title: Albizia julibrissin

text: There is also a form, "A. julibrissin" f. "rosea" (pink silk tree) which has, in the past, been classed either as a variety or as a cultivar. This is a smaller tree, only growing to tall, with the flowers always pink. Native to the northeast of the species' range in Korea and Northern China, it is more cold-tolerant than the typical form, surviving temperatures down to at least . The selected cultivar "A. julibrissin" 'Ernest Wilson' (also known as 'E.H.Wilson' or 'Rosea') is a cold-tolerant tree with deep pink flower colour. In Japan, "A. julibrissin" f. "rosea" is often used for non-traditional bonsai. The name (, Kanji: ) and its variants is a "kigo" representing the summer in haiku, especially a sleepy summer evening.


title: Albizia julibrissin

text: "A. julibrissin" f. "rosea" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit; likewise the cultivar 'Summer Chocolate'.


title: Albizia julibrissin

text: The sweet-scented flowers are a good nectar source for honeybees and butterflies. In Central America, the thornbug ("Umbonia spinosa") prefer its branches for mating and overwintering.


title: Albizia julibrissin

text: There is conflicting information on the toxicity of pods and seeds to humans and animals; some parts of the plant may contain neurotoxin.


title: Albizia julibrissin

text: Pink silk tree can be used to treat the effects of stinging nettle ("Urtica dioica") by rubbing the leaves in hand and then applying to the rash area. Relief is almost instantaneous.


title: Albizia julibrissin

text: In the wild, the tree tends to grow in dry plains, sandy valleys, and uplands. It has become an invasive species in the United States, where it has spread from southern New York, New Jersey and Connecticut, west to Missouri and Illinois, and south to Florida and Texas. It is cultivated in California and Oregon. Its seeds are wind-dispersed and numerous, and they are fertile even over long periods of drought. Each pod, which resembles a flattened bean pod made of paper, holds about 8 seeds on average. The pod bursts in strong winds, and the seeds can carry over surprisingly long distances.


title: Albizia julibrissin

text: Breeding work is currently underway in the United States to produce ornamental plants which will not set seed and can be planted without risk. However, in the eastern United States it is generally a short-lived tree, being highly susceptible to mimosa vascular wilt, a fungal disease caused by a species of "Fusarium", though the disease does not seem to have seriously impacted its populations. Because of its invasive tendencies and disease susceptibility, it is rarely recommended as an ornamental plant in the United States, though it is still widely planted in parts of Europe.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Insurgency: Sandstorm is a multiplayer tactical first-person shooter video game developed by New World Interactive and published by Focus Home Interactive. The game is a sequel to the 2014 video game "Insurgency". Set in an unnamed fictional Middle Eastern region, the game depicts a conflict between two factions: "Security", loosely based on various world militaries (namely NATO forces; United States SOCOM; the armed forces of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Syria; Kurdish YPG and YPJ; and Western private military companies); and "Insurgents", loosely based on various paramilitary and terrorist groups (namely ISIL, the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, Security defectors, and implied Russian mercenaries).


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Insurgency: Sandstorm" was officially announced in February 2016 for Microsoft Windows. It was released on December 12, 2018, for Windows; the previously-announced Linux and macOS versions of the game were cancelled. The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions went through numerous delays and were released alongside PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S versions on September 29, 2021.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Insurgency: Sandstorm" received critical acclaim for its realistic gameplay, level design, sound design, atmosphere, graphics, and fluid animations, but was criticized for its technical issues and optimization, with some lamenting the cancellation of the planned story campaign.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Similar to "Insurgency" and "Day of Infamy", "Insurgency: Sandstorm" features a minimal HUD, lacking a health bar, ammunition count, or minimap. The "Insurgency" series has tactical, realistic gameplay, with moments of intensity. Weapons are accurate and can kill in very few shots, placing emphasis on using teamwork and cooperation to survive. Like its predecessors, most game modes in "Sandstorm" do not feature instant respawns; instead, dead players must spectate and wait for their team to complete an objective in order to respawn. Improvements from "Insurgency" include updated visuals, fire support, character customization, cosmetics, weapon skins, a player progression system, larger maps, and drivable technicals.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Players are separated into two teams: Security and Insurgents. Security primarily uses weaponry originating from NATO countries, such as the M4 carbine, G36K, L85A2, AUG, and MP7, while Insurgents use a mix of weaponry, ranging from Russian and Chinese weapons like the AK-74, TOZ-194, QBZ-97 (also in use by security forces), AS Val, and PKM to outdated World War II-era weapons like the Welrod and the M1 Garand.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Players can choose from eight classes with varying armaments: Rifleman, Breacher, Advisor, Demolitions, Marksman, Gunner, Observer, and Commander. Players are given limited "supply points" (SP) to spend on weapons, attachments, and equipment. Players must also manage their weight, which increases with the amount or type of weapons and equipment currently equipped; higher weight reduces the player's stamina and movement speed. Players can modify their weapons with attachments, such as weapon sights, laser sights, foregrips, bipods, muzzle attachments, and suppressors, with additional attachments available for specific weapons and classes, such as underbarrel explosive grenade launchers for Demolitions. Gas masks, night-vision goggles, rocket launchers, plastic explosives, and various types of grenades are available as equipment. Players may also change their armor and carrier, which affect their survivability and carried munitions respectively.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Returning from "Day of Infamy" is the fire support system, which may be requested by a Commander if a friendly Observer is within 10 meters of them. Security can call for close air support, such as an A-10 strafe, or for an AH-64 Apache or UH-60 Black Hawk to fly over and attack visible enemies, though both of these helicopters can be shot down by enemy rocket launchers or anti-materiel rifles. Insurgents can call for an improvised drone strike, rocket artillery, an IED drone that seeks enemies and explodes when in range of one, or a chemical gas strike that kills anyone in its radius without a gas mask on. Both teams also have access to both explosive and smoke artillery; Security fires fewer rounds with greater precision, while Insurgents fire more rounds with less precision.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Sandstorm" also includes "Limited Time Playlists", temporary casual modes that are often based on existing modes with significant gameplay-changing modifications, such as "Running in the 90s" (weapon sights are disabled and firearms point forward at all times, making gameplay similar to older shooters such as "Counter-Strike" and "Unreal Tournament"), "Team Deathmatch" (both teams fight to gain a certain amount of kills with wider loadouts and instant respawns), "Hot Potato" (live fragmentation grenades are dropped upon death), and "Task Force 666" (Frenzy on night maps only; players regain health by killing enemies). These modes are also available for custom servers.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Insurgency: Sandstorm" was first announced on February 23, 2016, on New World Interactive's website. The game was confirmed to be on Unreal Engine 4, instead of Source like "Insurgency" and "Day of Infamy". The fire support system from "Day of Infamy" was confirmed to return. Drivable vehicles were also confirmed, a first for the series.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Lead designer Michael Tsarouhas aimed to "find a balance" between military simulator games such as "ArmA" and "Squad", and action games such as "Call of Duty", to provide both action and realism in gameplay.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Early in development, "Sandstorm" had a planned single-player and cooperative story campaign, described as focusing on "a squad of characters as they face increasingly challenging chapters, from the invasion of Iraq in 2003 through the insurrection period and leading to the present day." A trailer for the campaign was shown at E3 2017. The campaign was later canceled in January 2018, with lead designer Michael Tsarouhas explaining in an announcement that it was canceled due to "high production requirements and our commitment to deliver to our fans in 2018", noting that the initial plan to set the game in an actual world conflict was restricting and "admittedly, sensitive", and that the conflict depicted in-game was fictional but drew inspiration from real conflicts. The announcement also stated that the campaign would be "considered again at a later date"; however, no news related to the campaign has been released since.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Insurgency: Sandstorm" was released for Windows on December 12, 2018, through Steam. Linux and macOS releases were planned, but they were both cancelled in December 2019. Though PlayStation 4 and Xbox One releases of "Sandstorm" were announced and intended to be released with the Windows version, their release was repeatedly delayed due to development issues, first to 2019, then early 2020, then August 2020. The PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 5, and Xbox Series X/S versions were eventually released on September 29, 2021.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Since its release, the game has had several updates adding new maps, game modes, cosmetic items, weapons, and equipment, including returning content from "Insurgency" and "Day of Infamy". Since the June 2020 release of update 1.7, ""Operation: Nightfall"", major content updates have been called "Operations", similar to other tactical shooters such as "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege". ""Operation: Nightfall"" included paid cosmetic items and weapon skins as optional downloadable content, a first for the "Insurgency" series. Update 1.9, ""Operation: Cold Blood"", was developed from home during the COVID-19 pandemic and was released in December 2020. The game is currently on update 1.13, ""Operation: Livewire"", released on November 17, 2022, which added new machine guns and cosmetic sets.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Insurgency: Sandstorm" received acclaim from critics for its realistic gameplay and atmospheric sound design. "VG247" rated "Sandstorm" as "one of the best multiplayer games of the year". "Sandstorm" received an 88/100 from "IGN", writing "[it] nails the balance between realism and fun", though it criticized unclear map boundaries. "PCGamer" rated the game 85/100, calling it "terrifying", and further expressing "I’ll never forget the screaming". It received "generally favorable" reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: "Sandstorm"'s optimization received some criticism, with "Worth Playing" writing "In the heat of an intense battle, your processor will also put out some heat." A more critical review came from "PCGamesN", who felt the game was "behind the times in both theme and looks" with "nameless locations with nameless conflicts", lamenting the removal of the planned story campaign, which would have featured "two Iraqi women crossing a war-torn land"—"It’s a shame to miss out on a potentially refreshing perspective."


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Update 1.9, ""Operation: Cold Blood"", included a major overhaul of the co-op mode weapon availability which, prior to the change, allowed each faction to use the opposing faction's weapons; update 1.9 removed this, standardizing the weapon loadouts with the Versus modes. The community response to this change was very negative, leading New World Interactive to undo the change and release an apology on Steam.


title: Insurgency: Sandstorm

text: Update 1.9.1, ""Lunar New Year Updat"e", included two Chinese rifles (QBZ-97 and QTS-11) and Chinese-themed DLC cosmetic sets for Security and Insurgents, the latter being a bright red changshan. The planned cosmetics were harshly criticized by the community, as they were deemed to be too unrealistic and clashed with the established artstyle and setting, with many negatively comparing their appearances to character skins in "Fortnite". Following the backlash, New World Interactive apologized and announced they would not release the cosmetics; update 1.9.1 released on February 2, 2021 without them.


title: Jim Pattison

text: James Allen Pattison (born October 1, 1928) is a Canadian business magnate, investor, and philanthropist. He is based in Vancouver, British Columbia, where he holds the position of chief executive officer, chairman and sole owner of the Jim Pattison Group, Canada's second largest privately-held company, with more than 45,000 employees worldwide, and annual sales of $10.1 billion. The Group is active in 25 divisions, according to Forbes, including packaging, food, and forestry products.


title: Jim Pattison

text: In 2015, he was considered to be Canada's fourth richest person. According to Forbes, Pattison's net worth in late 2018 was $5.7 billion, having increased substantially from the $2.1 billion reported in March 2009. At the time, he was described as Canada's third richest man by Bloomberg News.


title: Jim Pattison

text: Pattison was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame in December 2018, having previously been appointed to the Order of Canada (1987) and the Order of British Columbia (1990), and receiving the Governor General’s Commemorative Medal for the 125th Anniversary in Canada. Other recognition included being inducted into the Canadian Business Hall of Fame and the Canadian Professional Sales Association Hall of Fame, as well as Entrepreneur of the Year – Lifetime Achievement Award (2000), the International Horatio Alger Award (U.S.A., 2004), and the Young Presidents Organization Canadian Icon Award (2007).


title: Jim Pattison

text: Pattison's parents resided in the rural town of Luseland, Saskatchewan, when he was born at the hospital in nearby Saskatoon. The family moved to East Vancouver, British Columbia when Pattison was six years old, but he returned to Saskatchewan during summers.


title: Jim Pattison

text: His first summer job was playing trumpet at a children's church camp and later picking fruit (raspberries, cherries, and peaches) during the summer while in high school. Pattison had many jobs while in high school, including selling doughnuts in the school parking lot, selling seeds door-to-door, delivering newspapers, and working as a page boy at the Georgia Hotel. He graduated from John Oliver Secondary School in 1947.


title: Jim Pattison

text: After high school, he worked in a cannery, a packing house, as a labourer building bridges in the mountains, and then for the Canadian Pacific Railway as a dining car attendant before accepting a job washing cars at a gas station with a small attached used-car lot. By chance, while the regular salesman was away, Pattison sold one of the cars on the lot and found his profession. He parlayed that success into a job selling used cars during the summer at one of the largest used-car lots in Vancouver, using his earnings to pay for his studies at the University of British Columbia (although he did not complete his studies, being three classes short of a business degree).


title: Jim Pattison

text: During a break from University in summer 1948, Pattison was selling cars at Richmond Motors in BC, although his primary duty was washing cars. In summer 1949, he worked for Kingsway, a used car dealer in Vancouver. "I worked there all summer and then [my boss] gave me a car to drive to university. So I then started to sell used cars at UBC," Pattison told a reporter.


title: Jim Pattison

text: By 1961, using his sales skills, he was able to persuade a Royal Bank manager to lend him $40,000, significantly more than the branch's lending limit, to open a Pontiac dealership on Main Street near his elementary school. To complete the funding, he also sold his house, assigned the cash surrender value of his life insurance policy to General Motors and took a loan from GM for $190,000 for preferred shares in the company. A quarter-century later, he was selling more cars than anyone else in Western Canada.


title: Jim Pattison

text: His company owned 25 car dealerships as of March 2018, Peterbilt truck dealerships, Overwaitea Foods, Save-On-Foods, Quality Foods, Ripley's Believe It or Not!, Guinness World Records, and radio and TV stations in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Pattison entered the media business when he bought Vancouver AM radio station CJOR with five partners. The Broadcast Group was Canada’s largest western-based radio and TV company in 2018, with 43 radio stations and three TV stations. Pattison Agriculture is the second-largest John Deere dealer in Canada, with 19 locations in Saskatchewan and Manitoba.


title: Jim Pattison

text: Pattison led the organization of Expo 86 in Vancouver as the chief executive officer and president of the Expo 86 Corporation. When he was appointed to the Order of British Columbia, the award noted, "Although others may have had the initial vision for Expo ’86, it was Jimmy Pattison who was the expediter – the one more than anyone else who made it happen. He demanded much of his team but no more than he himself was prepared to give. This he did, almost full-time over a five-year period, without compensation..."


title: Jim Pattison

text: On February 15, 2008, Jim Pattison Group announced the purchase of the GWR organization, the company known for its Guinness World Records franchise. Its annual book, published in more than 100 countries in 37 languages, is the world's best-selling copyrighted book. Pattison, who owns approximately 30% of the shares of Canfor, was in a dispute over governance with money manager Stephen A. Jarislowsky, whose firm owned 18%. Pattison won and ousted CEO Jim Shepherd over Canfor's poor performance and declining share price, replacing him for the interim with Jim Shepard.


title: Jim Pattison

text: He was involved with the committee for the 2010 Vancouver Olympics. Among other honours, Pattison is an Officer of the Order of Canada and a member of the Order of British Columbia. He was also listed as No. 177 on the 2015 Forbes list of the world's richest people. He was also listed then as the richest Canadian.


title: Jim Pattison

text: In late 2018, Pattison was still working full-time, making a tour of Pattison Agriculture farm equipment dealerships across the west, for example, driving a pickup truck thousands of kilometers to do so. When asked by a Bloomberg reporter whether he ever took a vacation, Pattison replied, "Well, I get 365 days. If you like your work, it’s not work".


title: Jim Pattison

text: In September 2020, at age 91, Pattison was continuing to look for fresh investment deals. At that time, a news item stated that "Jim Pattison Group Inc. had $10.9 billion in revenue and employed 48,000 people".


title: Jim Pattison

text: Imagine Canada rated the Jim Pattison Foundation in 2008 as the eighth largest giver of charitable grants by a private foundation in Canada.


title: Jim Pattison

text: On April 16, 2009, Jim Pattison announced that Save-On Foods donated $100,000 to CBC Television in order to rent high-definition television trucks for away games during the Vancouver Canucks' 2009 1st round NHL playoff series against the St. Louis Blues. Prior to this donation, CBC stated that it would not broadcast high-definition away games in St. Louis due to the cost of renting high-definition equipment during the current tough economic times and major cuts to funding for the CBC by the federal government.


title: Jim Pattison

text: Pattison is a well-known philanthropist, and an article in "The Globe and Mail" noted, "He has always given away 10% of his income." In July 2013, he donated up to $5 million to Victoria Hospitals Foundation (Victoria, British Columbia), to support its "Building Care Together" campaign to purchase new equipment for the new patient care tower at the Royal Jubilee Hospital. In recognition, the hospital named the ground floor lobby of the patient care tower "The Jim Pattison Atrium and Concourse." In 2011, Pattison contributed $5 million to add his name and to match public donations for a $10 million 100-day fundraising campaign in Surrey, British Columbia for the new Jim Pattison Outpatient Care and Surgery Centre run by Fraser Health. Other donations in the past included $20 million Vancouver General Hospital in 1999 and $5 million to the Lions Gate Hospital in 2008.


title: Jim Pattison

text: On March 28, 2017, Pattison donated $75 million to the construction of the new St. Paul's Hospital in Vancouver, a Canadian record for a private donation to a health care provider. On May 30, 2017, Pattison and the Jim Pattison Foundation announced they were donating $50 million, the largest private donation in Saskatchewan history, to the new Children's Hospital of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan which is expected to open in 2019. It was also announced that day the new hospital would be named Jim Pattison Children's Hospital in his honour.


title: Jim Pattison

text: During a March 2018 interview, Pattison made the following comment about his philanthropy. "We’ve got the base of our company – it’s taken us 57 years to build – where we can do some serious things and give serious money away as time goes by. The bigger we get the more money we make, and the more we can give away. We’re just getting into it."


title: Jim Pattison

text: Pattison married Mary Hudson, whom he met at the Swift Current church camp when both were 13. Hudson was from Moose Jaw. Some 66 years later in 2018, Pattison commented, "The secret [to a successful marriage] is to marry somebody from Saskatchewan. Then you won’t have a problem!" The couple has three children.


title: Jim Pattison

text: At a Los Angeles auction on November 17, 2016, Pattison purchased (for $4.8 million) the Jean Louis dress worn by Marilyn Monroe when she sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" to President John F. Kennedy at a celebration of his 45th birthday. At age 90, Pattison still enjoyed playing the piano, organ and trumpet.


title: Jim Pattison

text: In 2011, Pattison was accused by a group of investors of secretly working to help Brookfield Management take over a 1.2 billion dollar granite mine owned by Birch Mountain for $50 million through “death spiral debt financing” and “insider trading”.


title: Assistant professor

text: Assistant Professor is an academic rank just below the rank of an associate professor used in universities or colleges, mainly in the United States and Canada.


title: Assistant professor

text: This position is generally taken after earning a doctoral degree and generally after several years of holding one or more Postdoctoral Researcher positions. It is below the position of Associate Professor at most universities and is equivalent to the rank of Lecturer at most Commonwealth universities. In the United States, Assistant Professor is often the first position held in a tenure track, although it can also be a non-tenure track position. A typical professorship sequence is Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, and Full Professor in order. After 7 years, if successful, Assistant Professors can get tenure and also get promotion to Associate Professor.


title: Assistant professor

text: There is high demand for vacant tenure-track Assistant Professor positions, often with hundreds of applicants. Less than 20% of doctoral graduates move onto a tenure-track Assistant Professor position after graduation.


title: Assistant professor

text: The table presents a broad overview of the traditional main systems, but there are universities which use a combination of those systems or other titles. Some universities in Commonwealth countries have also entirely adopted the North American system in place of the Commonwealth system.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine (sold under many brand names) is an anticholinergic drug of the ethanolamine antihistamine class; it is closely related to diphenhydramine. It is a muscle relaxant that is used to treat muscle pain and to help with motor control in Parkinson's disease, but has largely been superseded by newer drugs. This substance is considered a dirty drug due to its multiple mechanism of action in different pathways. It was discovered and developed in the 1940s.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine is a skeletal muscle relaxant. It is used to relieve pain caused by muscle injuries such as strains and sprains, in combination with rest and physical therapy. A 2004 review found fair evidence that orphenadrine is effective for acute back or neck pain, but found insufficient evidence to establish the relative efficacy of the drug in relation to other drugs in the study.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine and other muscle relaxants are sometimes used to treat pain arising from rheumatoid arthritis but there is no evidence they are effective for that purpose.


title: Orphenadrine

text: A 2003 Cochrane Review of the use of anticholinergic drugs to improve motor function in Parkinson's disease found that as a class, the drugs are useful for that purpose; it identified one single-site randomised, cross-over study of orphenadrine vs placebo. Although orphenadrine and other anticholinergics have largely been superseded by other drugs; they have a use in alleviating motor function symptoms, and appear to help about 20% of people with Parkinson's.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine has the side effects of the other common antihistamines in large part. Stimulation is somewhat more common than with other related antihistamines, and is especially common in the elderly. Common side effects include dry mouth, dizziness, drowsiness, constipation, urine retention, blurred vision, and headache. Its use in Parkinson's is especially limited by these factors.


title: Orphenadrine

text: People with glaucoma, digestive problems such as peptic ulcers or bowel obstruction, or sphincter relaxation disorders, or with enlarged prostate, bladder problems, or myasthenia gravis, should not take this drug.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Continuous and/or cumulative use of anticholinergic medications, including first-generation antihistamines, is associated with higher risk of cognitive decline and dementia in older people.


title: Orphenadrine

text: George Rieveschl was a professor of chemistry at the University of Cincinnati and led a research program working on antihistamines. In 1943, one of his students, Fred Huber, synthesized diphenhydramine. Rieveschl worked with Parke-Davis to test the compound, and the company licensed the patent from him. In 1947 Parke-Davis hired him as their Director of Research. While he was there, he led the development of orphenadrine, an analog of diphenhydramine.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Prior to the development of amantadine in the late 1960s and then other drugs, anticholinergics like orphenadrine were the mainstay of Parkinson's treatment.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine has been available as a citrate salt and a hydrochloride salt; in the US as of February 2016 the citrate form was available in tablets, extended release tablets, compounding powder and by injection for acute use in a hospital setting.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine is often available mixed with aspirin, paracetamol/acetaminophen, ibuprofen, caffeine, and/or codeine.


title: Orphenadrine

text: The brand names Norflex and Norgesic are formulations of the citrate salt of orphenadrine and Disipal is the hydrochloride salt.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine is a derivative of diphenhydramine with a methyl group added to one of the phenyl rings.


title: Orphenadrine

text: Orphenadrine has a chiral center and two enantiomers. When employed as a therapeutic agent, it is typically supplied as the racemate.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: Garage Sale Mystery is an American/Canadian mystery film series starring Lori Loughlin as Jennifer Shannon. It is based on the "Garage Sale Mystery" book series written by Suzi Weinert. The Hallmark series aired on Hallmark Movies & Mysteries in the US, Bravo in Canada and Channel 5 in the UK occasionally as part of the weekday films. Fifteen films aired from the 2013 pilot film, until the series was cancelled in 2019 after Loughlin was fired from Hallmark.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: The author of the book series, Suzi Weinert, created the story and characters based on her experiences living in the DC suburbs, where she attended sales given by politicians, CEO’s, diplomats, military elite, and other influential homeowners in this upscale, transient area. She discovered that valuable merchandise often came with unexpected stories, leading to her Garage Sale mystery series. Her books span ripped-from-the-headlines topics like terrorism and elder care. The wife of a retired Army general, Weinert lives in northern Virginia near most of her five children and their growing families. Weinert is a member of Mystery Writers of America and Sisters in Crime.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: The Hallmark series based on Weinert's work was executive produced by Loughlin, Michael Shepard, and Peter DeLuise, who are also executive producers on the Hallmark television series "When Calls the Heart". The series followed the story of an antique dealer, Jennifer Shannon, who had a knack for finding murders. Her eye for details leads her to help solve these murders, even if it means, putting her life in danger. Weinert made a cameo in the first Hallmark Garage Sale Mystery.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: The series started as an adaptation of the novel "Garage Sale Stalker" by Suzi Weinert, although the screenplay for the first, and subsequent films, differs substantially from the novel and its sequels. The series were influenced by Agatha Christie, with several references to the famous mystery author.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: The first film in the series premiered in the USA on the Hallmark Channel, with subsequent films premiering on the Hallmark Movies & Mysteries Channel.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: In Canada, the films air on Bravo. In the UK, they have been broadcast on Channel 5 and in South Africa on eMovies HD.


title: Garage Sale Mystery

text: The series was cancelled after Hallmark Movies & Mysteries parent company Crown Media Holdings said that Loughlin would have no further involvement in any Crown Media projects. On March 14, 2019, Loughlin was terminated from Hallmark due to her involvement and indictment in the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal. At the time of Loughlin's arrest, the 16th film in the series, "Search & Seized", was completed and the 17th, "Three Little Murders", was in production, with one week of filming left.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Big Brother 21 is the twenty-first season of the American version of the television reality program "Big Brother". The season premiered on June 25, 2019 and concluded on September 25, 2019. The 40-episode season was broadcast on CBS in the United States and Global in Canada. The show chronicles a group of contestants, known as HouseGuests, as they compete to be the last competitor remaining to win a grand prize of .


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Over the course of the season, the HouseGuests participated in a series of competitions to win power and safety to avoid being eliminated, referred to as "evicted". In the finale episode, previous nine evicted HouseGuests, known as the Jury, voted on who they thought should win the game out of the last two HouseGuests remaining. The HouseGuest who received the most votes would be declared the winner. Prior to the live finale, a public vote is held to determine who would win the title America's Favorite HouseGuest and a prize of . Jackson Michie was declared the winner of the season in a 6–3 jury vote over Holly Allen while Nicole Anthony won the public vote for America's Favorite HouseGuest.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Despite receiving negative reviews from fans and critics, on September 5, 2019, CBS confirmed that the series was renewed for a twenty-second season.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: "Big Brother" follows a group of contestants, known as HouseGuests, who live inside a custom-built house outfitted with cameras and microphones recording their every move 24 hours a day. The HouseGuests are sequestered with no contact with the outside world. During their stay, the HouseGuests share their thoughts on their day-to-day lives inside the house in a private room known as the Diary Room. Each week, the HouseGuests compete in competitions in order to win power and safety inside the house. At the start of each week, the HouseGuests compete in a Head of Household (abbreviated as "HOH") competition. The winner of the HoH competition is immune from eviction and selects two HouseGuests to be nominated for eviction. Six HouseGuests are then selected to compete in the Power of Veto (abbreviated as "PoV") competition: the reigning HoH, the nominees, and three other HouseGuests chosen by random draw. The winner of the PoV competition has the right to either revoke the nomination of one of the nominated HouseGuests or leave them as is. If the veto winner uses this power, the HoH must immediately nominate another HouseGuest for eviction. The PoV winner is also immune from being named as the replacement nominee. On eviction night, all HouseGuests vote to evict one of the nominees, though the Head of Household and the nominees are not allowed to vote. This vote is conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room. In the event of a tie, the Head of Household casts the tie-breaking vote. The nominee with the most votes is evicted from the house. The last nine evicted HouseGuests comprise the Jury and are sequestered in a separate location following their eviction and ultimately decide the winner of the season. The Jury is only allowed to see the competitions and ceremonies that include all of the remaining HouseGuests; they are not shown any interviews or other footage that might include strategy or details regarding nominations. The viewing public is able to award an additional prize of by choosing "America's Favorite HouseGuest". All evicted HouseGuests are eligible to win this award except for those who either voluntarily leave or are forcibly removed for rule violations.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: On June 10, 2019, CBS reported that the cast would be revealed on June 17, 2019 on "Big Brother" live feeds to viewers with a CBS All Access subscription. Jeff Schroeder returned to host pre-season interviews with the cast after being replaced by "Celebrity Big Brother" alumnus Ross Mathews for the previous season.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Jessica Milagros appeared on "The Bold and the Beautiful" on October 23, 2019. David Alexander and Nicole Anthony returned as contestants for "Big Brother: All-Stars". Kathryn Dunn appeared on the fifth season of "Ex on the Beach". David Alexander competed on "". Analyse Talavera and Tommy Bracco competed on "" as a team.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: On the first premiere night, Julie announced that the HouseGuests would vote for a Camp Director. That person would be safe from the first eviction as well, but they had to select four HouseGuests to "banish". Those four HouseGuests would then compete to stay in house. The three winners would go back into the house while the loser stayed banished and did not return. Michie was elected Camp Director and banished Cliff, David, Jessica, and Kemi. David lost the competition and was evicted.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: On the second premiere night, Julie announced the "Whack"tivity Competition where a game-changing twist would be unleashed onto the house. Every week for the first three weeks, five designated HouseGuests, unless previously evicted (denoted with strikethrough text), would play in the competition to win a special power in the house.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: During the first live eviction show, Julie announced to the audience that the first person voted out of the game would not go anywhere. After revealing Ovi's eviction, the HouseGuests were told that the evicted HouseGuest would not leave the house as normal, but live inside the house as part of Camp Comeback. At this time, David returned to the house. One of the first four HouseGuests to be eliminated would win their way back into the game. The evicted HouseGuests would not compete in competitions or ceremonies and would sleep in a special bedroom. The four HouseGuests, David, Ovi, Kemi, and Cliff, competed immediately after Cliff's eviction on Day 30. Cliff won and made his way back into the game, while David, Ovi, and Kemi were forced to immediately leave the house for good.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: This twist also postponed Have-Nots as the Have-Not room was being used by the HouseGuests in Camp Comeback.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: A twist called America's Field Trip was teased at the end of the July 25, 2019 eviction episode. On the August 1, 2019 eviction episode, it was revealed that America would vote for three HouseGuests who would compete against one another, with the winner being given immunity for the week, the runner-up being given a punishment and the loser being a third nominee. Should this third nominee be vetoed, no replacement nominee would be named, with only the HoH's two nominees facing the eviction vote. Voting for America's Field Trip opened shortly after the twist was revealed on the August 1, 2019. Voting closed on August 9, 2019, with the competition taking place shortly after. That same day, Analyse, Christie and Michie were voted in to competed in the competition. Michie won, meaning he was immune from eviction for that week. Analyse was the runner-up and received a punishment. Christie lost and was nominated as the third nominee.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: During the eviction episode on August 23, it was revealed that Prank Week would take place during Week 9 in the House.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: The main feature of the week was America's Prankster twist. The HouseGuest voted as "America's Prankster" anonymously nominated one HouseGuest for eviction at the Nomination Ceremony, leaving the Head of Household with only one nomination. If their nominee is taken off the block by the Power of Veto, they will also anonymously name the replacement during the Veto Meeting. Holly, as Head of Household, was not eligible to be voted for America's Prankster. Voting opened for America's Prankster on August 22, 2019 at 6:30pm PT (9:30pm ET) and closed on August 23, 2019 at 9:00am PT (12:00pm ET). Nick won and, on Day 66, nominated Christie.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Big Brother also played various pranks on the HouseGuests and the viewers during the week that did not affect the game. The pranks of Prank Week included:


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: CBS announced that "Big Brother" had been renewed for a twenty-first season on May 15, 2019. CBS later announced on May 20, 2019 that the twenty-first season was set to premiere on June 25, 2019. Unnamed insiders close to the production of the show previously cast doubt if Julie Chen Moonves would return to host following sexual misconduct allegations against her husband, former CBS CEO Les Moonves. Chen Moonves, however, returned for the second season of "Celebrity Big Brother" and it was later announced that she would return as host of the main series as well. Casting for the season was open until April 5, 2019. Allison Grodner and Rich Meehan returned as executive producers for the series which is produced by Fly on the Wall Entertainment, in association with Endemol Shine North America. The season featured an initial timeslot change from previous seasons; new episodes aired on a Sunday/Tuesday/Wednesday schedule through the first six episodes before returning to a traditional Sunday/Wednesday/Thursday schedule as in previous seasons. The 24/7 internet live feeds also returned with a CBS All Access subscription following the two-night season premiere on June 26. "" returned on Pop for its fourteenth season overall and fifth season on Pop following the two-night premiere on June 26 or June 27, depending on viewers local time zones. "Off the Block with Ross and Marissa" did not return for a second season as an aftershow interviewing HouseGuests after their eviction. Replacing Off the Block, "Big Brother" host Chen-Moonves hosted extended interviews with the evicted HouseGuests from outside the house.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Kassting, Inc. returned to provide casting services for a twentieth consecutive season since "Big Brother 2," with Robyn Kass serving as the casting director.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: As with previous seasons, the program is filmed at CBS Studios, soundstage 18 in Studio City, California in a custom-built two-story house. The House is equipped with 94 high-definition cameras and over 113 microphones to monitor and record the HouseGuests. The living room, three bedrooms, kitchen, dining room, bathroom and lounge room are located on the first floor. The Head of Household bedroom and bathroom and an additional lounge area known as the "Sky Bridge" are located on the second floor. The second floor is accessible by a ladder located in the entry way or a spiral staircase located in the kitchen next to the sliding glass doors that lead to the backyard. The backyard area features outdoor amenities for the HouseGuests. The house also features two diary rooms where the HouseGuests can privately share thoughts or send requests to producers of the series.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: The theme for this season is a summer camp called "Camp B.B." The house, competitions and twists were designed around the camp theme. "Entertainment Tonight" showed the first look at the house with Kevin Frazier during their episode on the night of June 20, 2019. "Entertainment Tonight" then released a sneak peek of the house through a brief tour on their website on June 21. Meanwhile, a full house tour with Chen Moonves and other photos were released through "Big Brother"s and CBS' social media outlets including Instagram, Twitter and Facebook. "Big Brother 21" house theme matched the season's overall theme and received a camp theme; Production Designer Scott Storey designed the house's features. The living room features a birch-wood coffee table and a large and a 23-foot triangular window illuminated by LED lights. The first bedroom features a "sleeping under the stars" theme and includes two double-beds and the exterior of a camper. The camper, is only a facade into the second bedroom which features three double-beds and is assumed to be that of a camp counselors bedroom. The third and final downstairs bedroom is a sports-themed bedroom primarily based on archery. In the kitchen, many of the appliances have been redone in an attempt to blend them in with the rest of the theme, with an electronic campfire added to the center of the formal dining table. The downstairs lounge area received a boat theme, while the bathroom received a boat house-like theme. The upstairs lounge area, for the first time in the series history, is also accessible by a ladder from the entryway and has been updated to resemble a tree house; the Head of Household bedroom and bathroom have been changed to resemble a Moroccan-style bedroom and is expected to resemble glamping. The backyard features a pool with kayaks and an attached hot tub, lawn chairs surround the backyard which also features a pool table and a washer and dryer, workout equipment, outdoor lounge areas, a hammock and a mini-fridge.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: The last remaining HouseGuest, Jackson Michie, received . The runner-up of the season, Holly Allen, received while the HouseGuest deemed America's Favorite HouseGuest, Nicole Anthony, received . As part of a promotion for new CBS series "Love Island," Sam Smith won a trip to Fiji in a Power of Veto competition. During another Power of Veto competition, Kathryn Dunn received a trip to Hawaii and Nick Maccarone was awarded . During a surprise luxury competition in Week 12, Michie won .


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: This season was the least-watched and lowest-rated season of the series with about a 20% decrease in viewers and 25% decrease in demographics from the previous season. The season ended with an average viewership per episode of 4.38 million, over one million fewer than the previous lowest. Despite the decrease in ratings, CBS announced on September 5, 2019 that "Big Brother" was renewed for its twenty-second and will premiere in the summer of 2020.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: "Big Brother 21" was criticized negatively by critics and fans due to the HouseGuests' discriminatory tendencies. Professor of African American studies and the UCLA Dean of Social Sciences, Darnell Hunt, stated, "Race is the central axis of social relationships. Even when, in public, we try to deny its significance, it creeps through in unexpected ways. When people are in a house like that 24 hours a day under those conditions, it's difficult to hide an inconvenient truth about American culture and society. The camera is the great equalizer." However, the way CBS handled the situations was somewhat praised by viewers as they dedicated a time during the live finale to address them and let the HouseGuests explain themselves. Justin Carriero of "The Young Folks" wrote, "These HouseGuests got away with a lot and they avoided the blowback by being in jury, so they had no idea what storm was heading their way. They needed to know what they did and how the public viewed them." He ended up rating the finale an eight on a scale from one to ten. Overall, the season was criticized for its non-diverse casting, leniency with specific rules like Have-Not rules, and deceptive editing of the episodes compared to the events shown on the 24/7 Live Feeds.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: Following the two-night season premiere, HouseGuest Jackson Michie received the "Camp Director" power and was required to choose four HouseGuests to banish. Michie chose David Alexander and Kemi Fakunle, the season's only two black HouseGuests, Jessica Milagros, a Latina plus-size model and Cliff Hogg, the oldest person in the house. But, other viewers suggested that Michie only picked Fakunle due to lack of communication and that Alexander, Milagros and Hogg were only picked because they competed against him for the position of Camp Director. Once the Live Feeds began, Jack Matthews started making obscene and prejudiced remarks about fellow HouseGuests Kemi Fakunle, Ovi Kabir, and Jessica Milagros, behind their backs. Matthews was warned by production about comments made and to prevent further such comments. Many of his comments were addressed in episode 20 during his post-eviction interview with Julie Chen Moonves where he denied racism being behind any of the comments, though he did apologize for his actions that were deemed offensive.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: During Week 3, an incident involving the dominant "Gr8ful" alliance, which was partially shown during episode 10, was sharply criticized by the viewing audience. The incident started when Nicole Anthony confided in Isabella Wang, telling her that the majority alliance, spearheaded by Jack Matthews and Jackson Michie, would come after Wang and Nick Maccarone, but Wang, who was included in this majority alliance with Maccarone, immediately told the group about it. The alliance swiftly denied Anthony's idea that they would target the couple despite earlier conversations where they discussed targeting them. The group proceeded to speak very negatively of Anthony. This incident was brought back up during the live finale to give the HouseGuests a chance to talk about the matter.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: During Week 4, Cliff Hogg, the then Head of Household, named Jackson Michie as one of the Have-Nots for the week. Despite being named as a Have-Not, Michie was seen on the Live Feeds breaking the Have-Not rules by eating prohibited food behind the shower wall out of camera view. Michie received no punishment normally given to HouseGuests who break the Have-Not rules. After this incident, the Have-Nots aspect of the game was not included for the remainder of the season.


title: Big Brother 21 (American season)

text: At the 2019 Television Critics Association, CBS executives were questioned about diversity and racism issues on "Big Brother". In an open interview with CBS executives, "Big Brother" was accused of giving "contestants of color unfair cuts or early eliminations" as well as editing out comments by HouseGuests that have been interpreted as racist. CBS executives defended editors of the show stating that it's difficult to edit days worth of content into 40 minutes. CBS executives also stated that they would "closely reexamine "Big Brother 21" and see if we can do better next year."


title: Sky Brown

text: Sky Brown was born in Miyazaki, Japan. She is the older sister of Ocean Brown. Her mother, Mieko, is Japanese and her father, Stuart, is British. In Japanese, her given name is written in kana as (Sukai) or in kanji as (Sukai); as is standard for non-traditional Japanese names, her family name is written only in kana script.


title: Sky Brown

text: Her British father lived in the United States for several years before moving to Japan. Brown lives in Miyazaki, but spends around half the year in the US. Her family are skateboarders, and her preschool had a skate park. She has a skating ramp in her back garden, as there are no skate parks in her home area of Takanabe, Miyazaki. Aside from skateboarding, Brown is interested in surfing.


title: Sky Brown

text: Brown does not have a skateboarding coach; instead she learns tricks from YouTube. She sometimes practises with Shaun White, who won Olympic snowboarding medals. Brown is sponsored by Nike, making her the youngest Nike-sponsored athlete in the world. She has featured in a Nike campaign alongside Serena Williams and Simone Biles. She is also supported by Almost Skateboards and Skateistan.


title: Sky Brown

text: In 2016, at the age of 8, Brown took part in the Vans US Open, making her the youngest person ever to compete at the event. She fell off her skateboard in a heat. In 2017, she came second in the Asian Continental Finals, and she finished in the top 10 of the 2018 Vans Park Series. In 2018, at the age of 10, Brown became a professional athlete, making her the youngest professional skateboarder in the world. The same year, she won the US TV show "". In February 2019, she won the Simple Session event in Tallinn, Estonia.


title: Sky Brown

text: In March 2019, Brown announced that she would be competing for Great Britain, having previously said that she would compete for Japan. Brown said that she favoured the "more relaxed approach" of the British Skateboarding Association. That year, Brown also came third at the World Skateboarding Championship, and became the first female to land a frontside 540 at the X Games. She finished fifth at the X Games skateboarding event. Brown came third at the 2020 Park World Skateboarding Championships in Brazil.


title: Sky Brown

text: Brown was one of five Britons attempting to qualify for the skateboarding events at the 2020 Summer Olympics, the first time the sport was included in the Games. On 28 May 2020, while training in California, she suffered a "horrific" fall from a halfpipe ramp which left her with several skull fractures and a broken left wrist and hand. She was flown to a hospital and was reported as being unresponsive on arrival. Her father said afterwards that she was "lucky to be alive", whilst Brown herself said it was her worst fall yet. Nevertheless, she remained determined to push boundaries and compete for gold at the Tokyo Olympics. In April 2021, Brown said that she was also considering trying to compete in surfing at the delayed 2020 Olympics.


title: Sky Brown

text: In June 2021, Brown was selected to represent Great Britain in skateboarding at the 2020 Summer Olympics. Brown was the youngest British Summer Olympian ever, at the age of 13, beating Margery Hinton who was 13 years and 43 days when she competed in the 200 metre breaststroke event at the 1928 Summer Olympics. Brown was not the youngest competitor at the Games: Syrian table tennis player Hend Zaza and Japanese skateboarder Kokona Hiraki are younger.


title: Sky Brown

text: Brown won the bronze medal in the women’s park skateboarding event at the 2020 Summer Olympics and became Great Britain’s youngest ever medal winner, at the age of 13 years and 28 days. She had fallen over in her first two runs at the event, and scored 56.47 in her final attempt. Brown was not the youngest medallist at the Games, as 12-year-old Kokona Hiraki of Japan won silver in the same event. Later in the year, it was announced that some of Brown's skateboards would be displayed at the renovated Young V&A in London.


title: Sky Brown

text: On 19 December 2021, Brown won the 2021 BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year award. In April 2022, she won the Comeback of the Year award for 2021 at the Laureus World Sports Awards.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The Genetic history of Europe deals with the formation, ethnogenesis, and other DNA-specific information about populations indigenous, or living in Europe.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The most significant recent dispersal of modern humans from Africa gave rise to an undifferentiated "non-African" lineage by some 70–50 ka (70-50,000 years ago). By about 50–40 ka a West Eurasian lineage had emerged, as had a separate East Eurasian lineage. Both East and West Eurasians acquired Neanderthal admixture in Europe and Asia.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: European early modern humans (EEMH) lineages between 40 and 26 ka (Aurignacian) were still part of a large Western Eurasian "meta-population", related to Central and Western Asian populations.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Divergence into genetically distinct sub-populations within Western Eurasia is a result of increased selection pressure and founder effects during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, Gravettian).


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: By the end of the LGM, after 20 ka, A Western European lineage, dubbed West European Hunter-Gatherer (WHG) emerges from the Solutrean refugium during the European Mesolithic. These mesolithic hunter-gatherer cultures are substantially replaced in the Neolithic Revolution by the arrival of Early European Farmers (EEF) lineages derived from mesolithic populations of West Asia (Anatolia and the Caucasus).


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: In the European Bronze Age, there were again substantial population replacements in parts of Europe by the intrusion of Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) lineages from the Pontic–Caspian steppes, being deeply related to Mesolithic European hunter-gatherers. These Bronze Age population replacements are associated with the Bell Beaker and Corded Ware cultures archaeologically and with the Indo-European expansion linguistically.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: As a result of the population movements during the Mesolithic to Bronze Age, modern European populations are distinguished by differences in WHG, EEF and ANE ancestry.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Admixture rates varied geographically; in the late Neolithic, WHG ancestry in farmers in Hungary was at around 10%, in Germany around 25% and in Iberia as high as 50%. The contribution of EEF is more significant in Mediterranean Europe, and declines towards northern and northeastern Europe, where WHG ancestry is stronger; the Sardinians are considered to be the closest European group to the population of the EEF. ANE ancestry is found throughout Europe, with maxima of about 20% found in Baltic people and Finns.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Ethnogenesis of the modern ethnic groups of Europe in the historical period is associated with numerous admixture events, primarily those associated with the Roman, Germanic, Norse, Slavic, Berber, Arab and Turkish expansions.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Research into the genetic history of Europe became possible in the second half of the 20th century, but did not yield results with high resolution before the 1990s. In the 1990s, preliminary results became possible, but they remained mostly limited to studies of mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal lineages. Autosomal DNA became more easily accessible in the 2000s, and since the mid-2010s, results of previously unattainable resolution, many of them based on full-genome analysis of ancient DNA, have been published at an accelerated pace.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Due to natural selection, the percentage of Neanderthal DNA in ancient Europeans gradually decreased over time. From 45,000 BP to 7,000 BP, the percentage dropped from around 3–6% to 2%. The removal of Neanderthal-derived alleles occurred more frequently around genes than other parts of the genome.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Neanderthals inhabited much of Europe and western Asia from as far back as 130,000 years ago. They existed in Europe as late as 30,000 years ago. They were eventually replaced by anatomically modern humans (AMH; sometimes known as Cro-Magnons), who began to appear in Europe circa 40,000 years ago. Given that the two hominid species likely coexisted in Europe, anthropologists have long wondered whether the two interacted. The question was resolved only in 2010, when it was established that Eurasian populations exhibit Neanderthal admixture, estimated at 1.5–2.1% on average. The question now became whether this admixture had taken place in Europe, or rather in the Levant, prior to AMH migration into Europe.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: There has also been speculation about the inheritance of specific genes from Neanderthals. For example, one MAPT locus 17q21.3 which is split into deep genetic lineages H1 and H2. Since the H2 lineage seems restricted to European populations, several authors had argued for inheritance from Neanderthals beginning in 2005.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: However the preliminary results from the sequencing of the full Neanderthal Genome at that time (2009), failed to uncover evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: By 2010, findings by Svante Pääbo (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology at Leipzig, Germany), Richard E. Green (University of California, Santa Cruz), and David Reich (Harvard Medical School), comparing the genetic material from the bones of three Neanderthals with that from five modern humans, did show a relationship between Neanderthals and modern people outside Africa.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: It is thought that modern humans began to inhabit Europe during the Upper Paleolithic about 40,000 years ago. Some evidence shows the spread of the Aurignacian culture.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: From a purely patrilineal, Y-chromosome perspective, it is possible that the old Haplogroup C1a2, F and/or E may be those with the oldest presence in Europe. They have been found in some very old human remains in Europe. However, other haplogroups are far more common among living European males because of later demographic changes.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Haplogroup I (M170), which is now relatively common and widespread within Europe, may represent a Palaeolithic marker – its age has been estimated at ~ 22,000 BP. While it is now concentrated in Europe, it probably arose in a male from the Middle East or Caucasus, or their near descendants, c. 20–25,000 years BP, when it diverged from its immediate ancestor, haplogroup IJ. At about this time, an Upper Palaeolithic culture also appeared, known as the Gravettian.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Earlier research into Y-DNA had instead focused on haplogroup R1 (M173): the most populous lineage among living European males; R1 was also believed to have emerged ~ 40,000 BP in Central Asia. However, it is now estimated that R1 emerged substantially more recently: a 2008 study dated the most recent common ancestor of haplogroup IJ to 38,500 and haplogroup R1 to 18,000 BP. This suggested that haplogroup IJ colonists formed the first wave and haplogroup R1 arrived much later.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Thus the genetic data suggests that, at least from the perspective of patrilineal ancestry, separate groups of modern humans took two routes into Europe: from the Middle East via the Balkans and another from Central Asia via the Eurasian Steppe, to the north of the Black Sea.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Martin Richards "et al." found that 15–40% of extant mtDNA lineages trace back to the Palaeolithic migrations (depending on whether one allows for multiple founder events). MtDNA haplogroup U5, dated to be ~ 40–50 kYa, arrived during the first early upper Palaeolithic colonisation. Individually, it accounts for 5–15% of total mtDNA lineages. Middle U.P. movements are marked by the haplogroups HV, I and U4. HV split into Pre-V (around 26,000 years old) and the larger branch H, both of which spread over Europe, possibly via Gravettian contacts.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Haplogroup H accounts for about half the gene lines in Europe, with many subgroups. The above mtDNA lineages or their precursors, are most likely to have arrived into Europe via the Middle East. This contrasts with Y DNA evidence, whereby some 50%-plus of male lineages are characterised by the R1 superfamily, which is of possible central Asian origin. Ornella Semino postulates that these differences "may be due in part to the apparent more recent molecular age of Y chromosomes relative to other loci, suggesting more rapid replacement of previous Y chromosomes. Gender-based differential migratory demographic behaviors will also influence the observed patterns of mtDNA and Y variation".


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The Last Glacial Maximum ("LGM") started c. 30 ka BCE, at the end of MIS 3, leading to a depopulation of Northern Europe. According to the classical model, people took refuge in climatic sanctuaries (or refugia) as follows:


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: This event decreased the overall genetic diversity in Europe, a "result of drift, consistent with an inferred population bottleneck during the Last Glacial Maximum". As the glaciers receded from about 16,000–13,000 years ago, Europe began to be slowly repopulated by people from refugia, leaving genetic signatures.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Some Y haplogroup I clades appear to have diverged from their parental haplogroups sometime during or shortly after the LGM. Haplogroup I2 is prevalent in the western Balkans, as well as the rest of southeastern and central-eastern Europe in more moderate frequencies. Its frequency drops rapidly in central Europe, suggesting that the survivors bearing I2 lineages expanded predominantly through south-eastern and central-eastern Europe.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Cinnioglu sees evidence for the existence of an Anatolian refuge, which also harboured Hg R1b1b2. Today, R1b dominates the y chromosome landscape of western Europe, including the British Isles, suggesting that there could have been large population composition changes based on migrations after the LGM.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Semino, Passarino and Pericic place the origins of haplogroup R1a within the Ukrainian ice-age refuge. Its current distribution in eastern Europe and parts of Scandinavia are in part reflective of a re-peopling of Europe from the southern Russian/Ukrainian steppes after the Late Glacial Maximum.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: From an mtDNA perspective, Richards "et al." found that the majority of mtDNA diversity in Europe is accounted for by post-glacial re-expansions during the late upper Palaeolithic/ Mesolithic. "The regional analyses lend some support to the suggestion that much of western and central Europe was repopulated largely from the southwest when the climate improved. The lineages involved include much of the most common haplogroup, H, as well as much of K, T, W, and X." The study could not determine whether there were new migrations of mtDNA lineages from the near east during this period; a significant input was deemed unlikely.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: From a study of 51 individuals, researchers were able to identify five separate genetic clusters of ancient Eurasians during the LGM: the Věstonice Cluster (34,000–26,000 years ago), associated with the Gravettian culture; the Mal'ta Cluster (24,000–17,000), associated with the Mal'ta-Buret' culture, the El Mirón Cluster (19,000–14,000 years ago), associated with the Magdalenian culture; the Villabruna Cluster (14,000–7,000 years ago) and the Satsurblia Cluster (13,000 to 10,000 years ago).


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: From around 37,000 years ago, all ancient Europeans began to share some ancestry with modern Europeans. This founding population is represented by GoyetQ116-1, a 35,000 year old specimen from Belgium. This lineage disappears from the record and is not found again until 19,000 BP in Spain at El Mirón, which shows strong affinities to GoyetQ116-1. During this interval, the distinct Věstonice Cluster is predominant in Europe, even at Goyet. The re-expansion of the El Mirón Cluster coincided with warming temperatures following the retreat of the glaciers during the Last Glacial Maximum. From 37,000 to 14,000 years ago, the population of Europe consisted of an isolated population descended from a founding population that didn't interbreed significantly with other populations.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Mesolithic (post-LGM) populations had diverged significantly due to their relative isolation over several millennia, to the harsh selection pressures during the LGM, and to the founder effects caused by the rapid expansion from LGM refugia in the beginning Mesolithic.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: By the end of the LGM, around 19 to 11 ka, the familiar varieties of Eurasian phenotypes had emerged. However, the lineage of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Western Europe (WHG) does not survive as a majority contribution in any modern population. They were most likely blue eyed, and retained the dark skin pigmentation of pre-LGM EEMH. The HERC2 and OCA2 variations for blue eyes are derived from the WHG lineage were also found in the Yamnaya people.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Around 14,000 years ago, the Villabruna Cluster shifted away from GoyetQ116-1 affinity and started to show more affinity with the Near East, a shift which coincided with the warming temperatures of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial. This genetic shift shows that Near East populations had probably already begun moving into Europe during the end of the Upper Paleolithic, about 6,000 years earlier than previously thought, before the introduction of farming. A few specimens from the Villabruna Cluster also show genetic affinities for East Asians that are derived from gene flow.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The HERC2 variation for blue eyes first appears around 13,000 to 14,000 years ago in Italy and the Caucasus.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The light skin pigmentation characteristic of modern Europeans is estimated to have spread across Europe in a "selective sweep" during the


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Mesolithic (19 to 11 ka). The associated TYRP1 SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 alleles emerge around 19 ka, still during the LGM, most likely in the Caucasus.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: A big cline in genetic variation that has long been recognised in Europe seems to show important dispersals from the direction of the Middle East. This has often been linked to the spread of farming technology during the Neolithic, which has been argued to be one of the most important periods in determining modern European genetic diversity.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The Neolithic started with the introduction of farming, beginning in SE Europe approximately 10,000–3000 BCE, and extending into NW Europe between 4500 and 1700 BCE. During this era, the Neolithic revolution led to drastic economic as well as socio-cultural changes in Europe and this is also thought to have had a big effect on Europe's genetic diversity, especially concerning genetic lineages entering Europe from the Middle East into the Balkans. There were several phases of this period:


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: An important issue regarding the genetic impact of neolithic technologies in Europe is the manner by which they were transferred into Europe. Farming was introduced by a significant migration of farmers from the Near East (Cavalli-Sforza's biological demic diffusion model) or a "cultural diffusion" or a combination of the two, and population geneticists have tried to clarify whether any genetic signatures of Near Eastern origin correspond to the expansion routes postulated by the archaeological evidence.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Martin Richards estimated that only 11% of European mtDNA is due to immigration in this period, suggesting that farming was spread primarily due to being adopted by indigenous Mesolithic populations, rather than due to immigration from Near East. Gene flow from SE to NW Europe seems to have continued in the Neolithic, the percentage significantly declining towards the British Isles. Classical genetics also suggested that the largest admixture to the European Paleolithic/Mesolithic stock was due to the Neolithic revolution of the 7th to 5th millennia BCE. Three main mtDNA gene groups have been identified as contributing Neolithic entrants into Europe: J, T1 and U3 (in that order of importance). With others, they amount up to around 20% of the gene pool.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: In 2000, Semino's study on Y DNA revealed the presence of haplotypes belonging to the large clade E1b1b1 (E-M35). These were predominantly found in the southern Balkans, southern Italy and parts of Iberia. Semino connected this pattern, along with J haplogroup subclades, to be the Y-DNA component of Cavalli-Sforza's Neolithic demic-diffusion of farmers from the Near East. Rosser et al. rather saw it as a (direct) 'North African component' in European genealogy, although they did not propose a timing and mechanism to account for it. also described E1b1b as representing a late-Pleistocene migration from Africa to Europe over the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, evidence for which does not show up in mitochondrial DNA.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Concerning timing the distribution and diversity of V13 however, Battaglia proposed an earlier movement whereby the E-M78* lineage ancestral to all modern E-V13 men moved rapidly out of a Southern Egyptian homeland and arrived in Europe with only Mesolithic technologies. They then suggest that the E-V13 sub-clade of E-M78 only expanded subsequently as native Balkan 'foragers-cum-farmers' adopted Neolithic technologies from the Near East. They propose that the first major dispersal of E-V13 from the Balkans may have been in the direction of the Adriatic Sea with the Neolithic Impressed Ware culture often referred to as "Impressa" or Cardial, rather propose that the main route of E-V13 spread was along the Vardar-Morava-Danube river 'highway' system.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: In contrast to Battaglia, Cruciani tentatively suggested (i) a different point where the V13 mutation happened on its way from Egypt to the Balkans via the Middle East, and (ii) a later dispersal time. The authors proposed that the V13 mutation first appeared in western Asia, where it is found in low but significant frequencies, whence it entered the Balkans sometime after 11 kYa. It later experienced a rapid dispersal which he dated to c. 5300 years ago in Europe, coinciding with the Balkan Bronze Age. Like Peričic et al. they consider that "the dispersion of the E-V13 and J-M12 haplogroups seems to have mainly followed the river waterways connecting the southern Balkans to north-central Europe".


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: More recently, Lacan announced that a 7000-year-old skeleton in a Neolithic context in a Spanish funeral cave, was an E-V13 man. (The other specimens tested from the same site were in haplogroup G2a, which has been found in Neolithic contexts throughout Europe.) Using 7 STR markers, this specimen was identified as being similar to modern individuals tested in Albania, Bosnia, Greece, Corsica, and Provence. The authors therefore proposed that, whether or not the modern distribution of E-V13 of today is a result of more recent events, E-V13 was already in Europe within the Neolithic, carried by early farmers from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Western Mediterranean, much earlier than the Bronze Age. This supports the proposals of Battaglia et al. rather than Cruciani et al. at least concerning earliest European dispersals, but E-V13 may have dispersed more than once. Even more recent than the Bronze Age, it has also been proposed that modern E-V13's modern distribution in Europe is at least partly caused by Roman era movements of people. (See below.)


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The migration of Neolithic farmers into Europe brought along several new adaptations. The variation for light skin colour was introduced to Europe by the neolithic farmers. After the arrival of the neolithic farmers, a SLC22A4 mutation was selected for, a mutation which probably arose to deal with ergothioneine deficiency but increases the risk of ulcerative colitis, coeliac disease, and irritable bowel syndrome.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The Bronze Age saw the development of long-distance trading networks, particularly along the Atlantic Coast and in the Danube valley. There was migration from Norway to Orkney and Shetland in this period (and to a lesser extent to mainland Scotland and Ireland). There was also migration from Germany to eastern England. Martin Richards estimated that there was about 4% mtDNA immigration to Europe in the Bronze Age.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Another theory about the origin of the Indo-European language centres around a hypothetical Proto-Indo-European people, who, according to the Kurgan hypothesis, can be traced to north of the Black and Caspian Seas at about 4500 BCE. They domesticated the horse and possibly invented the wooden disk wheel, and are considered to have spread their culture and genes across Europe. The Y haplogroup R1a is a proposed marker of these "Kurgan" genes, as is the Y Haplogroup R1b, although these haplogroups as a whole may be much older than the language family.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: In the far north, carriers of the Y-haplogroup N arrived to Europe from Siberia, eventually expanding as far as Finland, though the specific timing of their arrival is uncertain. The most common North European subclade N1c1 is estimated to be around 8,000 years old. There is evidence of human settlement in Finland dating back to 8500 BCE, linked with the Kunda culture and its putative ancestor, the Swiderian culture, but the latter is thought to have a European origin. The geographical spread of haplogroup N in Europe is well aligned with the Pit–Comb Ware culture, whose emergence is commonly dated c. 4200 BCE, and with the distribution of Uralic languages. Mitochondrial DNA studies of Sami people, haplogroup U5 are consistent with multiple migrations to Scandinavia from Volga-Ural region, starting 6,000 to 7,000 years before present.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The relationship between roles of European and Asian colonists in the prehistory of Finland is a point of some contention, and some scholars insist that Finns are "predominantly Eastern European and made up of people who trekked north from the Ukrainian refuge during the Ice Age". Farther east, the issue is less contentious. Haplogroup N carriers account for a significant part of all non-Slavic ethnic groups in northern Russia, including 37% of Karelians, 35% of Komi people (65% according to another study), 67% of Mari people, as many as 98% of Nenets people, 94% of Nganasans, and 86% to 94% of Yakuts.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The Yamnaya component contains partial ancestry from an Ancient North Eurasian component, a Paleolithic Siberian lineage but closely related to European hunter-gatherers, first identified in Mal'ta. According to Iosif Lazaridis, "the Ancient North Eurasian ancestry is proportionally the smallest component everywhere in Europe, never more than 20 percent, but we find it in nearly every European group we’ve studied." This genetic component does not come directly from the Mal'ta lineage itself, but a related lineage that separated from the Mal'ta lineage.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Up to a half of the Yamnaya component may have come from a Caucasus hunter-gatherer strand. On November 16, 2015, in a study published in the journal "Nature Communications", geneticists announced that they had found a new fourth ancestral "tribe" or "strand" which had contributed to the modern European gene pool. They analysed genomes from two hunter-gatherers from Georgia which were 13,300 and 9,700 years old, and found that these Caucasus hunter-gatherers were probably the source of the farmer-like DNA in the Yamna. According to co-author Dr Andrea Manica of the University of Cambridge: "The question of where the Yamnaya come from has been something of a mystery up to now...we can now answer that as we've found that their genetic make-up is a mix of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers and a population from this pocket of Caucasus hunter-gatherers who weathered much of the last Ice Age in apparent isolation."


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), a population related to the people of the Chalcolithic Iran contributed to roughly half of the ancestry of Yamnaya populations of the Pontic–Caspian steppe. These Iranian Chalcolithic people were a mixture of "the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers."


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The genetic variations for lactase persistence and greater height came with the Yamnaya people. The derived allele of the KITLG gene (SNP rs12821256) that is associated with – and likely causal for – blond hair in Europeans is found in populations with Eastern but not Western Hunter-Gatherers ancestry, suggesting that its origin is in the Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) population and may have been spread in Europe by individuals with steppe ancestry. Consistent with this, the earliest known individual with the derived allele is an ANE individual from the Late Upper Paleolithic Afontova Gora archaeological complex in central Siberia.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: During the period of the Roman Empire, historical sources show that there were many movements of people around Europe, both within and outside the Empire. Historic sources sometimes cite instances of genocide inflicted by the Romans upon rebellious provincial tribes. If this did in fact occur, it would have been limited given that modern populations show considerable genetic continuity in their respective regions. The process of 'Romanisation' appears to have been accomplished by the colonisation of provinces by a few Latin speaking administrators, military personnel, settled veterans, and private citizens (merchants, traders) who emanated from the Empire's various regions (and not merely from Roman Italy). They served as a nucleus for the acculturation of local notables.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Given their small numbers and varied origins, Romanization does not appear to have left distinct genetic signatures in Europe. Indeed, Romance-speaking populations in the Balkans, like Romanians, Aromanians, Moldovans, etc. have been found to genetically resemble neighbouring Greek and South Slavic-speaking peoples rather than modern Italians. Steven Bird has speculated that E1b1b1a was spread during the Roman era through Thracian and Dacian populations from the Balkans into the rest of Europe.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Concerning the late Roman period of (not only) Germanic ""Völkerwanderung"", some suggestions have been made, at least for Britain, with Y haplogroup I1a being associated with Anglo-Saxon immigration in eastern England, and R1a being associated with Norse immigration in northern Scotland.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: There are four main Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups that account for most of Europe's patrilineal descent.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Putting aside small enclaves, there are also several haplogroups apart from the above four that are less prominent or most common only in certain areas of Europe.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: There have been a number of studies about the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups (mtDNA) in Europe. In contrast to Y DNA haplogroups, mtDNA haplogroups did not show as much geographical patterning, but were more evenly ubiquitous. Apart from the outlying Saami, all Europeans are characterised by the predominance of haplogroups H, U and T. The lack of observable geographic structuring of mtDNA may be due to socio-cultural factors, namely the phenomena of polygyny and patrilocality.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Genetic studies suggest some maternal gene flow to eastern Europe from eastern Asia or southern Siberia 13,000 – 6,600 years BP. Analysis of Neolithic skeletons in the Great Hungarian Plain found a high frequency of eastern Asian mtDNA haplogroups, some of which survive in modern eastern European populations. Maternal gene flow to Europe from sub-Saharan Africa began as early as 11,000 years BP, although the majority of lineages, approximately 65%, are estimated to have arrived more recently, including during the Romanization period, the Arab conquests of southern Europe, and during the Atlantic slave trade.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Genetically, Europe is relatively homogeneous, but distinct sub-population patterns of various types of genetic markers have been found, particularly along a southeast–northwest cline. For example, Cavalli-Sforza's principal component analyses revealed five major clinal patterns throughout Europe, and similar patterns have continued to be found in more recent studies.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: He also created a phylogenetic tree to analyse the internal relationships among Europeans. He found four major 'outliers'- Basques, Sami, Sardinians and Icelanders; a result he attributed to their relative isolation (note: the Icelanders and the Sardinians speak Indo-European languages, while the other two groups do not). Greeks and Yugoslavs represented a second group of less extreme outliers. The remaining populations clustered into several groups : "Celtic", "Germanic", "south-western Europeans", "Scandinavians" and "eastern Europeans".


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: A study in May 2009 of 19 populations from Europe using 270,000 SNPs highlighted the genetic diversity of European populations corresponding to the northwest to southeast gradient and distinguished "four several distinct regions" within Europe:


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: In this study, barrier analysis revealed "genetic barriers" between Finland, Italy and other countries and that barriers could also be demonstrated within Finland (between Helsinki and Kuusamo) and Italy (between northern and southern part, Fst=0.0050). Fst (Fixation index) was found to correlate considerably with geographic distances ranging from ≤0.0010 for neighbouring populations to 0.0200–0.0230 for Southern Italy and Finland. For comparisons, pair-wise Fst of non-European samples were as follows: Europeans – Africans (Yoruba) 0.1530; Europeans – Chinese 0.1100; Africans (Yoruba) – Chinese 0.1900.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: A study by Chao Tian in August 2009 extended the analysis of European population genetic structure to include additional southern European groups and Arab populations (Palestinians, Druzes...) from the Near-East. This study determined autosomal Fst between 18 population groups and concluded that, in general, genetic distances corresponded to geographical relationships with smaller values between population groups with origins in neighbouring countries/regions (for example, Greeks/Tuscans: Fst=0.0010, Greeks/Palestinians: Fst=0.0057) compared with those from very different regions in Europe (for example Greeks/Swedish: Fst=0.0087, Greeks/Russians: Fst=0.0108).


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Seldin (2006) used over 5,000 autosomal SNPs. It showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between ‘northern’ and ‘southern’ European population groups". Most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards), and Ashkenazi Jews have >85% membership in the southern population; and most northern, western, central, and eastern Europeans (Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) have >90% in the northern population group. Many of the participants in this study were American citizens who self-identified with different European ethnicities based on self-reported familial pedigree.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: A similar study in 2007 using samples predominantly from Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east–west axis of differentiation across Europe. Its findings were consistent with earlier results based on mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA that support the theory that modern Iberians (Spanish and Portuguese) hold the most ancient European genetic ancestry, as well as separating Basques and Sami from other European populations.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: It suggested that the English and Irish cluster with other Northern and Eastern Europeans such as Germans and Poles, while some Basque and Italian individuals also clustered with Northern Europeans. Despite these stratifications, it noted that "there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world".


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: In 2008, two international research teams published analyses of large-scale genotyping of large samples of Europeans, using over 300,000 autosomal SNPs. With the exception of usual isolates such as Basques, Finns and Sardinians, the European population lacked sharp discontinuities (clustering) as previous studies have found (see Seldin "et al." 2006 and Bauchet "et al." 2007), although there was a discernible south to north gradient. Overall, they found only a low level of genetic differentiation between subpopulations, and differences which did exist were characterised by a strong continent-wide correlation between geographic and genetic distance. In addition, they found that diversity was greatest in southern Europe due a larger effective population size and/or population expansion from southern to northern Europe. The researchers take this observation to imply that genetically, Europeans are not distributed into discrete populations.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Two whole-genome studies of the two Eastern European populations in Ukraine (Ukrainians from Ukraine) and Russia (Russians from Russia) showed genomic diversity from this region has not been represented in the previous genomic surveys, as studies in Europe are mostly biased towards the populations in the western part of the continent. Within Russia, Komi people that live in the north eastern part of the country, and are part of the Uralic language family that also includes Finns, form a pole of genetic diversity that is distinct from other populations, and characterized by a higher European hunter-gatherer (WHG) and Ancient North Eurasian ancestry.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: According to geneticist David Reich, based on ancient human genomes that his laboratory sequenced in 2016, Europeans descend from a mixture of four West-Eurasian ancestral components, namely WHG (Western Hunter-gatherers), EHG (Eastern Hunter-gatherers), Neolithic farmers from the Levant/Anatolia as well as from Neolithic farmers from Iran (often summarized as "EEF"; Early European farmers), in varying degrees.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Siberian geneflow is found among several Uralic-speaking European ethnic groups. This Siberian component is itself a composition of Ancient North Eurasian and East Asian-related ancestry from Eastern Siberia, maximized among Evenks and Evens or Nganasans. The spread of this ancestry is linked by some geneticists to the dispersal of Uralic languages, others however maintain that the Uralic languages spreaded prior to the arrival of Siberian geneflow, which is a secondary source of diversity within Uralic-speaking populations. Genetic data points to a Western Siberian hunter-gatherer origin of the observed Siberian geneflow among Uralic-speaking groups, which are best represented by the modern Khanty. Historical Western Siberian hunter-gatherers were characterized by high Ancient North Eurasian ancestry and lower amounts of Eastern Siberian admixture. Genetic data on Volga Tatars or Chuvash, found among ""Western Turkic speakers, like Chuvash and Volga Tatar, the East Asian component was detected only in low amounts (~ 5%)"". East Asian ancestry is furthermore found at low frequency among other Europeans: Germans and French people (CEU) ~1%, Britons (GBR) 2.5%–3.8%, Russians and Finns ~13%, associated with the Turco-Mongol expansion, and higher among the Lipka Tatars, a Turkic minority in Belarus ~30%. East Asian ancestry is suggested to have largely arrived indirectly through previous admixed historical Steppe nomads from Central Asia, such as the Huns, Pannonian Avars, and the Golden Horde, which got absorbed by the European majority population. European-related ancestry to East Asians was similarly contributed indirectly through Central Asian groups, specifically into Northern Han Chinese (2.8%), Southern Han Chinese (1.7%), Japanese people (2.2%), and Koreans (1.6%). Northeast Asians had inherited significantly higher European-related ancestry: Mongolians (10.9%), Oroqens (9.6%) Daur people (8%), and Hezhen (6.8%), which also included earlier West-Eurasian ancestry through Ancient North Eurasians, representing the earliest layer within Siberia.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Modern Europeans are genetically rather homogeneous and derive their ancestry - predominantly to exclusively - from up to five West-Eurasian lineages, in varying degrees. Modern Europeans show affinity and continuity to ancient European hunter-gatherers (Western European Hunter-Gatherers, Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers, and Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers), yet modern Europeans are significantly closer to Middle Easterners than ancient ones, largely explained through the more recent Neolithic Expansion of farmers from Anatolia towards Europe. Europeans, compared to Middle Easterners, have less "basal" ancestry (ancestry inferred to have diverged before the diverging of Mesolithic European hunter-gatherers and Ancient North Eurasians, therefore representing deep substructure among West-Eurasians), which is inferred to have arrived with Early European farmers (EEF). Europeans contrary have higher Ancient North Eurasian affinity, which is inferred to have arrived with Bronze and Iron Age migrations from Western Siberia. Overall, Europeans cluster closely together with Middle Eastern and South-Central Asian populations, followed by Northern African and South Asian populations, while being most distant from Sub-Saharan African (specifically Central/West African) and Eastern Asian populations.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The genetic distance between populations is often measured by Fixation index (Fst), based on genetic polymorphism data, such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or microsatellites. Fst is a special case of F-statistics, the concept developed in the 1920s by Sewall Wright. Fst is simply the correlation of randomly chosen alleles within the same sub-population relative to that found in the entire population. It is often expressed as the proportion of genetic diversity due to allele frequency differences among populations.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The values range from 0 to 1. A zero value implies that the two populations are panmictic, that they are interbreeding freely. A value of one would imply that the two populations are completely separate. The greater the Fst value, the greater the genetic distance. Essentially, these low Fst values suggest that the majority of genetic variation is at the level of individuals within the same population group (~ 85%); whilst belonging to a different population group within same ‘race’/ continent, and even to different racial/ continental groups added a much smaller degree of variation (3–8%; 6–11%, respectively).


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: One of the first scholars to perform genetic studies was Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. He used classical genetic markers to analyse DNA by proxy. This method studies differences in the frequencies of particular allelic traits, namely polymorphisms from proteins found within human blood (such as the ABO blood groups, Rhesus blood antigens, HLA loci, immunoglobulins, G6PD isoenzymes, among others). Subsequently, his team calculated genetic distance between populations, based on the principle that two populations that share similar frequencies of a trait are more closely related than populations that have more divergent frequencies of the trait.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: From this, he constructed phylogenetic trees that showed genetic distances diagrammatically. His team also performed principal component analyses, which is good at analysing multivariate data with minimal loss of information. The information that is lost can be partly restored by generating a second principal component, and so on. In turn, the information from each individual principal component (PC) can be presented graphically in "synthetic maps". These maps show peaks and troughs, which represent populations whose gene frequencies take extreme values compared to others in the studied area.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Peaks and troughs usually connected by smooth gradients are called clines. Genetic clines can be generated by adaptation to environment (natural selection), continuous gene flow between two initially different populations or a demographic expansion into a scarcely populated environment, with little initial admixture with existing populations. Cavalli-Sforza connected these gradients with postulated pre-historic population movements, based on archaeological and linguistic theories. However, given that the time depths of such patterns are not known, "associating them with particular demographic events is usually speculative".


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: Studies using direct DNA analysis are now abundant and may use mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome (NRY), or even autosomal DNA. MtDNA and NRY DNA share some similar features, which have made them particularly useful in genetic anthropology. These properties include the direct, unaltered inheritance of mtDNA and NRY DNA from mother to offspring and father to son, respectively, without the 'scrambling' effects of genetic recombination. We also presume that these genetic loci are not affected by natural selection and that the major process responsible for changes in base pairs has been mutation (which can be calculated).


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The smaller effective population size of the NRY and mtDNA enhances the consequences of drift and founder effect, relative to the autosomes, making NRY and mtDNA variation a potentially sensitive index of population composition. These biologically plausible assumptions are not concrete; Rosser suggests that climatic conditions may affect the fertility of certain lineages.


title: Genetic history of Europe

text: The underlying mutation rate used by the geneticists is more questionable. They often use different mutation rates and studies frequently arrive at vastly different conclusions. NRY and mtDNA may be so susceptible to drift that some ancient patterns may have become obscured. Another assumption is that population genealogies are approximated by allele genealogies. Guido Barbujani points out that this only holds if population groups develop from a genetically monomorphic set of founders. Barbujani argues that there is no reason to believe that Europe was colonised by monomorphic populations. This would result in an overestimation of haplogroup age, thus falsely extending the demographic history of Europe into the Late Paleolithic rather than the Neolithic era. Greater certainty about chronology may be obtained from studies of ancient DNA (see below), but so far these have been comparatively few.