title: Environmental effects of mining

text: Mountaintop removal mining (MTR) occurs when trees are cut down, and coal seams are removed by machines and explosives. As a result the landscape is more susceptible to flash flooding and causing potential pollution from the chemicals. The critical zone disturbed by mountaintop removal causes degraded stream water quality towards the marine and terrestrial ecosystems and thus mountaintop removal mining affect hydrologic response and long-term watersheds.


title: Environmental effects of mining

text: Sand mining and gravel mining creates large pits and fissures in the earth's surface. At times, mining can extend so deeply that it affects ground water, springs, underground wells, and the water table. The major threats of sand mining activities include channel bed degradation, river formation and erosion. Sand mining has resulted in an increase of water turbidity in the majority offshore of Lake Hongze, the fourth largest freshwater lake located in China.


title: Environmental effects of mining

text: To ensure completion of reclamation, or restoring mine land for future use, many governments and regulatory authorities around the world require that mining companies post a bond to be held in escrow until productivity of reclaimed land has been convincingly demonstrated, although if cleanup procedures are more expensive than the size of the bond, the bond may simply be abandoned. Since 1978 the mining industry has reclaimed more than 2 million acres (8,000 km) of land in the United States alone. This reclaimed land has renewed vegetation and wildlife in previous mining lands and can even be used for farming and ranching.


title: Rotax 912

text: The Rotax 912 is a horizontally-opposed four-cylinder, naturally aspirated, four-stroke aircraft engine with a reduction gearbox. It features liquid-cooled cylinder heads and air-cooled cylinders. Originally equipped with carburetors, later versions are fuel injected. Dominating the market for small aircraft and kitplanes, Rotax produced its 50,000th 912-series engine in 2014. Originally available only for light sport aircraft, ultralight aircraft, autogyros and drones, the 912-series engine was approved for certified aircraft in 1995.


title: Rotax 912

text: The Rotax 912 was first sold in 1989 in non-certificated form for use in ultralights and motorgliders. The original 912 UL engine has a capacity of and a compression ratio of 9.1:1.


title: Rotax 912

text: The engine differs from previous generation aircraft engines (such as the Lycoming O-235) in that it has air-cooled cylinders with liquid-cooled heads and uses a 2.43:1 PSRU reduction gearbox to reduce the engine's relatively high 5,800 rpm shaft speed to a more conventional 2,400 rpm for the propeller. The gearbox has proven to be generally trouble-free. On the 912A, F and UL the standard reduction ratio is 2.27:1 with 2.43:1 optional. Lubrication is dry sump, and fuelling is via dual CV carburetors or fully redundant electronic fuel injection. The electronic fuel injected Rotax 912iS is a recent development.


title: Rotax 912

text: The 912's lubrication system differs from most dry-sump designs in that oil is forced into the storage tank by crankcase pressure rather than by a separate scavenge pump. This requires a novel preflight inspection procedure: before checking the oil level with the dipstick, the engine is "burped" by removing the oil filler cap and turning the propeller until a gurgling sound is heard, which indicates that all oil has been forced into the tank and the oil level can now be checked accurately.


title: Rotax 912

text: The 912 is more fuel efficient and lighter than comparable older engines, "e.g.", Continental O-200, but originally had a shorter time between overhaul (TBO). On introduction, the TBO was only 600 hours, which was double that of previous Rotax engines but far short of existing engines of comparable size and power. The short TBO and lack of certification for use in factory-built type certificated aircraft initially restricted its worldwide market potential. However, the engine received US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification in 1995, and by 1999, the TBO had increased to 1,200 hours; on 14 December 2009, the TBO was raised from 1,200 hours to 1,500 hours, or 1,500 hours to 2,000 hours, depending on serial number. In addition to the lower fuel consumption, the 912 is certified to run on automotive fuel (mogas), further reducing running costs, especially in areas where leaded avgas is not readily available. The 912 may be operated using leaded fuel, but this is not recommended as lead sludge tends to accumulate in the oil tank and reduction gearbox. Also, avgas is incompatible with the recommended synthetic oil which cannot hold lead in suspension; consequently, the use of leaded fuel mandates additional maintenance.


title: Rotax 912

text: A turbocharged variant rated at , the Rotax 914, was introduced in 1996. In 1999, the 912S / ULS were introduced; enlarged to with a compression ratio of 10.8:1, yielding . The 912S is certified, as are the A and F, which are used in the Diamond DA20, which is quite popular in Europe. The 912's popularity was greatly enhanced by the introduction of the light-sport aircraft category in Europe and the United States, which resulted in the introduction of many factory-built aircraft designed to fully exploit the engine's small size and light weight. The versions are used in many light sport aircraft, such as the Zenith STOL CH 701 and the Tecnam P2002 Sierra. The versions are sufficient to power the new generation of efficient motorgliders, such as the Pipistrel Sinus and the Urban Air Lambada. It is also fitted to some light twins, such as the Tecnam P2006T.


title: Rotax 912

text: On 8 March 2012 the company displayed its 912 iS variant, a version with fuel injection and an electronic engine management unit. The version weighs , which is more than the standard 912S. The non-certified 912 iS targets the light sport and homebuilt aircraft market and 912 iSc will be certified. Production started in March 2012 and the engine has a 2000-hour recommended time-between-overhaul to start.


title: Rotax 912

text: On 1 April 2014 the company announced its new 912 iS Sport upgrade with greater power and torque and reduced fuel consumption. A further derivative, the Rotax 915 iS, was announced in July 2015.


title: Rotax 912

text: Unusually for a manufacturer of small aero-engines, Rotax publishes extensive warnings in the owner's manual about both the certified and non-certified versions of the engine design. Pilots are cautioned that the 912 engine is not suitable for:


title: Rotax 912

text: The manual states that Rotax gives no assurances that the engine is suitable for use in any aircraft, and that the engine may seize or stall at any time, which could lead to a crash landing. The manual adds that non-compliance with such warnings could lead to serious injury or death.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The Dutch Reformed Church (, abbreviated NHK) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the original denomination of the Dutch Royal Family and the foremost Protestant denomination until 2004. It was the larger of the two major Reformed denominations, after the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands ("Gereformeerde kerk") was founded in 1892. It spread to the United States, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and various other world regions through Dutch colonization. Allegiance to the Dutch Reformed Church was a common feature among Dutch immigrant communities around the world and became a crucial part of Afrikaner nationalism in South Africa.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The Dutch Reformed Church was founded in 1571 during the Protestant Reformation in the Calvinist tradition, being shaped theologically by John Calvin, but also other major Reformed theologians. The church was influenced by various theological developments and controversies during its history, including Arminianism, the Nadere Reformatie, and a number of splits in the 19th century that greatly diversified Dutch Calvinism. The church functioned until 2004, the year it merged with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands to form the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church of both Reformed and Evangelical Lutheran theological orientations. At the time of the merger, the Church had 2 million members organised in 1,350 congregations. A minority of members of the church chose not to participate in the merger and instead formed the Restored Reformed Church (HHK).


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: Before the demise of the Dutch Republic in 1795, the Dutch Reformed Church enjoyed the status of "public" or "privileged" church. Though it was never formally adopted as the state religion, the law demanded that every public official should be a communicant member. Consequently, the Church had close relations with the Dutch government. A privilege of members of the Dutch Reformed Church was that they could have their businesses open on Sundays, otherwise considered a religious day and not one for business.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The Dutch Reformed Church was officially disestablished in 1795 with the end of the Republic. Although it remained endorsed by the Royal Family, the Netherlands never had any public church afterwards.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The Reformation was a time of religious violence and persecution by the established Catholic Church and governments, in some cases. Efforts to form a Reformed church in the southern provinces stemmed from a secret meeting of Protestant leaders at Antwerp in 1566, and despite Spanish repression, many nobles joined the Protestant movement. Two years later, in 1568, following an attack on the Netherlands by the forces of the Duke of Alba, many Netherlanders fled to the German city of Wesel, where a Synod was convened at which the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism were adopted, and provisions were made for the offices of pastor, elder, teacher and deacon. The first Synod of 23 Dutch Reformed leaders was held in October 1571 in the German city of Emden. The Synod of Emden is generally considered to be the founding of the Dutch Reformed Church, the oldest of the Reformed churches in the Netherlands. The Synod both affirmed the actions of the earlier Synod of Wesel, as well as established presbyterian church government for the Dutch Reformed Church.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The first Synod to be located in the Dutch Republic was held in Dordrecht in 1578. This synodical meeting is not to be confused with the better known Second Synod of Dort of 1618. Large groups of Marranos settled in Emden and converted to Christianity. Mostly all Marranos, many Jewish groups converted to Christianity around 1649 to the Nederduitsche, Niederdeutsche church later on Dutch Reformed Church. In the latter meeting, the Church fathers expelled Arminians and added the Canons of Dort to the Confessions. The Canons of Dort, together with the previously adopted Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, were called the "Drie formulieren van Enigheid" (Three Forms of Unity). Most conflicts and splits in the Church arose because of disagreement over the substance and interpretation of these doctrinal documents. The government of the Dutch Republic, which had instigated the Arminians' expulsion, subsequently prohibited the Reformed Church from assembling synodically. No Synod was held in the Netherlands until after the end of the Republic in 1795.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The 17th and early 18th centuries were the age of the Dutch Nadere Reformatie (best translated in English as the "Further Reformation"), led primarily by Gisbertus Voetius and Wilhelmus à Brakel, which was greatly influenced by English Puritanism.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: In the 19th century, theological liberalism led to splits in the Dutch Reformed Church. King William I of the Netherlands imposed a new form of government for the church, in which the civil authorities selected the commissioners to the National Synod in 1816, making it increasingly difficult for ministers to speak out against perceived errors. In 1834, the minister Hendrik de Cock of the town of Ulrum was told by church leaders that he could not preach against certain colleagues, who he believed held erroneous views. He and his congregation seceded from the Dutch Reformed Church. In time, the "Afscheiding" (the Separation) led to the departure of 120 congregations from the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1886, another separation, the "Doleantie", occurred, led by Dutch Reformed journalist, theologian and politician Abraham Kuyper.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The Dutch Reformed Church remained the largest church body in the Netherlands until the middle of the 20th century, when it was overtaken by the Roman Catholic Church. The rapid secularisation of the Netherlands in the 1960s dramatically reduced participation in the mainstream Protestant church. From the '60s onward, a number of attempts were made to effect a reunion with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands ("Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland"). This led to the two churches uniting with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands ("Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden") to establish the Protestant Church in the Netherlands in 2004.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The 2004 merger led to a separation in which a number of congregations and members of the Dutch Reformed Church separated to form the Restored Reformed Church ("Hersteld Hervormde Kerk"). Estimations of their membership vary from 35,000 up to 70,000 in about 120 local congregations served by 88 ministers. The Restored Reformed Church disapproves of the pluralistic nature of the merged church, which they allege contains partly contradicting Reformed and Lutheran confessions. This conservative group also opposes the ordination of women and the blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches, which have been adopted as practices by the merged church.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: Dutch migrants carried the Dutch Reformed Church with them, planting several Reformed denominations in Kenya (The Reformed Church of East Africa), South Africa, including the Three Sister Churches of South Africa (the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NGK) ("Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk"), the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NHK) ("Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk"), the Reformed Churches in South Africa ("Gereformeerde Kerke in Suid-Afrika")), the Afrikaans Protestant Church ("Afrikaanse Protestantse Kerk"), and the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa ("Verenigende Gereformeerde Kerk in Suid-Afrika").


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: Through the Dutch East India Company and its workers, the Dutch Reformed Church was established in Ceylon in 1642. The Dutch Reformed Church of Ceylon officially changed its name in 2007 to the Christian Reformed Church of Sri Lanka to reflect its Christian identity in the nation, rather than on its Dutch colonial heritage. As of 2007, its membership stands around 5,000, comprising both communicant and baptised members in 29 congregations, preaching stations, and mission outposts. Christianity in Indonesia is strongly influenced under the Dutch reformed church, the first known church established in the country is "De Oude kerk" in Batavia in 1640. Christianity in Indonesia, like Sri Lanka, has been nationalised into different branches of Protestantism while retaining many of the reformed church elements, such as Protestant Church in Indonesia.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: The Dutch Reformed Church went with migrants to the Americas, beginning in 1628 in New Amsterdam. St. Thomas Reformed Church, founded in 1660 in St. Thomas, Danish West Indies, became the first Dutch Reformed Church in the Caribbean. During the period of Dutch settlement in Brazil in the 17th century colonists organised the Reformed Church


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: In Canada and the United States, the oldest and second largest body is the Reformed Church in America, which was the American branch of the Dutch Reformed Church in the Netherlands between 1628 and 1819. The largest Dutch Reformed body in North America, the Christian Reformed Church in North America, split off from Reformed Church in America in 1857. Smaller related denominations and federations include the Canadian and American Reformed Churches, the Free Reformed Churches of North America (FRC), the Heritage Reformed Congregations (HRC), the Netherlands Reformed Congregations (NRC), the Protestant Reformed Churches in America (PRC), and the United Reformed Churches in North America (URC). The Dutch were mainly Protestant and Catholic before arrival to America, but became dominantly Protestant after settling in America. They spread their religion by forming bonds with the natives in The Ohio River Valley.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: In 1766, ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church founded Queen's College, which would later become Rutgers College, in the Province of New Jersey. Today, Rutgers University is a major public research institution in the State of New Jersey. As one of nine colonial colleges clustered in the eastern United States, Rutgers serves as a reminder of early Dutch cultural influence in the North American colonies.


title: Dutch Reformed Church

text: Former US Presidents Martin Van Buren and Theodore Roosevelt, both of Dutch descent, were affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church.


title: Pineberry

text: Pineberry is a hybrid cross from "Fragaria chiloensis" and "Fragaria virginiana". A pineberry is smaller than a common strawberry, measuring between . When ripe, it is almost completely white, but with red achenes (the seeds). The plant is disease-resistant, and highly priced, although not profitable due to small-scale farming, small berry size and low yield. Pineberries are harvested in the spring and summer. First identified in South America around 2002, pineberries are cultivated in Belgium and exported from the Netherlands.


title: Pineberry

text: The berry was dubbed "pineberry" for the UK market where it became available in 2010 to reflect its pineapple-like flavor while appearing to be a strawberry. Pineberries were first sold commercially in the United States in 2012, and were marketed to restaurants, bakeries and wholesale markets in Europe and Dubai.


title: Cochinita pibil

text: Cochinita pibil (also puerco pibil or cochinita con achiote) is a traditional Yucatec Mayan slow-roasted pork dish from the Yucatán Peninsula. Preparation of traditional cochinita involves marinating the meat in strongly acidic citrus juice, adding annatto seed, which imparts a vivid burnt orange color, and roasting the meat in a píib while it is wrapped in banana leaf.


title: Cochinita pibil

text: "Cochinita" means baby pig, so true cochinita pibil involves roasting a whole suckling pig. Alternatively, pork shoulder (butt roast), or pork loin is used in many recipes. The high acid content of the marinade and the slow cooking time tenderizes the meat, allowing otherwise tough pieces of meat to be used. The Yucatecan recipes always employ the juice of Seville or bitter oranges for marinating. In areas where bitter oranges are not common, juice of sweet oranges combined with lemons, limes, or vinegar are employed to approximate the effect of the bitter orange on the meat. Another important ingredient in all pibil recipes is achiote (annatto), which gives the dish its characteristic color and adds to flavor.


title: Cochinita pibil

text: It is usually eaten with side dishes such as: yellow corn tortillas, red pickled onion, refried black beans and habanero chilies.


title: Cochinita pibil

text: Cochinita pibil is a recurring element of the movie "Once Upon a Time in Mexico", directed by Robert Rodriguez, in which it is the favorite food of a CIA agent played by Johnny Depp.


title: Forbes family

text: The Forbes family is one of the components of the Boston Brahmins—they are a wealthy extended American family long prominent in Boston, Massachusetts. The family's fortune originates from trading opium and tea between North America and China in the 19th century plus other investments in the same period. The name descends from Scottish immigrants and can be traced back to Sir John de Forbes in Scotland in the 12th century. Family members include businessman John Murray Forbes (1813–1898), part of the first generation who accumulated wealth, and politician John Forbes Kerry (born 1943).


title: Forbes family

text: The first member of the Forbes family to live in the United States was Rev. John Forbes (1740–1783). He was a clergyman who arrived to the colonies in 1763. The Reverend's first post on the North American continent was in British East Florida, where he became the first Anglican clergyman licensed to officiate during the English period of 1763–1783. The Forbes family has a link to the Dudley–Winthrop family directly from Thomas Dudley (1576–1653), father of Anne Bradstreet (1612–1672), the first English-language female poet from America. John Forbes left Florida for Boston in 1769 and married Dorothy Murray on February 2, 1769 in Milton, Massachusetts, where their first son James Grant Forbes was born. John Forbes has two other sons: John Murray Forbes and Ralph Bennet Forbes.


title: Forbes family

text: The Boston trading firm Perkins & Company sent many young men of their extended family to participate in their business activities abroad. Ralph Forbes being married to Margaret Perkins, their children were encouraged in the business. Following the death overseas of his older brother, Thomas Tunno Forbes, the Perkinses encouraged John Murray Forbes to travel to China, too. There John was mentored by the Chinese merchant Houqua who treated him like a son and therefore entrusted very significant sums of capital to invest on his behalf in the US after he left China (see below).


title: Forbes family

text: Perkins & Co., like many other Boston trading firms in the early 19th century, sent ships to China to get tea for sale in America (although some was ultimately re-exported to Britain and Europe). To pay for the tea, they exported to China large quantities of silver and also furs, manufactured goods, cloth, wood, opium and any other items that they thought the Chinese market would absorb. Active trading houses, particularly those from Boston, usually kept representatives resident in Hong Kong whose main role was to look for and secure quality tea for export at good prices. This was John Murray Forbes' main job during the two years he spent in China. John Murray Forbes' brother, Robert Bennet Forbes, was more intimately involved in the importing side of the business and, at least by their own writings, had a more direct role than did John in the opium trade.


title: Forbes family

text: Until recently, the Museum of the American China Trade in Milton, Mass., on Boston's South Shore, was curated by a Forbes great-grandson, Dr. H. A. Crosby Forbes, an expert on Chinese porcelain. The museum, which was housed in Robert Bennet Forbes' 1833 Greek Revival style house, was a monument to the China merchants and the great wealth in Boston that both drove and resulted from the China trade. The China trade museum was merged with the Peabody Essex Museum in 1984 leaving the house in the management of the Forbes House Charitable Trust which operates it now as the Captain Forbes House Museum.


title: Forbes family

text: Neither John nor Robert spent more than a relatively short time in China—John was there for two years. Upon his return to Boston, John continued interest in the China trade for a few more years, serving as a business/investment manager for voyages undertaken by Robert and others. Fairly soon, however, he recognized that the China trade was becoming increasingly difficult to pursue profitably and that railroads offered a new and much more lucrative opportunity.


title: Forbes family

text: Due to the close bond relationship and trust he still maintained in Boston with Howqua, he was given $200,000 of Howqua capital to invest in US business opportunities, to invest on behalf of his Chinese mentor in the US (Ujifusa 2018 Chapter 3). Deploying this capital in the US, John Murray Forbes made a considerable fortune from investments in railroads from the 1840s onwards. Some of the population growth of Chicago and Midwestern Plains states in the middle to late 19th century was due to John Murray Forbes' railroad projects in Michigan and Chicago. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, from Chicago west to the Mississippi, was built by John Murray Forbes who had a reputation for sound financial management amongst the railroad tycoons of the day.


title: Forbes family

text: In the 1840s, John Murray Forbes bought Naushon Island, which is one of the Elizabeth Islands northwest of Martha's Vineyard and southwest of Cape Cod, and within the town of Gosnold, Massachusetts. Forbes and his descendants have used the property as a summer retreat since then. The property is presently owned by a Forbes family corporation, the Naushon Trust, Inc.


title: Forbes family

text: Many Forbes family members are influential in local or national politics in France, the US and the Philippines:


title: Forbes family

text: Archibald Forbes, although the family retained its connections with Europe and John Murray Forbes was born in France.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: The tunnels of Củ Chi are an immense network of connecting tunnels located in the Củ Chi District of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), Vietnam, and are part of a much larger network of tunnels that underlie much of the country. The Củ Chi tunnels were the location of several military campaigns during the Vietnam War, and were the Viet Cong's base of operations for the Tết Offensive in 1968.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: The tunnels were used by Viet Cong soldiers as hiding spots during combat, as well as serving as communication and supply routes, hospitals, food and weapon caches and living quarters for numerous North Vietnamese fighters. The tunnel systems were of great importance to the Viet Cong in their resistance to American forces, and helped to counter the growing American military effort.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: American soldiers used the term "Black Echo" to describe the conditions within the tunnels. For the Viet Cong, life in the tunnels was difficult. Air, food, and water were scarce, and the tunnels were infested with ants, venomous centipedes, snakes, scorpions, spiders, and rodents. Most of the time, soldiers would spend the day in the tunnels working or resting and come out only at night to scavenge for supplies, tend their crops, or engage the enemy in battle. Sometimes, during periods of heavy bombing or American troop movement, they would be forced to remain underground for many days at a time. Sickness was rampant among the people living in the tunnels, especially malaria, which was the second largest cause of death next to battle wounds. A captured Viet Cong report suggests that at any given time, half of a unit of the People's Liberation Armed Forces (PLAF) unit had malaria and that "one-hundred percent had intestinal parasites of significance."


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: The tunnels of Củ Chi were noticed by U.S. officials, who recognized the advantages that the Viet Cong held with the tunnels and so launched several major campaigns to search out and destroy the tunnel system. Among the most important were Operation Crimp and Operation Cedar Falls.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: Operation Crimp began on January 7, 1966, with B-52 bombers dropping 30-ton loads of high explosive onto the region of Củ Chi, effectively turning the once lush jungle into a pockmarked moonscape. Eight thousand troops from the U.S. 1st Infantry Division, 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team (including an artillery battery of the Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery), and the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment combed the region looking for any clues of PLAF activity.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: The operation did not bring about the desired success. For instance, when troops found a tunnel, they would often underestimate its size. No one was usually sent in to search the tunnels, as it was so hazardous. The tunnels were often rigged with explosive booby traps or punji stick pits. The two most common responses in dealing with a tunnel opening would be to flush the entrance with gas, water or hot tar to force the Viet Cong soldiers into the open or to toss a few grenades down the hole and "crimp" off the opening. Those approaches proved ineffective because of the design of the tunnels and the strategic use of trap doors and air filtration systems.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: However, an Australian specialist engineering troop, 3 Field Troop, under the command of Captain Alexander "Sandy" MacGregor ventured into the tunnels, which they searched exhaustively for four days, and found ammunition, radio equipment, medical supplies, food, and signs of considerable Viet Cong presence. One of their number, Corporal Robert "Bob" Bowtell, died when he became trapped in a tunnel that turned out to be a dead end. However the Australians pressed on and revealed for the first time the immense military significance of the tunnels. At an international press conference in Saigon shortly after Operation Crimp, MacGregor referred to his men as "tunnel ferrets. " An American journalist who had never heard of ferrets, used the term "tunnel rat," and it stuck. After his troop's discoveries in Củ Chi, MacGregor was awarded a Military Cross.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: From its mistakes and the Australians' discoveries, U.S. command realised that it needed a new way to approach the dilemma of the tunnels. A general order was issued by General Williamson, the Allied Forces Commander in South Vietnam, to all Allied forces that tunnels had to be properly searched whenever they were discovered. It began training an elite group of volunteers in the art of tunnel warfare, armed only with a handgun, a knife, a flashlight, and a piece of string. The specialists, commonly known as "tunnel rats", would enter a tunnel by themselves and travel inch-by-inch cautiously looking ahead for booby traps or cornered PLAF. There was no real doctrine for the approach, and despite some very hard work in some sectors of the Army and the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, to provide some sort of training and resources, it was primarily a new approach that the units trained, equipped, and planned for themselves.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: Despite the revamped effort at fighting the enemy on their own terms, U.S. operations remained insufficient at eliminating the tunnels completely. In 1967, General William Westmoreland tried to launch a larger assault on Củ Chi and the Iron Triangle. Called Operation Cedar Falls, it was similar to the previous Operation Crimp but was on a larger scale with 30,000 troops, instead of 8,000. On January 18, tunnel rats from the 1st Battalion, 5th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division uncovered the Viet Cong district headquarters of Củ Chi, containing half a million documents concerning all types of military strategy. Among the documents were maps of U.S. bases, detailed accounts of PLAF movement from Cambodia into Vietnam, lists of political sympathizers, and even plans for a failed assassination attempt on Robert McNamara.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: By 1969, B-52s were freed from bombing North Vietnam and started "carpet bombing" Củ Chi and the rest of the Iron Triangle. Towards the end of the war, some of the tunnels were so heavily bombed that some portions actually caved in, and other sections were exposed. But the bombings were not able to destroy most parts of those tunnels.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: Throughout the war, the tunnels in and around Củ Chi proved to be a source of frustration for the U.S. military in Saigon. The Viet Cong had been so well entrenched in the area by 1965 that it was in the unique position of being able to control where and when battles would take place. By helping to covertly move supplies and house troops, the tunnels of Củ Chi allowed North Vietnamese fighters in their area of South Vietnam to survive, help prolong the war and increase U.S. costs and casualties until the eventual withdrawal in 1973, and the final defeat of South Vietnam in 1975.


title: Củ Chi tunnels

text: The -long complex of tunnels at Củ Chi has been preserved by the government of Vietnam, and turned into a war memorial park with two different tunnel display sites, Ben Dinh and Ben Duoc. The tunnels are a popular tourist attraction in Vietnam, and visitors are invited to crawl around in the safer parts of the tunnel system. The Ben Duoc site contains part of the original tunnel system, and the Ben Dinh site, closer to Saigon, has tunnel reconstructions and some tunnels have been made larger to accommodate tourists. In both sites, low-power lights have been installed in the tunnels to make traveling through them easier, and both sites have displays of the different types of booby traps that were used. Underground conference rooms in which campaigns such as the Tết Offensive were planned in 1968 have been restored.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Dyslipidemia is an abnormal amount of lipids (e.g. triglycerides, cholesterol and/or fat phospholipids) in the blood. Dyslipidemia is a risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). ASCVD includes coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, and peripheral artery disease. Although dyslipidemia is a risk factor for ASCVD, abnormal levels don't mean that lipid lowering agents need to be started. Other factors, such as comorbid conditions and lifestyle in addition to dyslipidemia, is considered in a cardiovascular risk assessment. In developed countries, most dyslipidemias are hyperlipidemias; that is, an elevation of lipids in the blood. This is often due to diet and lifestyle. Prolonged elevation of insulin resistance can also lead to dyslipidemia. Likewise, increased levels of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) may cause dyslipidemia.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Physicians and basic researchers classify dyslipidemias in two distinct ways. One way is its presentation in the body (including the specific type of lipid that is increased). The other way is due to the underlying cause for the condition (genetic, or secondary to another condition). This classification can be problematic, because most conditions involve the intersection of genetics and lifestyle issues. However, there are a few well-defined genetic conditions that are usually easy to identify.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: The three main blood levels collected to assess for dyslipidemia is triglycerides(TG), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). High triglyceride levels (>1.7 mmol/L fasting) can indicate dyslipidemia. Triglycerides are transported through the blood by using very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) as a carrier. One thing to note when measuring triglyceride levels is that fasting for 8–12 hours is required to get an accurate result as non-fasting TG results may be falsely elevated. If TG results are greater than 10 mmol/L, then this needs to be addressed since severe hypertriglceridemia is a risk factor for acute pancreatitis. Another blood level collected to assess dyslipidemia is HDL-C. HDL cholesterol is made up of very little lipids and a high amount of protein. It is beneficial in the body because it functions by going to the tissues and picking up extra cholestrol and fat. Due to the positive effects of HDL-C, it is named "good cholesterol" since it helps prevent plaque formation. Other functions of HDL-C is promoting cardiovascular health such as antioxidation effects, protection against thrombosis, maintenance of endothelial function, and maintaining low blood viscosity. Due to the positive functions of HDL cholesterol, a low level indicates dyslipidemia and is a risk factor for complications. Another diagnostic test that is often reviewed is LDL cholesterol. Low density lipoproteins are made up of cholesterol, TG, phospholipids, and apolipoproteins. LDL-C molecules bind to the endothelium of blood vessels and cause plaque formation. Once plaques are formed, LDL-C floating in the bloodstream can attach to the plaques and cause further accumulation. In addition to plaque formation, LDL-C molecules can undergo oxidation. Oxidation can cause further accumulation of cholesterol and the release of inflammatory cytokines, which damages the blood vessels. Due to the damaging effects of LDL-C, high levels increase the risk for cardiovascular disease and indicate dyslipidemia.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Dyslipidemias can also be classified based on the underlying cause, whether it is primary, secondary, or a combination of both. Primary dyslipidemias are caused by genetic disorders that can cause abnormal lipid levels without any other obvious risk factors. Those with primary dyslipidemias are at higher risk of getting complications of dyslipidemias, such as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, at a younger age. Some common genetic disorders associated with primary dyslipidemias are homozygous or heterozygous hypercholesterolemia, familial hypertriglyceridemia, combined hyperlipidemia, and HDL-C metabolism disorders. In familial hypercholesterolemia, a mutation in the "LDLR, PCSK9," or "APOB" is usually the reason for this and these mutations result in high LDL cholesterol. In combined hyperlipidemia, there is an overproduction of apoB-100 in the liver. This causes high amounts of LDL and VLDL molecules to form. A unique sign of primary dyslipidemias is that patients will often present with acute pancreatitis or xanthomas on the skin, eyelids or around the cornea. In contrast to primary dyslipidemias, secondary dyslipidemas are based on modifiable environmental or lifestyle factors. Some diseases that are associated with a higher risk of dyslipidemia are uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, cholestatic liver disease, chronic kidney disease, hypothyroidism, and polycystic ovarian syndrome. What people eat can also have an influence, with excessive alcohol use, too much carbohydrates, and diets high in saturated fats having a higher risk. Some medications that may contribute to dyslipidemia are thiazide diuretics, beta blockers, oral contraceptives, atypical antipsychotics (clozapine, olanzapine), corticosteroids, tacrolimus, and cyclosporine. Other non-hereditary factors that increase the risk of dyslipidemias are smoking, pregnancy, and obesity.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: There is no clear consensus of when screening for dyslipidemia should be initiated. In general, those with a high risk of cardiovascular disease should be screened at a younger age with males between 25 and 30 years old and females between 30 and 35 years of age. Testing the general population under the age of 40 without symptoms is of unclear benefit. UpToDate suggests screening males at age 35 and females at age 45 in those without any risk of cardiovascular disease. All individuals regardless of age, should be screened if they have the risk factors listed below. Cardiovascular risk can be determined using the Framingham Risk Score (FRS) and should be reassessed every 5 years for patients who are 40 to 75 years of age.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: An important non-pharmacological intervention in dyslipidemia is a diet aimed at reducing blood lipid levels and also weight loss if needed. These dietary changes should always be a part of treatment and the involvement of a dietician is recommended in the initial evaluation and also in follow-up as well. A 3-month trial of dietary changes is recommended in primary prevention before considering medication, but in secondary prevention and in individuals at high-risk, cholesterol-lowering medication is used in conjunction with diet modifications.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Recommended diets include the DASH diet, Mediterranean diet, Low-glycemic Index diet, Portfolio diet, and vegetarian diet. Patients should reduce their intake of saturated fats, dietary cholesterol, and alcohol, and increase their intake of total fibre (>30g/day), viscous soluble fibre (>10g/day), and omega-3 (EPA and DHA [2-4g/d] used to lower TG only). They should also increase the proportion of mono-and polyunsaturated fats that they intake.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Other lifestyle modifications include weight loss (5-10% of body weight loss) and reduction of abdominal obesity, 30–60 minutes per day of moderate-vigorous exercise, smoking cessation, stress management, and getting 6–8 hours of sleep at night.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Based on the Framingham Risk Scores, there are different thresholds that indicate whether treatment should be initiated. Individuals with a score of >20% are considered to have a high cardiovascular risk, a score of 10-19% indicates an intermediate risk, and patients with a score less than 10% are at low risk. Statin therapy and non-pharmacological interventions are indicated in those with high cardiovascular risk. In those at intermediate risk or low risk, the use of statin therapy depends on individual patient factors such as age, cholesterol levels, and risk factors.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Statins are considered the first-line agents but other drugs can be substituted if the lipid targets are not achieved with statin therapy or if they are not tolerated.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Statins competitively inhibit hydroxymethylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase which is used in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and they include atorvastatin, lovastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, pravastatin, fluvastatin, and pitavastatin. These agents work to lower LDL-C levels and are also associated with a decrease in CVD mortality, CVD morbidity, and total deaths. They have a small effect on HDL-C levels as well.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Resins are bile acid sequesterants that work by preventing the intestinal re-uptake of bile acids, thus increasing their fecal loss. Resins include cholestyramine, colestipol, and colesevalem, and they all decrease LDL-C while increasing HDL-C levels slightly. The Lipid Research Council - Cardiovascular Primary Prevention Trial (LRC-CPPT) also showed that when these agents were used alone, they improved cardiovascular outcomes.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: The cholesterol lowering effect of fibrates is due to their ability to activate a nuclear receptor called peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha. They include fenofibrate, gemfibrozil, and bezafibrate and work to decrease triglycerides, increase HDL-C, and also decrease LDL-C which is variable depending on which drug is used. The FIELD Study showed that fenofibrate reduced both coronary revascularization as well as nonfatal myocardial infarctions (but not in patients with DM2).


title: Dyslipidemia

text: PCSK9 inhibitors are monoclonal antibodies that target an important protein in the degradation of LDL called proprotein convertase substilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9). These agents reduce LDL-C, increase HDL-C, decrease triglycerides, and decrease lipoprotein(a). The FOURNIER and ODYSSEY trials showed that these agents also reduced the risk of cardiovascular events.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Ezetimibe inhibits the intestinal absorption of cholesterol and can be used alone or with statins. Regarding cardiovascular events, patients with chronic kidney disease saw a reduction in vascular and major atherosclerotic events when on simvastatin and ezetimibe compared to placebo. This same combination was also shown to reduce death, major coronary events, and nonfatal stroke in patients after acute coronary syndromes.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: This agent consists of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), an omega-3 fatty acid from fish oil and works to lower the hepatic production of triglycerides. In the REDUCE-IT trial, patients on statin therapy and 4g daily of icosapent ethyl saw a reduction in major cardiovascular events.


title: Dyslipidemia

text: Lomitapide works to inhibit the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) which results in a reduction of LDL plasma levels.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; , CSC) is the highest court in the judicial system of Canada. It comprises nine justices, whose decisions are the ultimate application of Canadian law, and grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts. The Supreme Court is bijural, hearing cases from two major legal traditions (common law and civil law) and bilingual, hearing cases in both official languages of Canada (English and French).


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The effects of any judicial decision on the common law, on the interpretation of statutes, or on any other application of law, can, in effect, be nullified by legislation, unless the particular decision of the court in question involves application of the Canadian Constitution, in which case, the decision (in most cases) is completely binding on the legislative branch. This is especially true of decisions which touch upon the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms", which cannot be altered by the legislative branch unless the decision is overridden pursuant to section 33 (the "notwithstanding clause").


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The creation of the Supreme Court of Canada was provided for by the "British North America Act, 1867", renamed in 1982 the "Constitution Act, 1867". The first bills for the creation of a federal supreme court, introduced in the Parliament of Canada in 1869 and in 1870, were withdrawn. It was not until 8 April 1875 that a bill was finally passed providing for the creation of a Supreme Court of Canada.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: However, prior to 1949, the Supreme Court did not constitute the court of last resort: litigants could appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London. Some cases could bypass the Supreme Court and go directly to the Judicial Committee from the provincial courts of appeal. The Supreme Court formally became the court of last resort for criminal appeals in 1933 and for all other appeals in 1949. The last decisions of the Judicial Committee on cases from Canada were made in the mid-1950s, for cases that had first been heard in a court of first instance prior to 1949.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The increase in the importance of the Supreme Court was mirrored by the numbers of its members; it was established first with six judges, and these were augmented by an additional member in 1927. In 1949, the bench reached its current composition of nine justices.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Prior to 1949, most of the appointees to the court owed their position to political patronage. Each judge had strong ties to the party in power at the time of their appointment. In 1973, the appointment of a constitutional law professor Bora Laskin as chief justice represented a major turning point for the court. Laskin's federalist and liberal views were shared by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, who recommended Laskin's appointment to the court, but from that appointment onward appointees increasingly either came from academic backgrounds or were well-respected practitioners with several years' experience in appellate courts.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The "Constitution Act, 1982", greatly expanded the role of the court in Canadian society by the addition of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms", which greatly broadened the scope of judicial review. The evolution from the court under Chief Justice Brian Dickson (1984–90) through to that of Antonio Lamer (1990–2000) witnessed a continuing vigour in the protection of civil liberties. Lamer's criminal law background proved an influence on the number of criminal cases heard by the Court during his time as chief justice. Nonetheless, the Lamer court was more conservative with "Charter" rights, with only about a 1% success rate for "Charter" claimants.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Lamer was succeeded as the chief justice by Beverley McLachlin in January 2000. She was the first woman to hold that position. McLachlin's appointment resulted in a more centrist and unified court. Dissenting and concurring opinions were fewer than during the Dickson and Lamer courts. With the 2005 appointments of puisne justices Louise Charron and Rosalie Abella, the court became the world's most gender-balanced national high court with four of its nine members being female. Justice Marie Deschamps' retirement on 7 August 2012 caused the number to fall to three; however, the appointment of Suzanne Côté on 1 December 2014 restored the number to four. After serving on the court for ( as chief justice), McLachlin retired in December 2017. Her successor as the chief justice is Richard Wagner.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Along with the German Federal Constitutional Court and the European Court of Human Rights, the Supreme Court of Canada is among the most frequently cited courts in the world.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The structure of the Canadian court system is pyramidal, a broad base being formed by the various provincial and territorial courts whose judges are appointed by the provincial or territorial governments. At the next level are the provincial and territorial superior trial courts, where judges are appointed by the federal government. Judgments from the superior courts may be appealed to a still higher level, the provincial or territorial superior courts of appeal.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Several federal courts also exist: the Tax Court, the Federal Court, the Federal Court of Appeal, and the Court Martial Appeal Court. Unlike the provincial superior courts, which exercise inherent or general jurisdiction, the jurisdiction of federal courts and provincially appointed provincial courts are limited by statute. In all, there are over 1,000 federally appointed judges at various levels across Canada.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The Supreme Court rests at the apex of the judicial pyramid. This institution hears appeals from the provincial courts of last resort, usually the provincial or territorial courts of appeal, and the Federal Court of Appeal, although in some matters appeals come straight from the trial courts, as in the case of publication bans and other orders that are otherwise not appealable.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: In most cases, permission to appeal must first be obtained from the court. Motions for leave to appeal to the court are generally heard by a panel of three of its judges and a simple majority is determinative. By convention, this panel never explains why it grants or refuses leave in any particular case, but the court typically hears cases of national importance or where the case allows it to settle an important issue of law. Leave is rarely granted, meaning that for most litigants, provincial courts of appeal are courts of last resort. But leave to appeal is not required for some cases, primarily indictable criminal cases in which at least one appellate judge (on the relevant provincial court of appeal) dissented on a point of law, and appeals from provincial reference cases.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: A final source of cases is the power of the federal government to submit reference cases. In such cases, the Supreme Court is required to give an opinion on questions referred to it by the Governor in Council (the Cabinet). However, in many cases, including the most recent same-sex marriage reference, the Supreme Court has declined to answer a question from the Cabinet. In that case, the court said it would not decide if same-sex marriages were required by the "Charter of Rights and Freedoms", because the government had announced it would change the law regardless of its opinion, and subsequently did.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The Supreme Court thus performs a unique function. It can be asked by the Governor-in-Council to hear references considering important questions of law. Such referrals may concern the constitutionality or interpretation of federal or provincial legislation, or the division of powers between federal and provincial spheres of government. Any point of law may be referred in this manner. However, the Court is not often called upon to hear references. References have been used to re-examine criminal convictions that have concerned the country as in the cases of David Milgaard and Steven Truscott.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The Supreme Court has the ultimate power of judicial review over Canadian federal and provincial laws' constitutional validity. If a federal or provincial law has been held contrary to the division of power provisions of one of the various constitution acts, the legislature or parliament must either live with the result, amend the law so that it complies, or obtain an amendment to the constitution. If a law is declared contrary to certain sections of the "Charter of Rights and Freedoms", Parliament or the provincial legislatures may make that particular law temporarily valid again against by using the "override power" of the notwithstanding clause. In one case, the Quebec National Assembly invoked this power to override a Supreme Court decision ("Ford v Quebec (AG)") that held that one of Quebec's language laws banning the display of English commercial signs was inconsistent with the "Charter". Saskatchewan has also used it to uphold its labour laws. This override power can be exercised for five years, after which time the override must be renewed or the decision comes into force.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: In some cases, the court may stay the effect of its judgments so that unconstitutional laws continue in force for a period of time. Usually, this is done to give Parliament or a legislature sufficient time to enact a new replacement scheme of legislation. For example, in "Reference Re Manitoba Language Rights", the court struck down Manitoba's laws because they were not enacted in the French language, as required by the Constitution. However, the Court stayed its judgment for five years to give Manitoba time to re-enact all its legislation in French. It turned out five years was insufficient so the court was asked, and agreed, to give more time.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Constitutional questions may, of course, also be raised in the normal case of appeals involving individual litigants, governments, government agencies or Crown corporations. In such cases the federal and provincial governments must be notified of any constitutional questions and may intervene to submit a brief and attend oral argument at the court. Usually the other governments are given the right to argue their case in the court, although on rare occasions this has been curtailed and prevented by order of one of the court's judges.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The Supreme Court sits for 18 weeks of the year beginning the first Monday of October and usually runs until the end of June and sometimes into July. Hearings only take place in Ottawa, although litigants can present oral arguments from remote locations by means of a video-conference system. Hearings are open to the public. Most hearings are taped for delayed telecast in both of Canada's official languages. When in session, the court sits Monday to Friday, hearing two appeals a day. A quorum consists of five members for appeals, but a panel of nine justices hears most cases.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: On the bench, the chief justice of Canada or, in his or her absence, the senior puisne justice, presides from the centre chair with the other justices seated to his or her right and left by order of seniority of appointment. At sittings, the justices usually appear in black silk robes but they wear their ceremonial robes of bright scarlet trimmed with Canadian white mink in court on special occasions and in the Senate at the opening of each new session of Parliament.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Counsel appearing before the court may use either English or French. The judges can also use either English or French. There is simultaneous translation available to the judges, counsel and to members of the public who are in the audience.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The decision of the court is sometimes – but rarely – rendered orally at the conclusion of the hearing. In these cases, the court may simply refer to the decision of the court below to explain its own reasons. In other cases, the court may announce its decision at the conclusion of the hearing, with reasons to follow. As well, in some cases, the court may not call on counsel for the respondent, if it has not been convinced by the arguments of counsel for the appellant. In very rare cases, the court may not call on counsel for the appellant and instead calls directly on counsel for the respondent. However, in most cases, the court hears from all counsel and then reserves judgment to enable the justices to write considered reasons. Decisions of the court need not be unanimous – a majority may decide, with dissenting reasons given by the minority. Justices may write separate or joint opinions for any case.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: A puisne justice of the Supreme Court is referred to as "The Honourable Mr/Madam Justice" and the chief justice as "Right Honourable". At one time, judges were addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady" during sessions of the court, but it has since discouraged this style of address and has directed lawyers to use the simpler "Justice", "Mr Justice" or "Madam Justice". The designation "My Lord/My Lady" continues in many provincial superior courts and in the Federal Court of Canada and Federal Court of Appeal, where it is optional.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Every four years, the Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission makes recommendations to the federal government about the salaries for federally appointed judges, including the judges of the Supreme Court. That recommendation is not legally binding on the federal government, but the federal government is generally required to comply with the recommendation unless there is a very good reason to not do so. The chief justice receives $370,300 while the puisne justices receive $342,800 annually.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada are appointed on the advice of the prime minister. The provinces and Parliament of Canada have no formal role in such appointments, sometimes a point of contention.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The "Supreme Court Act" limits eligibility for appointment to persons who have been judges of a superior court or members of the bar for ten or more years. Members of the bar or superior judiciary of Quebec, by law, must hold three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada. This is justified on the basis that Quebec uses civil law, rather than common law, as in the rest of the country. As explained in the reasons in "Reference Re Supreme Court Act, ss. 5 and 6", sitting judges of the Federal Court and Federal Court of Appeal cannot be appointed to any of Quebec's three seats. By convention, the remaining six positions are divided in the following manner: three from Ontario; two from the western provinces, typically one from British Columbia and one from the prairie provinces, which rotate among themselves (although Alberta is known to cause skips in the rotation); and one from the Atlantic provinces, almost always from Nova Scotia or New Brunswick.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: In 2006, an interview phase by an committee of members of Parliament was added. Justice Marshall Rothstein became the first justice to undergo the new process. The prime minister still has the final say on who becomes the candidate that is recommended to the governor general for appointment to the court. The government proposed an interview phase again in 2008, but a general election and minority parliament intervened with delays such that the Prime Minister recommended Justice Cromwell after consulting the leader of the Opposition.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: As of August 2016, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau opened the process of application to change from the above-noted appointment process. Under the revised process, "[any] Canadian lawyer or judge who fits specified criteria can apply for a seat on the Supreme Court, through the Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs." Functional bilingualism is now a requirement.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Justices were originally allowed to remain on the bench for life, but in 1927 a mandatory retirement age of 75 was instituted. They may choose to retire earlier, but can only be removed involuntarily before that age by a vote of the Senate and House of Commons.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The current chief justice of Canada is Richard Wagner. He was appointed to the court as a puisne judge on 5 October 2012 and appointed chief justice, 18 December 2017. The nine justices of the Wagner Court are:


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The following graphical timeline depicts the length of each current justice's tenure on the Supreme Court (not their position in the court's order of precedence) as of .


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Andromache Karakatsanis has had the longest tenure of any of the current members of the court, having been appointed in October 2011. Richard Wagner's cumulative tenure is — as puisne justice, and as chief justice. Michelle O'Bonsawin has the briefest tenure, having been appointed ago. The length of tenure for the other justices are: Suzanne Côté, ; Russell Brown, ; Malcom Rowe, ; Sheilah Martin, ; Nicholas Kasirer, ; and Mahmud Jamal, .


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The "Rules of the Supreme Court of Canada" are located on the laws-lois.justice.gc.ca website, as well as in the Canada Gazette, as SOR/2002-216 (plus amendments), made pursuant to subsection 97(1) of the "Supreme Court Act". Fees and taxes are stipulated near the end.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Since 1967, the court has hired law clerks to assist in legal research. Between 1967 and 1982, each puisne justice was assisted by one law clerk and the chief justice had two. From 1982, the number was increased to two law clerks for each justice. Currently, each justice has up to four law clerks.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Law clerks conduct research, draft bench memoranda, and assist in drafting judgments, as well as any other research duties assigned by the law clerk's judge such as drafting speeches or articles.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Law clerks are usually newly-trained lawyers who have been both admitted to the bar in their respective provinces and completed their articles. Clerkships at the Supreme Court are prestigious positions within the Canadian legal community and are highly competitive, with each position receiving thousands of applications. Successful applicants usually have an excellent academic record and prior service on law reviews/journals during law school, along with an extensive record of legal publications. Akin to the United States, former Supreme Court clerks are highly sought after by private law firms for their rare experience, with many earning a substantial signing bonus above regular associates.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The Supreme Court of Canada Building (), located just west of Parliament Hill at 301 Wellington Street on a bluff high above the Ottawa River in downtown Ottawa, is home to the Supreme Court of Canada. It also contains two courtrooms used by the Federal Court and the Federal Court of Appeal.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: The building was designed by Ernest Cormier. The building is known for its Art Deco decorative details, including two candelabrum-style fluted metal lamp standards that flank the entrance, and the marble walls and floors of the grand interior lobby contrasting with the châteauesque roof. Construction began in 1939, with the cornerstone laid by Queen Elizabeth, consort to King George VI and later known as the Queen Mother. The court began hearing cases in the new building by January 1946.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: In 2000, it was named by the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada as one of the top 500 buildings produced in Canada during the last millennium.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Canada Post Corporation issued a 'Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa' stamp on 9 June 2011 as part of the Architecture Art Déco series.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Two flagstaffs have been erected in front of the building. A flag on one is flown daily, while the other is hoisted only on those days when the court is in session. Also located on the grounds are several statues, notably:


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: They were all sculpted by Kenneth Phillips Jarvis (1927–2007), Q.C., RCA, a retired Under Treasurer of the Law Society of Upper Canada.


title: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Behind the building, along the cliff edge was once the home of hat maker R.J. Devlin at 41 Cliff Street, but demolished to make way for the court building.


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: The eleventh season of "Criminal Minds" was ordered on May 11, 2015 by CBS. It premiered on September 30, 2015 on CBS and ended on May 4, 2016. The season consisted of 22 episodes.


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: The entire main cast returned for the season, except Jennifer Love Hewitt (Kate Callahan), who left the show in the season ten finale. On June 22, 2015, it was announced that Aisha Tyler (coincidentally Hewitt's co-star during Season 1 of "Ghost Whisperer") would replace Hewitt in a recurring role as Dr. Tara Lewis, a psychologist with an eye on forensic psychology and its application toward the criminal justice system.


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: Jennifer Love Hewitt left the show because of her pregnancy, and her character Kate Callahan, handed in her resignation at the end of the season ten finale, due to her pregnancy and decision to devote the next year to her baby. It was announced that Aisha Tyler would replace Hewitt in a recurring role as Dr. Tara Lewis. A.J. Cook revealed herself to be pregnant, and it was later revealed in the tenth-season finale that her character Jennifer "JJ" Jareau was also pregnant. She did not appear in the first six episodes (except the season premiere). Showrunner Erica Messer expressed her desire about bringing back old characters from previous seasons, including Spencer Reid's mother played by Jane Lynch. Cook appeared in the first episode "The Job" holding her sleeping baby Michael, played by Phoenix Andersen, her child in real life.


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: Matthew Gray Gubler directed episode 18, "A Beautiful Disaster", in which Shemar Moore left the main cast (Moore went on to star as Hondo Harrelson in the CBS remake of "SWAT"). On February 10, 2016, it was announced that Paget Brewster would return as Emily Prentiss for one episode later in season 11 episode 19, titled "Tribute". The season ended on May 4, 2016, with the show's first cliffhanger finale since the fifth season. Messer said she felt it was time for another cliffhanger and thought that it served as a "really fun launch pad" into the twelfth season, which was officially ordered two days later.


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: A. J. Cook announced her pregnancy, a fact that was carried over to her character Jennifer "JJ" Jareau as well. Showrunner Erica Messer stated in an interview that Cook's character JJ would not appear for the first five episodes of the season as Cook was on maternity leave. Messer continued talking about a guest star to replace Cook during her absence from the show as she said, "My hope is we could have a fun guest star when A.J.'s on maternity leave. It will be different because JJ won't be there. There is no replacing her as we know, but there's an opportunity there to have fun for a few episodes."


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: Aisha Tyler joined the cast in the wake of Hewitt's exit, and played a recurring role as Dr. Tara Lewis, a forensic psychologist who always wanted to study psychopaths up close, to understand the human being behind the evil acts. Her previous job was to interview serial killers and determine whether they were fit to stand trial. It was announced that Tim Kang would guest-star on the show in the second episode of the season, "The Witness". while Marisol Nichols is set to make an appearance. It was announced on August 5, 2015, that an alum from "Glee", Ashley Fink, would guest star in the third episode of the season, "'Til Death Do Us Part". Amber Stevens returned as Rossi's daughter, Joy Struthers, in episode seven, "Target Rich". Aubrey Plaza also had a guest role in episode eleven, "Entropy".


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: On January 14, 2016, CBS announced that actor Danny Glover would guest-star as Derek Morgan's deceased father in the episode "Derek".


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: On February 10, 2016, CBS announced that actor Paget Brewster would guest star in one episode in the latter part of the season, reprising her role as Emily Prentiss.


title: Criminal Minds (season 11)

text: In an interview with "TVGuide", Erica Messer expressed her interest about bringing back characters from previous seasons instead of adding a new character to replace Hewitt permanently on the show. She explained, "I feel like when you look at 10 years of people we could bring back, it would be fun to do that." Messer added that bringing back old characters would allow the show to focus on the team without having to service a new regular character.


title: Erika Costell

text: Erika Michaelanne Costell (born November 12, 1992) is an American Internet personality. Costell’s career began when she became associated with Team 10, an influencer marketing management agency. After dating YouTuber Jake Paul and featuring in his videos, Costell started her own YouTube channel, which increased her popularity.


title: Erika Costell

text: Costell was born in Toledo, Ohio, but she was raised in Bedford Township, Monroe County, Michigan, growing up with 12 siblings. At the age of 16, she began modeling while attending high school at Bedford High School in Michigan. She was previously represented by Wilhelmina International and the DAN Talent Group. After completing high school in 2011, she attended Middle Tennessee State University. She majored in business administration and left the university before her final semester in order to pursue modeling in Los Angeles.


title: Erika Costell

text: In 2015, Costell became the first employee of Jake Paul's Team 10 on the business side as his assistant and later went on to be the COO Chief Operations Officer. In 2017, she began a YouTube channel where she regularly posts vlogs, reaction videos and music videos. Following her 2018 breakup with Paul, she left Team 10 to pursue her own independent career, and signed with The Orchard for music.


title: Erika Costell

text: In 2017, her single "Jerika" with Paul was featured on the "Billboard Hot 100" and the "Canadian Hot 100".


title: Erika Costell

text: In 2020, Costell started a record label named BIA Entertainment, which she describes as "a music label by women, for women."


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Thelma is a 2017 Norwegian supernatural thriller drama film directed by Joachim Trier. The screenplay was written by Trier and Eskil Vogt. The film stars Eili Harboe, Kaya Wilkins, Henrik Rafaelsen, and Ellen Dorrit Petersen. "Thelma" tells the story of a sheltered young woman who discovers she has an inexplicable power that materializes when she feels desire for a female student at her university.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: "Thelma" was selected as the Norwegian entry for the Oscar as Best Foreign Language Film at the 90th Academy Awards, but did not receive the nomination.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Thelma is a lonely and repressed young woman from an ultra-religious Christian family who has lived a sheltered life under the protection of her father, Trond, and disabled mother, Unni. She struggles to make friends and soon after moving to Oslo to attend university begins to experience unexplained epileptic seizures. When she meets another student, Anja, she discovers that her feelings for Anja trigger uncontrollable psychokinetic powers. Thelma suffers much guilt over her feelings for Anja, and wishes she was not in love with her.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: While undergoing a brain tomography test to find the cause of her seizures, she begins to think about Anja and as she focuses on her, Thelma's power is set in motion and she unconsciously and unwittingly makes Anja vanish into empty space. Distraught and confused by Anja's sudden disappearance, Thelma returns home and soon remembers that when she was a little girl she had a baby brother. Once, when feeling neglected and jealous of the attention given to her younger sibling, and wishing him to be quiet and gone, she involuntarily caused him to teleport from his crib and reappear underneath the sofa. In a final tragic incident, she caused him to disappear from his bath, and he was found trapped below the ice of a frozen lake by her father. Traumatized, Thelma's mother tried to take her own life by jumping off a bridge, but instead the failed attempt left her paraplegic. Thelma had forgotten these events. Realising her utter distress, her parents tell her the truth, which is that she is somehow able to manifest whatever she deeply wants and that she inherited the same inexplicable ability from her grandmother (who blamed herself for the disappearance of Thelma's grandfather and was kept sedated in a psychiatric nursing home by Trond). Thelma perceives that her parents have a similar fate in mind for her as her grandmother. Though Trond expresses some misgivings about drugging Thelma, Unni tells him it's their responsibility to stop Thelma.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Earlier, while visiting Anja, Thelma recalled how her father once held her hand over a lit candle until it almost burned so that she could feel what Hell's eternal fire was like. She causes the death of her father by telekinetically making him self-combust whilst out boating on the unfrozen lake. Thelma realizes that her power can also restore life when she revives a small dead bird. She begins to understand that her supernatural ability is also a gift and uses it to heal her mother, making her able to walk again. Along with the realization that she can summon her power, Thelma is able to finally control it, and brings Anja back to existence. She returns to college, now with Anja as her girlfriend.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: "Thelma" was produced by Thomas Robsahm of Norwegian production company Motlys, and co-produced by Film Väst, Filmpool Nord and B-Reel (Sweden), Snowglobe Film (Denmark), and Le Pacte (France); with financial support provided by the Norwegian Film Institute, Swedish Film Institute, Danish Film Institute, Copenhagen Film Fund, Nordic Film & TV Fund, Eurimages, and MEDIA Programme. The final production budget was €5,009,000 (i.e. 47 million NOK, 5.8 million USD).


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Principal photography began on 20 September 2016 and lasted 44 days. Locations included Oslo in Norway, and Västra Götaland, Gothenburg, Trollhättan and Kiruna in Sweden.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: The film poster was released in August 2017. The key art for the U.S. was released in September in advance of the American premiere, followed by the UK in October.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: The film premiered at the Norwegian International Film Festival on 20 August 2017. "Thelma" held its international premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival as a Special Presentation on 9 September. It premiered in the United States at Fantastic Fest on 21 September, and screened at the New York Film Festival as a Main Slate selection on 6 October. It premiered in the United Kingdom at the BFI London Film Festival as a Cult Gala presentation on 14 October.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: "Thelma" was released theatrically in Norway on 15 September. It was released in the United Kingdom on 3 November, followed by the United States on 10 November.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: The Orchard acquired the North American distribution rights to the film in April the same year. Distribution rights to the United Kingdom were acquired by Thunderbird Releasing in August.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: , the film holds a 93% approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on , with an average rating of 7.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads: ""Thelma" plays with genre tropes in unexpected ways, delivering a thoughtfully twisty supernatural thriller with a lingering impact". On Metacritic, the film received a score of 74 out of 100, based on 31 leading critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In "IndieWire"'s annual critics poll of best films and performances, it was selected a "Critics Pick" for Best Foreign Language Film. "The Hollywood Reporter" selected "Thelma" as one of the best LGBT films of 2017.


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Manohla Dargis wrote in "The New York Times" that "Thelma" is "a romance, a psychological thriller, a liberation story and a whodunit (and why) ... and most satisfyingly, it plays with the female Gothic ... in which women are at once the victims and agents of change", praising Joachim Trier with having "a great talent for making loneliness visceral and visible, for showing how pain can make the world disappear". In the "Los Angeles Times", Justin Chang said the film was a "muted and moody supernatural chiller" that is "thoughtful and beautifully composed" with sequences "that tap into a vividly primal sense of terror".


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" described "Thelma" as "an uncanny accumulation of mood, an ecstasy of disquiet" and the performance by Eili Harboe as "outstandingly good". "AfterEllen" praised the performance by Harboe as "exhilarating, and incredibly moving", and said that "in a sea of lesbian films that are often repetitive, "Thelma" explores analytical territory that none other has before". David Friend of "The Canadian Press" said the film carries "an ominous and sinister tone that evokes the best traits of classics like 'Carrie' and 'Let the Right One In'".


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: Bilge Ebiri of "The Village Voice" described the film's story as moving "away from the monstrous, toward compassion and understanding ... prob[ing] the profound underlying sadness beneath tales of possession" and "makes vivid the protagonist's loneliness and despair". David Ehrlich wrote in "IndieWire" that "Thelma" was "an ominous, unnerving, and strangely powerful thriller about the most devious of human desires" and "consistently keyed in to the persuasive power of the female body".


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: In "The Hollywood Reporter", David Rooney said it contained "intelligent, measured tone and elegant visual style" and "while the more enigmatic supernatural elements at times veer close to formulaic Hollywood horror tropes, the movie maintains a compelling seriousness, particularly in its consideration of the conflict between sexuality and repression". Andrew Barker of "Variety" described the film as "an unnervingly effective slow-burn, and those with the patience for Trier’s patient accumulation of detail will find it pays off in unexpected ways".


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: "The Verge" said "Thelma" was a "quietly beautiful film" and "a thriller that's scary, sad, and ultimately triumphant", with cinematography that is "visually ... striking throughout". Margaret Barton-Fumo from "Film Comment" summarized "Thelma" as "a romantic film that pays close attention to physical detail", and "surprisingly tender, [it] proves itself a modern take on the supernatural film".


title: Thelma (2017 film)

text: The DVD for Region 2 and Blu-ray for Region B was released by SF Studios in Scandinavia on 4 December 2017. They were released in the UK by Thunderbird Releasing on 26 February 2018. In Region 1 the DVD was released by The Orchard through Passion River Films on 3 April 2018.


title: Angeline Ball

text: Angeline Ball (born 28 June 1969) is an Irish actress and singer who resides in London, England. She is known for her roles as Imelda Quirke in Alan Parker's "The Commitments" (1991) and as Tina in John Boorman's "The General" (1998). She has appeared in films and television series both in the UK and in the US. She is also a stage actor.


title: Angeline Ball

text: Ball, the youngest of three sisters, was born in Cabra, Dublin. As a child she trained in tap, ballet and modern dance attending the Billie Barry Stage School at the age of eight.


title: Angeline Ball

text: Her breakthrough role came in 1991 when she appeared as backing singer Imelda Quirke in Alan Parker's "The Commitments". In 1993, Ian La Frenais and Dick Clement wrote the short-lived TV series "Over the Rainbow" for her, for which she also wrote the music. In 1994 she played Vada's mother in "My Girl 2" for which she sang a rendition of Charlie Chaplin's "Smile". She worked with "Alan Parker" again in 1996 when she sang backing vocals for the "Evita" soundtrack album.


title: Angeline Ball

text: In 1997 Ball starred alongside "Brendan Gleeson" in John Boorman's "The General", where she portrayed Tina Lawless, the sister in law and mistress of real life Dublin crime boss Martin Cahill. Throughout the 2000s, Ball appeared in a number of UK TV series including "Doc Martin", "Shameless" and "Mr Selfridge". On 26 May 2008, she made her debut as Maggie Townsend on the BBC soap opera "EastEnders"; her final appearance was on 11 June 2008.


title: Angeline Ball

text: Ball has two children. She speaks fluent French and is a trained pilates and yoga instructor. She plays guitar, and released an album in 2020.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Partner is a 2007 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film directed by David Dhawan and produced by Sohail Khan. The film stars Govinda, Salman Khan, Katrina Kaif and Lara Dutta.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: The story of "Partner" was inspired by the 2005 American film "Hitch". The film revolves around a love guru, who gives wooing advice and ideas to his client for the latter's ladylove, and also himself falls in love with a widowed mother. "Partner" was released in worldwide cinemas on 20 July 2007. It received a highly positive response, with particular praise for its comedy scenes and Govinda's performance. A critical and commercial blockbuster, "Partner" collected worldwide and was one of the highest-grossing Bollywood films of 2007.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Dhawan has expressed interest in creating a sequel to the film, but as of 2022 no script had been finalized and news outlets have reported that the film has been shelved entirely.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Prem is a "Love Guru" who solves the love issues of his clients. He meets Bhaskar Diwakar Chaudhary who comes to Prem for help in his love life. Bhaskar loves his boss, Priya Jaisingh, but is unable to express his love to her as she is the daughter of a wealthy businessman, Raj Jaisingh. Prem initially refuses to help Bhaskar and goes to Phuket, Thailand. Bhaskar follows him there and convinces him to help.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: After returning from Thailand, Prem meets Naina, a photojournalist who was running from some gangsters led by Chhota Don, who mimics Shahrukh Khan in "". Prem saves her and falls in love with her. Meanwhile, he starts teaching Bhaskar how to impress Priya. But Bhaskar uses his own simplicity and nonsense acts to impress Priya, who finally falls in love with Bhaskar but does not disclose it to him. Meanwhile, Prem learns that Naina has a son named Rohan from her previous marriage, and to impress Naina, he takes care of him.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Bhaskar reveals to Prem that Priya will marry someone according to Raj's will. They both come to Priya's wedding ceremony with Rohan, but find Naina there and Rohan convinces her to marry Prem while Raj is convinced by Bhaskar. Priya now prepares to marry Bhaskar.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Meanwhile, a spoilt brat named Neil Bakshi comes to Prem for help and he asks Prem to convince a girl to have a one-night stand. Prem gets angry with Neil and tells him that he does not help people with such bad intentions. Neil somehow manages to get his one-night stand and then ditches her, telling her the love guru gave him the advice to do so. Unfortunately, the girl turns out to be Naina's friend Nikki. Naina then sets out to expose Love Guru and finds out that it is Prem. Naina hates Prem for what she thought he did to her friend and publishes a front-page article claiming that Prem can set anyone up with the girl they want using the Priya-Bhaskar relationship as an example. Bhaskar is fired from his job as a result.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Prem thinks that Bhaskar may kill himself without Priya and goes to her to tell her what really happened. Priya realizes that all the things she liked about Bhaskar are what Prem wanted Bhaskar to hide from her and Priya is ready to take Bhaskar back. Prem makes up with Naina by making her hear the truth about him not helping Neil, and they get back together. On both couples' honeymoon night, Bhaskar again asks Prem for help but this time they both get mingled with their respective wives.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: The music was composed by Sajid–Wajid. The soundtrack entered the top five on 23 July 2007. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 18,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's third highest-selling.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Box Office India declared the film a "Blockbuster" and was the second biggest domestic opener at that time. It grossed Rs. 1.03 billion in India and $4.19 million overseas.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: Sony Pictures, owners of the film "Hitch", contemplated a $30-million suit against both the Indian producers for copyright infringements. It would have been the second time after Begunah an international film company took legal action against an Indian entertainment company for plagiarism. "Partner" was eventually released, with Sony acquiring the world exclusive satellite broadcasting rights. The film had a television premiere on Sony Max in late October 2007.


title: Partner (2007 film)

text: A decade later April 2018, "Partner" was acquired by Zee Entertainment Enterprises as part of its programming and branding overhaul.


title: Black War

text: The Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Tasmanians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. The conflict, fought largely as a guerrilla war by both sides, claimed the lives of 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and more than 200 European colonists. The near-destruction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians and the frequent incidence of mass killings have sparked debate among historians over whether the Black War should be defined as an act of genocide.


title: Black War

text: The terms "Black War" and "Black Line" were coined by journalist Henry Melville in 1835, but historian Lyndall Ryan has argued that it should be known as the Tasmanian War. She has also called for the erection of a public memorial to the fallen from both sides of the war.


title: Black War

text: The escalation of violence in the late 1820s prompted Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur to declare martial law—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people—and in November 1830 to order a massive six-week military offensive known as the Black Line, in which 2,200 civilians and soldiers formed a series of moving cordons stretching hundreds of kilometres across the island in order to drive Aboriginal people from the colony's settled districts to the Tasman Peninsula in the southeast, where it was intended they would remain permanently confined.


title: Black War

text: The Black War was prompted by the rapid spread of British settlers and agricultural livestock throughout areas of Tasmania that had been traditional Aboriginal hunting grounds. Historian Nicholas Clements has described the Aboriginal violence as a resistance movement—the use of force against an invading or occupying enemy. He said the Aboriginal attacks were motivated by revenge for European atrocities and the widespread kidnapping, rape and murder of Aboriginal women and girls by convicts, settlers and soldiers, but particularly from the late 1820s the Aboriginal people were also driven by hunger to plunder settlers' homes for food as their hunting grounds shrank, native game disappeared and the dangers of hunting on open ground grew. European violence, meanwhile, was motivated by mounting terror of Aboriginal attacks and a conviction that extermination of the Aboriginal population was the only means by which peace could be secured. Clements noted: "As black violence grew in intensity, so too did the frequency of revenge attacks and pre-emptive strikes by frontiersmen."


title: Black War

text: Attacks were launched by groups of Aboriginal people almost always in daylight with a variety of weapons including spears, rocks and waddies used to kill and maim settlers and shepherds, as well as their livestock, while homes, haystacks and crops were often set alight. European attacks, in contrast, were mainly launched at night or in the early hours of dawn by pursuit parties or roving parties of civilians or soldiers who aimed to strike as their quarry slept in bush camps. Women and children were commonly casualties on both sides.


title: Black War

text: From 1830 Arthur offered rewards for the capture of Aboriginal people, but bounties were also paid when Aboriginal people were killed. From 1829 efforts were made with the aid of humanitarian George Augustus Robinson to launch a "friendly mission" to persuade Aboriginal people to surrender and be removed to an island sanctuary; from November 1830 to December 1831 several groups accepted his offer and 46 were initially placed on Flinders Island, from which escape was deemed to be impossible. Although conflict between Aboriginal people and settlers almost completely ceased from January 1832, another 148 Aboriginal people were captured in the island's northwest over the next four years as a "cleanup" and forcibly removed to Hunter Island and then Flinders Island.


title: Black War

text: Although sealers had begun commercial operations on Van Diemen's Land in late 1798, the first significant European presence on the island came five years later, with the establishment in September 1803 of a small military outpost at Risdon on the Derwent River near present-day Hobart. Several bloody encounters with local Aboriginal clans took place over the next five months, with shots fired and an Aboriginal boy abducted. David Collins arrived as the colony's first lieutenant governor in February 1804 with instructions from London that any acts of violence against the Aboriginal people by Europeans were to be punished, but failed to publish those instructions, leaving no legal framework on how to deal with any violent conflict.


title: Black War

text: On 3 May 1804, alarmed soldiers from Risdon fired grapeshot from a carronade on a group of about 100 Aboriginal people after an encounter at a farm, while settlers and convicts fired rifles, pistols, and muskets in support. Magistrate Robert Knopwood told a subsequent inquiry into the so-called Risdon massacre that five or six Aboriginal people had been killed, but other witnesses claimed as many as 50 men, women, and children had died, with 30 bodies later burned or buried to extinguish the odour as they decomposed.


title: Black War

text: A wave of violence erupted during a drought in 1806–7 as tribes in both the north and south of the island killed or wounded several Europeans in conflicts sparked by the competition for game, while explorer and naval officer John Oxley referred in an 1810 report to the "many atrocious cruelties" inflicted on Aboriginal people by convict bushrangers in the north, which in turn led to black attacks on solitary white hunters.


title: Black War

text: The arrival of 600 colonists from Norfolk Island between 1807 and 1813 increased tensions as they established farms along the River Derwent and east and west of Launceston, occupying 10 percent of Van Diemen's Land. By 1814 12,700ha of land was under cultivation, with 5,000 cattle and 38,000 sheep. The Norfolk Islanders used violence to stake their claim on the land, attacking Aboriginal camps at night, slaughtering parents, and abducting the orphaned children as their servants. The attacks prompted retaliatory raids on settlers' cattle herds in the southeast. Between 1817 and 1824 the colonial population rose from 2,000 to 12,600, and in 1823 alone more than 1000 land grants totalling 175,704ha were made to new settlers; by that year Van Diemen's Land's sheep population had reached 200,000 and the so-called Settled Districts accounted for 30 per cent of the island's total land area. The rapid colonisation transformed traditional kangaroo hunting grounds into farms with grazing livestock as well as fences, hedges and stone walls, while police and military patrols were increased to control the convict farm labourers.


title: Black War

text: Over the first two decades of settlement Aboriginal people launched at least 57 attacks on white settlers, punctuating a general calm, but by 1820 the violence was becoming markedly more frequent, with one Russian explorer reporting that year that "the natives of Tasmania live in a state of perpetual hostility against the Europeans". From the mid-1820s, the number of attacks initiated by both whites and blacks rose sharply. Clements says the main reasons for settler attacks on Aboriginal people were revenge, killing for sport, sexual desire for women and children and suppression of the native threat. Van Diemen's Land had an enormous gender imbalance, with male colonists outnumbering females six to one in 1822 and the ratio as high as 16 to one among the convict population. Clements has suggested the "voracious appetite" for native women was the most important trigger for the Black War. He wrote: "Sex continued to be a central motivation for attacking natives until around 1828, by which time killing the enemy had taken priority over raping them."


title: Black War

text: From 1825 to 1828, the number of native attacks more than doubled each year, raising panic among settlers. By 1828, says Clements, colonists had no doubt they were fighting a war—"but this was not a conventional war, and the enemy could not be combated by conventional means. The blacks were not one people, but rather a number of disparate tribes. They had no home base and no recognisable command structure."


title: Black War

text: George Arthur, Governor of the colony since May 1824, had issued a proclamation on his arrival that placed Aboriginal people under the protection of British law and threatened prosecution and trial for Europeans who continued to "wantonly destroy" them. Arthur sought to establish a "native institution" for Aboriginal people and in September 1826 expressed a hope that the trial and subsequent hanging of two Aboriginal people arrested for the spearing of three colonists earlier that year would "not only prevent further atrocities ... but lead to a conciliatory line of conduct". But between September and November 1826 six more colonists were murdered. Among them was George Taylor Junior, a "respectable settler" from Campbell Town, whose body was found "transfixed with many spears, and his head dreadfully shattered with blows, inflicted either with stones or waddies." The "Colonial Times" newspaper, in response, demanded a drastic change of official policy, urging the forcible removal of all Aboriginal people from the Settled Districts to an island in the Bass Strait. It warned: "Self-defence is the first law of nature. The government must remove the natives—if not, they will be hunted down like wild beasts, and destroyed!"


title: Black War

text: Responding to the rising panic, Arthur on 29 November 1826 issued a government notice setting out the legal conditions under which the colonists could kill Aboriginal people when they attacked settlers or their property. The notice declared that acts of aggression could be repelled "in the same as if they had proceeded from an accredited State". Though the notice was greeted by the "Colonial Times" as a declaration of war on Aboriginal people in the Settled Districts, and some settlers saw it as "a noble service to shoot them down", Clements believes that the legality of killing blacks was never made clear to colonists and historian Lyndall Ryan has argued that Arthur intended nothing more than to force their surrender.