title: Twixt (film)

text: The next morning Hall wakes and, inspired, decides that he would like to collaborate with Bobby on his proposed story, which would center around vampires. Bobby invites Hall to his home, which contains a miniature model of a machine that would drive a stake into a vampire's heart. Hall is informed that Bobby believes that the machine would be good in the story, which he wants to name "The Vampire Executions". Despite Bobby's input, Hall finds himself faced with writer's block and accepts several sleeping pills from Bobby in hopes of finding further inspiration from his dreams. Hall succeeds in once again entering the dream version of the town, where he meets Poe again. A series of visions imply that V was molested by the town's priest, who takes in orphans out of fear of them joining Flamingo (Alden Ehrenreich), leader of the people across the lake, who are believed to be vampires. In the waking world Hall's world begins to unravel as several strange occurrences begin to mirror the experiences he had in the dream world, such as Bobby talking about how he believes that teenagers gathering at the town's lake are "evil" and "asking for it". This prompts Hall to look strangely at Bobby, who knocks Hall unconscious.


title: Twixt (film)

text: In the dream world Hall learns that the priest had drugged and murdered all the children in order to keep them from joining Flamingo at the lake. V managed to briefly survive, but was chased down and murdered by the priest. Ashamed of his actions, the priest hangs himself. Hall realizes that his writer's block is the result of a form of guilt over his daughter's death in a boating accident, as he had been too drunk to accompany her that morning. Working through his emotions, Hall writes a story where V survives the priest's assaults and is rescued by Flamingo. Hall wakes up in his room to find that Bobby has left. He goes to the sheriff's office, only to find that the deputy has been murdered and that Bobby has hanged himself, leaving a note that says "Guilty". Upset, Hall goes down to the morgue to look at the murder victim's face, only to discover that it is V's body and that she had been impaled with a stake. Hall removes the stake from her chest, at which point V awakens and attacks him with a new set of elongated fangs.


title: Twixt (film)

text: The screen then cuts to Hall's publisher, Sam Malkin (David Paymer), setting down a new manuscript and telling Baltimore that he loves the story (implying everything from the first dream sequence up to this point has been the manuscript itself) and sees a whole new series ahead for Baltimore that will make him more popular than ever. Post-film text reveals that the series was moderately popular, LaGrange's murder was never solved and that Flamingo was never seen or heard from again.


title: Twixt (film)

text: In an interview with "The New York Times", Coppola discussed the origins of the film, which he said "grew out of dream [he] had last year – more of a nightmare" and "seemed to have the imagery of Hawthorne or Poe." He continued:


title: Twixt (film)

text: But as I was having it I realized perhaps it was a gift, as I could make it as a story, perhaps a scary film, I thought even as I was dreaming. But then some loud noise outside woke me up, and I wanted to go back to the dream and get an ending. But I couldn't fall back asleep so I recorded what I remembered right there and then on my phone. I realized that it was a gothic romance setting, so in fact I'd be able to do it all around my home base, rather than have to go to a distant country.


title: Twixt (film)

text: "Twixt" was filmed at Coppola's estate in Napa County as well as locations in Lake County, California, including the City of Clearlake, downtown Kelseyville and Nice.


title: Twixt (film)

text: Musician Dan Deacon scored the film. The film's name was changed from "Twixt Now and Sunrise" to "Twixt", and scenes from it were played at the July 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International.


title: Twixt (film)

text: "Twixt" was screened solely at film festivals in North America as it was a featured film at the November 2011 American Film Market. The film received a general theatrical release in a handful of international markets.


title: Twixt (film)

text: Critical reception for "Twixt" has been predominantly negative. , the film holds a "rotten" rating of 26% on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based upon 19 reviews. Reviewers have criticized the film for being "flimsy" and "[close to] unwatchable". "The Hollywood Reporter" panned Coppola's dream sequences in "Twixt", commenting that the "young Coppola" could have done more with the scenes while "the present-day [Coppola] produces only tepid and tired imagery that would not earn high marks in any film school."


title: Twixt (film)

text: In contrast, "Le Monde", "Variety" and "Les Cahiers du cinéma" gave the film positive reviews, and "Variety" praised "Twixt" as a "disarmingly cheeky, intermittently gorgeous trifle". French film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma" placed it as the third best film of 2012.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: "Waterloo" is the first single from the Swedish pop group ABBA's second album of the same name, and their first under the Epic and Atlantic labels. This was also the first single to be credited to the group performing under the name ABBA. The title and lyrics reference the 1815 Battle of Waterloo, and use it as a metaphor for a romantic relationship. The Swedish version of the single was backed with the Swedish version of "Honey, Honey", while the English version featured "Watch Out" on the B-side.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: "Waterloo" won the Eurovision Song Contest 1974 for Sweden, beginning ABBA's path to worldwide fame. It topped the charts in several countries, and reached the top 10 in the United States.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: At the of the Eurovision Song Contest in 2005, it was chosen as the best song in the competition's history. It received the same honour in a 14-country open vote in the run-up to the Eurovision Song Contest 2021, placing first above Sweden's winning songs in 2012 and 2015, Loreen's "Euphoria" and Måns Zelmerlöw's "Heroes", respectively.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: "Waterloo" was written specifically to be entered into the 1974 Eurovision Song Contest, after the group finished third with "Ring Ring" the previous year in the Swedish pre-selection contest, Melodifestivalen 1973.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: The original title of the song was "Honey Pie". "Waterloo" was originally written with simultaneous rock music and jazz beats (unusual for an ABBA song).


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: Recording of the song commenced on 17 December 1973, with instrumental backing from Janne Schaffer (who came up with the main guitar and bass parts), Rutger Gunnarsson and Ola Brunkert. The song's production style was influenced by Phil Spector's "Wall of Sound": prior to recording "Ring Ring", engineer Michael B. Tretow had read Richard Williams' book "Out of His Head: The Sound of Phil Spector", which inspired him to layer multiple instrumental overdubs on the band's recordings, becoming an integral part of ABBA's sound. Subsequently, German and French versions were recorded in March and April 1974 respectively: the French version was adapted by Alain Boublil, who would later go on to co-write the 1980 musical "Les Misérables".


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: The song's lyrics are metaphorical and are about a woman who "surrenders" to a man and promises to love him, likening it to Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: The band considered submitting another song to Eurovision, "Hasta Mañana", but decided on "Waterloo" since it gave equal weight to both lead vocalists Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad, while "Hasta Mañana" was sung only by Fältskog.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: ABBA performed the song at Melodifestivalen 1974 in February, singing it in Swedish. The song won, and therefore advanced to Eurovision.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: The song differed from the standard "dramatic ballad" tradition of the Eurovision Song Contest by its flavour and rhythm, as well as by its performance. ABBA gave the audience something that had rarely been seen before in Eurovision: flashy costumes (including silver platform boots), plus a catchy uptempo song and even simple choreography. The group also broke from convention by being the first winning entry in a language other than that of their home country; prior to , all Eurovision singers had been required to sing in their country's native tongue, a restriction that was lifted briefly for the contests between 1973 and (thus allowing "Waterloo" to be sung in English), then reinstated before ultimately being removed again in . Compared to later ABBA releases, the singers' Swedish accents are decidedly more pronounced in "Waterloo".


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: The song scored 24 points to win the Eurovision Song Contest 1974 final on 6 April, beating runner-up Gigliola Cinquetti of 's entry "Sì" by six points.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: The song shot to No. 1 in the UK and stayed there for two weeks, becoming the first of the band's nine UK No. 1's, and the 16th biggest selling single of the year in the UK.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: It also topped the charts in Belgium, Denmark, Finland, West Germany, Ireland, Norway, South Africa, and Switzerland, while reaching the Top 3 in Austria, France, the Netherlands, Spain, and ABBA's native Sweden. (The song was immensely popular in Sweden, but did not reach No. 1 there due to Sweden having a combined Album and Singles Chart at the time: at the peak of the song's popularity, its Swedish and English versions reached No. 2 and No. 3, respectively, while the No. 1 spot was held by the album "Waterloo".) The song also spent 11 weeks on Svensktoppen (24 March – 2 June 1974), including 7 weeks at No. 1.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: As of September 2021, it is ABBA's eleventh-biggest song in the UK, including both pure sales and digital streams.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: Unlike other Eurovision-winning tunes, the song's appeal transcended Europe: "Waterloo" also reached the Top 10 in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Rhodesia, and the United States (peaking at No. 6, their third highest-charting U.S. hit after No. 1 "Dancing Queen" and No. 3 "Take a Chance on Me"). The "Waterloo" album performed similarly well in Europe, although in the US it failed to match the success of the single.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: ABBA had originally cited the song "See My Baby Jive", by English glam rock band Wizzard, as a major influence; in the wake of their Eurovision victory, they were quoted as saying that it would not surprise them if artists such as Wizzard would consider entering the Eurovision in the future.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: "Cash Box" said that this "is not a brash rocker, it's just solid rock with a very competent lady up front."


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: "Waterloo" was re-released in 2004 (with the same B-side), to celebrate the 30th anniversary of ABBA's Eurovision win, reaching No. 20 on the UK charts.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: On 22 October 2005, at the of the Eurovision Song Contest, "Waterloo" was chosen as the best song in the competition's history.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: Harry Witchel, physiologist and music expert at the University of Bristol, named "Waterloo" the quintessential Eurovision song.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: In 2017, "Billboard" ranked the song number 9 on their list of the 15 greatest ABBA songs, and in 2021, "Rolling Stone" ranked the song number 10 on their list of the 25 greatest ABBA songs.


title: Waterloo (ABBA song)

text: "Waterloo" was released on 1 June 2018 as the second single from the "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again" soundtrack, by Capitol and Polydor Records. The song is performed by Hugh Skinner (Young Harry) and Lily James (Young Donna) and was produced by Benny Andersson.


title: James Burton

text: James Edward Burton (born August 21, 1939, in Dubberly, Louisiana) is an American guitarist. A member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame since 2001 (his induction speech was given by longtime fan Keith Richards), Burton has also been recognized by the Rockabilly Hall of Fame and the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum. Critic Mark Deming writes that "Burton has a well-deserved reputation as one of the finest guitar pickers in either country or rock ... Burton is one of the best guitar players to ever touch a fretboard." He is ranked number 19 in Rolling Stone list of 100 Greatest Guitarists.


title: James Burton

text: Since the 1950s, Burton has recorded and performed with an array of singers, including Bob Luman, Dale Hawkins, Ricky Nelson, Elvis Presley (and was leader of Presley's TCB Band), The Everly Brothers, Johnny Cash, Merle Haggard, Glen Campbell, John Denver, Gram Parsons, Emmylou Harris, Judy Collins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Claude King, Elvis Costello, Joe Osborn, Roy Orbison, Joni Mitchell, Hoyt Axton, Townes Van Zandt, Steve Young, Vince Gill, and Suzi Quatro.


title: James Burton

text: Burton was born in Dubberly in south Webster Parish near Minden, Louisiana, to Guy M. Burton (1909–2001) and the former Lola Poland (1914–2011), a native of rural Fryeburg in Bienville Parish. She was the daughter of James and Althius Poland. Burton's wife is Louise Burton.


title: James Burton

text: Self-taught, Burton began playing guitar during childhood. He was hired to be part of the staff band for the popular "Louisiana Hayride" radio show in Shreveport. While he was still a teenager, Burton left Shreveport for Los Angeles, where he joined Ricky Nelson's band. There, he made numerous recordings as a session musician. Burton created and played the guitar solo on Dale Hawkins 1957 hit song "Susie Q", a record that would become one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.


title: James Burton

text: Burton played guitar on the majority of Rick Nelson's songs recorded during the first 11 years of Nelson's career, beginning with his premiere at Master Recorders in Hollywood on November 18, 1957, for the classic "Stood Up"/"Waitin' in School" rockabilly single (Burton was relegated to rhythm as Joe Maphis was still playing lead guitar at the time). In 1965 he started working on the television program "Shindig!" which curtailed his touring with Nelson. However, Burton continued contributing to his friend's studio albums through the "Perspective" sessions in April 1968.


title: James Burton

text: The "Shindig!" exposure led to recording session work with a variety of artists, mostly as an unattributed sideman. In 1967 Burton played Dobro on the Richie Furay song, "A Child's Claim To Fame" on Buffalo Springfield's second album, "Buffalo Springfield Again". Due to the volume of work, Burton turned down an offer to join Bob Dylan's first touring band, and another offer to play on Elvis Presley's 1968 comeback TV special "Elvis".


title: James Burton

text: In 1969, Presley again asked Burton to join his show in Las Vegas, and, this time, Burton accepted. Burton organized the TCB Band, serving as its leader, and backed Presley from 1969 until Presley's death in 1977. A hallmark of Elvis' live shows during this period was his exhortation, "Play it, James," as a cue for the guitarist's solos. For the first season in Vegas in 1969, Burton played his red standard Telecaster. Shortly thereafter, he purchased the now familiar pink paisley custom Telecaster. Burton was not sure that Elvis would like it; however, since Elvis did, Burton used it for every show.


title: James Burton

text: Since 1998, Burton has played lead guitar in "" which reunited some of Elvis' former TCB bandmates, background singers and Elvis' orchestral conductor Joe Guercio (mostly from the "concert years" 1969–1977) live on stage.


title: James Burton

text: During 1975 and 1976, while still touring with Presley, Burton was one of the first members to join and tour with Emmylou Harris as part of her backing band, the "Hot Band", after the death of Gram Parsons. He was joined by a cast of talented musicians which included his bandmate with Presley, Glen D. Hardin, and newer musicians which included Rodney Crowell. However, once Presley was ready to return to the road, Burton returned to perform with him, although the others, including Hardin, elected to continue with Harris. Just before Presley died in 1977, Burton was called to play on a John Denver television special. During the taping, Denver asked if Burton would consider going on a European tour. Burton said he was working with Elvis, but if scheduling permitted, he would be glad to go. Shortly after Elvis' death, Burton began a regular collaboration with Denver. The first album they recorded was "I Want to Live".


title: James Burton

text: During the sessions, Burton and Denver talked about a band. Glen Hardin and Jerry Scheff, from Presley's band, joined the new band too. Burton remained a member of Denver's band until 1994, but often toured in parallel with other artists including Jerry Lee Lewis. In the 16 years Burton worked with Denver, they recorded 12 albums and toured around the world. While touring with Denver, Burton carried several instruments, including backup Dobros and a spare 1969 Pink Paisley Fender Telecaster he had used as a touring guitarist with Elvis Presley during the 1970s.


title: James Burton

text: He rejoined Denver in 1995 for the Wildlife Concert. When Denver died in 1997, Burton spoke at his memorial service in Aspen, Colorado.


title: James Burton

text: Burton's later career included work with Ricky Nelson, Elvis Presley, John Denver, Merle Haggard, Gram Parsons, Rodney Crowell and Emmylou Harris. Beginning with "King of America" (1986), Burton recorded and toured with Elvis Costello intermittently for about a decade. In 1988, he was a prominent part of the acclaimed Cinemax special, "Roy Orbison and Friends, A Black and White Night". In 1990, Burton moved back to his hometown of Shreveport permanently.


title: James Burton

text: In fall 2004, Burton recorded "Matt Lucas-Back in the Saddle Again", a sequel to the Matt Lucas album "The Chicago Sessions". The album features rockabilly and country music, and was released in May 2006 by Ten O Nine Records.


title: James Burton

text: In 2005, Burton started the annual James Burton International Guitar Festival to raise money for his charitable foundation. The festival is held in the Red River District of Shreveport.


title: James Burton

text: In 2007 he was inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville, TN as a member of the L.A. session player group known as The Wrecking Crew. In 2008, Burton was asked by Brad Paisley to play on his upcoming album . Burton went along for the ride and played on an instrumental track called "Cluster Pluck," as did Vince Gill, Steve Wariner, Redd Volkaert, Albert Lee, John Jorgenson, and Brent Mason. At the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009, the song won Best Country Instrumental Performance.


title: James Burton

text: On August 22, 2009, on stage at his James Burton International Guitar Festival, James Burton was inducted into The Louisiana Music Hall of Fame.


title: James Burton

text: On July 15, 2010, "Rolling Stone" Magazine announced that Eric Clapton and James Burton would provide backup guitars on the track "You Can Have Her" for the Jerry Lee Lewis album "Mean Old Man", scheduled for release in fall 2010.


title: James Burton

text: In 2011, Burton was named one of "Five Living Legends of Shreveport" by Danny Fox (1954–2014) of KWKH radio, along with Bob Griffin of KSLA and KTBS-TV and Hank Williams Jr. Two others, Frank Page and Claude King, died in 2013.


title: James Burton

text: On June 9, 2012, Burton appeared in Shreveport at the Municipal Auditorium for a presentation of Garrison Keillor's "Prairie Home Companion".


title: James Burton

text: Burton works with a variety of amplifiers to provide flexibility and a wide range of sounds. He has used a Music Man 210-150, an old Fender Twin with K model Lansing speakers, and a 1964 Fender Deluxe. His primary guitar has always been a Fender Telecaster, beginning with an early blonde model his parents bought for him around 1952. His 1969 Paisley Red (better known as Pink Paisley) Telecaster became the basis for his James Burton Telecaster model in 1991, with Lace Sensor pickups and a TBX tone circuit. Five years later his 1953 Candy Apple Red Telecaster was the inspiration for a standard version Artist Signature model featuring two Fender Texas Special Tele single coil pickups and a vintage-style 6-saddle bridge. In 2006, the Signature Paisley model was redesigned with a red paisley flame design over a black body, plus three specially designed blade pickups, a no-load tone control and S-1 switching system.


title: James Burton

text: The James Burton Foundation, a 501(c) non-profit organization at 714 Elvis Presley Avenue in Shreveport, is constructing the proposed "James Burton Guitar and Car Museum". The facility will showcase Burton's collection of guitars and classic cars as well as models from some of his celebrity friends.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: The Men in Black is an American comic book created and written by Lowell Cunningham, illustrated by Sandy Carruthers, and originally published by Aircel Comics. Aircel would later be bought out by Malibu Comics, which itself was bought out by Marvel Comics. Three issues were published in 1990, with another three the following year. It was adapted into the film "Men in Black", which was a critical and commercial success, leading to three sequels and various spin-offs, as well as a number of tie-in one-shot comics from Marvel. Cunningham had the idea for the comic once a friend of his introduced him to the concept of government "men in black" upon seeing a black van riding the streets.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: The first series consisted of three issues and was published in 1990 by Aircel Comics, cover-dated January to March 1990. After Aircel was acquired by Malibu Comics, a second series appeared, "The Men in Black Book II" #1-3 (May–July 1991).


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: Malibu was purchased by Marvel Comics in 1994, and when the feature film "Men in Black" was released, Marvel published a number of one-shots in 1997, including a reboot of the original comic line, a sequel, a movie adaptation, and a reprint of the first issue of the original Aircel miniseries.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: The Men in Black is an international intelligence organization which oversees and investigates both good and evil paranormal activity on Earth. Their remit includes alien life, demons, mutants, zombies, werewolves, vampires, legendary creatures and other paranormal beings. In order to keep their investigations secret, much of the global population are unaware of their activities, and are liable to be neuralyzed to blank their memory of any interaction with the agents or phenomena connected to them.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: Notable members include Zed, Jay, Kay and Ecks. Ecks later becomes a rogue agent after learning that the MIB seeks to keep the supernatural hidden in order to manipulate and reshape the world in their own image.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: An agent may use any means necessary, including death and destruction, to accomplish a mission. Agents sever all ties with their former lives, and (thanks to the neuralyzer) as far as the world is concerned, they do not exist.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: Beginning with the release of the film "Men in Black" in 1997, the comic book has been adapted across a wide variety of media, spawning an entire franchise. Starring Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones, the film proved a huge box office success for Columbia Pictures and Amblin Entertainment, resulting in two sequels: "Men in Black II" and "Men in Black 3". The popularity of the films subsequently led to many tie-ins and spin-offs, including an , novelizations, soundtracks of each film, video games, and a . A spin-off was released in 2019, titled "". It continues the universe of the first three films, instead of adapting the original material from the comic book.


title: The Men in Black (comics)

text: Despite sharing the same basic premise, the various adaptations differ greatly from the original comics. Some of these differences include:


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: David Gilbert (born October 6, 1944) is an American activist who participated in the deadly 1981 robbery of a Brinks armored vehicle. Gilbert was a founding member of the Columbia University chapter of Students for a Democratic Society and became a member of the Weather Underground. Gilbert, who served as the getaway driver in the robbery, was convicted under New York’s felony murder law in the killing by co-defendants of two Nyack, New York police officers and a Brink's security guard.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert received a grant of clemency from Governor Andrew Cuomo on August 23, 2021, reducing his minimum term from 75 years to 40, thereby making him eligible for conditional release. He was granted parole on October 26, 2021, and released on November 4, 2021.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert grew up in a Jewish family in Brookline, Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston. He was an Explorer Scout, and his father was Post Leader, of a South Brookline Explorer Post. Inspired in his teens by the Greensboro sit-ins and other events of the Civil Rights Movement, he joined the Congress of Racial Equality at age seventeen. He entered Columbia College of Columbia University in 1962. In March 1965, Gilbert founded the Independent Committee on Vietnam (ICV) at Columbia. Later, in the same year, he co-founded the Columbia chapter of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) which merged with ICV in the Fall of 1966, even though there was already an SDS chapter established at Columbia, formed in the early 1960s. The SDS chapter founded by Gilbert became renowned.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: He traveled regularly to Harlem while working as a tutor, and saw Malcolm X speak at Barnard College in February 1965, experiences he describes as formative. Gilbert was one of the attendees at the Flint War Council known to the FBI.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: After graduating from Columbia University in June 1966, Gilbert spent most of his days and evenings during the fall of 1967 downtown, attending graduate school at the New School for Social Research, building an SDS chapter there, or attending meetings at the New York SDS Regional Office. In addition, Gilbert spent his spare time studying Karl Marx's "Das Kapital" and writing New Left theoretical papers on imperialism and U.S. domestic consumption, consumerism and "the new working-class". At Columbia, the SDS expanded during the Spring 1967 term. Gilbert returned to the Columbia campus to offer a "radical education counter-course" for Columbia SDS freshmen and sophomores in a lounge in Ferris Booth Hall.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Known by the late 1960s primarily as a young theorist, publishing articles in "New Left Notes" and other movement publications, he went on to play an organizing role in the April–May 1968 Columbia student strike. On April 4, 1968, Gilbert was arrested for the first time, after joining a disturbance where 6 officers were engaged in a physical altercation with a protester. Gilbert's charge was assaulting a police officer. Gilbert maintained that the officer scraped his hand when he tried to hit Gilbert in the head with his baton. His lawyer advised him to take a plea bargain, and Gilbert pleaded guilty to disorderly conduct and was fined $50.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: During the Columbia strike, which began on April 23, 1968, Gilbert served as part of the strike team. Having good relations with some of the faculty, he was called on to be a negotiator. At the time of the strike he was still a graduate student at the New School for Social Research. In October 1969, he headed a Weather Underground collective in Denver and was arrested twice. The first arrest occurred while he was passing out leaflets in front of a community college and his comrades were inside setting off a smoke bomb. The second arrest led to a charge of "assault with a deadly weapon" after arresting officers found a rock in his pocket.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: In 1969, SDS split into different ideological factions and the Weathermen emerged, its purpose being to promote armed struggle among young white Americans in support of the Black Panthers and other militant groups, and also to oppose the war in Vietnam by means of activities intended to "Bring the War Home". Gilbert joined this group in 1969 with his friend Ted Gold, who later died in the March 1970 Greenwich Village townhouse explosion, along with fellow Weather members Diana Oughton and Terry Robbins. The group became clandestine, and the organization was renamed the Weather Underground. When Weather went underground, members often used money they already had or which they received from their family to fund their efforts. Gilbert cashed in his Israel bonds and half of that money went to supporting Weather and the other half was put into the Black Panther bail fund.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert joined the Bay Area collective, living in a San Francisco apartment. He and another member were working on one of the group's cars in spring of 1971 when they were approached by two men in suits claiming to be real-estate agents. The men asked a few questions and then left. Gilbert suspected that these men were actually FBI agents looking for information. After several group meetings, they decided to reduce their radical activities for a while.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: As support for the group began to wane, the pace of their activities slowed, and some members of the Weather Underground resurfaced in late 1976 and early 1977. Gilbert resurfaced briefly in Denver, Colorado, between 1977 and 1979. He had helped organize a Weather collective there in October 1969. Before surfacing, he managed to get his criminal charges dropped, so he did not face any potential legal penalties. Gilbert, however, did not believe it was in the best interests of the movement for him to resurface. Most Weather members were not prosecuted and did not serve time in prison, despite having been sought by the police for years; police misconduct led to the dropping of many charges (see: COINTELPRO). Still, Gilbert opted to continue his life underground. Gilbert and his then-partner, Kathy Boudin, remained active in the Weather Underground, even following the birth of their son, Chesa Boudin, in August 1980.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: In the late 1970s or early 1980s Gilbert and other white activists joined the RATF (Revolutionary Armed Task Force), an alliance of white revolutionaries with, and under the leadership of, the RATF unit of the Black Liberation Army (BLA). On October 20, 1981, the RATF and related May 19th Communist Organization participated, along with several members of the BLA, in an armed robbery of a Brink's armored car at the Nanuet Mall, near Nyack, New York.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: While Gilbert and Boudin acted as the getaway vehicle driver and lookout in a waiting U-Haul truck in a nearby parking lot, armed BLA members took another vehicle to the mall, where a Brink's truck was making a delivery. They confronted the guards, and a shootout ensued, wounding guard Joe Trombino after he fired one shot, and killing his co-worker, Peter Paige. The robbers then took $1.6 million in cash and raced to transfer this into the waiting U-Haul. The truck was soon stopped by a police roadblock.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Two police officers, Waverly L. Brown and Edward J. O'Grady, were killed in the shootout. Gilbert fled the area with other RATF and BLA members but was caught by police that day. He was convicted and sentenced in 1983 to 75 years for three counts of felony murder.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: While confined at the maximum security Auburn Correctional Facility in Cayuga County, New York during the early years of his sentence, Gilbert in 1987 co-founded an inmate peer education program on HIV and AIDS, and a similar, more successful project in Great Meadows Prison in Comstock following his transfer to the eastern part of the state.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert served his sentence in various New York prisons, being last incarcerated at the Shawangunk Correctional Facility, just outside Wallkill, New York.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: On August 23, 2021, his last day in office, Governor Andrew Cuomo granted Gilbert clemency in the form of a partial sentence commutation. The commutation of Gilbert's minimum sentence from 75 years to the 40 years he served by October 2021 did not constitute a pardon or reduce the sentence to time served but did make Gilbert eligible to appear before the state's parole board. The board announced on October 26, 2021, that it had granted Gilbert parole, effective in November 2021. Gilbert was released on November 4, 2021.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: David Gilbert co-wrote the pamphlet "U.S. Imperialism" with David Loud. The pamphlet was used across the country as a study guide by SDSers. Gilbert co-wrote an article entitled "Praxis and the New Left". It appeared in the first issue of "Praxis" on February 13, 1967. The article, co-written with Bob Gottlieb and Gerry Tenney, was part of a longer position paper called the "Port Authority Statement".


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: There is a mini-biography on David Gilbert on page 312 of the book "Outlaws of America: The Weather Underground and the Politics of Solidarity", by Dan Berger.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: In an article published in the "Columbia Daily Spectator" on April 2, 1983, Bob Feldman wrote: "Beyond Brinks: David Gilbert Talks About the Robbery, the Underground, the Struggle".


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert was one of a small group that edited and rewrote Bill Ayers' initial draft of "Prairie Fire". Explaining the book's purpose, Gilbert said, "We needed something to re-mobilize us, we needed to have an organization to fight imperialism."


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert's political memoir, "Love And Struggle: My Life in SDS, the Weather Underground and Beyond" was published in 2012 by PM Press.


title: David Gilbert (activist)

text: Gilbert had a son with fellow Weather Underground member Kathy Boudin, in New York City in 1980. After Gilbert and Boudin were arrested for the Brink's robbery, their 14-month-old son, Chesa Boudin, was raised in Chicago by adoptive parents Bill Ayers and Bernardine Dohrn, who, like his parents, had been members of the Weather Underground. Chesa Boudin grew up to be a Rhodes Scholar, Yale Law School graduate, and for a time, District Attorney of San Francisco.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The system of Hebrew numerals is a quasi-decimal alphabetic numeral system using the letters of the Hebrew alphabet.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The current numeral system is also known as the "Hebrew alphabetic numerals" to contrast with earlier systems of writing numerals used in classical antiquity. These systems were inherited from usage in the Aramaic and Phoenician scripts, attested from c. 800 BCE in the so-called Samaria ostraca and sometimes known as "Hebrew-Aramaic numerals", ultimately derived from the Egyptian Hieratic numerals.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The Greek system was adopted in Hellenistic Judaism and had been in use in Greece since about the 5th century BCE.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: In this system, there is no notation for zero, and the numeric values for individual letters are added together. Each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and the first four hundreds (100, 200, 300, 400) a separate letter. The later hundreds (500, 600, 700, 800 and 900) are represented by the sum of two or three letters representing the first four hundreds. To represent numbers from 1,000 to 999,999, the same letters are reused to serve as thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. Gematria (Jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: In Israel today, the decimal system of Hindu–Arabic numeral system (ex. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.) is used in almost all cases (money, age, date on the civil calendar). The Hebrew numerals are used only in special cases, such as when using the Hebrew calendar, or numbering a list (similar to a, b, c, d, etc.), much as Roman numerals are used in the West.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The Hebrew language has names for common numbers that range from zero to one million. Letters of the Hebrew alphabet are used to represent numbers in a few traditional contexts, such as in calendars. In other situations, numerals from the Hindu–Arabic numeral system are used. Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender with the noun they are describing. If there is no such noun (e.g., in telephone numbers), the feminine form is used. For ordinal numbers greater than ten, the cardinal is used. Multiples of ten above the value 20 have no gender (20, 30, 40, ... are genderless), unless the number has the digit 1 in the tens position (110, 210, 310, ...).


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Note: Officially, numbers greater than a million were represented by the long scale. However, since January 21, 2013, the modified short scale (under which the long scale milliard is substituted for the strict short scale billion), which was already the colloquial standard, became official.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender (masculine or feminine; mixed groups are treated as masculine) with the noun they are describing. If there is no such noun (e.g. a telephone number or a house number in a street address), the feminine form is used. Ordinal numbers must also agree in number and definite status like other adjectives. The cardinal number precedes the noun (e.g., "shlosha yeladim"), except for the number one which succeeds it (e.g., "yeled echad"). The number two is special: "shnayim" (m.) and "shtayim" (f.) become "shney" (m.) and "shtey" (f.) when followed by the noun they count. For ordinal numbers (numbers indicating position) greater than ten the cardinal is used.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The Hebrew numeric system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total. For example, 177 is represented as which (from right to left) corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Mathematically, this type of system requires 27 letters (1-9, 10–90, 100–900). In practice, the last letter, "tav" (which has the value 400), is used in combination with itself or other letters from "qof" (100) onwards to generate numbers from 500 and above. Alternatively, the 22-letter Hebrew numeral set is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 "sofit" (final) forms of the Hebrew letters.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: By convention, the numbers 15 and 16 are represented as (9 + 6) and (9 + 7), respectively, in order to refrain from using the two-letter combinations (10 + 5) and (10 + 6), which are alternate written forms for the Name of God in everyday writing. In the calendar, this manifests every full moon since all Hebrew months start on a new moon (see for example: Tu BiShvat).


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Combinations which would spell out words with negative connotations are sometimes avoided by switching the order of the letters. For instance, 744 which should be written as (meaning "you/it will be destroyed") might instead be written as or (meaning "end to demon").


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The Hebrew numeral system has sometimes been extended to include the five final letter forms— for 500, for 600, for 700, for 800, for 900—which are then used to indicate the numbers from 500 to 900.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Gershayim (U+05F4 in Unicode, and resembling a double quote mark) (sometimes erroneously referred to as "merkha'ot", which is Hebrew for double quote) are inserted before (to the right of) the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents something other than a word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by two or more Hebrew numerals ("e.g.," 28 → ).


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Similarly, a single geresh (U+05F3 in Unicode, and resembling a single quote mark) is appended after (to the left of) a single letter to indicate that the letter represents a number rather than a (one-letter) word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by a single Hebrew numeral ("e.g." 100 → ).


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Note that geresh and gershayim merely indicate ""not a (normal) word."" Context usually determines whether they indicate a number or something else (such as an abbreviation).


title: Hebrew numerals

text: An alternative method found in old manuscripts and still found on modern-day tombstones is to put a dot above each letter of the number.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: In print, Arabic numerals are employed in Modern Hebrew for most purposes. Hebrew numerals are used nowadays primarily for writing the days and years of the Hebrew calendar; for references to traditional Jewish texts (particularly for Biblical chapter and verse and for Talmudic folios); for bulleted or numbered lists (similar to "A", "B", "C", "etc.", in English); and in numerology (gematria).


title: Hebrew numerals

text: Thousands are counted separately, and the thousands count precedes the rest of the number (to the "right", since Hebrew is read from right to left). There are no special marks to signify that the "count" is starting over with thousands, which can theoretically lead to ambiguity, although a single quote mark is sometimes used after the letter. When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the thousands (which is presently 5 []), but if they do not this is accepted to mean 5,000, with no ambiguity. The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: To see how "today's" date in the Hebrew calendar is written, see, for example, Hebcal date converter.


title: Hebrew numerals

text: The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400. The Greek numerals differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the Greek alphabet there is no equivalent for "tsade" ().


title: Standardization

text: Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments. Standardization can help maximize compatibility, interoperability, safety, repeatability, or quality. It can also facilitate a normalization of formerly custom processes. In social sciences, including economics, the idea of "standardization" is close to the solution for a coordination problem, a situation in which all parties can realize mutual gains, but only by making mutually consistent decisions.


title: Standardization

text: Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley civilization. The centralized weight and measure system served the commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc. Weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories. Technical standardisation enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Uniform units of length were used in the planning of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro. The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified. Shigeo Iwata describes the excavated weights unearthed from the Indus civilization:


title: Standardization

text: The implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts.


title: Standardization

text: Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800. This allowed for the standardization of screw thread sizes for the first time and paved the way for the practical application of interchangeability (an idea that was already taking hold) to nuts and bolts.


title: Standardization

text: Before this, screw threads were usually made by chipping and filing (that is, with skilled freehand use of chisels and files). Nuts were rare; metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the other side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways (such as clinching or upsetting against a washer). Maudslay standardized the screw threads used in his workshop and produced sets of taps and dies that would make nuts and bolts consistently to those standards, so that any bolt of the appropriate size would fit any nut of the same size. This was a major advance in workshop technology.


title: Standardization

text: Maudslay's work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization; some companies' in-house standards spread a bit within their industries.


title: Standardization

text: Joseph Whitworth's screw thread measurements were adopted as the first (unofficial) national standard by companies around the country in 1841. It came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries.


title: Standardization

text: This new standard specified a 55° thread angle and a thread depth of 0.640327"p" and a radius of 0.137329"p", where "p" is the pitch. The thread pitch increased with diameter in steps specified on a chart. An example of the use of the Whitworth thread is the Royal Navy's Crimean War gunboats. These were the first instance of "mass-production" techniques being applied to marine engineering.


title: Standardization

text: With the adoption of BSW by British railway lines, many of which had previously used their own standard both for threads and for bolt head and nut profiles, and improving manufacturing techniques, it came to dominate British manufacturing.


title: Standardization

text: American Unified Coarse was originally based on almost the same imperial fractions. The Unified thread angle is 60° and has flattened crests (Whitworth crests are rounded). Thread pitch is the same in both systems except that the thread pitch for the  in. (inch) bolt is 12 threads per inch (tpi) in BSW versus 13 tpi in the UNC.


title: Standardization

text: By the end of the 19th century, differences in standards between companies, was making trade increasingly difficult and strained. For instance, an iron and steel dealer recorded his displeasure in "The Times": "Architects and engineers generally specify such unnecessarily diverse types of sectional material or given work that anything like economical and continuous manufacture becomes impossible. In this country no two professional men are agreed upon the size and weight of a girder to employ for given work."


title: Standardization

text: The Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the world's first national standards body. It subsequently extended its standardization work and became the British Engineering Standards Association in 1918, adopting the name British Standards Institution in 1931 after receiving its Royal Charter in 1929. The national standards were adopted universally throughout the country, and enabled the markets to act more rationally and efficiently, with an increased level of cooperation.


title: Standardization

text: After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries. The Deutsches Institut für Normung was set up in Germany in 1917, followed by its counterparts, the American National Standard Institute and the French Commission Permanente de Standardisation, both in 1918.


title: Standardization

text: At a regional level (e.g. Europa, the Americas, Africa, etc) or at subregional level (e.g. Mercosur, Andean Community, South East Asia, South East Africa, etc), several Regional Standardization Organizations exist (see also Standards Organization).


title: Standardization

text: The three regional standards organizations in Europe - or European Standardization Organizations (ESOs) recognised by the EU Regulation on Standardization [Regulation (EU) 1025/2012] are CEN, CENELEC and ETSI. CEN develops standards for numerous kinds of products, materials, services and processes. Some sectors covered by CEN include transport equipment and services, chemicals, construction, consumer products, defence and security, energy, food and feed, health and safety, healthcare, digital sector, machinery or services. The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) is the European Standardization organization developing standards in the electrotechnical area and corresponding to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Europe.


title: Standardization

text: The first modern International Organization (Intergovernmental Organization) the International Telegraph Union (now International Telecommunication Union) was created in 1865 to set international standards in order to connect national telegraph networks, as a merger of two predecessor organizations (Bern and Paris treaties) that had similar objectives, but in more limited territories. With the advent of radiocommunication soon after the creation, the work of the ITU quickly expanded from the standardization of Telegraph communications, to developing standards for telecommunications in general.


title: Standardization

text: By the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. Lord Kelvin was an important figure in this process, introducing accurate methods and apparatus for measuring electricity. In 1857, he introduced a series of effective instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire field of electrostatic measurement. He invented the current balance, also known as the "Kelvin balance" or "Ampere balance" ("SiC"), for the precise specification of the ampere, the standard unit of electric current.


title: Standardization

text: R. E. B. Crompton became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current and even the symbols used on circuit diagrams. Adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for an international standard for electric engineering.


title: Standardization

text: In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the International Electrical Congress, held in connection with Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the International Electrotechnical Commission. The body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the body's first President.


title: Standardization

text: The International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations (ISA) was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II.


title: Standardization

text: After the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal to form a new global standards body. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in London and agreed to join forces to create the new International Organization for Standardization (ISO); the new organization officially began operations in February 1947.


title: Standardization

text: In general, each country or economy has a single recognized National Standards Body (NSB). Examples include ABNT, AENOR (now called UNE, "Spanish Association for Standardization"), AFNOR, ANSI, BSI, DGN, DIN, IRAM, JISC, KATS, SABS, SAC, SCC, SIS. An NSB is likely the sole member from that economy in ISO.


title: Standardization

text: NSBs may be either public or private sector organizations, or combinations of the two. For example, the three NSBs of Canada, Mexico and the United States are respectively the Standards Council of Canada (SCC), the General Bureau of Standards (, DGN), and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). SCC is a Canadian Crown Corporation, DGN is a governmental agency within the Mexican Ministry of Economy, and ANSI and AENOR are a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization with members from both the private and public sectors. The determinants of whether an NSB for a particular economy is a public or private sector body may include the historical and traditional roles that the private sector fills in public affairs in that economy or the development stage of that economy.


title: Standardization

text: The existence of a published standard does not necessarily imply that it is useful or correct. Just because an item is stamped with a standard number does not, by itself, indicate that the item is fit for any particular use. The people who use the item or service (engineers, trade unions, etc.) or specify it (building codes, government, industry, etc.) have the responsibility to consider the available standards, specify the correct one, enforce compliance, and use the item correctly: validation and verification.


title: Standardization

text: To avoid the proliferation of industry standards, also referred to as private standards, regulators in the United States are instructed by their government offices to adopt "voluntary consensus standards" before relying upon "industry standards" or developing "government standards". Regulatory authorities can reference voluntary consensus standards to translate internationally accepted criteria into public policy.


title: Standardization

text: In the context of information exchange, standardization refers to the process of developing standards for specific business processes using specific formal languages. These standards are usually developed in voluntary consensus standards bodies such as the United Nations Center for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT), the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), and the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS).


title: Standardization

text: There are many specifications that govern the operation and interaction of devices and software on the Internet, but they are rarely referred to as standards, so as to preserve that word as the domain of relatively disinterested bodies such as ISO. The W3C, for example, publishes "Recommendations", and the IETF publishes "Requests for Comments" (RFCs). However, these publications are sometimes referred to as standards.


title: Standardization

text: Standardized product certifications such as of organic food, buildings or possibly sustainable seafood as well as standardized product safety evaluation and dis/approval procedures (e.g. regulation of chemicals, cosmetics and food safety) can protect the environment. This effect may depend on associated modified consumer choices, strategic product support/obstruction, requirements and bans as well as their accordance with a scientific basis, the robustness and applicability of a scientific basis, whether adoption of the certifications is voluntary, and the socioeconomic context (systems of governance and the economy), with possibly most certifications being so far mostly largely ineffective.


title: Standardization

text: Moreover, standardized scientific frameworks can enable evaluation of levels of environmental protection, such as of marine protected areas, and serve as, potentially evolving, guides for improving, planning and monitoring the protection-quality, -scopes and -extents.


title: Standardization

text: Moreover, technical standards could decrease electronic waste and reduce resource-needs such as by thereby requiring (or enabling) products to be interoperable, compatible (with other products, infrastructures, environments, etc), durable, energy-efficient, modular, upgradeable/repairable and recyclable and conform to versatile, optimal standards and protocols.


title: Standardization

text: Such standardization is not limited to the domain of electronic devices like smartphones and phone chargers but could also be applied to e.g. the energy infrastructure. Policy-makers could develop policies "fostering standard design and interfaces, and promoting the re-use of modules and components across plants to develop more sustainable energy infrastructure". Computers and the Internet are some of the tools that could be used to increase practicability and reduce suboptimal results, detrimental standards and bureaucracy, which is often associated with traditional processes and results of standardization. Taxes and subsidies, and funding of research and development could be used complementarily. Standardized measurement is used in monitoring, reporting and verification frameworks of environmental impacts, usually of companies, for example to prevent underreporting of greenhouse gas emissions by firms.


title: Standardization

text: In routine product testing and product analysis results can be reported using official or informal standards. It can be done to increase consumer protection, to ensure safety or healthiness or efficiency or performance or sustainability of products. It can be carried out by the manufacturer, an independent laboratory, a government agency, a magazine or others on a voluntary or commissioned/mandated basis.


title: Standardization

text: Estimating the environmental impacts of food products in a standardized way – as has been done with a dataset of >57,000 food products in supermarkets – could e.g. be used to inform consumers or in policy. For example, such may be useful for approaches using personal carbon allowances (or similar quota) or for targeted alteration of (ultimate overall) costs.


title: Standardization

text: Public information symbols (e.g. hazard symbols), especially when related to safety, are often standardized, sometimes on the international level.<ref name="10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1"></ref>


title: Standardization

text: Standardization is also used to ensure safe design and operation of laboratories and similar potentially dangerous workplaces, e.g. to ensure biosafety levels. There is research into microbiology safety standards used in clinical and research laboratories.


title: Standardization

text: In the context of defense, standardization has been defined by NATO as "The development and implementation of concepts, doctrines, procedures and designs to achieve and maintain the required levels of compatibility, interchangeability or commonality in the operational, procedural, material, technical and administrative fields to attain interoperability."


title: Standardization

text: In some cases, standards are being used in the design and operation of workplaces and products that can impact consumers' health. Some of such standards seek to ensure occupational safety and health and ergonomics. For example, chairs (see e.g. active sitting and steps of research) could be potentially be designed and chosen using standards that may or may not be based on adequate scientific data. Standards could reduce the variety of products and lead to convergence on fewer broad designs – which can often be efficiently mass-produced via common shared automated procedures and instruments – or formulations deemed to be the most healthy, most efficient or best compromise between healthiness and other factors. Standardization is sometimes or could also be used to ensure or increase or enable consumer health protection beyond the workplace and ergonomics such as standards in food, food production, hygiene products, tab water, cosmetics, drugs/medicine, drink and dietary supplements, especially in cases where there is robust scientific data that suggests detrimental impacts on health (e.g. of ingredients) despite being substitutable and not necessarily of consumer interest.


title: Standardization

text: In the context of assessment, standardization may define how a measuring instrument or procedure is similar to every subjects or patients. For example, educational psychologist may adopt structured interview to systematically interview the people in concern. By delivering the same procedures, all subjects is evaluated using same criteria and minimising any confounding variable that reduce the validity. Some other example includes mental status examination and personality test.


title: Standardization

text: In the context of social criticism and social science, standardization often means the process of establishing standards of various kinds and improving efficiency to handle people, their interactions, cases, and so forth. Examples include formalization of judicial procedure in court, and establishing uniform criteria for diagnosing mental disease. Standardization in this sense is often discussed along with (or synonymously to) such large-scale social changes as modernization, bureaucratization, homogenization, and centralization of society.


title: Standardization

text: In the context of customer service, standardization refers to the process of developing an international standard that enables organizations to focus on customer service, while at the same time providing recognition of success through a third party organization, such as the British Standards Institution. An international standard has been developed by The International Customer Service Institute.


title: Standardization

text: In the context of supply chain management and materials management, standardization covers the process of specification and use of any item the company must buy in or make, allowable substitutions, and build or buy decisions.


title: Standardization

text: The process of standardization can itself be standardized. There are at least four levels of standardization: compatibility, interchangeability, commonality and reference. These standardization processes create compatibility, similarity, measurement, and symbol standards.


title: Standardization

text: Standardization has a variety of benefits and drawbacks for firms and consumers participating in the market, and on technology and innovation.


title: Standardization

text: The primary effect of standardization on firms is that the basis of competition is shifted from integrated systems to individual components within the system. Prior to standardization a company's product must span the entire system because individual components from different competitors are incompatible, but after standardization each company can focus on providing an individual component of the system. When the shift toward competition based on individual components takes place, firms selling tightly integrated systems must quickly shift to a modular approach, supplying other companies with subsystems or components.


title: Standardization

text: Standardization has a variety of benefits for consumers, but one of the greatest benefits is enhanced network effects. Standards increase compatibility and interoperability between products, allowing information to be shared within a larger network and attracting more consumers to use the new technology, further enhancing network effects. Other benefits of standardization to consumers are reduced uncertainty, because consumers can be more certain that they are not choosing the wrong product, and reduced lock-in, because the standard makes it more likely that there will be competing products in the space. Consumers may also get the benefit of being able to mix and match components of a system to align with their specific preferences. Once these initial benefits of standardization are realized, further benefits that accrue to consumers as a result of using the standard are driven mostly by the quality of the technologies underlying that standard.


title: Standardization

text: Probably the greatest downside of standardization for consumers is lack of variety. There is no guarantee that the chosen standard will meet all consumers' needs or even that the standard is the best available option. Another downside is that if a standard is agreed upon before products are available in the market, then consumers are deprived of the penetration pricing that often results when rivals are competing to rapidly increase market share in an attempt to increase the likelihood that their product will become the standard. It is also possible that a consumer will choose a product based upon a standard that fails to become dominant. In this case, the consumer will have spent resources on a product that is ultimately less useful to him or her as the result of the standardization process.


title: Standardization

text: Much like the effect on consumers, the effect of standardization on technology and innovation is mixed. Meanwhile, the various links between research and standardization have been identified, also as a platform of knowledge transfer and translated into policy measures (e.g. WIPANO).


title: Standardization

text: Increased adoption of a new technology as a result of standardization is important because rival and incompatible approaches competing in the marketplace can slow or even kill the growth of the technology (a state known as market fragmentation). The shift to a modularized architecture as a result of standardization brings increased flexibility, rapid introduction of new products, and the ability to more closely meet individual customer's needs.


title: Standardization

text: The negative effects of standardization on technology have to do with its tendency to restrict new technology and innovation. Standards shift competition from features to price because the features are defined by the standard. The degree to which this is true depends on the specificity of the standard. Standardization in an area also rules out alternative technologies as options while encouraging others.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Workplace bullying is a persistent pattern of mistreatment from others in the workplace that causes either physical or emotional harm.


title: Workplace bullying

text: It can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, and physical abuse, as well as humiliation. This type of workplace aggression is particularly difficult because, unlike the typical school bully, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. In the majority of cases, bullying in the workplace is reported as having been done by someone who has authority over the victim. However, bullies can also be peers, and rarely subordinates.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Research has also investigated the impact of the larger organizational context on bullying as well as the group-level processes that impact on the incidence and maintenance of bullying behaviour. Bullying can be covert or overt. It may be missed by superiors; it may be known by many throughout the organization. Negative effects are not limited to the targeted individuals, and may lead to a decline in employee morale and a change in organizational culture. It can also take place as overbearing supervision, constant criticism, and blocking promotions.


title: Workplace bullying

text: While there is no universally accepted formal definition of workplace bullying, and some researchers even question whether a uniform definition is possible due to its complex and multifaceted forms, but several researchers have endeavoured to define it:


title: Workplace bullying

text: Because it can occur in a variety of contexts and forms, it is also useful to define workplace bullying by the key features that these behaviours possess. Bullying is characterized by:


title: Workplace bullying

text: This distinguishes bullying from isolated behaviours and other forms of job stress and allows the term workplace bullying to be applied in various contexts and to behaviours that meet these characteristics. Many observers agree that bullying is often a repetitive behaviour. However, some experts who have dealt with a great many people who report abuse also categorize some once-only events as bullying, for example with cases where there appear to be severe sequelae. Expanding the common understanding of bullying to include single, severe episodes also parallels the legal definitions of sexual harassment in the US.


title: Workplace bullying

text: According to Pamela Lutgin-Sandvik, the lack of unifying language to name the phenomenon of workplace bullying is a problem because without a unifying term or phrase, individuals have difficulty naming their experiences of abuse, and therefore have trouble pursuing justice against the bully. Unlike sexual harassment, which named a specific problem and is now recognized in law of many countries (including the U.S.), workplace bullying is still being established as a relevant social problem and is in need of a specific vernacular.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Euphemisms intended to trivialize bullying and its impact on bullied people include: incivility, disrespect, difficult people, personality conflict, negative conduct, and ill treatment. Bullied people are labelled as insubordinate when they resist the bullying treatment.


title: Workplace bullying

text: There is no exact definition for bullying behaviours in workplace, which is why different terms and definitions are common. For example, mobbing is a commonly used term in France and Germany, where it refers to a "mob" of bullies, rather than a single bully; this phenomenon is not often seen in other countries. In the United States, aggression and emotional abuse are frequently used terms, whereas harassment is the term preferred in Finland. Workplace bullying is primarily used in Australia, UK, and Northern Europe. While the terms "harassment" and "mobbing" are often used to describe bullying behaviors, "workplace bullying" tends to be the most commonly used term by the research community.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Research suggests that a significant number of people are exposed to persistent workplace bullying, with a majority of studies reporting a 10 to 15% prevalence in Europe and North America. This figure can vary dramatically upon what definition of workplace bullying is used.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Statistics from the 2007 WBI-Zogby survey show that 13% of U.S. employees report being bullied currently, 24% say they have been bullied in the past and an additional 12% say they have witnessed workplace bullying. Nearly half of all American workers (49%) report that they have been affected by workplace bullying, either being a target themselves or having witnessed abusive behaviour against a co-worker.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Although socioeconomic factors may play a role in the abuse, researchers from the Project for Wellness and Work-Life suggest that "workplace bullying, by definition, is not explicitly connected to demographic markers such as sex and ethnicity".


title: Workplace bullying

text: According to the 2015 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS-OHS), the national prevalence rate for workers reporting having been threatened, bullied, or harassed by anyone on the job was 7.4%.


title: Workplace bullying

text: In 2008, Dr. Judy Fisher-Blando wrote a doctoral research dissertation on "Aggressive behaviour: Workplace Bullying and Its Effect on Job Satisfaction and Productivity". The scientific study determined that almost 75% of employees surveyed had been affected by workplace bullying, whether as a target or a witness. Further research showed the types of bullying behaviour, and organizational support.


title: Workplace bullying

text: In terms of gender, the Workplace Bullying Institute (2007) states that women appear to be at greater risk of becoming a bullying target, as 57% of those who reported being targeted for abuse were women. Men are more likely to participate in aggressive bullying behaviour (60%), however when the bully is a woman her target is more likely to be a woman as well (71%).


title: Workplace bullying

text: In 2015, the National Health Interview Survey found a higher prevalence of women (8%) workers who were threatened, bullied, or harassed than men.


title: Workplace bullying

text: However, varying results have been found. The research of Samnani and Singh (2012) reviews the findings from 20 years' literature and claims that inconsistent findings could not support the differences across gender. Carter et al. (2013) found that male staff reported higher prevalence of workplace bullying within UK healthcare.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Race also may play a role in the experience of workplace bullying. According to the Workplace Bullying Institute (2007), the comparison of reported combined bullying (current plus ever bullied) prevalence percentages in the USA reveals the pattern from most to least:


title: Workplace bullying

text: The percentages of those reporting that they have neither experienced nor witnessed mistreatment were:


title: Workplace bullying

text: Research psychologist Tony Buon published one of the first reviews of bullying in China in "PKU Business Review" in 2005.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Higher prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for divorced or separated workers compared to married workers, widowed workers, and never married workers.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Higher prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for workers with some college education or workers with high school diploma or GED, compared to workers with less than a high school education.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Lower prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for workers aged 65 and older compared to workers in other age groups.


title: Workplace bullying

text: With respect to age, conflicting findings have been reported. A study by Einarsen and Skogstad (1996) indicates older employees tend to be more likely to be bullied than younger ones.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The prevalence of a hostile work environment varies by industry. In 2015, the broad industry category with the highest prevalence was healthcare and social assistance 10%. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 16,890 workers in the private industry experienced physical trauma from nonfatal workplace violence in 2016.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The prevalence of hostile work environment varies by occupation. In 2015, the occupation groups with the highest prevalence was protective services (24%) and community and social services (15%).


title: Workplace bullying

text: Within UK healthcare, it has been found that 20% of staff have experienced bullying, and 43% witnessed bullying, with managers being the most common source of bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: In the UK's National Health Service, individuals with disabilities are also at a higher risk of experiencing workplace bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Researchers Caitlin Buon and Tony Buon suggest that attempts to profile 'the bully' have been damaging. They state that the "bully" profile is that 'the bully' is always aware of what they are doing, deliberately sets out to harm their 'victims', targets a particular individual or type of person, and has some kind of underlying personality flaw, insecurity, or disorder. But this is unproven and lacks evidence. The researchers suggest referring to workplace bullying as generic harassment along with other forms of non-specific harassment, as this would enable employees to use less emotionally charged language for starting a dialogue about their experiences, rather than being repelled by having to define their experiences as victims. Tony Buon and Caitlin Buon also suggest that the perception and profile of the workplace bully does not facilitate interventions. They suggest that to make significant progress and achieve long-term behaviour change, organisations and individuals need to embrace the notion that everyone potentially houses 'the bully' within them and their organisations. It exists in workplace cultures, belief systems, interactions, and emotional competencies, and cannot be transformed if externalization and demonization further the problem by profiling 'the bully' rather than talking about behaviours and interpersonal interactions.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Based on research by H. Hoel and C.L. Cooper, most perpetrators are supervisors. The second most common group is peers, followed by subordinates and customers. The three main relationships among the participants in workplace bullying:


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying behaviour by supervisors toward subordinates typically manifests as an abuse of power by the supervisor in the workplace. Bullying behaviours by supervisors may be associated with a culture of bullying and the management style of the supervisors. An authoritative management style, specifically, often includes bullying behaviours, which can make subordinates fearful and allow supervisors to bolster their authority over others.


title: Workplace bullying

text: If an organization wishes to discourage bullying in the workplace, strategies and policies must be put into place to dissuade and counter bullying behavior. Lack of monitoring or of punishment/corrective action will result in an organizational culture that supports/tolerates bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: In addition to supervisor – subordinate bullying, bullying behaviours also occur between colleagues. Peers can be either the target or perpetrator. If workplace bullying happens among the co-workers, witnesses will typically choose sides, either with the target or the perpetrator. Perpetrators usually "win" since witnesses do not want to be the next target. This outcome encourages perpetrators to continue their bullying behaviour. In addition, the sense of the injustice experienced by a target might lead that person to become another perpetrator who bullies other colleagues who have less power than they do, thereby proliferating bullying in the organization.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Maarit Varitia, a workplace bullying researcher, found that 20% of interviewees who experienced workplace bullying attributed their being targeted to their being different from others.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The third relationship in the workplace is between employees and customers. Although less frequent, such cases play a significant role in the efficiency of the organization. Overly stressed or distressed employees may be less able to perform optimally and can impact the quality of service overall.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The fourth relationship in the workplace is between the organization or system and its employees. An article by Andreas Liefooghe (2012) notes that many employees describe their employer as a "bully".


title: Workplace bullying

text: These cases, the issue is not simply an organizational culture or environmental factors facilitating bullying, but bullying-like behaviour by an employer against an employee. Tremendous power imbalances between an organization and its employees enables the employer to "legitimately exercise" power (e.g., by monitoring and controlling employees) in a manner consistent with bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Although the terminology of bullying traditionally implies an interpersonal relationship between the perpetrator and target, organizations' or other collectives' actions can constitute bullying both by definition and in their impacts on targets. However, while defining bullying as an interpersonal phenomenon is considered legitimate, classifying incidences of employer exploitation, retaliation, or other abuses of power against an employee as a form of bullying is often not taken as seriously.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that they have the support, or at least the implicit blessing of senior managers to carry on their abusive and bullying behaviour. Vertical violence is a specific type of workplace violence based on the hierarchical or managerial structure present in many healthcare based establishments. This type of workplace violence, “is usually generated by a power imbalance, whether due to a real hierarchical structure or perceived by professionals. It generates feelings of humiliation, vulnerability, and helplessness in the victims, limiting their ability to develop competency and defend themselves” (Pérez-Fuentes et al. 2021, pg 2) Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.


title: Workplace bullying

text: When bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. People may be bullied irrespective of their organizational status or rank, including senior managers, which indicates the possibility of a negative domino effect, where bullying may cascade downwards, as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression onto their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The relationship between occupational stress and bullying was drawn in the matter of the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) issuing an Improvement Notice to the West Dorset General Hospital NHS Trust. This followed a complaint raised with the HSE by an employee who was off sick having suffered from bullying in the workplace. His managers had responded by telling him that in the event of his returning to work it was unlikely that anything would be done about the bullying. The HSE found that the Trust did not have an occupational stress policy and directed them to create one in accordance with the soon to be published HSE Management Standards. These are standards that managers should meet in their work if they are to ensure a safe workplace, as is required by the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 as was amended by the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, the latter directing that risks in the workplace must be identified, assessed and controlled. These risks include those hazards known to cause occupational stress. One of the six standards relates to managing relationships between employees, a matter in which the Trust had shown itself to be deficient.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The six HSE Management Standards define a set of behaviours by managers that address the main reported causes of occupational stress. Managers that operate against the standards can readily be identified as workplace bullies i.e. have no regard for the demands, remove control whenever possible, let them struggle, allow bullying to run uncontrolled and never let them know what is going to happen next (mushroom management) i.e. 'show them who is in charge'. The standards define the main known causes of occupational stress, in accord with the DCS Model, but also provide a 'bullying checklist'.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Research investigating the acceptability of the bullying behaviour across different cultures (e.g. Power et al., 2013) clearly shows that culture affects the perception of the acceptable behaviour.


title: Workplace bullying

text: National background also influences the prevalence of workplace bullying (Harvey et al., 2009; Hoel et al., 1999; Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2007).


title: Workplace bullying

text: Performance orientation is positively associated with the acceptance of bullying. Future orientation is negatively associated with the acceptability of bullying. A culture of femininity suggests that individuals who live and work in this kind of culture tend to value interpersonal relationships to a greater degree.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Three broad dimensions have been mentioned in relation to workplace bullying: power distance; masculinity versus femininity; and individualism versus collectivism (Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2007).


title: Workplace bullying

text: In Confucian Asia, which has a higher performance orientation than Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, bullying may be seen as an acceptable price to pay for performance. The value Latin America holds for personal connections with employees and the higher humane orientation of Sub-Saharan Africa may help to explain their distaste for bullying. A culture of individualism in the US implies competition, which may increase the likelihood of workplace bullying situations.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants, i.e., leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies "get away with it", a climate of fear may be the result. Several studies have confirmed a relationship between bullying, on the one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling conflicts or dealing with disagreements, on the other. An authoritarian style of leadership may create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered futile. In professions where workplace bullying is common, and employees do not receive sufficient support from their coworkers or managers, it often generates feelings of resignation that lead them to believe that the abuse is a normal and inevitable part of the job. In a study of public-sector union members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place. Rayner explained these figures by pointing to the presence of a climate of fear in which employees considered reporting to be unsafe, where bullies had "got away with it" previously despite management knowing of the presence of bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The workplace bully may be respectful when talking to upper management but the opposite when it comes to their relationship with those whom they supervise: the "kiss up kick down" personality. Bullies tend to ingratiate themselves to their bosses while intimidating subordinates. They may be socially popular with others in management, including those who will determine their fate. Often, a workplace bully will have mastered "kiss up kick down" tactics that hide their abusive side from superiors who review their performance.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The flow of blame in an organization may be a primary indicator of that organization's robustness and integrity. Blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations, indicates organizational failure. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Confused roles and responsibilities also contribute to a blame culture. Blame culture reduces the capacity of an organization to take adequate measures to prevent minor problems from escalating into uncontrollable situations. Several issues identified in organizations with a blame culture contradicts high reliability organizations best practices. Blame culture is considered a serious issue in healthcare organizations by the World Health Organization, which recommends to promote a "no-blame culture", or just culture, a means to increase patients safety.


title: Workplace bullying

text: The most typical reactions to workplace bullying are to do with the survival instinct – "fight or flight" – and these are probably a victim's healthier responses to bullying. Flight is often a response to bullying. It is very common, especially in organizations in which upper management cannot or will not deal with the bullying. In hard economic times, however, flight may not be an option, and fighting may be the only choice.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Fighting the bullying can require near heroic action, especially if the bullying targets just one or two individuals. It can also be a difficult challenge. There are some times when confrontation is called for. First, there is always a chance that the bully boss is labouring under the impression that this is the way to get things done and does not recognize the havoc being wrought on subordinates.


title: Workplace bullying

text: With some variations, the following typology of workplace bullying behaviours has been adopted by a number of academic researchers. The typology uses five different categories.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Research by the Workplace Bullying Institute, suggests that the following are the 25 most common workplace bullying tactics:


title: Workplace bullying

text: Abusive cyberbullying in the workplace can have serious socioeconomic and psychological consequences on the victim. Workplace cyberbullying can lead to sick leave due to depression which in turn can lead to loss of profits for the organisation.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Several aspects of academia, such as the generally decentralized nature of academic institutions and the particular recruitment and career procedures, lend themselves to the practice of bullying and discourage its reporting and mitigation.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying has been identified as prominent in blue collar jobs including on oil rigs, and in mechanical areas and machine shops, warehouses and factories. It is thought that intimidation and fear of retribution cause decreased incident reports, which, in the socioeconomic and cultural milieu of such industries, would likely lead to a vicious circle. This is often used in combination with manipulation and coercion of facts to gain favour among higher ranking administrators. For example, an investigation conducted following a hazing incident at Portland Bureau of Transportation within the city government of Portland, Oregon, found ritual hazing kept hidden for years under the guise of "no snitching", where whistleblowing was punished and loyalty was praised. Two-thirds of the interviewed employees in this investigation declared they deemed the best way they found to deal with the workplace's bad behaviors was "not to get involved", as they "feared retaliation if they did intervene or report the problems."


title: Workplace bullying

text: A culture of bullying is common in information technology (IT), leading to high sickness rates, low morale, poor productivity and high staff turnover. Deadline-driven project work and stressed-out managers take their toll on IT workers.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying in the legal profession is believed to be more common than in some other professions. It is believed that its adversarial, hierarchical tradition contributes towards this. Women, trainees and solicitors who have been qualified for five years or less are more impacted, as are ethnic minority lawyers and lesbian, gay and bisexual lawyers.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying in the medical profession is common, particularly of student or trainee doctors. In a study on the violence that occurs in healthcare, it was found that from 2002 to 2013 alone, the occurrence of abuse became four times as likely. It is thought that this is at least in part an outcome of conservative traditional hierarchical structures and teaching methods in the medical profession which may result in a bullying cycle.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying exists to varying degrees in the military of some countries, often involving various forms of hazing or abuse by higher members of the military hierarchy.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying has been identified as being particularly prevalent in the nursing profession although the reasons are not clear. It is thought that relational aggression (psychological aspects of bullying such as gossiping and intimidation) are relevant. Relational aggression has been studied amongst girls but not so much amongst adult women. A lot of bullying directed towards nurses is inflicted by patients, and nurses are at such higher risk because the most patient exposure out of any healthcare professional. Especially today with the shortage of nurses, nurses are seeing more patients for longer amounts of time which can lead to increased stress levels if they are a victim of bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: School teachers are commonly the subject of bullying but they are also sometimes the originators of bullying within a school environment.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying can be common in volunteering settings. For example, one study found bullying to be the most significant factor of complaints amongst volunteers. Volunteers often do not have access to protections available to paid employees, so while laws may indicate that bullying is a violation of rights, volunteers may have no means to address it.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Adult bullying can come in an assortment of forms. There are about five distinctive types of adult bullies. A narcissistic bully is described as a self-centred person whose egotism is frail and possesses the need to put others down. An impulsive bully is someone who acts on bullying based on stress or being upset at the moment. A physical bully uses physical injury and the threat of harm to abuse their victims, while a verbal bully uses demeaning language and cynicism to debase their victims. Lastly, a secondary adult bully is portrayed as a person that did not start the initial bullying but participates in afterwards to avoid being bullied themselves ("Adult Bullying").


title: Workplace bullying

text: Workplace bullying is reported to be far more prevalent than perhaps commonly thought. For some reason, workplace bullying seems to be particularly widespread in healthcare organizations; 80% of nurses report experiencing workplace bullying. Similar to the school environment for children, the work environment typically places groups of adult peers together in a shared space on a regular basis. In such a situation, social interactions and relationships are of great importance to the function of the organizational structure and in pursuing goals. The emotional consequences of bullying put an organization at risk of losing victimized employees. Bullying also contributes to a negative work environment, is not conducive to necessary cooperation and can lessen productivity at various levels.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Bullying in the workplace is associated with negative responses to stress. The ability to manage emotions, especially emotional stress, seems to be a consistently important factor in different types of bullying. The workplace in general can be a stressful environment, so a negative way of coping with stress or an inability to do so can be particularly damning. Workplace bullies may have high social intelligence and low emotional intelligence (EI). In this context, bullies tend to rank high on the social ladder and are adept at influencing others. The combination of high social intelligence and low empathy is conducive to manipulative behaviour, such that Hutchinson (2013) describes workplace bullying to be. In working groups where employees have low EI, workers can be persuaded to engage in unethical behaviour. With the bullies' persuasion, the work group is socialized in a way that rationalizes the behaviour, and makes the group tolerant or supportive of the bullying.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Hutchinson & Hurley (2013) make the case that EI and leadership skills are both necessary to bullying intervention in the workplace, and illustrates the relationship between EI, leadership and reductions in bullying. EI and ethical behaviour among other members of the work team have been shown to have a significant impact on ethical behaviour of nursing teams. Higher EI is linked to improvements in the work environment and is an important moderator between conflict and reactions to conflict in the workplace. The self-awareness and self-management dimensions of EI have both been illustrated to have strong positive correlations with effective leadership and the specific leadership ability to build healthy work environments and work culture.


title: Workplace bullying

text: Abusive supervision overlaps with workplace bullying in the workplace context. Research suggests that 75% of workplace bullying incidents are perpetrated by hierarchically superior agents. Abusive supervision differs from related constructs such as supervisor bullying and undermining in that it does not describe the intentions or objectives of the supervisor.


title: Workplace bullying

text: A power and control model has been developed for the workplace, divided into the following categories:


title: Workplace bullying

text: Workplace mobbing overlaps with workplace bullying. The concept originated from the study of animal behaviour. It concentrates on bullying by a group.