives the earliest narrative accounts of Islam in any language today. Sebeos writes of a Jewish delegation going to an Arab city (possibly Medina) after the Byzantines conquered Edessa:


title: Edessa

text: Muslim tradition tells of a similar account, known as the second pledge at al-Aqabah. Sebeos' account suggests that Muhammad was actually leading a joint venture toward Palestine, instead of a Jewish-Arab alliance against the Meccan pagans toward the south.


title: Edessa

text: The Byzantine Empire often tried to retake Edessa, especially under Romanos I Lekapenos, who obtained from the inhabitants the "Image of Edessa", an ancient portrait of Christ, and solemnly transferred it to Constantinople, August 16, 944. This was the final great achievement of Romanus's reign. This venerable and famous image, which was certainly at Edessa in 544, and of which there is an ancient copy in the Vatican Library, was looted and brought to the West by the Republic of Venice in 1207 following the Fourth Crusade. The city was ruled shortly thereafter by Marwanids.


title: Edessa

text: In 1031 Edessa was given up to the Byzantines under George Maniakes by its Arab governor. It was retaken by the Arabs, and then successively held by the Greeks, the Armenians, the Seljuq dynasty (1087), the Crusaders (1098), who established there the County of Edessa and kept the city until 1144, when it was again captured by Imad ad-Din Zengi, and most of its inhabitants were allegedly slaughtered together with the Latin archbishop. These events are known to us chiefly through the Armenian historian Matthew, who had been born at Edessa. In 1144 the city had an Armenian population of 47,000. In 1146, the city was briefly recaptured by the crusaders and lost after a few days. In the words of Steven Runciman, "the whole Christian population was driven into exile [and t]he great city, which claimed to be the oldest Christian commonwealth in the world, was left empty and desolate, and has never recovered to this day."


title: Edessa

text: The Ayyubid Sultanate's leader Saladin acquired the town from the Zengids in 1182. During Ayyubid rule, Edessa had a population of approximately 24,000. The Sultanate of Rûm took Edessa in June 1234, but sometime in late 1234 or 1235, the Ayyubid sultan Al-Kamil re-acquired it. After Edessa had been recaptured, Al-Kamil ordered the destruction of its Citadel. Not long after, the Mongols had made their presence known in Edessa in 1244. Later, the Ilkhanate sent troops to Edessa in 1260 at which point the town voluntarily submitted to them. The populace of Edessa were thus saved from being massacred by the Mongols. Edessa was also held by the Mamluk Sultanate, and the Aq Qoyunlu.


title: Edessa

text: Under the Ottomans in 1518, the population of Edessa was estimated at a mere 5,500; likely due to the Ottoman–Persian Wars. By 1566, though, the population had risen to an estimated 14,000 citizens. In 1890, the population of Edessa consisted of 55,000, of which the Muslim population made up 40,835.


title: Edessa

text: The oldest known dated Syriac manuscripts (AD 411 and 462), containing Greek patristic texts, come from Edessa.


title: British Honduras

text: British Honduras was a British Crown colony on the east coast of Central America, south of Mexico, from 1783 to 1964, then a self-governing colony, renamed Belize in June 1973, until September 1981, when it gained full independence as Belize. British Honduras was the last continental possession of the United Kingdom in the Americas.


title: British Honduras

text: The colony grew out of the Treaty of Versailles (1783) between Britain and Spain, which gave the British rights to cut logwood between the Hondo and Belize rivers. The Convention of London (1786) expanded this concession to include the area between the Belize and Sibun rivers. In 1862, the Settlement of Belize in the Bay of Honduras was declared a British colony called British Honduras, and the Crown's representative was elevated to a lieutenant governor, subordinate to the governor of Jamaica.


title: British Honduras

text: As the British consolidated their settlement and pushed deeper into the interior in search of mahogany in the late 18th century, they encountered resistance from the Maya. In the second half of the 19th century, however, a combination of events outside and inside the colony redefined the position of the Maya. During the Caste War of Yucatán, a devastating struggle that halved the population of the area between 1847 and 1855, thousands of refugees fled to British Honduras. The Legislative Assembly had given large landowners in the colony firm titles to their vast estates in 1855 but did not allow the Maya to own land. The Maya could only rent land or live on reservations. Nevertheless, most of the refugees were small farmers, who by 1857 were growing considerable quantities of sugar, rice, corn, and vegetables in the Northern District (now Corozal and Orange Walk districts). In 1857, the town of Corozal, then six years old, had 4,500 inhabitants, second in population only to Belize Town, which had 7,000 inhabitants. Some Maya who had fled the strife in the north, but had no wish to become British subjects, settled in the remote Yalbac Hills, just beyond the woodcutting frontier in the northwest.


title: British Honduras

text: By 1862, about 1,000 Maya established themselves in 10 villages in this area, with the center in San Pedro. One group of Maya, led by Marcos Canul, attacked a mahogany camp on the Bravo River in 1866, demanding ransom for their prisoners and rent for their land. A detachment of soldiers from the West India Regiments (WIR) sent to San Pedro was defeated by the Maya later that year. Early in 1867, more than 300 WIR troops marched into the Yalbac Hills and destroyed several Mayan villages, provision stores, and granaries in an attempt to drive them out of the district. The Maya returned, however, and in April 1870, Canul and his men marched into Corozal and occupied the town. Two years later, Canul and 150 men attacked the barracks at Orange Walk. After several hours of fighting, Canul's group retired. Canul, mortally wounded, died on 1 September 1872. That battle was the last serious attack on the colony. In the 1880s and 1890s, Mopán and Kekchí Maya fled from forced labor in Guatemala and came to British Honduras. They settled in several villages in southern British Honduras, mainly around San Antonio in Toledo District. The Maya could use Crown lands set aside as reservations, but these people lacked communal rights.


title: British Honduras

text: Under the policy of indirect rule, a system of elected alcaldes (mayors), adopted from Spanish local government, linked these Maya to the colonial administration. However, the remoteness of the area of British Honduras in which they settled, combined with their largely subsistence way of life, resulted in the Mopán and Kekchí Maya maintaining more of their traditional way of life and becoming less assimilated into the colony than the Maya of the north. The Mopán and Kekchí Maya maintained their languages and a strong sense of identity. But in the north, the distinction between Maya and Spanish was increasingly blurred, and a Mestizo culture emerged. In different ways and to different degrees, then, the Maya who returned to British Honduras in the 19th century became incorporated into the colony as poor and dispossessed ethnic minorities. By the end of the 19th century, the ethnic pattern that remained largely intact throughout the 20th century was in place: Protestants largely of African descent, who spoke either English or Creole, lived in Belize Town; the Roman Catholic Maya and Mestizos spoke Spanish and lived chiefly in the north and west; and the Roman Catholic Garifuna who spoke English, Spanish, or Garifuna and settled on the southern coast.


title: British Honduras

text: The forestry industry's control of land and its influence in colonial decision making hindered the development of agriculture and the diversification of the economy. In many parts of the Caribbean, large numbers of former slaves, some of whom had engaged in the cultivation and marketing of food crops, became landowners. British Honduras had vast areas of sparsely populated, unused land. Nevertheless, land ownership was controlled by a small European monopoly, thwarting the evolution of a Creole landowning class from the former slaves. Rather than the former slaves, it was the Garifuna, Maya and Mestizos who pioneered agriculture in 19th-century British Honduras. These groups either rented land or lived as squatters. However, the domination of the land by forestry interests continued to stifle agriculture and kept much of the population dependent on imported foods.


title: British Honduras

text: Landownership became even more consolidated during the economic depression of the mid-19th century. Exports of mahogany peaked at over 4 million linear metres in 1846 but fell to about 1.6 million linear meters in 1859 and 8,000 linear meters in 1870, the lowest level since the beginning of the century. Mahogany and logwood continued to account for over 80 percent of the total value of exports, but the price of these goods was so low that the economy was in a state of prolonged depression after the 1850s. Major results of this depression included the decline of the old settler class, the increasing consolidation of capital and the intensification of British landownership. The British Honduras Company emerged as the predominant landowner of the Crown colony. The firm originated in a partnership between one of the old settler families and a London merchant and was registered in 1859 as a limited company. The firm expanded, often at the expense of others who were forced to sell their land.


title: British Honduras

text: Largely as a result of the costly military expeditions against the Maya, the expenses of administering the new colony of British Honduras increased, and that at a time of severe depression in the economy. Large landowners and merchants dominated the Legislative Assembly, which controlled the colony's revenues and expenditures. Some of the landowners also had involvement in commerce, but their interest differed from those of the other merchants of Belize Town. The former group resisted the taxation of land and favoured an increase in import duties; the latter preferred the opposite. Moreover, the merchants in the town felt relatively secure from Mayan attacks and reluctant to contribute toward the protection of mahogany camps, whereas the landowners felt that they should not be required to pay taxes on lands given inadequate protection. These conflicting interests produced a stalemate in the Legislative Assembly, which failed to authorise the raising of sufficient revenue. Unable to agree among themselves, the members of the Legislative Assembly surrendered their political privileges and asked for the establishment of direct British rule in return for the greater security of Crown colony status. The new constitution was inaugurated in April 1871 and the Legislative Council became the new legislature.


title: British Honduras

text: Under the new constitution of 1871, the Lieutenant Governor and the Legislative Council, consisting of five ex-officio or "official" and four appointed or "unofficial" members, governed British Honduras. This constitutional change confirmed and completed a change in the locus and form of power in the colony's political economy that had evolved during the preceding half-century. The change moved power from the old settler oligarchy to the boardrooms of British companies and to the Colonial Office in London. In 1875, the British Honduras Company became the Belize Estate and Produce Company, a London-based business that owned about half of all the privately held land in the colony. The new company was the chief force in British Honduras's political economy for over a century. This concentration and centralisation of capital meant that the direction of the colony's economy was henceforth determined largely in London. It also signalled the eclipse of the old settler elite.


title: British Honduras

text: By about 1890, most commerce in British Honduras was in the hands of a clique of Scottish and German merchants, most of them newcomers. This clique encouraged consumption of imported goods and thus furthered British Honduras's dependence on Britain. The European minority exercised great influence in the colony's politics, partly because it was guaranteed representation on the wholly appointed Legislative Council. The manager of the Belize Estate and Produce Company, for example, was automatically a member of the council, while members of the emerging Creole elite were excluded from holding seats on the council. The Creoles requested in 1890 that some seats on the council be opened to election (as had occurred in Canada and New Zealand) in the hope of winning seats, but the Legislative Council refused. In 1892, the Governor appointed several Creole members, but whites remained the majority. On 11 December 1894, a crowd of 200-600 rioters rampaged throughout the Belize Town central business district in response to Sir Cornelius Alfred Moloney's rejection of a petition to improve working conditions. The crowd looted stores and freed a labour leader imprisoned in a police station before the riot eventually subsided.


title: British Honduras

text: A brief revival in the forestry industry took place early in the 20th century as new demands for forest products came from the United States. Exports of chicle, a gum taken from the sapodilla tree and used to make chewing gum, propped up the economy from the 1880s. Much of the gum was tapped in Mexican and Guatemalan forests by Mayan chicleros who had been recruited by labour contractors in British Honduras. A short-lived boom in the mahogany trade occurred around 1900 in response to growing demand for the wood in the United States, but the ruthless exploitation of the forests without any conservation or reforestation depleted resources. On 22 July 1919, a riot erupted in Belize Town, as a mob consisting of hundreds of rioters, many of them demobilised Belizean servicemen, protested racial discrimination and rising prices in the colony. Eventually, a contingent of ex-servicemen loyal to the colonial government subdued the riots, and order was restored. In the 1920s, the Colonial Office supported agitation for an elective council as long as the Governor had reserve powers to allow him to push through any measures he considered essential without the council's assent. But the council rejected these provisos, and the issue of restoring elections was postponed.


title: British Honduras

text: Despite the prevailing stagnation of the colony's economy and society during most of the century prior to the 1930s, seeds of change were being sown. The mahogany trade remained depressed, and efforts to develop plantation agriculture in several crops, including sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, cotton, bananas and coconuts failed The introduction of tractors and bulldozers opened up new areas in the west and south in the 1920s, but this development led again to only a temporary revival. At this time, mahogany, cedar and chicle together accounted for 97 percent of forest production and 82 percent of the total value of exports. The economy, which was increasingly oriented toward trade with the United States, remained dependent and underdeveloped. Creoles, who were well-connected with businesses in the United States, challenged the traditional political-economic connection with Britain as trade with the United States intensified. Men such as Robert S. Turton, the Creole chicle buyer for Wrigley's, and Henry I. Melhado, whose merchant family dealt in illicit liquor during prohibition, became major political and economic figures. In 1927, Creole merchants and professionals replaced the representatives of British landowners, (except for the manager of the Belize Estate and Produce Company) on the Legislative Council. The participation of this Creole elite in the political process was evidence of emerging social changes that were largely concealed by economic stagnation. These changes accelerated with such force in the 1930s that they ushered in a new era of modern politics.


title: British Honduras

text: The Great Depression shattered the colony's economy, and unemployment increased rapidly. The Colonial Report for 1931 stated that "contracts for the purchase of mahogany and chicle, which form the mainstay of the Colony, practically ceased altogether, thereby throwing a large number of the woodcutters and chicle-gatherers out of work". On top of this economic disaster, the worst hurricane in the country's recent history demolished Belize Town on 10 September 1931, killing more than 1,000 people and destroying at least three-quarters of the housing. The British relief response was tardy and inadequate. The British government seized the opportunity to impose tighter control on the colony and endowed the Governor with reserve powers, or the power to enact laws in emergency situations without the consent of the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council resisted but eventually passed a resolution agreeing to give the Governor reserve powers to obtain disaster aid. Meanwhile, people in the town were making shelters out of the wreckage of their houses. The economy continued to decline in 1932 and 1933. The total value of imports and exports in the latter year was little more than one-fourth of what it had been in 1929.


title: British Honduras

text: The Belize Estate and Produce Company survived the depression years because of its special connections in British Honduras and London. Since 1875 various members of the Hoare family had been principal directors and maintained a controlling interest in the company. Sir Samuel Hoare, a shareholder and former director, had been a British cabinet member and a friend of Leo Amery, the British secretary of state for the colonies. In 1931, when the company was suffering from the aftereffects of the hurricane and the depression, family member Oliver V.G. Hoare contacted the Colonial Office to discuss the possibility of selling the company to buyers in the United States. The British government rescued the company by granting it an area of virgin mahogany forest and a loan of US$200,000 to erect a sawmill in Belize Town. When the government almost doubled the land tax, the large landowners refused to pay. The government accepted some virtually worthless land in lieu of taxes and in 1935 capitulated completely, reducing the tax to its former rate and annulling the landowners' arrears by making them retroactive to 1931. But small landowners had paid their taxes, often at a higher rate.


title: British Honduras

text: Robert Turton, the Creole millionaire who made his fortune from chicle exports, defeated C.H. Brown, the expatriate manager of the company, in the first elections for some of the Legislative Council seats in 1936. After the elections, the Governor promptly appointed Brown to the council, presumably to maintain the influence of what had for so long been the colony's chief business. But Brown's defeat by Turton, one of the company's chief local business rivals, marked the decline of old British enterprises in relation to the rising Creole entrepreneurs with their United States commercial connections.


title: British Honduras

text: Meanwhile, the Belize Estate and Produce Company drove Maya villagers from their homes in San Jose and Yalbac in the northwest and treated workers in mahogany camps almost like slaves. Investigators of labour conditions in the 1930s were appalled to discover that workers received rations of inferior flour and mess pork and tickets to be exchanged at the commissaries, in lieu of cash wages. As a result, workers and their families suffered from malnutrition and were continually in debt to their employers. The law governing labour contracts, the Masters and Servants Act of 1883, made it a criminal offence for a labourer to breach a contract. The offence was punishable by twenty-eight days of imprisonment with hard labour. In 1931 the Governor, Sir John Burdon, rejected proposals to legalise trade unions and to introduce a minimum wage and sickness insurance. The conditions, aggravated by rising unemployment and the disastrous hurricane, were responsible for severe hardship among the poor. The poor responded in 1934 with a series of demonstrations, strikes, petitions and riots that marked the beginning of modern politics and the independence movement.


title: British Honduras

text: Riots, strikes and rebellions had occurred before, during and after the period of slavery, but the events of the 1930s were modern labour disturbances in the sense that they gave rise to organisations with articulate industrial and political goals. A group calling itself the Unemployed Brigade marched through Belize Town on 14 February 1934, to present demands to the Governor and started a broad movement. Poor people, in desperation, turned to the Governor, who responded by creating a little relief work—stone-breaking for US$0.10 a day. The Governor also offered a daily ration of two kilograms of cooked rice at the prison gates. The leaders of the Unemployed Brigade gave up hope of further action and resigned.


title: British Honduras

text: The unemployed, demanding a cash dole, turned to Antonio Soberanis Gómez (1897–1975), who denounced the Unemployed Brigade's leaders as cowards. He said that he would continue fighting for the cause and that he was not afraid to die. In his most famous quote, he said, "I'd rather be a dead hero than a living coward". At a meeting on 16 March 1934, he took over the movement, which became the Labourers and Unemployed Association (LUA). For the next few weeks, Soberanis and his colleagues in the LUA attacked the Governor and his officials, the rich merchants, and the Belize Estate and Produce Company at biweekly meetings attended by 600 to 800 people. The workers demanded relief and a minimum wage. They couched their demands in broad moral and political terms that began to define and develop a new nationalistic and democratic political culture.


title: British Honduras

text: Soberanis was jailed under a new sedition law in 1935. Still, the labour agitation achieved a great deal. Of most immediate importance was the creation of relief work by a Governor who saw it as a way to avoid civil disturbances. Workers built more than 300 kilometres of roads. The Governor also pressed for a semi-representative government. But when the new constitution was passed in April 1935, it included the restrictive franchise demanded by the appointed majority of the Legislative Council, which had no interest in furthering democracy. High voter-eligibility standards for property and income limited the electorate to the wealthiest 2 percent of the population. Poor people, therefore, could not vote; they could only support members of the Creole middle classes that opposed big-business candidates. The Citizens' Political Party and the LUA endorsed Robert Turton and Arthur Balderamos, a Creole lawyer, who formed the chief opposition in the new council of 1936. Working-class agitation continued, and in 1939 all six seats on the Belize Town Board (the voting requirements allowed for a more representative electorate) went to middle-class Creoles who appeared more sympathetic to labour.


title: British Honduras

text: The greatest achievements of the agitation of the 1930s were the labour reforms passed between 1941 and 1943. Trade unions were legalised in 1941, but the laws did not require employers to recognise these unions. Furthermore, the penal clauses of the old Masters and Servants Act rendered the new rights ineffectual. Employers among the unofficial members at the Legislative Council defeated a bill to repeal these penal clauses in August 1941, but the Employers and Workers Bill passed on 27 April 1943, finally removed breach-of-labour-contract from the criminal code and enabled British Honduras's infant trade unions to pursue the struggle for improving labour conditions. The General Workers' Union (GWU), registered in 1943, quickly expanded into a nationwide organisation and provided crucial support for the nationalist movement that took off with the formation of the People's United Party (PUP) in 1950. The 1930s were therefore the crucible of modern Belizean politics. It was a decade during which the old phenomena of exploitative labour conditions and authoritarian colonial and industrial relations began to give way to new labour and political processes and institutions.


title: British Honduras

text: The same period saw an expansion in voter eligibility. Between 1939 and 1954, less than 2 percent of the population elected six members in the Legislative Council of thirteen members. In 1945 only 822 voters were registered in a population of over 63,000. The proportion of voters increased slightly in 1945, partly because the minimum age for women voters was reduced from thirty to twenty-one years. The devaluation of the British Honduras dollar in 1949 effectively reduced the property and income voter-eligibility standards. Finally, in 1954 British Honduras achieved suffrage for all literate adults as a result of the emerging independence movement. This development was a prelude to the process of constitutional decolonisation.


title: British Honduras

text: The origins of the independence movement also lay in the 1930s and 1940s. Three groups played important roles in the colony's politics during this period. One group consisted of working-class individuals and emphasised labour issues. This group originated with Soberanis's LUA between 1934 and 1937 and continued through the GWU. The second group, a radical nationalist movement, emerged during World War II. Its leaders came from the LUA and the local branch of Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association. The group called itself variously the British Honduras Independent Labour Party, the People's Republican Party and the People's National Committee. The third group consisted of people such as the Christian Social Action Group (CSAG) who engaged in electoral politics within the narrow limits defined by the constitution and whose goals included a "Natives First" campaign and an extension of the franchise to elect a more representative government.


title: British Honduras

text: In 1947 a group of graduates of the elite Catholic Saint John's College formed the CSAG and won control of the Belize City Council. One member of this group, George Cadle Price, topped the polls in the 1947 election when he opposed immigration schemes and import controls and rode a wave of feeling against a British proposal for a federation of its colonies in the Caribbean. Price was an eclectic and pragmatic politician whose ideological position was often obscured under a cloak of religious values and quotations. He remained the predominant politician in the country from the early 1950s until his retirement in 1996. The CSAG also started a newspaper, the "Belize Billboard" edited by Philip Goldson and Leigh Richardson.


title: British Honduras

text: The event that precipitated Price's political career and the formation of the PUP, was the devaluation of the British Honduras dollar on 31 December 1949. In September 1949, the British government devalued the British pound sterling. In spite of repeated denials by the Governor that the British Honduras dollar would be devalued to maintain the old exchange rate with the British pound, devaluation was nevertheless effected by the Governor, using his reserve powers in defiance of the Legislative Council. The Governor's action angered the nationalists because it reflected the limits of the legislature and revealed the extent of the colonial administration's power. The devaluation enraged labour because it protected the interests of the big transnationals, such as the Belize Estate and Produce Company, whose trade in British pounds would have suffered without devaluation while it subjected British Honduras's working class, already experiencing widespread unemployment and poverty, to higher prices for goods—especially food—imported from the United States. Devaluation thus united labour, nationalists and the Creole middle classes in opposition to the colonial administration. On the night that the Governor declared the devaluation, the People's Committee was formed and the nascent independence movement suddenly matured.


title: British Honduras

text: Before the end of January 1950, the GWU and the People's Committee were holding joint public meetings and discussing issues such as devaluation, labour legislation, the proposed West Indies Federation, and constitutional reform. The GWU was the only mass organisation of working people, so the early success of the independence movement would have been impossible without the support of this union. In fact, the GWU president, Clifford Betson was one of the original members of the People's Committee. On 28 April 1950, the middle-class members of the People's Committee (formerly members of the CSAG) took over the leadership of the union and gave Betson the dubious honorific title of "patriarch of the union". On 29 September 1950, the People's Committee was dissolved and the People's United Party (PUP) formed in its place.


title: British Honduras

text: Between 1950 and 1954, the People's United Party consolidated its organisation, established its popular base, and articulated its primary demands. "Belize Billboard" editors Philip Goldson and Leigh Richardson were prominent members of the PUP and gave the party their full support through anti-colonial editorials. A year later, George Price, the secretary of the PUP, became vice-president of the GWU. The political leaders took control of the union to use its strength, and in turn the union movement declined as it became increasingly dependent upon politicians in the 1950s.


title: British Honduras

text: The PUP concentrated on agitating for constitutional reforms, including universal adult suffrage without a literacy test, an all- elected Legislative Council, an Executive Council chosen by the leader of the majority party in the legislature, the introduction of a ministerial system, and the abolition of the Governor's reserve powers. In short, PUP pushed for representative and responsible government. The colonial administration, alarmed by the growing support for the PUP, retaliated by attacking two of the party's chief public platforms. In July 1951, the Governor dissolved the Belize City Council on the pretext that it had shown disloyalty by refusing to display a picture of King George VI. Then, in October, the Governor charged "Belize Billboard" publishers and owners, including Richardson and Goldson, with sedition. The Governor jailed them for twelve months with hard labour. Soon after, PUP leader John Smith resigned because the party would not agree to fly the British flag at public meetings. The removal of three of four chief leaders was a blow to the party, but the events left Price in a powerful position. In 1952 he comfortably topped the polls in Belize City Council elections. Within just two years, despite persecution and division, the PUP had become a powerful political force, and George Price had clearly become the party's leader.


title: British Honduras

text: The colonial administration and the National Party, which consisted of loyalist members of the Legislative Council, portrayed the PUP as pro-Guatemalan and even communist. The leaders of the PUP, however, perceived British Honduras as belonging to neither Britain nor Guatemala. The Governor and the National Party failed in their attempts to discredit the PUP on the issue of its contacts with Guatemala, which was then ruled by the democratic, reformist government of president Jacobo Arbenz. When voters went to the polls on 28 April 1954, in the first election under universal literate adult suffrage, the main issue was clearly colonialism—a vote for the PUP was a vote in favour of self-government. Almost 70 percent of the electorate voted. The PUP gained 66.3 percent of the vote and won eight of the nine elected seats in the new Legislative Assembly. Further constitutional reform was unequivocally on the agenda.


title: British Honduras

text: British Honduras faced two obstacles to independence: British reluctance until the early 1960s to allow citizens to govern themselves, and Guatemala's complete intransigence over its long-standing claim to the entire territory. By 1961, the United Kingdom was willing to let the colony become independent and from 1964 controlled only defence, foreign affairs, internal security, and the terms and conditions of the public service. On 1 June 1973, the colony's name was changed to Belize in anticipation of independence. The stalemate in the protracted negotiations between the UK and Guatemala over the future status of Belize led Belizeans after 1975 to seek the international community's assistance in resolving issues associated with independence. Even after Belize became independent in 1981, however, the territorial dispute remained unsettled.


title: British Honduras

text: The territorial dispute's origins lay in the 18th-century treaties in which Great Britain acceded to Spain's assertion of sovereignty while British settlers continued to occupy the sparsely settled and ill-defined area. The 1786 Convention of London, which affirmed Spanish sovereignty was never renegotiated, but Spain never attempted to reclaim the area after 1798.


title: British Honduras

text: At the centre of Guatemala's oldest claim was the 1859 treaty between the United Kingdom and Guatemala. From Britain's viewpoint, this treaty merely settled the boundaries of an area already under British dominion. Guatemala had an alternative view that this agreement stated that Guatemala would give up its territorial claims only under certain conditions, including the construction of a road from Guatemala to the Caribbean coast. The UK never built the road, and Guatemala said it would repudiate the treaty in 1884 but never followed up on the threat.


title: British Honduras

text: The dispute appeared to have been forgotten until the 1930s when the government of General Jorge Ubico claimed that the treaty was invalid because the road had not been constructed. Britain argued that because neither the short-lived Central American Federation (1821–1839) nor Guatemala had ever exercised any authority in the area or even protested the British presence in the 19th century, British Honduras was clearly under British sovereignty. In its constitution of 1945, however, Guatemala stated that British Honduras was the twenty-third department of Guatemala.


title: British Honduras

text: In February 1948, Guatemala threatened to invade and forcibly annex the territory, and the British responded by deploying two companies from 2nd Battalion Gloucestershire Regiment. Since 1954 a succession of military and right-wing governments in Guatemala frequently whipped up nationalist sentiment, with incursions in 1957 and 1958.


title: British Honduras

text: Negotiations between Britain and Guatemala began again in 1961, but the elected representatives of British Honduras had no voice in these talks. As a result, in 1965 the United States President Lyndon Johnson agreed to mediate and proposed a draft treaty that gave Guatemala control over the newly independent country in areas including internal security, defence and external affairs. All parties in British Honduras, however, denounced the proposals.


title: British Honduras

text: A series of meetings, begun in 1969, ended abruptly in 1972 when tensions flared over a possible Guatemalan invasion. Talks resumed in 1973, but broke off again in 1975 when tensions flared once more. Between 1975 and 1981, the Belizean and British governments, frustrated at dealing with the military-dominated regimes in Guatemala, began to state their case for self-determination at international forums such as a meeting of the heads of Commonwealth of Nations governments in Jamaica, the conference of ministers of the Nonaligned Movement in Peru, and at meetings of the United Nations (UN).


title: British Honduras

text: The support of the Nonaligned Movement proved crucial and assured success at the UN. Latin American governments initially supported Guatemala, however Cuba, Mexico, Panama and Nicaragua later declared unequivocal support for an independent Belize. Finally, in November 1980, with Guatemala completely isolated, the UN passed a resolution that demanded the independence of Belize, with all its territory intact, before the next session of the UN in 1981.


title: British Honduras

text: A last attempt was made to reach an agreement with Guatemala prior to the independence of Belize and a proposal, called the Heads of Agreement, was initialled on 11 March 1981. However, the Guatemalan government refused to ratify the agreement and withdrew from the negotiations, and the opposition in Belize engaged in violent demonstrations against it. With the prospect of independence celebrations in the offing, the opposition's morale fell and independence came to Belize on 21 September 1981, without an agreement with Guatemala.


title: British Honduras

text: Before 1884 the colonial administration of British Honduras was rather haphazard. In the early days, the colonists governed themselves under a public meeting system, similar to the town meeting system used in New England. A set of regulations called "Burnaby's Code" was adopted in 1765, which continued in force until 1840, when an executive council was created. Also in 1840, the colony formally became known as British Honduras, although it was also referred to as "the Belize". In 1853 the public meeting system was abandoned in favour of a legislative assembly, part of which was elected by a restricted franchise. The assembly was presided over by the British superintendent, an office created in 1784.


title: British Honduras

text: From 1749 until 1884, British Honduras was governed as a dependency of the British colony of Jamaica. Upon its designation as a Crown colony in 1871, a Lieutenant Governor under the Governor of Jamaica replaced the superintendent, and a nominated legislative council replaced the legislative assembly. When the colony was finally severed from the administration of Jamaica in 1884, it gained its own Governor.


title: British Honduras

text: In 1935 legislative franchise was reintroduced with a lower income qualification. Universal adult franchise was adopted in 1954, and a majority of seats in the legislature were made elective. A ministerial system was introduced in 1961, and the colony achieved self-government status in 1964.


title: British Honduras

text: Forestry dominated the economy of British Honduras. Initially, the focus was upon logwood, which was used in dye manufacture. Falling prices for logwood in the 1770s led to a shift toward logging mahogany, which would dominate the economy until the mid-20th century. As the logging of mahogany was far more labour-intensive, this also led to a significant increase of the importation of African slaves to the colony, mainly from Britain's Caribbean colonies. Due largely to extremely harsh working conditions, the colony experienced four slave revolts, the first in 1765 and the last in 1820. Slavery was finally abolished in 1838. Exports of mahogany continued as an economic mainstay, as commercial agriculture remained unprofitable due to unfavourable colonial tax policies and trade restrictions. Colonial officials provided incentives during the 1860s that resulted in a large influx of Americans from the Southern United States, especially Louisiana, during and after the American Civil War. The Confederate settlements in British Honduras introduced large-scale sugar production to the colony and proved that it could be profitable where others had previously failed.


title: British Honduras

text: The lack of diversification in the economy left the colony very susceptible to swings in the mahogany market. The Great Depression of the 1930s and an especially destructive hurricane in 1931, further depressed the economy and already low living conditions. From 1914 on, the forestry industry was in steady decline, except for a brief revival during World War II (1939–1945). In the 1950s agriculture finally became a dominant part of economy, and in the 1970s fishing became significant. Land reform after World War II aided this expansion of the economy.


title: British Honduras

text: By the time of the colony's 1790 census, three-quarters of the population of British Honduras were a mixed-race people known as "Creole people".


title: British Honduras

text: They were the ancestors of the original Belizean-Creole population, who were, and still are, the biological offspring of European men and enslaved African women. The Europeans who sired the original Belizean-Creole people consisted mainly of British, Portuguese, Spanish and French men.


title: British Honduras

text: The abolition of the slave trade in 1807, high death rates and low birth rates substantially reduced the ethnic African portion of the population. The white portion of the population remained consistently at around 10%. The largest portion of the population became the Mestizo people, now about 50% of modern Belize. The Mayans are still present in Belize and comprise around 11% of the population.


title: British Honduras

text: The population of the colony was always fairly small. In 1790 it was around 4,000. In 1856 it was estimated to be 20,000. By 1931 this figure grew to just over 50,000, and in 1946 to just under 60,000. However, by 1970 the population doubled to just under 120,000. On the eve of independence in 1980, the population stood at over 145,000.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: Hyderabad Football Club is an Indian professional football club based in Hyderabad, Telangana. The club competes in the Indian Super League, the top flight of Indian football. Founded on 27 August 2019, the club replaced Pune City after they were disbanded and their franchise rights were sold to Telangana businessman Vijay Madduri and former Kerala Blasters CEO Varun Tripuraneni. Later, actor Rana Daggubati stepped in as one of the co-owners. The club began their first professional season in October 2019.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: On 16 June 2020, German club Borussia Dortmund struck a partnership deal with the club for grassroots development. Manuel Márquez Roca is the current Hyderabad head coach, taking over on 31 August 2020 replacing Albert Roca who went to FC Barcelona as a "fitness coach". Hyderabad play their home matches at the G.M.C Balayogi Athletic Stadium in the Hyderabad suburb of Gachibowli. The stadium has a capacity of 30,000 for matches.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: Hyderabad played their inaugural match on 25 October 2019, suffering a 0–5 defeat to ATK. The club completed their first season in the Indian Super League in 10th place, failing to qualify for the playoffs. The club won their first ever championship in the 2021–22 ISL by defeating Kerala Blasters 3–1 penalties in the final.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: In February 2019, it was reported that Indian Super League side Pune City were struggling financially and that their owners were looking to sell the franchise. The club reportedly were behind on paying players and had also attempted to discuss merging with local rivals Mumbai City. After the 2018–19 season, Pune City released all their players and participated in the Super Cup using academy players.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: On 26 August 2019, it was reported by the "Hindustan Times" that Pune City had disbanded and that former Kerala Blasters CEO Varun Tripuraneni had bought a majority stake in the club. Neither then Pune City CEO Gaurav Modwel or Tripuraneni confirmed the reports. However, the next day, on 27 August 2019, it was announced that Hyderabad would replace Pune City for the 2019–20 season, with Tripuraneni and businessman Vijay Madduri buying the ownership rights to the franchise. The club's branding and first kits were then revealed prior to their first season on 29 September 2019.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: On 29 August 2019, it was announced that Phil Brown, the last head coach of Pune City, would be the first head coach for Hyderabad. In late September, just before the start of the 2019–20 season, it was revealed that Hyderabad had signed almost every player from Pune City's final squad.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: The club played their first ever match on 25 October 2019 against ATK at the Salt Lake Stadium. They were defeated 0–5 in a match which Brown described as "not our usual standards". Hyderabad then succumbed to defeat again in their second match against Jamshedpur. Marcelinho scored the first goal for the club's history but could not prevent his side's 1–3 defeat. The club finally earned their first victory in their third match on 2 November 2019 against the Kerala Blasters. This was also Hyderabad's first home match. Goals from Marko Stanković and Marcelinho helped Hyderabad to a 2–1 victory.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: On 11 January 2020, with the club in last place in the table, with just one victory and two draws from 12 matches, Brown and the club decided to part ways. Former India international Mehrajuddin Wadoo took over as caretaker for one match before assistant coach Xavier Gurri López became interim coach for the rest of the season. The club finished their season with a 5–1 victory over NorthEast United on 20 February 2020. Overall, the club finished the season in last place and failed to qualify for the ISL playoffs.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: Ahead of the 2020–21 Indian Super League season, Hyderabad appointed Manolo Márquez as their head coach after Albert Roca mutually parted ways with the club when he was approached by FC Barcelona to become their fitness coach.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: Hyderabad FC began their second competitive season on 23 November with a win against Odisha FC. After struggling early in the season, the team made a decent comeback, as they had an unbeaten run which lasted for 12 matches. They managed to get 29 points from 20 games, which includes six wins, three losses and eleven draws. Their last game against FC Goa became crucial for them as they needed a win to qualify into the playoffs. After having a goaless draw against Goa, Hyderabad narrowly missed the play-offs as they finished 5th in the league table.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: In their third season of the Indian Super League, Hyderabad FC won their maiden title on March 20, 2022 in Margao, Goa. They beat Kerala Blasters 3-1 on penalties after the match finished 1-1 after extra time.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: Hyderabad FC goalkeeper Laxmikant Kattimani saved four penalties in the shootout, including one that was retaken after being saved initially.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: The team colours and logo for Hyderabad were unveiled on 21 September 2019. The club colours are yellow and black. According to the club, the logo is titled "Reliving Hyderabad's Football Legacy" and is meant to represent Hyderabad and the city's heritage. The logo features the minarets from the Charminar in the city and Koh-i-Noor diamonds. According to Hyderabad co-owner Vijay Madduri, the logo "is inspired from the city's history, we now hope that HFC will be a great boost for the sport in the region... we can give a boost to the legacy that is already present in the city's history and roots."


title: Hyderabad FC

text: Hyderabad play their home matches at the G.M.C Balayogi Athletic Stadium, located in the Hyderabad suburb of Gachibowli. A multi-purpose stadium, the stadium is mainly used to host football matches and was built in 2002 prior to the 2003 Afro-Asian Games. The stadium used to host matches for Fateh Hyderabad in the I-League 2nd Division but the club relocated after saying that the "pitch was not in good shape". Prior to Hyderabad's first season, the grass was relaid and the stadium was renovated and cleaned in anticipation of the 2019–20 season.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: In a very short period of time Hyderabad FC have managed to get local support from the city fans. In their first home match against Kerala Blasters, more than 14,000 people came to support the club which the club won by 2-1. "Deccan Legion" is active fan group of Hyderabad FC.


title: Hyderabad FC

text: The current co-owners of Hyderabad are Vijay Madduri, Varun Tripuraneni, and Rana Daggubati. Madduri, the chief executive officer of the Hyderabad-based company Incessant Technologies, said that he was looking forward to his "significant role in developing football in the state, reviving its past glory". Tripuraneni is the former CEO of the Kerala Blasters, another Indian Super League side. During the club's announcement, Tripuraneni said "It is a proud moment for me, to be co-owner of Hyderabad FC. Hyderabad is a city with great football culture. I look forward to working with key stakeholders and building a strong foundation for the club, which will eventually contribute to society and do the city proud. Our immediate task is to prepare for the new season".


title: Hyderabad FC

text: On 24 October 2019, it was announced that prominent Telugu actor Rana Daggubati would also join Madduri and Tripuraneni as a co-owner of the club. After acquiring ownership, Daggubati stated "Hyderabad has a great legacy with the sport. This team, therefore, is a chance to rekindle that legacy."


title: Hyderabad FC

text: The organizers of ISL introduced eISL, a FIFA video game tournament, for the ISL playing clubs, each represented by two players. Hyderabad FC hosted a series of qualifying games for all the participants wanting to represent the club in eISL. On 20 November the club announced the signing of the two players.


title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: Suzhal: The Vortex is an Indian Tamil-language crime thriller streaming television series created by Pushkar–Gayathri for Amazon Prime Video. Set in the fictional town of Saambaloor set in Tamil Nadu, the series is an investigation into the case of a missing person which unravels and rips the intricate social fabric of the small town. It stars actors R. Parthiban, Kathir, Aishwarya Rajesh and Sriya Reddy.


title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: The series was directed by Bramma G and Anucharan Murugaiyan and produced by Wallwatcher Films.The first season consists of eight episodes and it started streaming from 17 June 2022.


title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: The web-series features music composed by Sam C.S., cinematography handled by Mukeswaran & editing done by Richard Kevin. A second season is being planned.


title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: In the town of Sambaloor set in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu, lives a community that worships Goddess Angalamman. The community celebrates a festival called Mayana Kollai over 10 days every year, and it is in these 10 days that this story unfolds. What starts out as parallel stories of kidnapping and arson, later unfolds into childhood trauma and conspiracy.


title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: The series has been released in over 30 languages through subtitles and has been dubbed in Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, English, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Castilian Spanish, Latin Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish.