title: John Turner

text: Turner was educated at Ashbury College and St Patrick's College, Ottawa (senior matriculation). He enrolled at the University of British Columbia (UBC) in 1945 at age 16 where he was a member of the UBC chapter of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity, and was among Canada's outstanding track sprinters in the late 1940s. He held the Canadian record for the men's 100-yard dash and qualified for the 1948 London Olympics, but a bad knee kept him from competing. He graduated from UBC with a BA (Honours) in 1949.


title: John Turner

text: Awarded a Rhodes Scholarship, Turner went on to Magdalen College at the University of Oxford, where he earned a BA, Jurisprudence, 1951; a Bachelor of Civil Law, 1952; and an MA, 1957. He was on the track and field team at Oxford. One of his teammates was Roger Bannister, who became the first runner to break the four-minute barrier in the mile. At Oxford, Turner was a classmate and friend of future Australian Prime Ministers Malcolm Fraser and Bob Hawke, as well as Jeremy Thorpe, future leader of Britain's Liberal Party. He also pursued doctoral studies at the University of Paris from 1952 to 1953.


title: John Turner

text: On May 19, 1959, at a party hosted by his stepfather, as Lieutenant Governor, to celebrate the opening of the new British Columbia Government House, Turner danced with Princess Margaret, one year his junior. This was the first time that Turner received significant press attention in Canada; there was considerable speculation about whether the two would become a serious couple. According to letters by Margaret obtained by the "Daily Mail", the relationship was more serious than previously thought with the princess writing in one letter, seven years later, that she "nearly married him". According to contemporary press reports, the relationship caused serious consternation at Buckingham Palace as Turner was a Roman Catholic, and Margaret would have had to forfeit her place in the line of succession to the British throne to marry him.


title: John Turner

text: Brenda confirmed a "very definite attraction" between her brother and the princess, but said that Turner was uninterested in royalty and would not have given up Catholicism. After meeting Margaret again during her Canadian tour, Turner attended her party at Balmoral Castle in August 1959 where his roommate was Margaret's future husband Antony Armstrong-Jones, and was the only Canadian unofficial guest at their wedding in May 1960. Turner remained friends with Margaret, he and his wife often meeting the princess in Britain or during official visits to Canada. They attended Margaret's 2002 private funeral and were Canada's official representatives at the memorial service.


title: John Turner

text: Turner was married on May 11, 1963, to Geills McCrae Kilgour (b. 1937) who was then a systems engineer with IBM, and the great niece of Canadian Army doctor John McCrae, the author of what is probably the best-known First World War poem, "In Flanders Fields", and sister of David Kilgour, a long-time Canadian Member of Parliament. The Turners have a daughter named Elizabeth and two sons: Michael and Andrew. Their second son, David, died in 2021. The Turner children attended Rockcliffe Park Public School, in Ottawa. All three sons attended Upper Canada College, in Toronto.


title: John Turner

text: Turner practised law, initially with the firm of Stikeman Elliott in Montreal, Quebec. He was elected as Member of Parliament for St. Lawrence—St. George in 1962 and was reelected there in every election until the riding's dissolution in 1968. He was the Member of Parliament for Ottawa—Carleton from 1968 to 1976.


title: John Turner

text: In 1965, while vacationing in Barbados, Turner noticed that former prime minister and Leader of the Opposition John Diefenbaker, staying at the same hotel, was struggling in the strong surf and undertow. Turner, a competitive swimmer while in university, jumped in and pulled Diefenbaker to shore.


title: John Turner

text: Turner was generally respected for his work as a cabinet minister in the 1960s and 1970s, under prime ministers Lester Pearson and Pierre Trudeau.


title: John Turner

text: He served in the Cabinet of Prime Minister Lester Pearson in various capacities, most notably as Minister of Consumer and Corporate Affairs. When Pearson retired, Turner ran to succeed him at the 1968 leadership convention. Turner, at age 38 the youngest of the dozen leadership candidates, stated "My time is now", and remarked during his speech that he was "not here for some vague, future convention in, say, 1984". Turner stayed on until the fourth and final ballot, finishing third behind Pierre Trudeau and runner-up Robert Winters.


title: John Turner

text: Turner served in Trudeau's cabinet as minister of justice for four years. Biographer Paul Litt argues that Turner was a hard-working, well-informed minister whose success was assured by his warm relationship with his peers. His achievements, say Litt, included strengthening the rights of individual defendants on trial, greater efficiency in the justice system, creation of the influential Law Reform Commission, selecting highly professional judges, and bringing a policy perspective to the Justice Department. He led the government's position in the highly controversial Official Languages Act, and he took control during the October Crisis in 1970.


title: John Turner

text: A leader of the Business Liberal faction of the Liberal Party, Turner then served as Minister of Finance from 1972 until 1975. His challenges were severe in the face of global financial issues such as the 1973 oil crisis, the collapse of the postwar Bretton Woods trading system, slowing economic growth combined with soaring inflation (stagflation), and growing deficits. His positions were more conservative than Trudeau's and they drew apart. In 1975 Turner surprisingly resigned from cabinet. The Liberals had won the 1974 election by attacking Robert Stanfield's Progressive Conservatives over their platform involving wage and price controls. However, Trudeau decided to implement the wage and price controls in late 1975, so some have suggested that Turner quit rather than carry out that proposal. In a 2013 interview with Catherine Clark on CPAC Turner confirmed his resignation from cabinet was a direct result of refusing to implement wage and price controls, after campaigning against them in 1974.


title: John Turner

text: In his memoirs, Trudeau wrote that Turner said he resigned as Finance Minister in 1975 because he was tired of politics, after 13 years in Ottawa, and wanted to move on to a better-paying job as a lawyer in Toronto, to better support his family and to be with them more, as his children were growing up. Trudeau also suggested that Turner's years as finance minister were very difficult because of turbulent and unusual conditions in the world economy, characterized as stagflation, largely caused by enormous increases in the price of oil.


title: John Turner

text: From 1975 to 1984, Turner worked as a corporate lawyer at the Bay Street law firm McMillan Binch. When Pierre Trudeau resigned as Liberal leader in 1979 following an election loss, Turner announced that he would not be a candidate for the Liberal leadership. Trudeau was talked into rescinding his resignation after the government of Joe Clark was defeated by a motion of no confidence, and returned to contest and win the 1980 federal election. Trudeau then served as Prime Minister until 1984.


title: John Turner

text: Trudeau retired after polls showed the Liberals faced certain defeat in the next election if he remained in office. Turner then re-entered politics, and defeated Jean Chrétien, his successor as finance minister, on the second ballot of the June 1984 Liberal leadership convention. He was formally appointed prime minister on June 30. When he was sworn in, Turner was not an MP or senator. Had he wished to have parliament summoned, he would not have been able to appear on the floor of the House of Commons. He also announced that he would not run in a by-election to get into the Commons, but would instead run in the next general election as the Liberal candidate in the British Columbia riding of Vancouver Quadra. This was a sharp departure from usual practice, in which the incumbent in a safe seat resigns to allow a newly elected party leader a chance to get into parliament, and the seat Turner intended to contest was held by the Tories instead. However, this was part of Turner's strategy to rebuild the Liberals' image in western Canada; at the time, the party held no seats west of Winnipeg.


title: John Turner

text: In his final days of office, Trudeau recommended that Governor General Jeanne Sauvé appoint over 200 Liberals to patronage positions, including senators, judges, and executives on various governmental and crown corporation boards. The large number of appointments, as well as doubtful qualifications of some appointees, generated a severe backlash across the political spectrum. Turner then made a further 70 appointments himself, one of Trudeau's conditions for retiring earlier than he had planned.


title: John Turner

text: On July 9, only nine days after being sworn in, Turner asked Sauvé to dissolve parliament and advised her to call an election for early September. Turner was persuaded by internal polls that showed the Liberals were ahead of the Tories; after Turner won the leadership his party surged in the polls to take a lead, after trailing by more than 20 percentage points before he was selected. Progressive Conservative leader Brian Mulroney and other experts had expected Turner to tour Canada during the summer and early autumn, accompanying Queen Elizabeth II and Pope John Paul II on their upcoming visits, and then call the election for later in the autumn. However, the Liberals' polling data was faulty; they had in fact not polled since May and the situation had since changed, not least because of the public uproar over the patronage appointments. As the campaign unfolded, the Tories and Mulroney, who was fighting his first general election in any capacity, soon took the lead.


title: John Turner

text: Early in the campaign, Turner appeared rusty and old-fashioned. His policies contrasted with Trudeau's and seemed to legitimize the Tory calls for lowering the deficit, improving relations with the United States, cutting the bureaucracy, and promoting more federal-provincial harmony. He spoke of creating "make work projects", a discarded phrase from the 1970s that had been replaced by the less patronizing "job creation programs". Turner was also caught on television patting the bottoms of Liberal Party President Iona Campagnolo and Vice-President Lise St. Martin-Tremblay, causing an uproar among feminists, who saw such behaviour as sexist and condescending.


title: John Turner

text: During the televised leaders' debate, Turner attacked Mulroney over the patronage machine that the latter had allegedly set up in anticipation of victory, comparing it to the Union Nationale governments of Quebec. Mulroney responded by pointing to the raft of patronage appointments made on the advice of Trudeau and Turner. Turner had the right to advise Sauvé to cancel Trudeau's appointments—advice that she was bound to follow by convention—but failed to do so and added to his own. Mulroney demanded that Turner apologize to the country for what he called "these horrible appointments." Turner claimed that "I had no option" except to let them stand. Mulroney responded, "You had an option, sirto say 'no'and you chose to say 'yes' to the old attitudes and the old stories of the Liberal Party." He highlighted the Liberals' long record in government and resulting patronage appointments. Many observers believed that Mulroney clinched the election at this point, as it made Turner look weak and indecisive. Analysts agreed he was "done in by television."


title: John Turner

text: Turner discovered late in the campaign that the Liberals' electoral hopes were poor in their traditional stronghold of Quebec. The party had heretofore relied on Trudeau's appeal, patronage, and traditional dislike of the Progressive Conservatives for victory in recent previous elections. Turner had surrounded himself with Trudeau's factional opponents and Trudeau himself did not endorse Turner. In a last-minute turnaround, Turner rehired much of Trudeau's staff during the final weeks, but this had little effect. Quebec's disaffection with the federal Liberals regarding patriation in 1982 further contributed to their defeat. Mulroney, a native Quebecker, was able to harness that discontent to the Progressive Conservatives' advantage by promising a new constitutional agreement.


title: John Turner

text: On September 4, the Liberals were swept from power in a Tory landslide. The Liberals were cut down to 40 seats, the fewest in the party's history until 2011, against 211 for the Progressive Conservatives. The Liberals fell to 17 seats in Quebec, all but four in and around Montreal. Eleven members of Turner's cabinet were defeated. It was the worst defeat the Liberals experienced in a federal election since 1958.


title: John Turner

text: Turner stepped down as prime minister on September 17. The election having been called just over a week after his being sworn in, Turner held the office of prime minister for two months and seventeen days, the second-shortest stint in Canadian history, ahead of only Sir Charles Tupper, who took office after dissolution of parliament. Turner, along with Tupper and later Kim Campbell, were the only PMs who never faced a parliament or implemented any legislative initiative.


title: John Turner

text: In 1984, Turner managed to defeat the Tory incumbent in Vancouver Quadra, Bill Clarke by 3,200 votes, a surprising result given the size of the Tory wave, and became leader of the opposition. He was the only Liberal MP from British Columbia, and one of only two from west of Ontario. The Liberals, amid their worst showing in party history and led by an unpopular Turner, were said by some pundits to be following the British Liberals into oblivion. Though the Liberals had not fared much better in the 1958 election, they had clearly emerged as the main opposition party back then. After the 1984 election, however, the NDP were not far behind with 30 seats. Their leader Ed Broadbent consistently outpolled Turner and even Mulroney, except in Quebec.


title: John Turner

text: The Liberals responded by using their large Senate majority, built up over years of Liberal majorities in the Commons, to stall Mulroney's legislation. In addition, a group of young Liberal MPs, known as the "Rat Pack", pestered Mulroney at every turn. The group included Sheila Copps, Brian Tobin, Don Boudria, and John Nunziata.


title: John Turner

text: Turner's leadership was frequently questioned, and in the lead up to the 1986 Liberal convention, a vote of confidence loomed large. The popular Jean Chrétien resigned his seat, creating a stir in caucus. Keith Davey publicly voiced his concerns with Turner's leadership, which coincided with backroom struggles involving Chrétien's supporters. The public conflict is said to have influenced many Liberals to support Turner, and he ended up getting a little over 75% of the delegate vote.


title: John Turner

text: The Liberals faced more internal conflict in the next few years, but polls frequently had them in front of the Progressive Conservatives (however, with Turner last in preferred prime minister categories). The upcoming Canada–US Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and Meech Lake Accord threatened to divide the party until Turner took the position of being pro-Meech Lake and against the FTA. Turner asked the Liberal Senators to hold off on passing the legislation to implement the agreement until an election was held. It was later revealed that Mulroney planned to have an election called, anyway.


title: John Turner

text: When the election was called for November 21, 1988, the Liberals had some early struggles, notably during one day in Montreal where 3 different costs were given for the proposed Liberal daycare program. The campaign was also hampered by a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation report that stated there was a movement in the backroom to replace Turner with Chrétien.


title: John Turner

text: Turner campaigned rallying support against the proposed FTA, an agreement that he said would lead to the abandonment of Canada's political sovereignty to the United States. His performance in the debate and his attacks on Mulroney and the FTA, where he accused the Progressive Conservative Prime Minister of selling Canada out with one signature of a pen, raised his poll numbers, and soon the Liberals were hoping for a majority. This prompted the Progressive Conservatives to stop the relatively calm campaign they had been running, and go with Allan Gregg's suggestion of "bombing the bridge" that joined anti-FTA voters and the Liberals; Turner's backbone. The ads focused on Turner's leadership struggles, and combined with over $6 million in pro-FTA ads, stopped Turner's momentum. Also not helping the Liberals was that the NDP had opposed the FTA as well (though not as vocally); this likely resulted in vote-splitting between the opposition parties. Although most Canadians voted for parties opposed to free trade, the Tories were returned with a majority government, and implemented the deal.


title: John Turner

text: The Liberals more than doubled their representation to 83 seats, and kept their role as the Official Opposition; the NDP had also made gains but finished a distant third with 43 seats. The Progressive Conservatives won a reduced majority government with 169 seats.


title: John Turner

text: The election loss seemed to confirm Turner's fate; he announced he was standing down from the party leadership in May 1989, officially resigning in June 1990. Turner resigned as Official Opposition leader, while still holding the Liberal leadership, so Herb Gray became the caucus leader in the interim. Chrétien won that year's leadership convention over Paul Martin. Although not officially endorsed by Turner himself, Martin was widely the favourite of Turner's supporters.


title: John Turner

text: Turner continued to represent Vancouver Quadra in the House of Commons before retiring from politics in the 1993 election.


title: John Turner

text: Turner voiced his support for the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which campaigns for democratic reformation of the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.


title: John Turner

text: In 2017, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Canadian Geographical Society. Turner lived in the Deer Park neighbourhood of Toronto.


title: John Turner

text: Turner died on September 19, 2020, at the age of 91. A state funeral was held for Turner on October 6, 2020, at St. Michael's Cathedral Basilica. Turner was buried in a private service at Mount Pleasant Cemetery. Turner and Mackenzie King are two former Prime Ministers interred at Mount Pleasant.


title: John Turner

text: According to Canadian protocol, as a former prime minister, he was styled "The Right Honourable" for life.


title: John Turner

text: Turner was ranked 18th out of the first 20 Prime Ministers of Canada (through Jean Chrétien) by a survey of Canadian historians in 1999. The survey was used in the book "Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders" by J. L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer.


title: John Turner

text: Turner was appointed a Companion of the Order of Canada on October 19, 1994, and was invested on May 3, 1995. His citation reads: He became Canada's seventeenth Prime Minister, crowning a distinguished parliamentary career during which he held several key Cabinet portfolios. Parallel to his political life, he has been a respected member of the law profession and supporter of many charitable organizations, in particular Mount Sinai Hospital and the Community Foundation of Toronto. His passion for his country is admired by all Canadians.


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: Scott Cohen is an American actor. He is known for his portrayal of Wolf in the 2000 NBC miniseries "The 10th Kingdom", his performance as detective Steve Thomas in "Perfect Murder, Perfect Town", his recurring role as Lorelai Gilmore's love interest Max Medina on the WB series "Gilmore Girls", and his role as Josh in the indie romantic flick "Kissing Jessica Stein".


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: In 1990, Cohen was offered a breakthrough role in Adrian Lyne's "Jacob's Ladder". In the video game "Ripper", he portrays protagonist Jake Quinlan. He appeared in the movie "Gia" with Angelina Jolie, as a parole officer in the Showtime original series "Street Time" with Rob Morrow, had a recurring role as Det. Harry Denby in the seventh season of "NYPD Blue", and was featured in the 2005 NBC series "" as Det. Chris Ravell.


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: In 2000 Cohen had a co-starring role as Wolf in the hit miniseries "The 10th Kingdom", where he played a mythical character from a land of fairy tales. He starred opposite Kimberly Williams, John Larroquette, Dianne Wiest, Daniel Lapaine, Ed O'Neill, and Rutger Hauer. The miniseries won many awards, such as the 2000 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Design.


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: Also in 2000 Cohen played Max Medina, in the hit TV series "Gilmore Girls", as a teacher at Chilton high school where the main character's daughter went to school. Medina became the boyfriend of Lauren Graham's character, Lorelai, in season one and fiancé in season two.


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: In 2002–2003, he made some appearances on the game show "Pyramid", hosted by Donny Osmond. He guest-starred in the premiere episode of the eighth season of "", playing the role of a city politician with a dark family secret and whose daughter is a drug addict involved with a drug dealer boyfriend killed mysteriously in the opening scene.


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: Cohen played Jack Woolf in the movie "The Other Woman" with Natalie Portman and Charlie Tahan. He starred in the British thriller "Iron Cross". In the film he plays Ronnie, whose father, Joseph, is played by Roy Scheider. Cohen was on USA Network's drama series "Necessary Roughness" as the fixer, Nico.


title: Scott Cohen (actor)

text: Cohen had a role in "The Carrie Diaries" as Carrie's dad's old friend starting in Season 1 Episode 3. He gives Carrie her internship at his law firm in New York City, and Carrie dates his son. He also courts and eventually marries Larissa, Carrie's boss at "Interview" magazine.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian anarchism is a Christian movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. It is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answerable—the authority of God as embodied in the teachings of Jesus. It therefore rejects the idea that human governments have ultimate authority over human societies. Christian anarchists denounce the state, believing it is violent, deceitful and, when glorified, idolatrous.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian anarchists hold that the "Reign of God" is the proper expression of the relationship between God and humanity. Under the "Reign of God", human relationships would be characterized by divided authority, servant leadership, and universal compassion—not by the hierarchical, authoritarian structures that are normally attributed to religious social order. Most Christian anarchists are pacifists who reject war and the use of violence.


title: Christian anarchism

text: More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Leo Tolstoy's "The Kingdom of God Is Within You" is often regarded as a key text for modern Christian anarchism.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Jacques Ellul, a French philosopher and Christian anarchist, notes that the final verse of the Book of Judges () states that there was no king in Israel and that "everyone did as they saw fit". Subsequently, as recorded in the first Book of Samuel (1 Samuel 8) the people of Israel wanted a king "so as to be like other nations".


title: Christian anarchism

text: God declared that the people had rejected him as their king. He warned that a human king would lead to militarism, conscription and taxation, and that their pleas for mercy from the king's demands would go unanswered. Samuel passed on God's warning to the Israelites but they still demanded a king, and Saul became their ruler. Much of the subsequent Old Testament chronicles the Israelites trying to live with this decision.


title: Christian anarchism

text: More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Alexandre Christoyannopoulos explains that the Sermon perfectly illustrates Jesus's central teaching of love and forgiveness. Christian anarchists claim that the state, founded on violence, contravenes the Sermon and Jesus' call to .


title: Christian anarchism

text: The gospels tell of Jesus's temptation in the desert. For the final temptation, Jesus is taken up to a high mountain by Satan and told that if he bows down to Satan he will give him all the kingdoms of the world. Christian anarchists use this as evidence that all Earthly kingdoms and governments are ruled by Satan, otherwise they would not be Satan's to give. Jesus refuses the temptation, choosing to serve God instead, implying that Jesus is aware of the corrupting nature of Earthly power.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian eschatology and various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the state and political power as the Beast in the Book of Revelation.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Friedrich Nietzsche and Frank Seaver Billings criticize Christianity and anarchism by arguing that they are the same thing.


title: Christian anarchism

text: According to Alexandre Christoyannopoulos, several of the Church Fathers' writings suggest anarchism as God's ideal. The first Christians opposed the primacy of the state: "We must obey God as ruler rather than men" (Acts 4:19, 5:29, 1 Corinthians 6:1-6); "Stripping the governments and the authorities bare, he exhibited them in open public as conquered, leading them in a triumphal procession by means of it." (Colossians 2:15). Also, some early Christian communities appear to have practised anarchist communism, such as the Jerusalem group described in Acts, who shared their money and labour equally and fairly among the members. Roman Montero claims that using an anthropological framework, such as that of the anarchist David Graeber, one can plausibly reconstruct the communism of the early Christian communities and that the practices were widespread, long-lasting, and substantial. Christian anarchists, such as Kevin Craig, insist that the communities were centred on true love and care for one another, rather than liturgy. They also allege that the reason for the early Christians were persecuted was not that they worshipped Jesus Christ but that they refused to worship human idols claiming divine status (see Imperial cult). Since they refused to worship the Roman Emperor, they refused to swear any oath of allegiance to the Roman Empire. When requested that he swear by the emperor, Speratus, spokesperson of the Scillitan Martyrs, said in 180CE, "I recognize not the empire of this world... because I know my Lord, the King of kings and Emperor of all nations.


title: Christian anarchism

text: In his introduction to a translation of the "Sayings of the Desert Fathers", Thomas Merton describes the early monastics as "Truly in certain sense 'anarchists,' and it will do no harm to think of them as such."


title: Christian anarchism

text: During the Ante-Nicene Period, there were several independent sects who took a radically different approach to Christianity from that of the Proto-Orthodox Church and displayed anarchist tendencies by relying on direct revelation, rather than scripture, such as:


title: Christian anarchism

text: For Christian anarchists, the moment that epitomised the degeneration of Christianity was the conversion of Emperor Constantine after his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Christianity was then legalized under the Edict of Milan in 313, which hastened the Church's transformation from a humble bottom-up sect to an authoritarian top-down organization. Christian anarchists point out that marked the beginning of the "Constantinian shift" in which Christianity gradually came to be identified with the will of the ruling elite by becoming the state church of the Roman Empire and in some cases (such as the Crusades, Inquisition, and the French Wars of Religion) a religious justification for violence.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Various libertarian socialist authors have identified the written work of the English Protestant social reformer Gerrard Winstanley and the social activism of his group, the Diggers, as anticipating their line of thought. For the anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Although (Pierre Joseph) Proudhon was the first writer to call himself an anarchist, at least two predecessors outlined systems that contain all the basic elements of anarchism. The first was Gerrard Winstanley (1609–1676), a linen draper who led the small movement of the Diggers during the Commonwealth. Winstanley and his followers protested in the name of a radical Christianity against the economic distress that followed the Civil War and against the inequality that the grandees of the New Model Army seemed intent on preserving.


title: Christian anarchism

text: In 1649–1650, the Diggers squatted on stretches of common land in southern England and attempted to set up communities based on work on the land and the sharing of goods. The communities failed following a crackdown by the English authorities, but a series of pamphlets by Winstanley survived, of which "The New Law of Righteousness" (1649) was the most important. Advocating a rational Christianity, Winstanley equated Christ with “the universal liberty” and declared the universally corrupting nature of authority. He saw “an equal privilege to share in the blessing of liberty” and detected an intimate link between the institution of property and the lack of freedom." For Murray Bookchin "In the modern world, anarchism first appeared as a movement of the peasantry and yeomanry against declining feudal institutions. In Germany its foremost spokesman during the Peasant Wars was Thomas Müntzer; in England, Gerrard Winstanley, a leading participant in the Digger movement. The concepts held by Müntzer and Winstanley were superbly attuned to the needs of their time — a historical period when the majority of the population lived in the countryside and when the most militant revolutionary forces came from an agrarian world. It would be painfully academic to argue whether Müntzer and Winstanley could have achieved their ideals. What is of real importance is that they spoke to their time; their anarchist concepts followed naturally from the rural society that furnished the bands of the peasant armies in Germany and the New Model in England."


title: Christian anarchism

text: The 19th-century Christian abolitionists Adin Ballou and William Lloyd Garrison were critical of all human governments and believed that they would be eventually supplanted by a new order in which individuals are guided solely by their love for God. Ballou and Garrison advocated Christian nonresistance to evil, as they saw Christ as the embodiment of "passive nonresistance," or nonviolent praxis against the state. They both condemned violence against southern slave owners and advocated instead for moral suasion or consistent rebukes against the institution of slavery in efforts to persuade racist southerns and indifferent northerners to the abolitionist' cause. At the outbreak of the Civil War, however, Garrison later embraced the armed struggle for black liberation and the Lincoln administration. Ballou remained a lifelong pacifist and condemned the Civil War for fear of the eventual retaliation by white southerns on freed black Americans.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Ballou's and Garrison's writings heavily influenced Leo Tolstoy, who was inspired by their lifelong commitment to abolitionism. Tolstoy wrote extensively on his burgeoning Christian anarchist principles in nonfiction books like "The Kingdom of God is Within You", which is considered a key Christian anarchist text. Tolstoy sought to separate Russian Orthodox Christianity, which was merged with the state, from what he believed was the true message of Jesus as contained in the Gospels, specifically in the Sermon on the Mount. He took the viewpoint that all governments that wage war and churches that in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles of nonviolence. Although Tolstoy never actually used the term "Christian anarchism" in "The Kingdom of God Is Within You", reviews of the book after its publication in 1894 appear to have coined the term.


title: Christian anarchism

text: The antireligious former priest Thomas J. Hagerty was a primary author of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) Preamble ("an injury to one is an injury to all"). IWW members included Christian anarchists like Dorothy Day and Ammon Hennacy.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Dorothy Day was a journalist turned social activist who became known for her social justice campaigns in defense of the poor. Alongside Peter Maurin, she founded the Catholic Worker Movement in 1933, which espoused nonviolence and hospitality for the impoverished and the downtrodden. Day was declared Servant of God when a cause for sainthood was opened for her by Pope John Paul II. Day's distributist economic views are very similar to Proudhon's mutualism by which she was influenced. Day also named the phrase "precarious work." based on the former anarchocommunist Léonce Crenier's embrace of poverty. Peter Maurin's vision to transform the social order consisted of establishing urban houses of hospitality to care for the destitute, rural farming communities to teach city dwellers agrarianism and encourage a movement back-to-the-land, and roundtable discussions in community centres to clarify thought and initiate action.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Simone Weil was a French philosopher who was very early animated by a great compassion for the exploited. She was first a socialist and then an anarchist. In 1930s, she converted to "love of Christ." During her experience, she explains that she suddenly felt that Christianity was the religion of the slaves and that she, like other slaves, could not resist adhering to it. She is considered a "Christian mystic" and an "anarchist Christian".


title: Christian anarchism

text: With some notable exceptions such as the Catholic Worker Movement, many Christian anarchists are critical of Church dogma and rituals. Christian anarchists tend to wish that Christians were less preoccupied with performing rituals and preaching dogmatic theology, and more with following Jesus' teaching and practices. Jacques Ellul and Dave Andrews claim that Jesus did not intend to be the founder of an institutional religion, while Michael Elliot believes one of Jesus' intentions was to bypass human intermediaries and do away with priests.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian anarchists, such as David Lipscomb, Leo Tolstoy, Ammon Hennacy, Jacques Ellul, and Dave Andrews, follow Jesus' call to not resist evil but turn the other cheek. They argue that this teaching can only imply a condemnation of the state, as the police and army hold a monopoly over the legitimate use of force. They believe freedom will only be guided by the grace of God if they show compassion to others and turn the other cheek when confronted with violence. Christian anarchists believe violence begets violence and the ends never justify the means.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Many Christian anarchists practice the principles of nonviolence, nonresistance, and turning the other cheek. To illustrate how nonresistance works in practice, Alexandre Christoyannopoulos offers the following Christian anarchist response to terrorism:


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian anarchists such as Ammon Hennacy, Peter Maurin and Dorothy Day often advocate voluntary poverty. This can be for a variety of reasons, such as withdrawing support for government by reducing taxable income or following Jesus' teachings. Jesus appears to teach voluntary poverty when he told his disciples, "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God" (Mark 10:25) and "You cannot serve both God and Mammon" (Luke 16:13).


title: Christian anarchism

text: The most common challenge for anarchist theologians is interpreting Paul's Epistle to the Romans 13:1–7, in which Paul demanded obedience to governing authorities and described them as God's servants exacting punishment on wrongdoers. Romans 13:1–7 holds the most explicit reference to the state in the New Testament but other parallel texts include Titus 3:1, Hebrews 13:17 and 1 Peter 2:13-17.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Some theologians, such as C.E.B. Cranfield, have interpreted Romans 13:1–7 to mean the Church should support the state, as God has sanctified the state to be his main tool to preserve social order. Similarly, in the case of the state being involved in a "just war", some theologians argue that it's permissible for Christians to serve the state and wield the sword. Christian anarchists do not share these interpretations of Romans 13 but still recognize it as "a very embarrassing passage."


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian anarchists and pacifists such as Jacques Ellul and Vernard Eller do not attempt to overthrow the state given Romans 13 and Jesus' command to turn the other cheek. As wrath and vengeance are contrary to the Christian values of kindness and forgiveness, Ellul neither supports, nor participates in, the state. Eller articulates this position by restating the passage this way:


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christians who interpret Romans 13 as advocating support for governing authorities are left with the difficulty of how to act under tyrants or dictators. Ernst Käsemann, in his "Commentary on Romans", challenged the mainstream Christian interpretation of the passage in light of German Lutheran Churches using this passage to justify the Holocaust.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Paul's letter to Roman Christians declares "For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong." However Christian anarchists point out an inconsistency if this text were to be taken literally and in isolation as Jesus and Paul were both executed by the governing authorities or "rulers" even though they did "right." The content of Paul's letter to the Romans is also denied by Paul himself in the same letter's 12:2 verse: "Do not conform to this world's system of things, but change yourselves by using your own intellect, so that you shall understand by yourselves the good and perfect will of God." In his Epistle to the Ephesians, 6:12, Paul states: "For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this world's obscurantism".


title: Christian anarchism

text: There are also Christians anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, who favor Jesuism and do not see the need to integrate Paul's teachings into their subversive way of life. Tolstoy believed Paul was instrumental in the church's "deviation" from Jesus' teaching and practices whilst Hennacy believed "Paul spoiled the message of Christ". In contrast to Eller, Hennacy and Ciaron O'Reilly advocate nonviolent civil disobedience to confront state oppression.


title: Christian anarchism

text: In the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:33-37), Jesus tells his followers to not swear oaths in the name of God or Man. Tolstoy, Adin Ballou and Petr Chelčický understand this to mean that Christians should never bind themselves to any oath as they may not be able to fulfil the will of God if they are bound to the will of a fellow-man. Tolstoy takes the view that all oaths are evil, but especially an oath of allegiance.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Some Christian anarchists resist taxes in the belief that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical or destructive activities such as war, and paying taxes inevitably funds these activities, whilst others submit to taxation. Adin Ballou wrote that if the act of resisting taxes requires physical force to withhold what a government tries to take, then it is important to submit to taxation. Ammon Hennacy, who, like Ballou also believed in nonresistance, eased his conscience by simply living below the income tax threshold.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Christian anarchists do not interpret the injunction in Matthew 22:21 to "give to Caesar what is Caesar's" as advocating support for taxes, but as further advice to free oneself from material attachment. For example, Dorothy Day said if we were to give everything to God there will be nothing left for Caesar, and Jacques Ellul believed the passage showed that Caesar may have rights over fiat money but not things that are made by God, as he explained:


title: Christian anarchism

text: Vegetarianism in the Christian tradition has a long history commencing in the first centuries of Church with the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers who abandoned the "world of men" for intimacy with the God of Jesus Christ. Vegetarianism amongst hermits and Christian monastics in the Eastern Christian and Roman Catholic traditions remains common to this day as a means of simplifying one's life, and as a practice of asceticism. Leo Tolstoy, Ammon Hennacy, and Théodore Monod extended their belief in nonviolence and compassion to all living beings through vegetarianism.


title: Christian anarchism

text: The Brotherhood Church is a Christian anarchist and pacifist community. The Brotherhood Church can be traced back to 1887 when a Congregationalist minister called John Bruce Wallace started a magazine called ""The Brotherhood"" in Limavady, Northern Ireland. An intentional community with Quaker origins has been located at Stapleton, near Pontefract, Yorkshire, since 1921.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Established by Peter Maurin and Dorothy Day in the early 1930s, the Catholic Worker Movement is a Christian movement dedicated to nonviolence, personalism and voluntary poverty. Over 130 Catholic Worker communities exist in the United States where "houses of hospitality" care for the homeless. The Joe Hill House of hospitality (which closed in 1968) in Salt Lake City, Utah featured an enormous twelve feet by fifteen foot mural of Jesus Christ and Joe Hill. Present-day Catholic Workers include Ciaron O'Reilly, an Irish-Australian civil rights and anti-war activist.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Anne Klejment, professor of history at University of St. Thomas, wrote of the Catholic Worker Movement:


title: Christian anarchism

text: The Catholic Worker Movement has consistently protested against war and violence for over seven decades. Many of the leading figures in the movement have been both anarchists and pacifists, as Ammon Hennacy explains:


title: Christian anarchism

text: Maurin and Day were both baptized and confirmed in the Catholic Church and believed in the institution, thus showing it is possible to be a Christian anarchist and still choose to remain within a church. After her death, Day was proposed for sainthood by the Claretian Missionaries in 1983. Pope John Paul II granted the Archdiocese of New York permission to open Day's cause for sainthood in March 2000, calling her a Servant of God.


title: Christian anarchism

text: In literature, in Michael Paraskos's 2017 novel, "Rabbitman", a political satire prompted by Donald Trump's presidency, the heroine, called Angela Witney, is a member of an imagined Catholic Worker commune located in the southern English village of Ditchling, where the artist Eric Gill once lived.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Numerous Christian anarchist websites, social networking sites, forums, electronic mailing lists and blogs have emerged on the internet over the last few years. These include: The AnarchoChristian Podcast and Website, Biblical Anarchy: Obey God Rather Than Men, The Libertarian Christian Institute, started by Norman Horn, "A Pinch of Salt", a 1980s Christian anarchist magazine, revived in 2006 by Keith Hebden as a blog and bi-annual magazine; Libera Catholick Union founded in 1988 and re-organized in 2019; "Jesus Radicals" founded by Mennonites in 2000; "Lost Religion of Jesus" created in 2005; "Christian Anarchists" created in 2006; "The Mormon Worker", a blog and newspaper, founded in 2007 to promote Mormonism, anarchism and pacifism; and "Academics and Students Interested in Religious Anarchism" (ASIRA) founded by Alexandre Christoyannopoulos in 2008.


title: Christian anarchism

text: Critics of Christian anarchism include both Christians and anarchists. Christians often cite Romans 13 as evidence that the State should be obeyed, while secular anarchists do not believe in any authority including God as per the slogan "no gods, no masters". Christian anarchists often believe Romans 13 is taken out of context, emphasizing that Revelation 13 and Isaiah 13, among other passages, are needed to fully understand Romans 13 text. Petr Chelčický interpreted the verse in the sense that it was addressed in a pagan age with a pagan society telling Christians that a Christian out of humility should submit to such pagan practices, but that in a Christian society such pagan practices should not be imposed in any way.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahaani () is a 2002 Indian Hindi-language supernatural action thriller film directed and produced by Rajkumar Kohli, making it his last film as a director. The film features an ensemble cast; including Sunny Deol, Akshay Kumar, Sunil Shetty, Arshad Warsi, Aftab Shivdasani, Sonu Nigam (in his acting debut), Siddharth Ray, Rajat Bedi, Sharad Kapoor, Aditya Pancholi, Rambha, Pinky Campbell, Kiran Rathod and Raj Babbar with Manisha Koirala and Armaan Kohli as the main antagonists, along with Amrish Puri in a special appearance.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: The film was Armaan Kohli's comeback film where he was reintroduced with a new name Munish Kohli. This movie received negative reviews and was a disaster at the box office. This movie is also considered one of the worst films ever made. However, over the years, it has achieved cult status for having terrible computer graphics, a poor story, poor direction, and terrible acting.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Divya (Manisha Koirala) and Karan Saxena (Sunny Deol) are in love and engaged. Karan has a younger step-brother, Vivek (Sonu Nigam), whom he looks after as if he was his own brother. Divya and Vivek study in the same college with their Best- friends group. The group includes:


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Two students named Rajesh and Madan (Siddharth Ray) attempt to rape Divya. They are stopped and beaten up by Karan, who takes them to the college's principal, Professor Joseph. He agrees to let the incident go if Divya forgives them, which she later does. However, Rajesh and Madan decide to avenge their humiliation. Soon after, Karan goes to London for work. Divya then begins to have premonitions of a past life and later learns that her name was Vasundhara in a past life, and she was in love with Kapil (Armaan Kohli), a snake with magical powers. Their love life was shattered when they disturbed an angry sage (Amrish Puri) who cursed them with separation until the 21st century. Kapil had to undergo a penance until the 21st century when Vasundhara will be reborn as Divya. He also gained supernatural strength, near-immortality, and the power to impersonate anything as a result of his penance.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Under the pretext of inviting Divya to Atul's party, Rajesh imitates the voices of all the guys in the group and tricks her into coming to an abandoned fort earlier than the scheduled time for the party. Divya arrives, where she is brutally raped by Rajesh and Madan, prompting her to kill herself. Divya's friends arrive, and she curses them, thinking that they were involved in the rape. Kapil learns of her death and promises to get his revenge on everyone in the group. As a result, Madan is killed the same night by Kapil. Divya is meanwhile reduced to a soul, who could enter human bodies and control them as per her wish. Rajesh gets married and his best friends arrive at the party. On that night, she enters the soul of his bride and kills him.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Kapil and Divya decide to kill everyone (everyone whose voice Rajesh had imitated) who coerced her to go to the fort. Kapil impersonates a driver who gives a lift to Victor when his car broke down. After isolating him, Kapil runs over Victor with a motorbike. He goes to the party in Lonavala impersonating Victor and kills Abdul by electrocuting him.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Atul and his friends, with the help of their Principal Joseph (Raj Babbar), a professor of parapsychology, summon Divya's ghost. They try to reason with Divya, explaining that they had never called her to the fort after she initially declined. However, she refuses to believe their innocence. The principal gives the group necklaces with higher powers and assures them that they cannot be harmed by supernatural forces when they are wearing the necklace. Atul, an atheist, doesn't believe this. However, when he is attacked by Kapil, he realizes he survived because the necklace was stuck on his hand. Later, Kapil impersonates Nita and badly injures Atul but couldn't kill him. He ends up in a coma.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Divya then enters Prem's body and kills his nemesis Ashok. Prem is immediately arrested but could be set free based on Rashmi's false statement, which she is willing to give because she was also in love with Prem. However, Divya enters Rashmi's body and accuses Prem of the murder in court. A distraught Prem is sentenced to be hanged to death by the court.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Preeti's father wants her to marry his friend's boxer son Raju instead of Vijay. Her father and Raju collude and decide that Raju will kill Vijay in a boxing match to remove him from the picture. Divya enters Raju's body and almost knocks out Vijay. But the principal notices this and uses his paraphernalia to block Divya's presence. Divya doesn't let Kapil interfere, and Vijay knocks out Raju. Divya stopped Kapil as she wants to be the one killing Vijay since he was the one who informed her of the time to arrive at the fort that night. She exacts her revenge by entering Vijay's body, who jumps off the terrace and dies.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: The death of all his friends scares Vivek, who calls Karan to return to Mumbai to protect him. Before Karan could arrive home, Kapil impersonates him and stabs Vivek, but couldn't kill him. Kapil escapes and a confused Karan is arrested after Vivek accuses him of the stabbing. Atul comes out of a coma and escapes the hospital with Vivek, who also recovered at the same hospital to kill Kapil. Atul is stabbed by Kapil while trying to save Vivek. Kapil then goes after Vivek. Atul, unable to destroy Kapil or save Vivek's life, goes to the principal and begs him to save Vivek's life. Atul then dies due to blood loss from his injuries.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Karan breaks out of the police lockup and shows up to stop Kapil from killing Vivek. Karan is fatally wounded by Kapil. Principal Joseph resurrects Karan with outer-world powers, granting him supernatural powers like Kapil. Karan finally kills Kapil. Vivek and Karan survive with Vivek being the only survivor among his best friends. Kapil and Vasundhara reunite in heaven.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Salman Khan was the original choice for Sonu Nigam's role but declined the movie because of date issues. Atul Agnihotri was playing Sharad Kapoor's role in the film but later signed in for a guest appearance, then the role went to Apurva Agnihotri but declined it due to date issues. Shah Rukh Khan was originally chosen to play Akshay Kumar's role but declined it because he was busy at filming "Kal Ho Naa Ho". Chandrachur Singh was the first signed to play Aditya Pancholi's role but then he opted out. Shilpa Shetty was the first considered to play Manisha Koirala's role, but she declined the role. At one point when the film was announced, it had Ajay Devgn playing Suniel Shetty's role, Sanjay Dutt was going to be an extra character similar to his father Sunil Dutt's role in "Nagin" (1976) and Jackie Shroff playing Raj Babbar's role.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: A long Star-studded cast was planned for this film featuring Sunny Deol, Shah Rukh Khan, Salman Khan, Ajay Devgn, Sanjay Dutt, Jackie Shroff, Chandrachur Singh, Apurva Agnihotri, Aftab Shivdasani, Arshad Warsi, Shilpa Shetty and Armaan Kohli but then the cast subsequently changed and it starred Sunny Deol, Akshay Kumar, Suniel Shetty, Chandrachur Singh, Aftab Shivdasani, Arshad Warsi, Atul Agnihotri, Shilpa Shetty and Armaan Kohli. The film was having the concept of "Nagin" at that time, and the heroes were playing young mature men instead of college students later cast subsequently changed to Sunny Deol, Akshay Kumar, Sonu Nigam, Suniel Shetty, Aftab Shivdasani, Aditya Pancholi, Arshad Warsi, Sharad Kapoor, Manisha Koirala and Armaan Kohli in the lead role with a different subject.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: This film received negative reviews from critics. Ronjita Kulkarni of Rediff.com rated the film 1.5/10 saying, "The performances are half-hearted and the characters half-baked". He also called the film "unoriginal and disappointing". Akshay Kumar was the only one with a watchable performance and star of the film, Sunil Shetty was barely average & Sunny Deol was wasted in this movie because he did fewer scenes than in his previous movies.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Bollywood Hungama rated the film 1.5/5, stating,"The film has a huge cast, but only Munish Kohli and Akshay Kumar leave an impact. Sunny Deol is average. The others don't impress much".Planet Bollywood rated the film 5/10, saying "In terms of a story, writers Aatish and Kohli have just churned out a mish mash of the previous two hits. The reason why Manisha blames all her friends for her death seems lame, hence the film fails to hold together or have any sort of lasting impact. Also, the story of "Ichadari Naag" etc is a bit hard to digest in this day and age. The screenplay of the movie is pathetic. A lot of the scenes in the movie evoke laughter where it shouldn´t. Just take for example how Akshay Kumar and Sonu Nigam don´t die and keep coming back for more. After the worst form of stabbings and bashings, they seem to look almost healthy in the next scene. Dialogues by K.K Singh are disappointing."


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahaani opened well at the box office, collecting about ₹13.5 million on its first day. It collected ₹14 million on its second day and ₹12.7 million on its third day, taking its opening weekend collection to ₹40.2 million.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: However, the negative critical reception led to a drastic fall in the box office collection. Its first-week collection closed at ₹64.7 million. Its collection continued declining, and finally ended up at a domestic nett of ₹107.1 million, resulting in the film being declared as a "Flop" by Box Office India.


title: Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani

text: The music for Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani was composed by Anand Raj Anand & Anand–Milind, with a guest composition by Sandeep Chowta. It was released on Universal Music. All tracks composed by Anand–Milind had lyrics penned by Sameer, whereas the tracks composed by Anand Raj Anand had lyrics written by Dev Kohli.


title: Contract research organization

text: In the life sciences, a contract research organization (CRO) is a company that provides support to the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device industries in the form of research services outsourced on a contract basis. A CRO may provide such services as biopharmaceutical development, biological assay development, commercialization, clinical development, clinical trials management, pharmacovigilance, outcomes research, and Real world evidence.


title: Contract research organization

text: CROs are designed to reduce costs for companies developing new medicines and drugs in niche markets. They aim to simplify entry into drug markets, and simplify development, as the need for large pharmaceutical companies to do everything ‘in house’ is now redundant. CROs also support foundations, research institutions, and universities, in addition to governmental organizations (such as the NIH, EMA, etc.).


title: Contract research organization

text: Many CROs specifically provide clinical-study and clinical-trial support for drugs and/or medical devices. However, the sponsor of the trial retains responsibility for the quality of the CRO's work. CROs range from large, international full-service organizations to small, niche specialty groups. CROs that specialize in clinical-trials services can offer their clients the expertise of moving a new drug or device from its conception to FDA/EMA marketing approval, without the drug sponsor having to maintain a staff for these services.


title: Contract research organization

text: Organizations who have had success in working with a particular CRO in a particular context (e.g. therapeutic area) might be tempted or encouraged to expand their engagement with that CRO into other, unrelated areas; however, caution is required as CROs are always seeking to expand their experience and success in one area cannot reliably predict success in unrelated areas that might be new to the organization.


title: Contract research organization

text: The International Council on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use, a 2015 Swiss NGO of pharmaceutical companies and others, defined a contract research organization (CRO), specifically pertaining to clinical trials services as: "A person or an organization (commercial, academic, or other) contracted by the sponsor to perform one or more of a sponsor's trial-related duties and functions."


title: Contract research organization

text: Guidance from the US FDA published in 2013 also speaks to the responsibility of the sponsor to oversee work of the CRO, including the circumstance where risk-based monitoring has been delegated to the CRO. 2021 saw a major update to US FDA regulations related to providing the agency with information about CROs and how they "comply with FDA regulations".


title: Contract research organization

text: , there were over 1,100 CROs in the world, despite continued trends toward consolidation. Many CROs have been acquired while others have gone out of business. The industry is fragmented, with the top 10 companies controlling 56% of the market in 2008 and 55% in 2009. In 2018 global CRO market stood at $38,396.4 mln. and is projected to reach $90,926.3 mln. by the end of 2026, exhibiting a CAGR of 11.4% in the forecast period.


title: Contract research organization

text: , there was a 15.5% increase in R&D spending from 2015 to 2020. The list of contract research organizations includes the following notable companies worldwide:


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Catfish and the Bottlemen are a British indie rock band from Wales. The band's debut album, "The Balcony", reached number 10 in the UK Albums Chart and achieved Platinum status on 30 December 2016. The band have toured in South America, Japan, UK, Europe, North America, and Australia and featured in a number of festivals including Lollapalooza, Glastonbury, Latitude, Falls Festival, Community Festival, Reading and Leeds, T in the Park, Governors Ball, All Points East, Bonnaroo, Splendour in the Grass, and TRNSMT. They won a Brit Award for British Breakthrough Act on 24 February 2016. On 27 May 2016, they released their second album, "The Ride", which reached number 1 in the UK Albums Chart and has sold 300,000 units in the UK since its release. On 26 April 2019, they released their third album, "The Balance", which reached number 2 in the UK Albums Chart.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Catfish and the Bottlemen, formerly known as "The Prestige", were founded in May 2007, when Ryan Evan "Van" McCann and Billy Bibby began playing guitar together at Bibby's parents home, a bed and breakfast in Llandudno, Wales. McCann's parents also ran a bed and breakfast in Llandudno. Van was a friend of Bibby's younger brother Stephen, which is how McCann and Bibby met. McCann and Bibby were joined by Benji Blakeway on bass as the third founding member of the band. Schoolmate Jon Barr followed shortly thereafter on drums. Bibby, who had been playing guitar since age 10, taught both McCann and Blakeway how to play.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: They promoted themselves by playing in support slots to friends' bands, such as Northwich's The Shallow Call, and by playing in car parks after other artists' gigs, including bands such as Kasabian. Steve Lamacq first played an early demo on BBC Radio 6 Music in March 2009. During 2009, Catfish were runners up in the 'North Wales Battle of the Bands', run by Gareth Thomas, having been beaten to the post by another local band The Fides who later closed the Conwy River Festival.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Original drummer Jon Barr was replaced by Bob Hall in 2010. Hall was introduced to the band by North Wales-based producer Russ Hayes who was working with the band at the time.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: McCann met future band member Johnny Bond at Ravenstonedale festival in 2011, when the latter was a member of the band Symphonic Pictures. Bond later joined the band in 2014.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: The band derives its name from McCann's first childhood musical memory: that of an Australian street busker in Sydney, playing beer bottles strung to a wire who goes by the name Catfish the Bottleman. He was called "Catfish" because of an unusually styled spiky beard he had when he first began playing in 2000. McCann was reunited with Catfish the Bottleman in January 2015 at the studios of Triple J radio in Sydney.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: The band signed to Communion Music in 2013, and released their first three singles "Homesick", "Rango", and "Pacifier" the same year. In 2014, the band signed to Island Records and on 17 March, released the single "Kathleen", produced by Jim Abbiss (Arctic Monkeys, Kasabian, Adele). All the singles were premiered by Zane Lowe and added to the playlist on Radio 1. "Kathleen" ranked at number one on MTV's hottest tracks in April 2014.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: In summer 2014, Catfish and the Bottlemen performed at a number of festivals in the UK and Europe, including Reading and Leeds, Latitude, Kendal Calling, Y Not Festival, Strawberry Fields Festival, T in the Park, Pinkpop, Bingley Music Live, and Ibiza Rocks. They also played at New York's Governors Ball. On 19 June 2014, the band announced the release of their debut studio album "The Balcony".


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Founding lead guitarist Billy Bibby suddenly and unexpectedly ceased performing with the band in the summer of 2014. He was replaced by Johnny "Bondy" Bond. On 25 July 2014, the band cancelled three festival appearances due to "unforeseen personal circumstances". On 13 August 2014, the band posted on Facebook: "Some of you will have noticed that we have been playing with a different guitarist over the past weekend. Unfortunately, due to some personal circumstances, Billy won't be touring with the band for the foreseeable future."


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: When asked about leaving the band, Bibby commented, "Well to be honest after Catfish I had no plans. I didn't know what I was going to do. I just started writing songs and it took off from there..." and "I'm proud of what I did in Catfish and what I achieved and everything that came with it, but I'm just looking into the future now with my band and that's all I'm focused on". In autumn of 2015, he founded a new band, Billy Bibby & The Wry Smiles.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: "The Balcony" was released on 15 September 2014. Shortly afterwards, the band also announced a UK tour. The album charted at number 10 on the UK Albums Chart in the week ending 27 September 2014, was certified Silver in the UK on 9 January 2015, was certified Gold on 20 March 2015 and reached Platinum sales on 30 December 2016.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: They won the BBC Introducing Award at the first BBC Music Awards in December 2014 and performed "Kathleen".


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: "The Balcony" was released in the US on 6 January 2015. The following day, the band performed on the "Late Show with David Letterman".


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: In an interview with WOW247, McCann said that the band have "three albums written already". He continued to say that "I'm more excited for the second album than the first, because the workload is done now".


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: At the 2016 Brit Awards, the band won in the British Breakthrough Act category. They headlined Liverpool Sound City in May 2016, their first headline slot at a festival.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: On 23 March 2016, the band announced via Twitter and Instagram that their second studio album would be entitled "The Ride", which was released on 27 May 2016. On 3 June 2016, "The Ride" reached number one on the UK Albums Chart with unit sales of 38,000. On 8 July 2016, Catfish and the Bottlemen played their largest headlining show to date at Castlefield Bowl in Manchester, UK with Vant, Broken Hands, and Little Comets as support. On 1 July 2017, they headlined the first Community Festival in Finsbury Park, London.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: On 8 January 2019, the band released a new single entitled "Longshot", the lead single off their third studio album, "The Balance". The album, along with artwork and tracklist, was officially announced on 25 January 2019. "Fluctuate", the second single from the album, was released on 13 February 2019. "2all", the third single from the album, was released on 19 March 2019. "Conversation", the fourth and final single from the album, was released on 18 April 2019. The album was released on 26 April 2019. On 16 July 2019, a music video for "Conversation" was released, after the release of a Snapchat lens, which featured visuals from the music video.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: In August 2021, the band headlined Reading and Leeds Festival for the first time. In September 2021, the band played Swansea's Singleton Park and held another headliner slot at Neighbourhood Weekender in Warrington. During September 2021, it was announced the band would be supporting Stereophonics at Cardiff's Millennium Stadium, alongside Tom Jones, on 18 December 2021. An additional date for 17 December 2021 was added after 'phenomenal' demand for tickets. The gigs were subsequently postponed due to COVID-19 restrictions in Wales, and were rescheduled to 17-18 June 2022. On 2 June 2022, it was announced via Stereophonics' twitter that the band would no longer be playing alongside them due to "unforeseen practical issues".


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: On 29 September 2021, drummer Bob Hall announced via his Instagram that he would be leaving the band.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: On 5 June 2022, following the announcement that the band would no longer play alongside Stereophonics, Johnny Bond also confirmed his departure from the band. In an Instagram statement, Bond stated that he actually took the decision to leave the band in March 2021 (he played at the four gigs in 2021 as a stand in session musician) and assumed the band would later confirm his departure, which they did not. Among other reasons for his departure, Bond stated that there had been reoccurring behaviour that he considered "intolerable" in the band, and that this had left him with "no choice" but to leave.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: When reviewing "The Balcony", Scott Kerr of AllMusic likened the band's sound to that of Johnny Marr, The Cribs, Feeder and Mystery Jets. According to Ben Homewood of "NME", McCann's vocal style is similar to The Kooks' frontman Luke Pritchard. With respect to the musical approach to "The Ride", McCann has stated, "I feel like everybody started thinking too outside the box trying to be arty and different. We wanted to stay inside the box."


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Following the release of The Balance, Catfish and the Bottlemen came under some criticism for having a ‘formulaic’ approach to song-writing.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Ryan Evan "Van" McCann was born in Australia. Van McCann, Benji Blakeway, guitar tech Larry Lau, and former members Bob Hall and Billy Bibby grew up in Llandudno, North Wales.


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: Blakeway is from Llandudno, Wales. Hall is from Sheffield, England. Bibby is from Lancashire, England. They all moved to Llandudno when they were "kids at the age of about 2 or 3".


title: Catfish and the Bottlemen

text: McCann and Blakeway, along with former member Bibby, attended Ysgol John Bright in Llandudno. Drummer Bob Hall attended Rydal Penrhos School.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Australian cuisine is the food and cooking practices of Australia and its inhabitants. As a modern nation of large-scale immigration, Australia has absorbed culinary contributions and adaptations from various cultures around the world, including British, European, Asian and Middle Eastern.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Indigenous Australians have occupied Australia for some 65,000 years, during which they developed a unique hunter-gatherer diet, known as bush tucker, drawn from regional Australian plants and animals. Australia became a collection of British colonies from 1788 to 1900, during which time culinary tastes were strongly influenced by British and Irish migrants, with agricultural products such as beef cattle, sheep and wheat becoming staples in the local diet. The Australian gold rushes introduced more varied immigrants and cuisines, mainly Chinese, whilst post-war immigration programs led to a large-scale diversification of local food, mainly due to the influence of migrants from the Mediterranean, East Asia and South Asia.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Australian cuisine in the 21st century reflects the influence of globalisation, with many fast-food restaurants and international trends becoming influential. Organic and biodynamic foods have also become widely available alongside a revival of interest in bush tucker. Australia exports many agricultural products, including cattle, sheep, poultry, milk, vegetables, fruit, nuts, wheat, barley and canola. Australia also produces wine, beer and soft drinks.


title: Australian cuisine

text: While fast food chains are abundant, Australia's metropolitan areas have restaurants that offer both local and international foods. Restaurants which include contemporary adaptations, interpretations or fusions of exotic influences are frequently termed Modern Australian.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Indigenous Australians have lived off native flora and fauna of the Australian bush for over 60,000 years. In modern times, this collection of foods and customs has become known as bush tucker.


title: Australian cuisine

text: It is understood that up to 5,000 species of Australian flora and fauna were eaten by Indigenous Australians. Hunting of kangaroo, wallaby and emu was common, with other foods widely consumed including bogong moths, witchetty grubs, lizards and snakes. Bush berries, fruits, and nuts were also used, including the now widely cultivated macadamia nut, and wild honeys were also exploited. Fish were caught using tools such as spears, hooks and traps; in some areas, the construction of complex weir systems allowed the development of forms of aquaculture.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Resource availability and dietary make-up varied from region to region and scientific theories of bush tucker plants being spread by hand have recently emerged. Food preparation techniques also varied, however a common cooking technique was for the carcass to be thrown directly on a campfire to be roasted.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Native food sources were used to supplement the colonists' diet following the arrival of the First Fleet in Botany Bay in 1788.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Following the pre-colonial period, European colonisers began arriving with the First Fleet at Sydney harbour in 1788. The diet consisted of "bread, salted meat and tea with lashings of rum (initially from the West Indies but later made from the waste cane of the sugar industry in Queensland)." The British found familiar game in Australia including swan, goose, pigeon and fish, but the new settlers often had difficulty adjusting to the prospect of native fauna as a staple diet. Meat constituted a large proportion of the Australian diet during the colonial era and into the 20th Century.


title: Australian cuisine

text: After initial difficulties, Australian agriculture became a major global producer and supplied fresh produce for the local market. Stock grazing (mostly sheep and cattle) is prevalent throughout the continent. Queensland and New South Wales became Australia's main beef cattle producers, while dairy cattle farming is found in the southern states, predominantly in Victoria. Wheat and other grain crops are spread fairly evenly throughout the mainland states. Sugar cane is also a major crop in Queensland and New South Wales. Fruit and vegetables are grown throughout Australia and wheat is a main component of the Australian diet. Today there are over 85,681 farm businesses in Australia, 99 percent of which are locally owned and operated.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Barbecued meat is almost synonymous with Modern Australian cuisine, though it is estimated that more than 10% of Australians are now vegetarian.


title: Australian cuisine

text: There are many species of Australian native fruits, such as quandong (native peach), wattleseed, muntries/munthari berry, Illawarra plums, riberry, native raspberries, lilli pillies, as well as a range of native citrus species including the desert lime and finger lime. These usually fall under the category of bush tucker, which is used in some restaurants and in commercial preserves and pickles but not generally well known among Australians due to its low availability.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Australia also has large fruit-growing regions in most states for tropical fruits in the north, and stone fruits and temperate fruits in the south which has a mediterranean or temperate climate. The Granny Smith variety of apples originated in Sydney in 1868. Another well-known Australian apple variety is the Cripps Pink, known locally and internationally as "Pink Lady" apples, which was first cultivated in 1973.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Fruits cultivated and consumed in Australia include apples, banana, kiwifruit, oranges and other citrus, mangoes (seasonally), mandarin, stonefruit, avocado, watermelons, rockmelons, lychees, pears, nectarines, plums, apricots, grapes, melons, papaya (also called pawpaw), pineapple, passionfruit and berries (strawberries, raspberries etc.).


title: Australian cuisine

text: In the temperate regions of Australia vegetables are traditionally eaten seasonally, especially in regional areas, although in urban areas there is large-scale importation of fresh produce sourced from around the world by supermarkets and wholesalers for grocery stores, to meet demands for year-round availability. Spring vegetables include artichoke, asparagus, bean shoots, beetroot, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, leek, lettuce, mushrooms, peas, rhubarb, and spinach; summer vegetables include capsicum, cucumber, eggplant, squash, tomato, and zucchini. Popular dishes include zucchini slice.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Chicken is the most commonly consumed of all meats or poultry by weight, with approximately 47 kg of chicken consumed by the average Australian per year.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Lamb is very popular in Australia, with roasting cuts (legs and shoulders), chops, and shanks being the most common cuts. Lamb will often form part of either a Sunday roast or a barbecue. It is also commonly found as an ingredient in gyros and doner kebabs, brought by Greek and Turkish immigrants in the 1960s and 1970s. Australia consumes more lamb and mutton than any other country listed by the OECD-FAO (with Kazakhstan in second place). In 2017, Australians consumed an average of per person. By way of comparison, New Zealanders average and Americans just .


title: Australian cuisine

text: Lunch at an Australian pub is called a "counter lunch", while the term "counter meal" is used for either lunch or dinner. Common dishes served at counter lunches and counter meals are steak and chips, chicken parmigiana and chips, a mixed grill (an assortment of grilled meats), and roast lamb or beef with roast vegetables.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Kangaroo meat is available as game in Australia, although it is not among the most commonly eaten meats. In colonial-era recipes, kangaroo was treated much like ox tail, and braised until tender forming a rich gravy. It is available today in various cuts and sausages. Kangaroo is, however, a common commercial dog food in Australia.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Seafood consumption is increasing, but it is less common in the Australian diet than poultry and beef.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Australian cuisine features Australian seafood such as southern bluefin tuna, King George whiting, Moreton Bay bugs, mud crab, jewfish, dhufish (Western Australia) and yabby. Australia is one of the largest producers of abalone and rock lobster.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Fish and chips is a take-away food that originated in the United Kingdom and remains popular in Australia. It generally consists of battered deep-fried fish with deep-fried chipped (slab-cut) potatoes. Rather than cod which is more common in the UK, the most popular fish at Australian fish and chips shops, at least in southern Australian states, is flake – a fillet of Gummy shark (Mustelus antarcticus).


title: Australian cuisine

text: Flathead is also a popular sport and table fish found in all parts of Australia. Barramundi is a fish found in northern Australian river systems. Bay lobsters, better known in Australia as Moreton Bay bugs are common in seafood restaurants, or may be served with steak as "surf and turf".


title: Australian cuisine

text: The most common species of the aquaculture industry are salmon, tuna, oysters, and prawns. Other food species include abalone, freshwater finfish (such as barramundi, Murray cod, silver perch), brackish water or marine finfish (such as barramundi, snapper, yellowtail kingfish, mulloway, groupers), mussels, mud crabs and sea cucumbers.


title: Australian cuisine

text: While inland river and lake systems are relatively sparse, they nevertheless provide freshwater game fish and crustacea suitable for dining. Fishing and aquaculture constitute Australia's fifth most valuable agricultural industry after wool, beef, wheat and dairy. Approximately 600 varieties of marine and freshwater seafood species are caught and sold in Australia for both local and overseas consumption. European carp, common in the Murray River as an invasive species, is not considered edible by most Australians despite being common in cuisines across Europe.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Ever since the first British settlement of 1788, Australia has had a dairy industry. Today produces a wide variety of milk, cream, butter, cheese and yoghurt products.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Australians are high consumers of dairy products, consuming on average some of milk per person a year, of cheese, of butter (a small reduction from previous year, largely for dietary purposes) and of yoghurt products.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Tea was the hot beverage most commonly consumed in Australia for most of its history following the arrival of British settlers; however, in recent years, coffee has become more popular overall.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Since the 19th Century, billy tea was a staple drink for those out in the Australian bush, such as those working on the land or travelling overland. Boiling water for tea in a billy over a camp fire and adding a gum leaf for flavouring remains an iconic traditional Australian method for preparing tea. Famously, it was prepared by the ill-fated swagman in the renowned Australian folksong "Waltzing Matilda".


title: Australian cuisine

text: Tea and biscuits or freshly home-baked scones are common for afternoon tea between friends and family.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Although Australians often drink tea at home, it has been found that in out-of-home establishments where tea and coffee are sold together, tea accounted for only 2.5% of total sales.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Today's Australia has a distinct coffee culture. The coffee industry has grown from independent cafes since the early 20th century. The flat white first became popular in Australia, and its invention is claimed by a Sydneysider. The iconic Greek cafés of Sydney and Melbourne were the first to introduce locally roasted coffees in 1910.


title: Australian cuisine

text: In 1952, the first espresso machines began to appear in Australia and a plethora of fine Italian coffee houses were emerging in Melbourne and Sydney. Pellegrini's Espresso Bar and Legend Café often lay claim to being Melbourne's first 'real' espresso bars, opening their doors in 1954 and 1956 respectively. This decade also saw the establishment of one of Australia's most iconic coffee brands, Vittoria, which remains the country's largest coffee maker and distributor. The brand has existed in Australia since 1958, well before it moved to the US.


title: Australian cuisine

text: To this day, international coffee chains such as Starbucks have very little market share in Australia, with Australia's long established independent cafés existing along with homegrown franchises such as The Coffee Club, Michel's Patisserie, Dôme in WA, and Zarraffas Coffee in Queensland. One reason for this is that unlike with the United States and Asia, Australia for many decades had already had an established culture of independent cafés before coffee chains tried to enter the market.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The chocolate and malt powder Milo, which was developed by Thomas Mayne in Sydney in 1934 in response to the Great Depression, is mixed with cold or hot milk to produce a popular beverage. In recent years, Milo has been exported and is also commonly consumed in Southeast Asia even becoming a major ingredient in some desserts produced in the region.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Beer in Australia has been popular since colonial times. James Squire is considered to have founded Australia's first commercial brewery in 1798 and the Cascade Brewery in Hobart, Tasmania, has been operating since the early 19th century. Since the 1970s, Australian beers have become increasingly popular globally – with Fosters lager being an iconic export brand. However, Fosters is not a large seller on the local market, with alternatives such as Victoria Bitter & Carlton Draught outselling the popular export. Craft beer is popular, as well as distinctive products from smaller breweries such as Coopers and Little Creatures.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The Australian wine industry is the fifth largest exporter of wine around the world, with 760 million litres a year to a large international export market and contributes $5.5 billion per annum to the nation's economy. Australians consume over 530 million litres annually with a per capita consumption of about 30 litres – 50% white table wine, 35% red table wine. Wine is produced in every state, with more than 60 designated wine regions totalling approximately 160,000 hectares. Australia's wine regions are mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country, in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia. Amongst the most famous wine districts are the Hunter Region, Margaret River, Yarra Valley, and Barossa Valley and among the best known wine producers are Penfolds, Rosemount Estate, Wynns Coonawarra Estate and Lindeman's. In Australia's tropical regions, wine is produced from exotic fruits such as mango, passion fruit and lychees.


title: Australian cuisine

text: In modern times, South Australia has also become renowned for its growing number of premium spirits producers, with the South Australian Spirits industry quickly emerging as a world leader with producers being recognised globally such as Seppeltsfield Road Distillers, Never Never Distilling, Adelaide Hills Distilling and many more.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Rum served as a currency during the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Australia when metallic currency was in short supply.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The traditional places to buy take-away food in Australia has long been at a local milk bar, fish and chip shop, or bakery, though these have met with stiff competition from fast food chains and convenience stores in recent decades.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Iconic Australian take-away food (i.e. fast food) includes meat pies, sausage rolls, pasties, Chiko Rolls, and dim sims. Meat pies, sausage rolls, and pasties are often found at milk bars, bakeries, and petrol stations, often kept hot in a pie warmer or needing to be microwaved; meat pies are also a staple at AFL football matches. Chiko rolls, dim sims and other foods needing to be deep fried, are to be found at fish and chip shops, which have the necessary deep fryers in which to cook them.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The Australian hamburgers and steak sandwiches are also found at fish and chip shops. Australian hamburgers consist of a fried beef patty, served with shredded lettuce and sliced tomato in a (usually toasted) round bread roll or bun. Tomato sauce (similar to ketchup but made with less sugar and slightly less viscous) or barbecue sauce are almost always included. Bacon, cheese and fried onions are also common additions, as is a slice of beetroot and/or a fried egg, with other options including sliced pineapple. Pickles are rarely included, except in burgers from American chains. Steak sandwiches come with the same options, but instead of a beef patty they consist of a thin steak and are served in two slices of toast, not buns.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Commonly found at community and fundraising events are sausage sizzle stalls – a stall with a barbecue hot plate on which sausages are cooked. At a sausage sizzle the sausage is served in a slice of white bread, with or without tomato sauce and with the option of adding fried onions, and eaten as a snack or as a light lunch. A sausage sizzle at a polling station on any Australian state or Federal election day has humorously become known as a Democracy sausage.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The Halal Snack Pack, ("HSP", also known in South Australia as an AB) originated in Australia as a fusion of Middle Eastern and European flavours, common at kebab shops around Australia. It consists of doner kebab meat served over hot chips and covered in sauces (such as chilli, garlic, or barbecue sauce).


title: Australian cuisine

text: Damper is a traditional Australian soda bread prepared by swagmen, drovers and other travellers. It is a wheat flour based bread, traditionally baked in the coals of a campfire. Toast is commonly eaten at breakfast. An iconic commercial spread is Vegemite – this is a salty, B vitamin-rich savoury spread made from brewers yeast eaten on buttered toast, commonly at breakfast, or in sandwiches. A common children's treat dating back to the 1920s is fairy bread.


title: Australian cuisine

text: A classic Australian biscuit is the ANZAC biscuit, which are often homemade and so-called as they were sent by families and friends to Australian soldiers fighting in Europe and the Dardanelles in the First World War. A popular commercial brand of biscuit are Arnott's Tim Tams.


title: Australian cuisine

text: A classic Australian cake is the lamington, made from two squares of butter cake or sponge cake coated in an outer layer of chocolate sauce and rolled in desiccated coconut. Another popular cake and dessert dish is the pavlova, a meringue-based dessert, however the origins of this are contested as New Zealand also lays claim to its invention.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The mango pancake, a stable of Yum Cha restaurants in Sydney and elsewhere in Australia, is believed to have originated in Sydney in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Australian cuisine

text: South Australia has FruChocs, King George whiting, and a range of food of German origin including mettwurst, Bienenstich (beesting), streuselkuchen (German cake) and fritz. The state has its own iconic brands such as Farmers Union Iced Coffee, YoYo biscuits, Balfours frog cakes. Jubilee cake is a specialty of South Australia. In Adelaide, a variant on the meat pie is the pie floater, which is a meat pie served in a bowl of pea soup.


title: Australian cuisine

text: Victoria is famous for its home-grown Melbourne invention, the dim sim. Tasmania has leatherwood honey, abalone, and savoury toast. Queensland has Weis Fruit Bar and claims the lamington.


title: Australian cuisine

text: The cuisine of Brisbane derives from mainstream Australian cuisine, as well as many cuisines of international origin. Major native foods of the Brisbane region and commonly used in local cuisine include; the macadamia, lemon-scented myrtle, Australian finger lime, bunya nut, and Moreton Bay bug. The city's cuisine culture is often described as casual with an emphasis on outdoor dining. Roof-top dining has become an iconic part of the culinary landscape, as well as a large street food scene with food trucks and pop-up bars common. Brisbane also lays claim to several foods including "smashed avo"; although popularized in Sydney in the 1990s, smashed avocado was a common dish in Brisbane and Queensland dating back to the 1920s. Brisbane also claims the Lamington and the Conut.


title: Jiangxi

text: Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north into hillier areas in the south and east, it shares a border with Anhui to the north, Zhejiang to the northeast, Fujian to the east, Guangdong to the south, Hunan to the west, and Hubei to the northwest.


title: Jiangxi

text: The name "Jiangxi" is derived from the circuit administrated under the Tang dynasty in 733, Jiangnanxidao (; Gan: Kongnomsitau). The abbreviation for Jiangxi is "" (; Gan: Gōm), for the Gan River which runs across from the south to the north and flows into the Yangtze River. Jiangxi is also alternately called "Ganpo Dadi" () which literally means the "Great Land of Gan and Po".


title: Jiangxi

text: After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Jiangxi became one of the earliest bases for the Communists and many peasants were recruited to join the growing people's revolution. The Nanchang Uprising took place in Jiangxi on August 1, 1927, during the Chinese Civil War. Later the Communist leadership hid in the mountains of southern and western Jiangxi, hiding from the Kuomintang's attempts to eradicate them. In 1931, the Chinese Soviet Republic's government was established in Ruijin, which is sometimes called the "Former Red Capital" (, Gan: Fūng-set Kū-tu), or just the "Red Capital". In 1935, after complete encirclement by the Nationalist forces, the Communists broke through and began the Long March to Yan'an.


title: Jiangxi

text: The southern half of Jiangxi is hilly and mountainous, with ranges and valleys interspersed; notable mountains and mountain ranges include Mount Lu, the Jinggang Mountains and Mount Sanqing. The northern half is comparatively lower in altitude. The Gan River flows through the province.


title: Jiangxi

text: Although the majority of Jiangxi's population is Han Chinese, Jiangxi is linguistically diverse. It is considered the center of Gan Chinese; Hakka Chinese, is also spoken to some degree. Jiangxi is rich in mineral resources, leading the provinces of China in deposits of copper, tungsten, gold, silver, uranium, thorium, tantalum, and niobium.


title: Jiangxi

text: Jiangxi is centered on the Gan River valley, which historically provided the main north–south transport route of south China. The corridor along the Gan River is one of the few easily traveled routes through the otherwise mountainous and rugged terrain of the south-eastern mountains. This open corridor was the primary route for trade and communication between the North China Plain and the Yangtze River valley in the north and the territory of modern Guangdong province in the south. As a result, Jiangxi has been strategically important throughout much of China's history.


title: Jiangxi

text: Jiangxi was outside the sphere of influence of early Chinese civilization during the Shang dynasty (16th to 11th centuries BC). It is likely that peoples collectively known as the Baiyue inhabited the region. During the Spring and Autumn period, the northern part of modern Jiangxi formed the western frontier of the state of Wu. After Wu was conquered by the state of Yue (a power based in modern northern Zhejiang) in 473 BC, the state of Chu (based in modern Hubei) took over northern Jiangxi and there may have been some Yue influence in the south. Chu subjugated Yue in 333 BC. In 223 BC, when Qin conquered Chu, a majority of the Jiangxi area was recorded to be put under Jiujiang Commandary situated in Shouchun (). However the commandary was ineffective and ended shortly when Qin falls.


title: Jiangxi

text: Yuzhang Commandery (, Gan: Ì-zong) was established in Jiangxi at the beginning of the Han dynasty, possibly before the death of Xiang Yu in 202 BC, and it's also the very first commandery set up by Chinese dynasty in Jiangxi. It was named after the Yuzhang River (, Gan: Ì-zong Kong), the original name of Gan River. "Gan" has become the abbreviation of the province. In 201, eight counties were added to the original seven of Qin, and three more were established in later years. Throughout most of the Han dynasty the commandery's eighteen counties covered most of the modern province of Jiangxi. The county seats of Nanchang, Gan, Yudu, Luling among others were located at the sites of modern major cities. Other counties, however, have been moved or abolished in later centuries.


title: Jiangxi

text: Under the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, Yuzhang Commandery was assigned to Yangzhou Province, as part of a trend to establish provinces ("zhou") all across China. In 291 AD, during the Western Jin dynasty, Jiangxi became its own "Zhou" called Jiangzhou (, Gan: Kong-chiu). During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Jiangxi was under the control of the southern dynasties, and the number of "zhou" slowly grew.


title: Jiangxi

text: During the Sui dynasty, there were seven commanderies and twenty-four counties in Jiangxi. During the Tang dynasty, another commandery and fourteen counties were added. Commanderies were then abolished, becoming "zhou" (henceforth translated as "prefectures" rather than "provinces").


title: Jiangxi

text: Circuits were established during the Tang dynasty as a new top-level administrative division. At first Jiangxi was part of the Jiangnan Circuit (lit. "Circuit south of the Yangtze"). In 733, this circuit was divided into western and eastern halves. Jiangxi was found in the western half, which was called Jiangnanxi Circuit (lit. "Western circuits south of the Yangtze"). This is the source of the modern name "Jiangxi".


title: Jiangxi

text: The Tang dynasty collapsed in 907, heralding the division of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Jiangxi first belonged to Wu (, Gan: Ng), then to Southern Tang (, Gan: Nām-thóng). Both states were based in modern-day Nanjing, further down the Yangtze River.


title: Jiangxi

text: During the Song dynasty, Jiangnanxi Circuit was reestablished with nine prefectures and four army districts (with sixty-eight districts).


title: Jiangxi

text: During the Yuan dynasty, the circuit was divided into thirteen different circuits, and Jiangxi Province was established for the first time. This province also included the majority of modern Guangdong. Jiangxi acquired (more or less) its modern borders during the Ming dynasty after Guangdong was separated out. There has been little change to the borders of Jiangxi since.


title: Jiangxi

text: From 1930 to 1934, the National Government carried out five military campaigns against the Jiangxi Soviet area. Its brutal two-party battles and cleansing (including the internal cleansing of the Red Army and the cleaning of the post-war government) caused a large number of deaths or escapes, causing the population of Jiangxi to drop by 40%, until only 13.8 million people were left in 1936.


title: Jiangxi

text: In 1936, after the opening of the Yuehan Railway in Hunan, Jiangxi lost its important position regarding north–south traffic. In 1937, the east-west Zhegan Railway was opened to traffic, which changed the original traffic patterns in Jiangxi to a large extent. The Jiujiang Port () began to decline in importance.