title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, to parents Sharon and Tetsuhiko (T.K.) Kariya. His father, a Japanese-Canadian born in a World War II concentration camp at Greenwood, British Columbia, worked as a math teacher. Tetsuhiko died from a heart attack suffered on December 27, 2002. Kariya's mother, a Scottish-Canadian, was also a teacher. Coming from an athletic family, his father played rugby with the Canadian national team. Kariya is one of four siblings who play professional sports. Brothers Steve and Martin are also hockey players. His sister, Noriko, played hockey, as well, before turning to boxing.


title: Paul Kariya

text: As a teenager, Kariya worked for a summer in construction. At age 16, he left home to play Junior A hockey in Penticton, British Columbia, where he also worked at a clothing store that belonged to the team's coach and general manager. Two years later, he enrolled at the University of Maine to join the school's hockey team and was a dean's list student.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya played two seasons of Junior A with the Penticton Panthers of the British Columbia Junior Hockey League (BCJHL), beginning in 1990–91. Recording 45 goals and 112 points over 54 games in his first season, he was awarded the Vern Dye and Bruce Allison Memorial Trophies as the Interior Conference's most valuable player (MVP) and rookie of the year, respectively. The following season, he improved to 46 goals and 132 points over 40 games and was awarded the Vern Dye Memorial Trophy for a second consecutive year; he was also further distinguished as the Canadian Junior A player of the year.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During his second BCJHL season, in November 1991, he verbally committed to joining the Maine Black Bears of the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA)'s Hockey East conference for the 1992–93 campaign. Before deciding to join the University of Maine, Kariya also visited and received offers from Boston University and Harvard University for their respective programs, while entertaining offers from several other NCAA teams. He also turned down major junior teams from the Western Hockey League (WHL). His WHL rights originally belonged to the Victoria Cougars before they were traded to the Tri-City Americans in October 1991.


title: Paul Kariya

text: In his first year with the Black Bears, Kariya scored 100 points (25 goals and 75 assists) in 39 games. He was named Hockey East's Rookie and Player of the Year, becoming the second player to receive both awards in the same year after Brian Leetch did so with Boston College in 1987. Kariya also received Hockey East first All-Star team honours alongside teammates Jim Montgomery, Chris Imes and Mike Dunham. Nationally, Kariya was recognized with the Hobey Baker Award as the NCAA's top player, becoming the first freshman in history to earn the distinction. During the Black Bears' playoff run, head coach Shawn Walsh heralded him as one of the top three college players all-time. Kariya's efforts led Maine to a record of 42 wins, one loss and two ties, en route to the Lamoriello Trophy as the Hockey East's playoff champion and the NCAA title as the country's top college team.


title: Paul Kariya

text: A top prospect heading into the off-season, Kariya was projected to be selected between second and fifth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft. Kariya went on to be chosen fourth overall by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, one of the NHL's two expansion teams. In addition to becoming Anaheim's first-ever draft pick, he also became the second-highest pick from Vancouver (after Barry Beck was chosen by the Colorado Rockies second overall in 1977). Following his draft, Kariya returned to the University of Maine for his sophomore year as team captain. He had been voted by his teammates for the role, along with defenceman Chris Imes. However, with Imes joining the United States' national team full-time in 1993–94, Kariya returned as the lone captain. Kariya was also committed to the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics and left the Black Bears in December 1993. Following the Olympics, Kariya chose not to return to Maine, foregoing his remaining college hockey eligibility to turn professional with the Mighty Ducks. He finished the season with seven goals and 41 points over 23 games with the national team, as well as 8 goals and 24 points over 12 games with Maine.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Five years after his tenure with the Black Bears, Kariya was inducted into the University of Maine Sports Hall of Fame, in a ceremony on October 15, 1999. Two years later, in July 2001, Kariya's number 9 was retired by the Black Bears.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Upon returning from the 1994 Olympics, Kariya began contract negotiations with the Mighty Ducks in hopes of joining the team for the remainder of the 1993–94 NHL season. However, a deal failed to materialize and there was speculation in the media he would instead play in Europe. It was reported Kariya was seeking a US$12 million contract over five years from the Ducks. As both sides continued contract talks leading up to training camp for the 1994–95 season, Kariya agreed to a three-year, $6.5 million deal on August 31, 1994. The majority of the contract consisted of a signing bonus worth $4.775 million, while the annual base salary was valued at $575,000.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Garnering a great degree of attention from the Mighty Ducks' fanbase, Kariya's first public practice at Arrowhead Pond drew an attendance of 9,000, while 16,000 fans watched his first exhibition game. Due to the NHL lockout, resulting from a dispute between players and owners, his regular-season debut was delayed until January 1995 and the campaign was shortened to 48 games. During the suspension, Kariya participated in a charity tournament held in Hamilton, Ontario, sponsored by the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA).


title: Paul Kariya

text: As NHL play resumed, Kariya made his debut against the Edmonton Oilers. He later scored his first career NHL goal on January 21, 1995, against Winnipeg Jets goaltender Tim Cheveldae. During his rookie season, he played on a line with Stéphan Lebeau and Shaun Van Allen. Early in the campaign, Kariya held the scoring lead amongst NHL rookies, but was later overtaken by Quebec Nordiques centre Peter Forsberg. Playing in 47 games, Kariya finished the season with a team-leading 18 goals and 39 points. Nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL's rookie of the year, Kariya lost the award to Forsberg. Despite being edged out, Kariya was named to the NHL All-Rookie Team. His play during his first NHL season earned him comparisons to Wayne Gretzky for his vision and Pavel Bure for his speed, while also earning accolades from Gretzky himself.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During Kariya's second season, he was chosen to play for the Western Conference in the 1996 All-Star Game, the only Ducks representative. At the time of his selection, in January 1996, he was ranked 14th in NHL scoring with 51 points (23 goals and 28 assists) over 42 games. He later replaced the injured Pavel Bure of the Vancouver Canucks on the West's starting lineup. Kariya scored a goal and an assist for the Western Conference in a 5–4 loss to the Eastern Conference. Less than a month after the All-Star Game, the Mighty Ducks acquired Finnish winger Teemu Selänne in a trade with the Winnipeg Jets, in a move that was designed to increase team offense. Selänne was immediately placed on Kariya's line, and the two wingers formed one of the NHL's most high-scoring duos for several seasons. In the last month of the 1995–96 campaign, Kariya achieved the 100-point single-season mark with a goal and three assists in a 5–3 win against the San Jose Sharks on April 7, 1996. A week later, he scored his 50th goal of the season, scoring twice in the final game of the campaign, a 5–2 win over Winnipeg. With seven goals and seven assists over the final seven games of the season, Kariya was named NHL Player of the Month for April. He finished the season with 50 goals and 58 assists for 108 points, tying him with Selänne for seventh overall in NHL scoring. His three overtime goals set a team record. With 20 penalty minutes over 82 games, Kariya won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most gentlemanly player and was also named to the season-ending NHL first All-Star team.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Following the 1995–96 season, Ducks captain Randy Ladouceur retired. Kariya was chosen as the third captain in team history, following Ladouceur and Troy Loney. At age 21, he was the youngest active captain in the NHL and remained so until Bryan McCabe became captain of the New York Islanders two years later.


title: Paul Kariya

text: As the ensuing 1996–97 season began, Kariya was out of the lineup with a pulled abdominal muscle, and missed the first 11 games of the season; he returned to the lineup at the end of October 1996. However, two weeks after his return, he was injured again after suffering a concussion during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on November 13, 1996, after opposing defenceman Mathieu Schneider hit Kariya in the head with his elbow. While the play was not penalized during the game, Schneider was suspended by the NHL following the game. Kariya missed two games as a result of the hit. Later in the season, Kariya was voted in by fans to the West's starting lineup in the 1997 All-Star Game. Joining him on the Western squad were Ducks teammates Selänne and Guy Hebert. During the game, he scored one goal in an 11–7 loss to the East. Returning to club play with the Ducks, he scored the fastest goal to start a game in team history, eight seconds into a match against the Colorado Avalanche on March 9, 1997. Kariya finished the season with 44 goals and 55 assists, one point short of reaching the 100-point mark for the second consecutive year. Limited to 69 games due to his injuries, he still ranked third in NHL point-scoring, behind Selänne and Pittsburgh Penguins Mario Lemieux. His +36 plus-minus rating and ten game-winning goals set Ducks records (the latter mark was tied by Selänne twice in 1997–98 and 2006–07, then broken by Corey Perry's 11 game-winning goals in 2010–11). Kariya finished as a runner-up to Buffalo Sabres goaltender Dominik Hašek for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player in the NHL, and won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy after recording six penalty minutes during the season. In so doing, he became the third player in NHL history to win the award in consecutive years after Mike Bossy (1983 and 1984) and Wayne Gretzky (1991 and 1992). He was also named to the NHL first All-Star team once more, an honour he shared with Selänne. Playing 11 games in his first NHL playoff season, Kariya had seven goals and 13 points, which ranked first in team scoring.


title: Paul Kariya

text: With his original NHL contract expiring in the off-season, Kariya and the Ducks struggled to agree on a new deal. As a result, Kariya sat out the first 32 games of the 1997–98 campaign. After making $2.1 million the previous season, he was reportedly asking for a three-year deal worth $27 million, while the Ducks countered with five-year, $25 million and seven-year, $49 million contracts. Both sides eventually agreed on a two-year, $14 million deal in December 1997. While the initial year of the contract paid Kariya a pro-rated salary of $5.5 million (it was also agreed in contract negotiations that Kariya would donate $2 million of his first year's salary to Orange County charities), the second year of the contract paid him $8.5 million, making him the second-highest-paid player in NHL history (behind Mario Lemieux's $11 million salary in 1996–97). During his absence from the Ducks, Kariya trained with the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Due to the contract impasse, he missed an opportunity to play in Japan, as the Mighty Ducks opened the season with a two-game series against the Vancouver Canucks in Tokyo, an effort on the NHL's part to attract attention to the sport ahead of the Olympics. In his first game back, he recorded two goals and two assists. During the second period of the contest, he took a team record seven shots on goal.


title: Paul Kariya

text: With several weeks remaining until the start of the Olympics, Kariya suffered another concussion after receiving a cross-check to the face from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter during a game on February 1, 1998. Kariya had scored a goal and was standing still at the side of the Blackhawks' net when Suter hit him. As a result, the Blackhawks defenceman received a four-game suspension from the NHL. There was wide speculation in the media that the incident was an intentional effort to keep Kariya from playing for Canada at the Olympics; Suter and teammate Chris Chelios were both members of the United States' national team. In the past, Suter was also accused of intentionally injuring Wayne Gretzky during a game between Canada and the United States in the 1991 Canada Cup. Canada general manager Bobby Clarke called the hit a "cheap shot" and publicly echoed the sentiment that Suter wanted to eliminate Kariya from Olympic play. While Kariya was initially expected to recover in time for the Olympics, the injury (his fourth concussion in three years) ultimately sidelined him from the competition, as well as the remaining three months of NHL play. Limited to 22 games in 1997–98, Kariya recorded 17 goals and 31 points.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Following Suter's return from suspension, NHL Senior Vice President Brian Burke was reported by Ducks head coach Pierre Pagé to have said he would have given Suter a longer ban if the extent of Kariya's injuries were immediately known. Later in the season, prior to a game between the Blackhawks and Maple Leafs in April 1998, Suter received a death threat, presumably for his actions against Kariya, forcing the NHL to position added security at the Blackhawks bench for the contest.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Suffering from post-concussion syndrome, Kariya experienced headaches and a loss of short-term memory. During his recovery, he was personally encouraged by fellow NHL players Eric Lindros and Pat LaFontaine, who were also dealing with serious concussions. He was not permitted by doctors to begin training until May 1998. Leading up to the 1998–99 season, Kariya told reporters he was ready to play a rougher style to protect himself from the opposition, including "getting [his] stick up" against oncoming players. He also adopted a helmet with increased protection, featuring extra padding and a tighter chin strap. In a similar effort, the Ducks additionally acquired enforcers Stu Grimson and Jim McKenzie during the off-season. During his recovery, Kariya was outspoken regarding the culture of the NHL regarding excessive physicality, as well as the lack of deterrence. In an article from the "Sporting News", he commented, "There's too much of a lack of respect players have for one another ... If the league wants to stop that kind of conduct, it will have to punish players ... Ten-game suspensions ... and more, have to be brought back to help wake up players." He also added, "There probably isn't a player in the league who hasn't had a concussion."


title: Paul Kariya

text: Fully recovered for the start of the 1998–99 season, Kariya returned to NHL play in October 1998. During a 3–2 loss against the Detroit Red Wings in November 1998, he put a team-record 12 shots on goal. Kariya established several other Ducks records in the first half of the campaign, including a 17-game point-scoring streak on home ice that ended on January 15, 1999. He finished with the second 100-plus point season of his career with 39 goals and a personal best 62 assists. His assists total set a Ducks record that stood for ten years until Ryan Getzlaf recorded 66 in 2008–09. He ranked third in point-scoring among NHL scorers, behind Selänne and leader Jaromír Jágr of the Pittsburgh Penguins, while ranking first in the NHL with 429 shots on goal. Ranked sixth in the West, the Mighty Ducks drew the Red Wings in the opening round of the 1999 playoffs. In Game 3, Kariya blocked a shot with his skate, breaking his right foot. Unavailable for Game 4, the Ducks lost to the Red Wings and were eliminated. Prior to his injury, Kariya had a goal and four points over three games. Kariya's comeback season following injury was capped off with his third NHL first team All-Star distinction, receiving 47 of the possible 58 first-place votes for the left-wing position from the Professional Hockey Writers' Association. Kariya was also nominated for the League's Bill Masterton Trophy, awarded for perseverance, sportsmanship and dedication to hockey; he lost to Tampa Bay Lightning forward John Cullen, who attempted to return to the NHL after missing the previous season with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. While Selänne finished as second runner-up for the Lady Byng Trophy, Kariya finished sixth in voting.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Having played the final year of his contract, Kariya agreed on a new three-year deal with the Ducks, reported to be worth between $32 and $33 million, during the ensuing summer. The contract was signed on June 30, 1999, one day before he was set to become a restricted free agent. In the three seasons that ensued, Kariya's offensive production decreased, a period that coincided with the Mighty Ducks failing to qualify for the playoffs each year.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During the 1999–2000 season, Kariya's younger brother Steve Kariya began playing for the Vancouver Canucks. On December 8, 1999, the Ducks and Canucks met for a contest, marking the first time the brothers played against each other at any level. Steve recorded an assist on the Canucks' first goal of the game, before being called for a penalty. On the ensuing Ducks power play, Paul Kariya scored to tie the game at a final score of 2–2. Later in the season, Kariya was speared by San Jose Sharks defenceman Bryan Marchment during a game in March 2000. Kariya was not injured on the play, though Marchment received a three-game suspension from the NHL. Kariya finished the season with the third-highest goals total of his career with 42, though his points total dipped to 86. Nevertheless, he ranked fourth in NHL scoring, behind Jaromír Jágr, Pavel Bure and Mark Recchi. In the NHL's season-ending awards, Kariya was named to the NHL second All-Star team, having been outvoted for left wing on the First Team by Red Wings forward Brendan Shanahan. He also ranked seventh in Lady Byng voting.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During pre-season play in September 2000, Kariya received a one-game suspension after slashing Minnesota Wild player Aaron Gavey, though he was able to serve the suspension during exhibition play. Several months into the 2000–01 season, Kariya suffered a broken right foot after blocking a shot from Tampa Bay Lightning defenceman Pavel Kubina during a game in December 2000. Missing 15 games, he returned to the lineup in late-January 2001. The Ducks struggled as a team while both Kariya and Selänne's paled in comparison to previous years. In March 2001, Selänne was traded to the San Jose Sharks, marking the end of his duo with Kariya. Despite he and Kariya's success playing with each other, the Ducks had advanced to the second round of the playoffs just once in their tenure together. While disappointed with the trade, Kariya later commented that with the tandem constituting nearly half of the Ducks' $39 million payroll, "If [he] were running the business, [he] would have done something too." Kariya finished the season with 67 points (33 goals and 34 assists) over 66 games. In addition to losing Selänne via trade, Kariya played the majority of the season without centre Steve Rucchin, who was suffering from post-concussion syndrome.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Without Selänne for a full season in 2001–02, Kariya's points total continued to decrease. During the opening month of the campaign, he went ten consecutive game without a goal. Nevertheless, at mid-season, he was named to his sixth NHL All-Star Game in January 2002 (although it marked the first time he had been named to the All-Star Game without being voted in as a starter by fans). Kariya played on a line with Mario Lemieux and Joe Sakic (a trio that remained intact two weeks later for the 2002 Winter Olympics) and notched an assist in an 8–5 victory for the North American All-Stars. Shortly thereafter, Kariya played in his 500th career NHL game, against the Philadelphia Flyers, a contest in which he recorded a hat-trick to lead his team to a 5–4 win. Though he finished with a team-leading 57 points over 82 games, the 2001–02 season marked Kariya's worst statistical year as a Duck and the third-straight year his points total had decreased. The Ducks also suffered as a team, finishing with the third-worst record in the West. Losing fan support, the team drew the worst attendance in franchise history at home games during the season. During the season, he was often asked by reporters how long he was willing to remain with the Ducks while the franchise floundered. In the Canadian media especially, there was a widespread position Kariya should be moved to a better club.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During the off-season, Kariya became a restricted free agent before re-signing with the Ducks to a one-year, $10 million contract in July 2002. Prior to the signing, the Ducks made two key acquisitions, signing playmaking centre Adam Oates to a one-year deal and trading for winger Petr Sýkora from the New Jersey Devils. Both acquisitions were made with Kariya's input, as well as with the expectation they would play on a line with him. Although Oates was injured at the beginning of the season (during which time Kariya played with his usual centre, Rucchin), the trio formed the Ducks' top line. Despite playing under a defensive system implemented by new head coach Mike Babcock, the arrival of Kariya's new linemates coincided with a resurgence in offensive production for him in 2002–03. However, several months into the campaign, his father died of a heart attack. The Ducks gave Kariya the option to sit out the following game against the Vancouver Canucks, which he played nonetheless on December 28, 2002. He recorded an assist in a 7–3 loss. At mid-season, Kariya was selected as a reserve to his seventh and final NHL All-Star Game, held in February 2003. He scored the deciding shootout goal for the Western Conference, as his team beat the East 6–5. While his 25 goals marked the lowest total of his career since his 22-game 1997–98 season, his 56 assists approached a personal best. With 81 points over 82 games, he led the Ducks in scoring for the fifth time. His efforts helped the Mighty Ducks to the seventh seed in the West, marking the team's return to the playoffs for the first time in four years. Matching up against the second-seeded Red Wings in the first round, Kariya opened the playoffs with a triple-overtime winner in Game 1, resulting in a 2–1 Ducks win. Anaheim went on to sweep the Red Wings in four games; Kariya scored his second goal of the series in the deciding contest, a 3–2 overtime win. It marked the second time in NHL history a team eliminated the defending Stanley Cup champion in four-straight games in the first round. The Mighty Ducks went on to eliminate the Dallas Stars and Minnesota Wild in the next two rounds to advance to the Stanley Cup Final for the first time in franchise history. During Game 6 of the series against New Jersey, a contest in which the Ducks faced elimination, Kariya received a hard open-ice hit from opposing defenceman Scott Stevens. Laying motionless on the ice for several minutes, he needed to be helped to the dressing room. Many felt Kariya's equipment changes following his first concussion may have saved him from being rendered unconscious from the Stevens hit. Four-and-a-half minutes of playing time later, he returned to the game. Following his return, he scored on a slapshot while skating down the wing to give the Ducks a 4–1 lead. Anaheim went on to win the game 5–2 to force a Game 7; Kariya finished the contest with a goal and two assists. Reactions regarding Stevens' hit were divided following the game. Kariya told reporters that after looking at replays that Stevens had used his elbow, while Ducks head coach Mike Babcock described it as a late hit. However, the play was not penalized during the game, and Stevens received no subsequent disciplinary measures from the NHL. Playing the deciding Game 7 in New Jersey, the Ducks lost the Stanley Cup by a 3–0 score. Over 21 games, Kariya finished third on the team in playoff scoring (behind Adam Oates and Petr Sýkora), scoring six goals and 12 points. Much of Anaheim's success was predicated on goaltender Jean-Sébastien Giguère's performance, who was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP. Kariya, meanwhile, was often singled out for his lack of consistent impact throughout the playoffs. As the highest-profile player on the Ducks, he drew matchups against opposing teams top defencemen during the post-season, such as Willie Mitchell against the Wild and Stevens against the Devils. He had also played part of the post-season with a separated shoulder.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Game 7 of the Final marked Kariya's last game as a Mighty Duck. After nine seasons, he left Anaheim as the team's all-time leader in games played (606), goals (300), assists (369), points (669), short handed goals (16) and shots (2,455). His seven seasons as team captain also set a Ducks record. Kariya's records for games played, goals, assists and points have since been surpassed by Selänne, who returned to the Ducks in 2005 and remained with the team until his retirement in 2014. Kariya's record for most seasons as the Ducks' captain has been surpassed by Ryan Getzlaf, who was the team's captain from 2010 until his retirement in 2022.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Following the Mighty Ducks' Stanley Cup run, Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in the off-season. With Kariya requiring a $10 million qualifying offer from Anaheim to remain with the team, general manager Bryan Murray let him go to free agency. Murray went on record saying, "We understand that he is an important player for the franchise... but when you are trying to build a team it's hard to have one player at $10 million when your payroll is the mid to low ($40 million range)." It was reported the team had tried negotiating a longer-term deal with a decreased salary, while Murray told media at the time he would remain in negotiations with Kariya to sign him for less. With former linemate Teemu Selänne also entering unrestricted free agency that summer after three years with San Jose (he decided to opt out of his final year, valued at $6.5 million), the duo agreed to reunite and sign with the same team. Together, they approached the Colorado Avalanche, having decided the team had the best chance of winning the Stanley Cup. On July 3, 2003, the Avalanche announced the signing of Kariya and Selänne to one-year contracts. In order for the team to afford both players, Kariya took an $8.8 million pay cut from his $10 million salary with Anaheim the previous year, marking the highest decrease in compensation for a player in NHL history. At $1.2 million, his salary was below the NHL average, ensuring he would have the freedom of unrestricted free agency at the end of the season. Selänne, meanwhile, signed for $5.8 million. Their deals were partially facilitated by goaltender Patrick Roy's retirement, which freed up $8.5 million in salary.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya and Selänne joined an already high-powered Avalanche team that included such forwards as Joe Sakic, Peter Forsberg, Milan Hejduk and Alex Tanguay. Despite high expectations for the duo's reunion, Kariya and Selänne both struggled in their sole years with Colorado. After beginning the 2003–04 season on a line with Selänne centred by Joe Sakic, Kariya suffered a sprained right wrist in a game against the Boston Bruins on October 21, 2003. After being sidelined for ten games, he returned in mid-November, but re-injured his wrist in his first contest back. Due to the injury, Kariya missed playing against the Ducks for the first time in a home game on November 18. Still recovering a month later, he remained sidelined for a return to Anaheim's Arrowhead Pond on December 20. Kariya's departure from the Ducks drew criticism from his previous team's fans. In anticipation of the Avalanche-Ducks game on December 20, Anaheim fans began a fund that raised over $1,200 to be given to the favourite charity of the Ducks player who scores the game-winning goal against Colorado. The idea was precipitated by reports that Kariya had given Selänne $3,000 for scoring the game-winning goal against the Ducks on November 18 (it is an informal tradition in the NHL for players to offer rewards to teammates who score against former teams). Kariya returned to the Avalanche lineup in time for their next game against the Ducks on January 13, 2004, at the Pepsi Center. He scored one goal in a 3–1 win. Later that month, he played his first game against the Ducks in Anaheim on January 30. Booed every time he touched puck, he recorded two assists, as the Avalanche lost 4–3 in overtime. Limited by injuries, Kariya scored below his career pace with 11 goals and 36 points over 51 games. Selänne recorded 32 points, while playing in 78 games. In the final game of the regular season, Kariya injured his right ankle against the Nashville Predators on April 4. As a team, Colorado lost their division for the first time in nine years to the Vancouver Canucks. Qualifying for the 2004 playoffs as the fourth seed in the West, they lost in the second round to the Sharks. Kariya returned to the Colorado lineup in time for Game 6 against the Sharks, recording an assist as the Avalanche were eliminated by a score of 3–1.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Due to the NHL lockout, Kariya was professionally inactive for the 2004–05 season, using the time to recover from several nagging injuries. He incorrectly predicted that the dispute would last "a year-and-a-half [or] two years," as the players and owners agreed on a new collective agreement in July 2005. With NHL play set to resume for the 2005–06 season, Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in August 2005. Entertaining offers from ten different teams, Kariya signed a two-year, $9 million contract with the Nashville Predators on August 5, 2005, making him the highest-paid player in team history. Predators general manager David Poile heralded the acquisition as "unquestionably the biggest signing in [the] club's history". He ultimately chose the Predators for their style of play emphasizing skating and speed. Following the lockout, the NHL adopted several rule changes meant to benefit fast and skilled players such as Kariya. He was one of many NHL players who had publicly spoken out regarding the NHL's failed attempts in the past to reduce obstruction. During an earlier NHL-sponsored conference call with the media, Kariya criticized NHL rules, stating, "As an offensive player, I'm going through the neutral zone, and I have a player tugging me the whole way. If I don't go down, I'm not going to get a call because they are not going to make the call." Having come off the worst statistical season of his career in 2003–04, Kariya was admittedly looking to have a bounce-back season.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During the Predators' training camp in September 2005, Kariya suffered separate ankle and groin injuries that limited his participation in team practices and pre-season games. Recovering in time for the season-opener, he debuted with the Predators on October 5, 2005, at home against the San Jose Sharks. Early in the game, Kariya was routinely cheered by fans when he touched the puck. Trailing 2–1 in the third period, he scored on goaltender Evgeni Nabokov to the tie the game, en route to a 3–2 win. In his first season with Nashville, Kariya set team records with 31 goals, 54 assists and 85 points. His 14 power play goals also tied defenceman Andy Delmore's team record set in 2002–03, while his 245 shots came within three of Cliff Ronning's mark set in 1998–99. In the playoffs, Kariya had two goals and seven points over five games.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya had 76 points (24 goals and 52 assists)—the second highest total in team history—over 82 games during the 2006–07 season and led the Predators in scoring for a second-straight year. Kariya had two assists during five playoff games. During the off-season, Predators owner Craig Leipold put the team up for sale; two of the leading candidates to buy the franchise both had plans to relocate the team. With Kariya's contract expiring, he chose not to re-sign with Nashville, citing the team's uncertain future.


title: Paul Kariya

text: On July 1, 2007, Kariya signed a three-year contract worth $18 million with the St. Louis Blues. In similar fashion to his signing with Nashville, his arrival in St. Louis marked one of the team's first notable free-agent acquisitions in a while (arguably since the team signed Brendan Shanahan in 1991). While the Predators were a team on the rise when he joined them, the Blues had contrastingly missed the playoffs in the previous two seasons.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Although Blues winger Jay McClement was in possession of the jersey number 9 upon Kariya's arrival in the off-season, he surrendered it so Kariya could retain his usual number. Assigned as an alternate captain for the team, Kariya rotated the position with Keith Tkachuk, and Barret Jackman throughout the 2008–09 season. Kariya debuted with the team on October 4, 2007, registering an assist in a 3–2 loss to the Phoenix Coyotes. After recording six assists in his first four games as a Blue, Kariya scored his first goal with St. Louis on October 17, 2007, in a 3–1 win against the Chicago Blackhawks. Two months later, Kariya recorded his tenth career NHL hat-trick against the Dallas Stars on December 29, scoring the Blues' final three goals, including the game-tying marker with ten seconds remaining in regulation. He was stopped in the shootout, however, by Mike Smith as the Stars won the game 5–4. With the hat trick, Kariya reached the 900-point mark in his NHL career. Despite a decrease in offensive production, Kariya tied winger Brad Boyes for the team lead in scoring with 65 points (16 goals and 49 assists) over 82 games. The Blues finished with the second-worst record in the Western Conference with 33 wins and 79 points.


title: Paul Kariya

text: A month into 2008–09 season, Kariya suffered a hip injury after being hit from behind in a game against the Anaheim Ducks on November 5, 2008, tearing muscle fibers near the top of his left thigh. The injury was initially undisclosed at the time and was erroneously reported as having resulted from a blocked shot. At the time of the injury, he had 15 points (2 goals and 13 assists) over 11 games, tying him for sixth in NHL scoring. After nearly two months of recovery, he began practicing with the Blues, but had a setback in late-December; a subsequent MRI exam revealed additional hip damage. Undergoing surgery for a torn acetabular labrum on January 5, 2009, the team listed him as sidelined indefinitely, while Blues president John Davidson told reporters he might be back late that season or the next. The following month, another MRI revealed a torn labrum in the opposite side of his hip, as well, requiring a second surgery. Despite the loss of Kariya, the Blues made the playoffs for the first time since 2004. With the Blues matching up against the Vancouver Canucks in the first round, Kariya began practicing with the team in hopes of a comeback for the playoffs. He told reporters he felt "stronger than [he had]… since 1999". The Blues were swept in four games however, before Kariya could return.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Fully recovered by the start of the 2009–10 season, Kariya made his return to the Blues lineup on October 2, 2009, a game played in Stockholm. He scored two goals in a 4–3 win against the Detroit Red Wings. On March 18, 2010, Kariya scored the 400th goal of his NHL career, against the New York Rangers. A week later, he recorded the 402nd and final goal of his career, in a 3–1 win against the Los Angeles Kings. Kariya played his last NHL game on April 11, 2010, against his former team, the Nashville Predators. With the Blues trailing by one goal in the third period, Kariya helped set up David Backes' game-tying goal, marking his 25th assist of the season and final point of his career. The Blues went on to lose the game 2–1 in a shootout.


title: Paul Kariya

text: On December 27, 2009, Kariya received the sixth and last concussion of his NHL career, an elbow to the head delivered from behind by Buffalo Sabres' forward Patrick Kaleta. During what would become Kariya's last season in the NHL, the League began expanding their efforts to eliminate hits to the head with new rules and stiffer penalties. NHL officials also began looking to penalize "blindside hits", defined as a bodycheck against a player from the side, where he cannot see the ensuing player coming. At the time, Kariya called the pending rule changes "long overdue", adding, "[H]av[ing] been through so much with that… It's something that should've been in place years and years ago."


title: Paul Kariya

text: With his contract expiring in the off-season, Teemu Selänne, who had since returned to the Ducks, was reportedly in talks with team management to sign Kariya. However, on August 27, 2010, on the advice of doctors who refused to clear him to play, Kariya announced he would sit out the 2010–11 season with post-concussion syndrome. While the symptoms eventually did subside somewhat, the same doctors advised Kariya it was too risky to try to play again, and Kariya announced his retirement from hockey on June 29, 2011, through the NHLPA. He continued to be outspoken regarding the prevalence of concussions among hockey players; in an interview with the "Globe and Mail", he commented, "The thing I worry about is that you'll get a guy who is playing with a concussion, and he gets hit, and he dies at centre ice."


title: Paul Kariya

text: In the summer of 1991, Kariya joined the Canadian Under-18 Selects Team at the Phoenix Cup, the inaugural tournament of what would go on to become the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament. Kariya led all scorers with ten points in six games while being named to the Tournament All-Star team. Canada won the silver medal, losing out to the Soviet Union.


title: Paul Kariya

text: The following year, he moved up to the Canadian under-20 team for the 1992 World Junior Championships in Germany. The youngest player on the team, he recorded a goal and an assist over six games as Canada finished in sixth place. Playing in the tournament a second consecutive year in 1993, Kariya improved to two goals and eight points over seven games, ranking second in team scoring behind Martin Lapointe. Helping Canada to a record of six winsand one loss, they tied Sweden for first overall in the standings, but won the gold medal by way of their 5–4 win against them in their second game. The championship marked Kariya's first international gold medal and began a streak of five consecutive gold medals for Canada at the tournament. He was named to the Tournament All-Star team, alongside Canadian goaltender Manny Legace and defenceman Brent Tully. Nearly ten years later, TSN held a fan-voted poll on the Internet to select Canada's all-time World Junior team. The poll garnered in excess of 350,000 votes with Kariya chosen as one of 13 forwards on the team.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Four months later, in April 1993, Kariya debuted with the Canadian men's team in the IIHF World Championships, held in Germany. At 18 years and six months, he became the youngest player in Canadian history to play at the tournament. He scored nine points in eight games as Canada finished in fourth place.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Later that year, in December 1993, Kariya left his college team, the Maine Black Bears, to join the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. At the start of the tournament, Canada was seeded seventh overall and were not considered favourites to do well. Playing on a line with Chris Kontos and Petr Nedved, Kariya led his team in scoring with three goals and seven points over eight games, helping Canada to a silver medal. Tied with the Czech Republic 2–2 in the quarterfinal, Kariya scored the game-winning goal after 16 minutes of overtime play to help the Canadians advance. In the gold medal game, Kariya scored the first goal as Canada went on to lose 3–2 in a shootout to Sweden. With a chance to tie the shootout after Swedish forward Peter Forsberg scored, Swedish goaltender Tommy Salo stopped Kariya with a glove save.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Two months later, Kariya joined Team Canada for the 1994 Men's World Championships in Italy. He was the lone player on the team to have continued on from the Olympics, as well as the youngest, while playing on a line with Jason Arnott and Brendan Shanahan. During round-robin play, he scored a hat-trick against Austria in a 6–1 win. In the quarter-final, he added a goal and an assist in a win over the Czech Republic. Canada advanced to the final, where they defeated Finland 2–1 to capture the gold medal. It marked the first championship at the tournament for Canada in 33 years. Kariya finished the tournament with a team-high five goals and 12 points over eight games and received Best Forward and All-Star team honours on the latter, he was joined by Canadian goaltender Bill Ranford. With his success at the 1994 Winter Olympics and World Championships, Wayne Gretzky heralded Kariya as the next NHL superstar.


title: Paul Kariya

text: In January 1996, Kariya finished as a runner-up to Wayne Gretzky for the inaugural Jean Beliveau Award, an annual distinction from Hockey Canada for players who have demonstrated "outstanding playing ability and international experience while maintaining the fundamentals of sportsmanship and fair play". Unlike most annual awards, the distinction did not take into account players' performances in the prior year, but their contributions on a career basis. The initial three nominees were chosen by a selection committee, while the winner was determined by fan vote. Randy Gregg was the other nominee.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Following his second NHL season, Kariya was named to Canada's team for the 1996 World Championships in Vienna. During the round-robin, he scored a hat-trick against the United States, helping Canada to a 5–1 win, qualifying them for the quarter-finals. During their semi-final against Russia, Kariya scored in the shootout to help Canada to a 3–2 win. Advancing to the gold medal game, they lost 4–2 to the Czech Republic. Kariya finished the competition with four goals and seven points over eight games, earning him a spot as Canada's lone representative on the Tournament's first All-Star team. Over three World Championship appearances, Kariya recorded 28 points (11 goals and 17 assists) over 24 games, which at the time, ranked him at third all-time among Canadian scorers, behind Steve Yzerman's 39 points and Marcel Dionne's 32.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Prior to the World Championships, Canada also named Kariya to their team for the 1996 World Cup, which was held in August and September. However, Kariya was kept from competing due to a groin inflammation. During a news conference, he called his withdrawal the "biggest disappointment of [his] hockey career". The World Cup would have marked his first international appearance in a best-on-best tournament, as the competition did not interfere with the Stanley Cup playoffs as the World Championships did. Kariya was replaced in the lineup by New York Rangers winger Adam Graves. Canada went on to finish as runner-up to the United States in the tournament.


title: Paul Kariya

text: In June 1997, Kariya was again nominated for the Jean Beliveau Award, alongside Gregg, but lost to Bobby Orr.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Four years after his first Olympic appearance as an amateur, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, were set to become the first Games in which NHL players could compete in ice hockey. While Kariya was involved in a contract dispute with the Mighty Ducks, causing him to miss the start of the 1997–98 NHL season, Hockey Canada contacted Kariya, asking him to provide a training regimen by December 1, 1997, ensuring that he would be physically ready to play in the Olympics, given his inactivity in the NHL. Before agreeing to a contract with the Ducks in December, he joined the Canadian national team in training. On November 29, 1997, Canadian General Manager Bobby Clarke announced his roster for the Games, which included Kariya. He was the youngest player named to the team, behind defenceman Chris Pronger, who was born six days earlier. Less than a month to go before the start of the tournament, held in February 1998, however, he suffered a concussion, resulting from an on-ice crosscheck to the head from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter. The hit received much publicity as Suter, a member of the United States' national team, was accused by many in the media, as well as Bobby Clarke for targeting Kariya specifically in order to sideline him for the Olympics. He again described the missed opportunity as the "biggest disappointment of [his] career," adding that he was looking forward to playing in Japan, having family there.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Leading up to the next Winter Olympics, Kariya was chosen as one of eight initial players to Canada's roster on March 23, 2001. Playing on the top line with Mario Lemieux, Kariya scored three goals and one assist over six games, tying for fourth in Canadian point-scoring. He registered his first goal of the tournament in Canada's second game, a 3–2 win against Germany. His second came against Belarus in the semi-final, qualifying Canada for the gold medal game. Playing the United States in the final, Kariya scored Canada's first goal of the game, tying the score at 1–1 in the first period. Canada went on to win 5–2, capturing their first Olympic gold medal since 1952. Canada's roster was later inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame under the team category on March 26, 2009, during a ceremony in Vancouver.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Despite Kariya's success with Canada at the 2002 Olympics, he had come off the worst statistical season of his career prior to the national team's summer development camp in preparation for the 2006 Winter Olympics. His omission was singled out by the media; general manager Wayne Gretzky, who selected the camp's participants, explained publicly, "Paul is a great player, but at some point you have to have a cutoff," while also asserting he had spoken to Kariya personally regarding the situation. After a strong start to the 2005–06 NHL season, Kariya was one of 49 forwards chosen in October 2005 to Canada's preliminary list of players to be selected from for the final roster. When the team was announced in December 2005, however, he was not chosen.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During his career, Kariya became involved with Hockey Canada off the ice, as well. In the late 1990s, he joined the organization as a national spokesperson with women's team forward Jayna Hefford for the Initiation Program, promoting a safe and positive experience for children first becoming involved with hockey.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya was known for his skilled and entertaining style of play. An offensive player, he was a fast skater with strong puck-handling and passing abilities. Prior to and early in his NHL career, Kariya drew comparisons to Wayne Gretzky. During the 1994 Winter Olympics, American Head Coach Tim Taylor likened his skating and playmaking ability to Gretzky's, while Kariya's linemate, Chris Kontos, described his on-ice vision as "Gretzky-like." Canadian head coach Tom Renney heralded him as "think[ing] and play[ing] at a better speed than anybody else," adding that his teammates "are usually a half-step behind him". His speed made him particularly adept in international competition, as games were played on a larger ice surface in comparison to the NHL. Following his first NHL goal against Winnipeg, Jets head coach John Paddock told reporters, "[L]ike with Gretzky the puck seems to following him around... It looks like he's cherry-picking, but he's not. That's just great instinct." Kariya himself cited Gretzky, as well as Brett Hull, Jeremy Roenick and Pavel Bure, as players he liked patterning his game after. Kariya was also recognized for his "hockey sense" and the cerebral aspect of his game, which included analyzing the game at a high level. His first NHL coach, Ron Wilson, also once described Kariya as "the hardest-working athlete [he's] ever been associated with".


title: Paul Kariya

text: While recognized primarily as a playmaker leading up to his NHL career, Kariya was forced into shooting more as the Mighty Ducks lacked scorers in his first two seasons with the team. During his third NHL season, he commented, "If Teemu [Selänne] had been here right off the bat, then maybe I wouldn't have focused so much on shooting." Kariya was able to put many shots on goal due to his quick release. In 1998–99, he led the NHL with 429 shots on goal, which at the time was the second-highest recorded total in NHL history. Nonetheless maintaining his passing ability, Kariya was particularly adept at making plays from deep in the offensive zone and beside the opposing team's net.


title: Paul Kariya

text: During his rookie NHL season, Kariya lived in the Anaheim area with a family that was close friend with Mighty Ducks head coach, Ron Wilson. Following his departure from the Ducks in 2003, he maintained a summer home in Orange County, California. With a background in competitive swimming as a child, he became an avid surfer in the area.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya still resides in California with his long-time girlfriend Valerie, nearby another former Ducks player, Scott Niedermayer. Kariya has maintained a close friendship with Teemu Selänne, and even attended Selänne's final regular season game at the Honda Center in 2014. Despite Kariya having only once attended the arena following his retirement, Selänne made sure to invite his old teammate as "he has meant so much to me, all my best years and the chemistry I’ve had with him." Selänne even went so far to threaten to tie him up and toss him in his trunk of his car, then drive him to the stadium himself if Kariya refused. Paul Kariya was shown on the Jumbotron during the third period, which lead to a loud ovation from the home crowd.


title: Paul Kariya

text: As captain of the Mighty Ducks, Kariya made a cameo appearance in Disney's "" movie, which was released in October 1996.


title: Paul Kariya

text: Kariya and Selanne were honored by the Anaheim Ducks during a home game against the Florida Panthers shortly after Kariya and Selanne were inducted into the hall of fame. Players on the ice during warmups wore either Paul Kariya Mighty Ducks jerseys or Anaheim Ducks Selanne jerseys. Ducks team owner Henry Samueli brought up that Selanne's jersey retirement banner “looked lonely in the rafters” and told Kariya “they may have to do something about that in the future”.


title: Paul Kariya

text: The Anaheim Ducks retired his number on October 21, 2018, at a ceremony attended by Selanne and Scott Niedermayer.


title: Paul Kariya

text: In 2018, he was the subject of "Surfacing", a documentary feature on TSN. The segment's creators, Matt Dunn, Michael Farber, Brent Blanchard and David Midgley, received a Canadian Screen Award nomination for Best Sports Feature Segment at the 7th Canadian Screen Awards.


title: Funnel cake

text: Funnel cake (Pennsylvania German: "Drechderkuche") is a regional sweet food popular in North America, found mainly at carnivals and amusement parks. It is made by deep-frying batter.


title: Funnel cake

text: The concept of the funnel cake dates back to the early medieval Persian and Arab world as "zalabiyeh", where similar yeast-risen dishes were first prepared, and later spread to Europe. Pennsylvania Dutch immigrants brought the yeast dish, known as "drechderkuche", to America, and around 1879, they developed the baking powder version along with its new name, funnel cake.


title: Funnel cake

text: Funnel cakes are made by pouring batter into hot cooking oil in a circular pattern and deep frying the overlapping mass until golden-brown. The batter is commonly poured through a funnel, creating its texture and giving it its name. When made at concession stands, a pitcher with an integral funnel spout is employed. Alton Brown recommends they be made with choux pastry, which expands from steam produced by its high water content.


title: Funnel cake

text: Funnel cakes are typically served plain with powdered sugar but can also be served with jam/jelly, cinnamon, chocolate, fresh fruit, or other toppings.


title: Funnel cake

text: In south German cuisine, the equivalent is called "Strauben" or "Strieble" and is made and served similarly. In Finnish cuisine, the analogous "tippaleipä" (literally droplet bread) is traditionally served at May Day (Vappu) celebrations, alongside sima. In Lithuania, it is called skruzdėlynas, which literally translates to "ant nest". It is normally made in early spring to empty last year's honey stock and make more space for the new one, and it is also made at the first harvest of honey.


title: Funnel cake

text: In the Indian subcontinent, a similar dessert, with a crystallized sugary exterior coating, is called jalebi. In Iran, this is known as "zulbia" and is a popular dessert. These differ from funnel cake in using no baking powder, which results in a somewhat chewy texture.


title: Funnel cake

text: Kumukunsi is another similar native doughnut from the Maguindanao people in the Philippines. It is made with rice flour, duck eggs, and sugar that is molded into rope-like strands and then fried in a loose spiral. They have the taste and consistency of creamy pancakes.


title: Funnel cake

text: In the US, funnel cakes were originally associated with Pennsylvania Dutch Country. It is one of the first North American fried foods, which is associated with the Pennsylvania Dutch, German immigrants who came to Pennsylvania in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, it is a staple dish that can be found at amusement parks and fairs all over the country. The name "funnel" later came from the technique used to make the cakes, in which the pancake-like batter is poured into hot oil through a funnel.


title: Tarasque

text: The Tarasque is a fearsome legendary dragon-like mythological hybrid from Provence, in southern France, tamed in stories about Saint Martha, such as the one told in Jacobus de Voragine's "Golden Legend" (13th century).


title: Tarasque

text: The tarasque was described as having a lion-like head, a body protected by turtle-like carapace(s), six feet with bear-like claws, and a scaly tail like a serpent's tail in a text (pseudo-Marcelle or pseudo-Marcella) which is similar to and roughly coeval with the "Golden Legend", and issued poison breath according to one hagiography (pseudo-Raban Maur) of perhaps somewhat later date.


title: Tarasque

text: Medieval iconography such as renditions in church sculpture did not necessarily conform to this description in the earlier Gothic period, and examples which seemed to were later assigned later, 14th century dates. The hexapedal carapaced tarasque was the form depicted on the city seal of Tarascon around the 15th century, and this held to be the norm in 16th- and 17th-century paintings. As St. Martha purportedly encountered the beast in the act of swallowing a human victim, it has become a stock motif in art to portray the beast swallowing a human head first, with the victim's legs still dangling.


title: Tarasque

text: According to tradition, in 1474 René of Anjou initiated the use of the tarasque in the Pentecostal festival, and later used also on the saint's feast day of July 29. Yearly celebration in the last weekend of June was added in the modern day. The effigy or float () of the tarasque has been built over the years for parading through town for the occasion, carried by four to a dozen men concealed inside.


title: Tarasque

text: The legend of the Tarasque probably arose in Provence, France, from early to late 12th century. The legend is recorded in several sources, but especially in the story of St. Martha in the "Golden Legend" ("Legenda aurea"), which was "the most influential".


title: Tarasque

text: In Provence, France, the creature inhabited the forested banks of the Rhône between Arles and Avignon, around what is now the town Tarascon (then called Nerluc or 'black place'), but lurked in the river and attacked the men trying to cross it, sinking boats. The creature was described a dragon, half animal, half fish, thicker than an ox, longer than a horse, with "sword-like teeth as sharp as horns".


title: Tarasque

text: The Tarasque () was said to have come from Galatia, a cross-breed between the biblical Leviathan and the legendary Onachus (or onacho, or bonacho) of Galatia, this onachus being a creature that retaliated against pursuers by flinging its dung () like an arrow, and causing burns. The people besought Saint Martha for help, and she found the creature in the act of devouring a man. Merely by sprinkling holy water and holding up the cross, she caused the creature to become submissive and obedient. She then tied her girdle (to its neck), leading the beast to the villagers who cast rocks and spears at it until it died.


title: Tarasque

text: The account of St. Martha and the tarasque in the "Golden Legend" (LA) roughly correspond to the versions of the legend found in the pseudo-Marcella ("V"), and in Vincent de Beauvais's "Speculum historiale" ("SH"). are near contemporaneous works (late 12th and 13th century), with the pseudo-Marcella probably being the oldest, and dating "between 1187 and 1212 or 1221". The three texts LA, SH, and V are similar in content with only modest variations.


title: Tarasque

text: There is also a fourth variant Latin account, a "Life of St. Mary Magdalene and her sister St. Martha" ("Vita Beatae Mariae Magdalenae et sororis ejus Sanctae Marthae") with somewhat divergent content from the other three, whose authorship had formerly been credited to Raban Maur (d. 856 AD), but since rejected as a false attribution, being the work of an unknown author perhaps as early as the late 12th century, or as late as the second half of the 13th century. The work is referred to as the "pseudo-Raban" by Louis Dumont and others.


title: Tarasque

text: There is also a brief notice on the tarasque which occurs in Gervase of Tilbury (Gervais de Tilbury). Gervase assigns the habitat of the tarasque () to be an abyss near the city-gates of Arles and the rock/cliff beneath the castle/fort at Tarascon.


title: Tarasque

text: As for the description of the tarasque's physical appearance given in the "Legenda aurea", it is given a somewhat dissimilar treatment in the corresponding passage in the c. 1200 pseudo-Marcella:


title: Tarasque

text: This description is said to "correspond rather closely" to 17th and 18th century iconography in paintings and woodcuts and to the modern-day effigy. Even the turtle-like carapaces ( "shields") is attested in this c. 1200 piece of writing, even though some commentators ventured it to be a 15th-century addition, created out of expedience to conceal the men carrying the beast's effigy paraded through town for the Pentecostal festivities.


title: Tarasque

text: The head has later been described as being similar to a bull and a lion or having the muzzle/face of a lion, or, having the head of a lion with a black mane.


title: Tarasque

text: The "tail of a serpent" detail is given in both the Pseudo-Marcella and the "Speculum Historiale". The tail was "long and ringed and looked considerably like that of the scorpion" in a lost sculpture on a face of an old church (Église Sainte-Marthe de Tarascon) according to surgeon-author . It is a ringed tail, and does turns upright as can be verified in facsimile sketch of the sculpture printed by Faillon. Some modern-day authors have gone a step further, claiming the tarasque's tail ended in a scorpion sting. Or rather, the tail terminated in a (cock's) according to writer Jean-Paul Clébert. There has also been past comment that the tail should end in an arrowhead's shape, according to tradition.


title: Tarasque

text: Rather than its eyes literally shooting flames, some French sources take it to be a figure of speech, that "its eyes glare sulfurously". One source (Abbé François Canéto) has Raban Maur stating that the poison breath shot out of the tarasque's nostrils in thick vapours.


title: Tarasque

text: The Tarasque is featured on the coat of arms of Tarascon, and here too, the beast/dragon is depicted as devouring a human, at least in later versions of the seal. In 11th or 12th century seals of the city, the tarasque is given an appearance of a crocodile or some sort of amphibian according to one opinion. The city seal from the 13th century appears much as a plain dragon according to one 18th century writer on medieval coats of arms, though Faillon counters that this represents not a dragon guarding the city, but the tarasque. This early type perhaps dates to as far back as the 11th century, seen on seals struck on "méreau" type tokens. The later design of the seal depicting the tarasque with a (turtle-like) carapace appeared in the 15th century.


title: Tarasque

text: Later design of the city seal distinctly shows the tarasque swallowing a human. In the language of heraldry, the coat of arms has been described as featuring "below [the castle with crenelated towers argent] a dragon of sinople devouring a man and covered with scales of gold".


title: Tarasque

text: The aforementioned sculpture once incorporated into the right side exterior of Église Sainte-Marthe de Tarascon purportedly dated to the 11th century, and counted as the oldest representation recorded. This sculpture of the tarasque depicted the beast in the act of devouring a human, in typical fashion. This tarasque was a quadruped that bore close resemblance to the beast trodden underfoot by St. Martha in the paneling sculpture of the choir stalls at Cathédrale Sainte-Marie d'Auch, according to Abbé François Canéto.


title: Tarasque

text: Yet another is carved in the capital column of the Church of St. Trophime (Église Métropolitaine de Saint-Trophime) in Arles, dating to the mid-14th century, though earlier commentators, such as Faillon who supplied detailed drawings of the capital, considered it to be an example of early Gothic art from the 11th century.


title: Tarasque

text: The festival of the tarasque was initiated on April 14, 1474 during Pentecost in Tarascon, at the behest of René of Anjou, in order to amuse his citizens with a reenactment of St. Martha's miracle. Later, a second festival was held on 29 July, the feast-day of Saint Martha.


title: Tarasque

text: In former days, the effigy of the tarasque was paraded through the streets twice a year, and a maiden portraying St. Martha escorting the tarasque held it by the leash (or a white ribbon) in one hand.


title: Tarasque

text: In the modern day (post-World War II), the festival came to be held annually on the last Sunday of June, to tell the tale of the Tarasque, as well as Tartarin, the main character of Alphonse Daudet's "Tartarin de Tarascon".


title: Tarasque

text: The tarasque paraded through the streets once changed from a wooden prop painted green to a metallic contraption in the early 19th century. Aubin-Louis Millin (1808) described the tarasque effigy as wooden, and consisting of hoops covered in painted cloth. German writer Christian Friedrich Mylius (1818) elaborated that "Every year on the 2nd day of Pentecost, a grotesque wooden likeness of the dragon, or the Tarasque, is carried through the city; it resembles a turtle; it consists of a wooden framework covered with wax canvas, painted apple-green, with gilded hooks and thorns on its back". A tarasque used in the "jeu de tarasque" during the Pentecostal festival is described by the Count of Villeneuve in 1826, as an effigy of a "monstrous dragon, whose torso is assembled from hoops covered with a painted sheet metal, and whose back is made using a huge shield to imitate a turtle's carapace. The paws are clawed, the tail scaly and several times curved, the head is like a bull and a lion. A gaping mouth reveals several rows of teeth".


title: Tarasque

text: The wooden hull described in 1818 required 8 men to carry, the metallic version needed 12 men. The tarasque of the festival of 1846 concealed 4 porters inside, and the one in 1861 needed 6 men.


title: Tarasque

text: The head could be manipulated by a person inside, making the effigy's jaws open or close; from out of its nostrils fuses or rockets were made to poke out and ignited so it issued fiery sparks.


title: Tarasque

text: During the festival, while the huge effigy of the Tarasque is carried through the streets, there are shouted the traditional cries for the in a popular song attributed to King René of Anjou:


title: Tarasque

text: It later became established that the "jeu de Tarasque" would commence at Pentecost and continue to the feast day of Saint Martha on July 29, or the festival was held on those 2 days as two acts.


title: Tarasque

text: By the 20th century, the tarasque effigy used in Tarascon was mounted on a wheeled cart, which are dragged or pulled by persons known as "Tarascaïres", and these attendants of the tarasque could intermittently break off and engage in dance (farandole).


title: Tarasque

text: In the past the festivals were only held sporadically in a major way, e.g., in the years 1846, 1861, 1891 and 1946 but since 1946 they have become a yearly event and tourist attraction.


title: Tarasque

text: In the gap years (first half of the 20th century) when the "jeu de Tarasque" was in hiatus, different authorities were claiming different weeks and weekdays around Pentecost Sunday for the proper day for the ceremony, according to Eliza Gutch (d. 1931)'s paper, published posthumously.


title: Tarasque

text: A tarasque feast was held on a non-traditional day on 23 June 1946 in Tarascon, for practical reasons. Subsequently, the holding of the tarasque festival in this last Sunday or weekend of June became annually recurrent.


title: Tarasque

text: The Tarasque was designated one of "Processional Giants and Dragons in Belgium and France" listed in November 2005 as part of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.


title: Tarasque

text: The Tarasca (Spanish for Tarasque) is one of the statues of the Corpus Christi procession, paraded through a number of Spanish and Catalan cities, and elsewhere throughout the Iberian peninsula, for example, the cities of Granada, Toledo, and Valencia, and the city of Madrid.


title: Tarasque

text: The first record of the tarasca legend in the peninsula comes from Seville in the year 1282, shortly after the "reconquista" of the city in the mid-13th century.


title: Tarasque

text: The Spanish version is tinged with misogynistic elements, or rather repudiations against biblical and historical temptresses, with statues and statuettes of such female figures (called "") surmounted on top of the tarasca dragon. The figure atop the Granada dragon is a life-size doll resembling a retail store mannequin, and the tiny blonde-hair figurine set atop the papier-mâché tarasca of Toledo is supposed to represent Anne Boleyn.


title: Tarasque

text: Historically in the city of Seville, it was originally a young boy called a (rather than a modeled figure) who was seated atop the processional dragon. But in 1637 the boy was replaced by a well-adorned woman, and in 1639 it was prescribed that she should be an ugly old woman.


title: Tarasque

text: The word "tarasca" has entered the Spanish vocabulary in the sense of an ill-natured woman, or a "hussy". A 19th-century dictionary defines the tarasca as a "crooked, ugly, lewd, and impudent woman", and the word is known to have been used in the sense of "ugly old woman" in the 16th century.


title: Tarasque

text: Parallels have been drawn with the French legends of the Graouilli in Metz, and the Gargouille of Rouen defeated by St. Romanus.


title: Tarasque

text: A legendary dragon or dragon-like marine creature reported to have appeared in Vietnam's Halong Bay has been called the "Tarasque" after the famed creature of Tarascon.


title: Tarasque

text: French archeologist Isidore Gilles proposed the pre-Christian pagan origins for the legend of the tarasque, and connected with the so-called "tarasque of Noves", unearthed at the village Noves, once called "Tarasconnet". The find was a stone statue of a sharp-toothed chimeric beast with a scaly back, "crunching a human arm in its mouth". Gilles postulated this was a Celtic deified beast to which human sacrifices were offered.


title: Tarasque

text: Gilles's theory was embraced by the Provençal poet Frederic Mistral, and Dumont was disinclined to dismiss Mistral's belief altogether. French scholar also states that the Saint Martha legend is undoubtedly "superimposed on old beliefs of Celtic paganism".


title: Logical conjunction

text: In logic, mathematics and linguistics, And (formula_1) is the truth-functional operator of logical conjunction; the "and" of a set of operands is true if and only if "all" of its operands are true. The logical connective that represents this operator is typically written as formula_1 or .


title: Logical conjunction

text: And is usually denoted by an infix operator: in mathematics and logic, it is denoted by formula_1, ' or '; in electronics, ; and in programming languages, codice_1, codice_2, or codice_3. In Jan Łukasiewicz's prefix notation for logic, the operator is K, for Polish "koniunkcja".


title: Logical conjunction

text: Logical conjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if and only if both of its operands are true.


title: Logical conjunction

text: The conjunctive identity is true, which is to say that AND-ing an expression with true will never change the value of the expression. In keeping with the concept of vacuous truth, when conjunction is defined as an operator or function of arbitrary arity, the empty conjunction (AND-ing over an empty set of operands) is often defined as having the result true.


title: Logical conjunction

text: As a rule of inference, conjunction introduction is a classically valid, simple argument form. The argument form has two premises, "A" and "B". Intuitively, it permits the inference of their conjunction.


title: Logical conjunction

text: Conjunction elimination is another classically valid, simple argument form. Intuitively, it permits the inference from any conjunction of either element of that conjunction.


title: Logical conjunction

text: A conjunction formula_17 is proven false by establishing either formula_18 or formula_19. In terms of the object language, this reads


title: Logical conjunction

text: If formula_4 implies formula_19, then both formula_18 as well as formula_4 prove the conjunction false:


title: Logical conjunction

text: In other words, a conjunction can actually be proven false just by knowing about the relation of its conjuncts, and not necessary about their truth values.


title: Logical conjunction

text: If using binary values for true (1) and false (0), then "logical conjunction" works exactly like normal arithmetic multiplication.


title: Logical conjunction

text: In high-level computer programming and digital electronics, logical conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator, usually as a keyword such as "codice_4", an algebraic multiplication, or the ampersand symbol codice_1 (sometimes doubled as in codice_2). Many languages also provide short-circuit control structures corresponding to logical conjunction.


title: Logical conjunction

text: Logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations, where codice_7 corresponds to false and codice_8 to true:


title: Logical conjunction

text: The operation can also be applied to two binary words viewed as bitstrings of equal length, by taking the bitwise AND of each pair of bits at corresponding positions. For example:


title: Logical conjunction

text: This can be used to select part of a bitstring using a bit mask. For example, codice_19  =  codice_20 extracts the fifth bit of an 8-bit bitstring.


title: Logical conjunction

text: In computer networking, bit masks are used to derive the network address of a subnet within an existing network from a given IP address, by ANDing the IP address and the subnet mask.


title: Logical conjunction

text: The membership of an element of an intersection set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical conjunction: "x" ∈ "A" ∩ "B" if and only if ("x" ∈ "A") ∧ ("x" ∈ "B"). Through this correspondence, set-theoretic intersection shares several properties with logical conjunction, such as associativity, commutativity and idempotence.


title: Logical conjunction

text: As with other notions formalized in mathematical logic, the logical conjunction "and" is related to, but not the same as, the grammatical conjunction "and" in natural languages.


title: Logical conjunction

text: English "and" has properties not captured by logical conjunction. For example, "and" sometimes implies order having the sense of "then". For example, "They got married and had a child" in common discourse means that the marriage came before the child.


title: Logical conjunction

text: The word "and" can also imply a partition of a thing into parts, as "The American flag is red, white, and blue." Here, it is not meant that the flag is "at once" red, white, and blue, but rather that it has a part of each color.


title: Crossover thrash

text: Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, may overlap with crossover thrash.


title: Crossover thrash

text: The genre is often confused with thrashcore, which is essentially a faster hardcore punk rather than a more punk-oriented form of metal. Throughout the early and mid 1980s, the term "thrash" was often used as a synonym for hardcore punk (as in the "New York Thrash" compilation of 1982). The term "thrashcore" to distinguish acts of the genre from others was not coined until at least 1993. Many crossover bands, such as D.R.I., began as influential thrashcore bands. The "-core" suffix of "thrashcore" is sometimes used to distinguish it from crossover thrash and thrash metal, the latter of which is often referred to simply as "thrash", which in turn is rarely used to refer to crossover thrash or thrashcore. Thrashcore is occasionally used by the music press to refer to thrash metal-inflected metalcore.


title: Crossover thrash

text: Crossover thrash evolved when performers in metal began borrowing elements of hardcore punk's music. Void and their 1982 Split LP with fellow D.C. band The Faith are hailed as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover and their chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential. Punk-based metal bands generally evolved into the genre by developing a more technically advanced approach than the average hardcore outfit (which focused on very fast tempos and very brief songs); these bands were more metal-sounding and aggressive than traditional hardcore punk and thrashcore. The initial contact between punk rock and heavy metal involved a "fair amount of mutual loathing. Despite their shared devotion to speed, spite, shredded attire and stomping on distortion pedals, their relationship seemed, at first, unlikely."


title: Crossover thrash

text: While Motörhead explored punk in the late '70s, it was UK hardcore that drew "...inspiration from metal's volcanic heart" to create a "bludgeoning tonality and cataclysmic narratives" that "bridged the gulf" between metal and punk; the key band is "UK hardcore's most crucial band: Discharge", which from 1980 to 1983 "challenged prevailing notions of what punk was supposed to sound like, and in doing so revolutionized the prospects of metal."


title: Crossover thrash

text: Especially early on, crossover thrash had a strong affinity with skate punk, but gradually became more and more the province of metal audiences. The scene gestated at a Berkeley club called Ruthie's, in 1984. The term "metalcore" was originally used to refer to these crossover groups.


title: Crossover thrash

text: Hardcore punk groups Corrosion of Conformity, D.R.I. and Suicidal Tendencies played alongside thrash metal groups like Megadeth, Anthrax, Metallica, Slayer, Exodus, Testament and Overkill. This scene influenced the skinhead wing of New York hardcore, including crossover groups such as Cro-Mags, Murphy's Law, Agnostic Front, and Warzone.


title: Crossover thrash

text: In 1984, New Jersey crossover group Hogan's Heroes was formed and played alongside thrash metal groups like Destruction, Death Angel, Forbidden, and Prong. In the October 1984 issue of "Maximum Rocknroll", famed Metallica LP cover artist Brian "Pushead" Schroeder wrote "You ain't heard this! Blisters with speedcore franticness, mean with whining licks as it kicks into a maniac pace. Well organized melodies that cry out in terrorizing metallic thrash. While some bands are trying to be metal, English Dogs are just the dawning of speedcore!", referring to the EP "To the End's of the Earth". Other prominent crossover thrash groups include Attitude Adjustment, Crumbsuckers, Cryptic Slaughter, Discharge, Municipal Waste, Nuclear Assault, Stormtroopers of Death, M.O.D., SSD, The Exploited & Leeway


title: Maida (flour)

text: is made from the endosperm: the starchy white part of the grain. The bran is separated from the germ and endosperm which is then refined by passing through a sieve of 80 mesh per inch (31 mesh per centimeter). Although naturally yellowish due to pigments present in wheat, is typically bleached, either naturally due to atmospheric oxygen, or with any of a number of flour bleaching agents.


title: Maida (flour)

text: While it is milled from winter wheat that has a high gluten content, heat generated during the milling process results in denaturing of the protein, limiting its use in the preparation of leavened breads.


title: Maida (flour)

text: A common misconception is that contains alloxan, which itself is banned in a lot of countries for usage in food, added as a bleaching agent or formed as a byproduct of bleaching. While it is a minor product of xanthophyll oxidation, there is no evidence that trace amounts of alloxan formed comprise a health risk.


title: Maida (flour)

text: is used extensively in Central Asian cuisine, cuisine from the Indian subcontinent and Caribbean cuisine. Flatbreads such as naan and tandoori roti are made using . Bhatoora is a fluffy, deep-fried, leavened bread made with and yogurt.


title: History of climate change science

text: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect was first identified. In the late 19th century, scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change Earth's energy balance and climate. Many other theories of climate change were advanced, involving forces from volcanism to solar variation. In the 1960s, the evidence for the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing. Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols (e.g., "pollution") could have cooling effects as well.


title: History of climate change science

text: During the 1970s, scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint. By the 1990s, as the result of improving the fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages, a consensus position formed: greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human-caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming. Since the 1990s, scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded. Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations, links with historic data, and abilities to measure and model climate change. Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.


title: History of climate change science

text: Climate change, broadly interpreted, is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (such as more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes (such as oceanic circulation), biotic processes (e.g., plants), variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world. This last effect is currently causing global warming, and "climate change" is often used to describe human-specific impacts.


title: History of climate change science

text: From ancient times, people suspected that the climate of a region could change over the course of centuries. For example, Theophrastus, a pupil of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in the 4th century BC, told how the draining of marshes had made a particular locality more susceptible to freezing, and speculated that lands became warmer when the clearing of forests exposed them to sunlight. In the 1st century BC, Roman writer and architect Vitruvius wrote about climate in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities. Renaissance European and later scholars saw that deforestation, irrigation, and grazing had altered the lands around the Mediterranean since ancient times; they thought it plausible that these human interventions had affected the local weather. In his book published in 1088, Northern Song dynasty Chinese scholar and statesman Shen Kuo promoted the theory of gradual climate change over centuries of time once ancient petrified bamboos were found to be preserved underground in the dry climate zone and arid northern region of "Yanzhou", now modern day Yan'an, Shaanxi province, far from the warmer, wetter climate areas of China where bamboos typically grow.


title: History of climate change science

text: The 18th and 19th-century conversion of Eastern North America from forest to croplands brought obvious change within a human lifetime. From the early 19th century, many believed the transformation was altering the region's climate—probably for the better. When farmers in America, dubbed "sodbusters", took over the Great Plains, they held that "rain follows the plow". Other experts disagreed, and some argued that deforestation caused rapid rainwater run-off and flooding, and could even result in reduced rainfall. European academics, suggesting that the temperate zones inhabited by the "Caucasian race" were naturally superior for the spread of civilization, proffered that the Orientals of the Ancient Near East had heedlessly converted their once lush lands into impoverished deserts.


title: History of climate change science

text: Meanwhile, national weather agencies had begun to compile masses of reliable observations of temperature, rainfall, and the like. When these figures were analyzed, they showed many rises and dips, but no steady long-term change. By the end of the 19th century, scientific opinion had turned decisively against any belief in a human influence on climate. And whatever the regional effects, few imagined that humans could affect the climate of the planet as a whole.


title: History of climate change science

text: From the mid-17th century, naturalists attempted to reconcile mechanical philosophy with theology, initially within a biblical timescale. By the late 18th century, there was increasing acceptance of prehistoric epochs. Geologists found evidence of a succession of geological ages with climate changes. There were various competing theories about these changes; Buffon proposed that the Earth had begun as an incandescent globe and was very gradually cooling. James Hutton, whose ideas of cyclic change over huge periods were later dubbed uniformitarianism, was among those who found signs of past glacial activity in places too warm for glaciers in modern times.


title: History of climate change science

text: In 1815 Jean-Pierre Perraudin described for the first time how glaciers might be responsible for the giant boulders seen in alpine valleys. As he hiked in the Val de Bagnes, he noticed giant granite rocks that were scattered around the narrow valley. He knew that it would take an exceptional force to move such large rocks. He also noticed how glaciers left stripes on the land and concluded that it was the ice that had carried the boulders down into the valleys.


title: History of climate change science

text: His idea was initially met with disbelief. Jean de Charpentier wrote, "I found his hypothesis so extraordinary and even so extravagant that I considered it as not worth examining or even considering." Despite Charpentier's initial rejection, Perraudin eventually convinced Ignaz Venetz that it might be worth studying. Venetz convinced Charpentier, who in turn convinced the influential scientist Louis Agassiz that the glacial theory had merit.


title: History of climate change science

text: Agassiz developed a theory of what he termed "Ice Age"—when glaciers covered Europe and much of North America. In 1837 Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past ice age. William Buckland had been a leading proponent in Britain of flood geology, later dubbed catastrophism, which accounted for erratic boulders and other "diluvium" as relics of the Biblical flood. This was strongly opposed by Charles Lyell's version of Hutton's uniformitarianism and was gradually abandoned by Buckland and other catastrophist geologists. A field trip to the Alps with Agassiz in October 1838 convinced Buckland that features in Britain had been caused by glaciation, and both he and Lyell strongly supported the ice age theory which became widely accepted by the 1870s.


title: History of climate change science

text: Before the concept of ice ages was proposed, Joseph Fourier in 1824 reasoned based on physics that Earth's atmosphere kept the planet warmer than would be the case in a vacuum. Fourier recognized that the atmosphere transmitted visible light waves efficiently to the earth's surface. The earth then absorbed visible light and emitted infrared radiation in response, but the atmosphere did not transmit infrared efficiently, which therefore increased surface temperatures. He also suspected that human activities could influence the radiation balance and Earth's climate, although he focused primarily on land-use changes. In an 1827 paper, Fourier stated,The establishment and progress of human societies, the action of natural forces, can notably change, and in vast regions, the state of the surface, the distribution of water and the great movements of the air. Such effects are able to make to vary, in the course of many centuries, the average degree of heat; because the analytic expressions contain coefficients relating to the state of the surface and which greatly influence the temperature.Fourier's work built on previous discoveries: in 1681 Edme Mariotte noted that glass, though transparent to sunlight, obstructs radiant heat. Around 1774 Horace Bénédict de Saussure showed that non-luminous warm objects emit infrared heat, and used a glass-topped insulated box to trap and measure heat from sunlight.


title: History of climate change science

text: The physicist Claude Pouillet proposed in 1838 that water vapor and carbon dioxide might trap infrared and warm the atmosphere, but there was still no experimental evidence of these gases absorbing heat from thermal radiation.


title: History of climate change science

text: The warming effect of sunlight on different gases was examined in 1856 by Eunice Newton Foote, who described her experiments using glass tubes exposed to sunlight. The warming effect of the sun was greater for compressed air than for an evacuated tube and greater for moist air than dry air. "Thirdly, the highest effect of the sun's rays I have found to be in carbonic acid gas." (carbon dioxide) She continued: "An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature; and if, as some suppose, at one period of its history, the air had mixed with it a larger proportion than at present, an increased temperature from its action, as well as from an increased weight, must have necessarily resulted." Her work was presented by Prof. Joseph Henry at the American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in August 1856 and described as a brief note written by then journalist David Ames Wells; her paper was published later that year in the "American Journal of Science and Arts". Few noticed the paper and it was only rediscovered in the 21st century,


title: History of climate change science

text: John Tyndall took Fourier's work one step further in 1859 when he built an apparatus to investigate the absorption of infrared radiation in different gases. He found that water vapor, hydrocarbons like methane (CH), and carbon dioxide () strongly block the radiation. He understood that without these gases the planet would rapidly freeze.


title: History of climate change science

text: Some scientists suggested that ice ages and other great climate changes were due to changes in the amount of gases emitted in volcanism. But that was only one of many possible causes. Another obvious possibility was solar variation. Shifts in ocean currents also might explain many climate changes. For changes over millions of years, the raising and lowering of mountain ranges would change patterns of both winds and ocean currents. Or perhaps the climate of a continent had not changed at all, but it had grown warmer or cooler because of polar wander (the North Pole shifting to where the Equator had been or the like). There were dozens of theories.


title: History of climate change science

text: For example, in the mid-19th century, James Croll published calculations of how the gravitational pulls of the Sun, Moon, and planets subtly affect the Earth's motion and orientation. The inclination of the Earth's axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun oscillate gently in cycles lasting tens of thousands of years. During some periods the Northern Hemisphere would get slightly less sunlight during the winter than it would get during other centuries. Snow would accumulate, reflecting sunlight and leading to a self-sustaining ice age. Most scientists, however, found Croll's ideas—and every other theory of climate change—unconvincing.


title: History of climate change science

text: By the late 1890s, Samuel Pierpoint Langley along with Frank W. Very had attempted to determine the surface temperature of the Moon by measuring infrared radiation leaving the Moon and reaching the Earth. The angle of the Moon in the sky when a scientist took a measurement determined how much and water vapor the Moon's radiation had to pass through to reach the Earth's surface, resulting in weaker measurements when the Moon was low in the sky. This result was unsurprising given that scientists had known about infrared radiation absorption for decades.


title: History of climate change science

text: In 1896 Svante Arrhenius used Langley's observations of increased infrared absorption where Moon rays pass through the atmosphere at a low angle, encountering more carbon dioxide (), to estimate an atmospheric cooling effect from a future decrease of . He realized that the cooler atmosphere would hold less water vapor (another greenhouse gas) and calculated the additional cooling effect. He also realized the cooling would increase snow and ice cover at high latitudes, making the planet reflect more sunlight and thus further cool down, as James Croll had hypothesized. Overall Arrhenius calculated that cutting in half would suffice to produce an ice age. He further calculated that a doubling of atmospheric would give a total warming of 5–6 degrees Celsius.


title: History of climate change science

text: Further, Arrhenius' colleague Arvid Högbom, who was quoted in length in Arrhenius' 1896 study "On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Earth" had been attempting to quantify natural sources of emissions of for purposes of understanding the global carbon cycle. Högbom found that estimated carbon production from industrial sources in the 1890s (mainly coal burning) was comparable with the natural sources.


title: History of climate change science

text: Arrhenius saw that this human emission of carbon would eventually lead to a warming energy imbalance. However, because of the relatively low rate of production in 1896, Arrhenius thought the warming would take thousands of years, and he expected it would be beneficial to humanity.


title: History of climate change science

text: In 1899 Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin developed at length the idea that climate changes could result from changes in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Chamberlin wrote in his 1899 book, "An Attempt to Frame a Working Hypothesis of the Cause of Glacial Periods on an Atmospheric Basis":


title: History of climate change science

text: Arrhenius's calculations were disputed and subsumed into a larger debate over whether atmospheric changes had caused the ice ages. Experimental attempts to measure infrared absorption in the laboratory seemed to show little differences resulted from increasing levels, and also found significant overlap between absorption by and absorption by water vapor, all of which suggested that increasing carbon dioxide emissions would have little climatic effect. These early experiments were later found to be insufficiently accurate, given the instrumentation of the time. Many scientists also thought that the oceans would quickly absorb any excess carbon dioxide.


title: History of climate change science

text: Other theories of the causes of climate change fared no better. The principal advances were in observational paleoclimatology, as scientists in various fields of geology worked out methods to reveal ancient climates. In 1929, Wilmot H. Bradley found that annual varves of clay laid down in lake beds showed climate cycles. Andrew Ellicott Douglass saw strong indications of climate change in tree rings. Noting that the rings were thinner in dry years, he reported climate effects from solar variations, particularly in connection with the 17th-century dearth of sunspots (the Maunder Minimum) noticed previously by William Herschel and others. Other scientists, however, found good reason to doubt that tree rings could reveal anything beyond random regional variations. The value of tree rings for climate study was not solidly established until the 1960s.


title: History of climate change science

text: Through the 1930s the most persistent advocate of a solar-climate connection was astrophysicist Charles Greeley Abbot. By the early 1920s, he had concluded that the solar "constant" was misnamed: his observations showed large variations, which he connected with sunspots passing across the face of the Sun. He and a few others pursued the topic into the 1960s, convinced that sunspot variations were a main cause of climate change. Other scientists were skeptical. Nevertheless, attempts to connect the solar cycle with climate cycles were popular in the 1920s and 1930s. Respected scientists announced correlations that they insisted were reliable enough to make predictions. Sooner or later, every prediction failed, and the subject fell into disrepute.


title: History of climate change science

text: Meanwhile, Milutin Milankovitch, building on James Croll's theory, improved the tedious calculations of the varying distances and angles of the Sun's radiation as the Sun and Moon gradually perturbed the Earth's orbit. Some observations of varves (layers seen in the mud covering the bottom of lakes) matched the prediction of a Milankovitch cycle lasting about 21,000 years. However, most geologists dismissed the astronomical theory. For they could not fit Milankovitch's timing to the accepted sequence, which had only four ice ages, all of them much longer than 21,000 years.


title: History of climate change science

text: In 1938 Guy Stewart Callendar attempted to revive Arrhenius's greenhouse-effect theory. Callendar presented evidence that both temperature and the level in the atmosphere had been rising over the past half-century, and he argued that newer spectroscopic measurements showed that the gas was effective in absorbing infrared in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, most scientific opinion continued to dispute or ignore the theory.


title: History of climate change science

text: Better spectrography in the 1950s showed that and water vapor absorption lines did not overlap completely. Climatologists also realized that little water vapor was present in the upper atmosphere. Both developments showed that the greenhouse effect would not be overwhelmed by water vapor.