title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopod lifespans range from three to over thirty years. Ripe gametes (ova or sperm) float from the gonads into the main coelom and then exit into the mantle cavity. The larvae of inarticulate brachiopods are miniature adults, with lophophores that enable the larvae to feed and swim for months until the animals become heavy enough to settle to the seabed. The planktonic larvae of articulate species do not resemble the adults, but rather look like blobs with yolk sacs, and remain among the plankton for only a few days before leaving the water column upon metamorphosing.


title: Brachiopod

text: While traditional classification of brachiopods separate them into distinct inarticulate and articulate groups, two approaches appeared in the 1990s. One approach groups the inarticulate Craniida with articulate brachiopods, since both use layers of calcareous minerals their shell; the other approach considers the Craniida to be a separate third group, as their outer organic layer is distinct from that of both the linguliforms ("typical" inarticulates) and rhynchonelliforms (articulates). However, some taxonomists believe it is premature to suggest higher levels of classification such as order and recommend a bottom-up approach that identifies genera and then groups these into intermediate groups. Traditionally, brachiopods have been regarded as members of, or as a sister group to, the deuterostomes, a superphylum that includes chordates and echinoderms. One type of analysis of the evolutionary relationships of brachiopods has always placed brachiopods as protostomes while another type has split between placing brachiopods among the protostomes or the deuterostomes.


title: Brachiopod

text: It was suggested in 2003 that brachiopods had evolved from an ancestor similar to "Halkieria", a slug-like Cambrian animal with "chain mail" on its back and a shell at the front and rear end; it was thought that the ancestral brachiopod converted its shells into a pair of valves by folding the rear part of its body under its front. However, new fossils found in 2007 and 2008 showed that the "chain mail" of tommotiids formed the tube of a sessile animal; one tommotiid resembled phoronids, which are close relatives or a subgroup of brachiopods, while the other tommotiid bore two symmetrical plates that might be an early form of brachiopod valves. Lineages of brachiopods that have both fossil and extant taxa appeared in the early Cambrian, Ordovician, and Carboniferous periods, respectively. Other lineages have arisen and then become extinct, sometimes during severe mass extinctions. At their peak in the Paleozoic era, the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter-feeders and reef-builders, and occupied other ecological niches, including swimming in the jet-propulsion style of scallops. Brachiopod fossils have been useful indicators of climate changes during the Paleozoic. However, after the Permian–Triassic extinction event, brachiopods recovered only a third of their former diversity. A study in 2007 concluded the brachiopods were especially vulnerable to the Permian–Triassic extinction, as they built calcareous hard parts (made of calcium carbonate) and had low metabolic rates and weak respiratory systems. It was often thought that brachiopods went into decline after the Permian–Triassic extinction, and were out-competed by bivalves, but a study in 1980 found both brachiopod and bivalve species increased from the Paleozoic to modern times, with bivalves increasing faster; after the Permian–Triassic extinction, brachiopods became for the first time less diverse than bivalves.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopods live only in the sea, and most species avoid locations with strong currents or waves. The larvae of articulate species settle in quickly and form dense populations in well-defined areas while the larvae of inarticulate species swim for up to a month and have wide ranges. Brachiopods now live mainly in cold water and low light. Fish and crustaceans seem to find brachiopod flesh distasteful and seldom attack them. Among brachiopods, only the lingulids ("Lingula sp.") have been fished commercially, on a very small scale. One brachiopod species ("Coptothyrus adamsi") may be a measure of environmental conditions around an oil terminal being built in Russia on the shore of the Sea of Japan. The word "brachiopod" is formed from the Ancient Greek words brachion ("arm") and podos ("foot"). They are often known as "lamp shells", since the curved shells of the class Terebratulida resemble pottery oil-lamps.


title: Brachiopod

text: Modern brachiopods range from long, and most species are about . "Magellania venosa" is the largest extant species. The largest brachiopods known—"Gigantoproductus" and "Titanaria", reaching in width—occurred in the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous. Brachiopods have two valves (shell sections), which cover the dorsal (top) and ventral (bottom) surface of the animal, unlike bivalve molluscs whose shells cover the lateral surfaces (sides). The valves are unequal in size and structure, with each having its own symmetrical form rather than the two being mirror images of each other. The formation of brachiopod shells during ontogeny builds on a set of conserved genes, including homeobox genes, that are also used to form the shells of molluscs.


title: Brachiopod

text: The brachial valve is usually smaller and bears brachia ("arms") on its inner surface. These brachia are the origin of the phylum's name, and support the lophophore, used for feeding and respiration. The pedicle valve is usually larger, and its near the hinge it has an opening for the stalk-like pedicle through which most brachiopods attach themselves to the substrate. (R. C. Moore, 1952) The brachial and pedicle valves are often called the dorsal and ventral valves, respectively, but some paleontologists regard the terms "dorsal" and "ventral" as irrelevant since they believe that the "ventral" valve was formed by a folding of the upper surface under the body. The ventral ("lower") valve actually lies above the dorsal ("upper") valve when most brachiopods are oriented in life position. In many living articulate brachiopod species, both valves are convex, the surfaces often bearing growth lines and/or other ornamentation. However, inarticulate lingulids, which burrow into the seabed, have valves that are smoother, flatter and of similar size and shape. (R. C. Moore, 1952)


title: Brachiopod

text: Articulate ("jointed") brachiopods have a tooth and socket arrangement by which the pedicle and brachial valves hinge, locking the valves against lateral displacement. Inarticulate brachiopods have no matching teeth and sockets; their valves are held together only by muscles. (R. C. Moore, 1952)


title: Brachiopod

text: All brachiopods have adductor muscles that are set on the inside of the pedicle valve and which close the valves by pulling on the part of the brachial valve ahead of the hinge. These muscles have both "quick" fibers that close the valves in emergencies and "catch" fibers that are slower but can keep the valves closed for long periods. Articulate brachiopods open the valves by means of abductor muscles, also known as diductors, which lie further to the rear and pull on the part of the brachial valve behind the hinge. Inarticulate brachiopods use a different opening mechanism, in which muscles reduce the length of the coelom (main body cavity) and make it bulge outwards, pushing the valves apart. Both classes open the valves to an angle of about 10 degrees. The more complex set of muscles employed by inarticulate brachiopods can also operate the valves as scissors, a mechanism that lingulids use to burrow.


title: Brachiopod

text: Each valve consists of three layers, an outer periostracum made of organic compounds and two biomineralized layers. Articulate brachiopods have an outermost periostracum made of proteins, a "primary layer" of calcite (a form of calcium carbonate) under that, and innermost a mixture of proteins and calcite. Inarticulate brachiopod shells have a similar sequence of layers, but their composition is different from that of articulated brachiopods and also varies among the classes of inarticulate brachiopods. The Terebratulida are an example of brachiopods with a punctate shell structure; the mineralized layers are perforated by tiny open canals of living tissue, extensions of the mantle called caeca, which almost reach the outside of the primary layer. These shells can contain half of the animal's living tissue. Impunctate shells are solid without any tissue inside them. Pseudopunctate shells have tubercles formed from deformations unfurling along calcite rods. They are only known from fossil forms, and were originally mistaken for calcified punctate structures.


title: Brachiopod

text: Lingulids and discinids, which have pedicles, have a matrix of glycosaminoglycans (long, unbranched polysaccharides), in which other materials are embedded: chitin in the periostracum; apatite containing calcium phosphate in the primary biomineralized layer; and a complex mixture in the innermost layer, containing collagen and other proteins, chitinophosphate and apatite. Craniids, which have no pedicle and cement themselves directly to hard surfaces, have a periostracum of chitin and mineralized layers of calcite. Shell growth can be described as holoperipheral, mixoperipheral, or hemiperipheral. In holoperipheral growth, distinctive of craniids, new material is added at an equal rate all around the margin. In mixoperipheral growth, found in many living and extinct articulates, new material is added to the posterior region of the shell with an anterior trend, growing towards the other shell. Hemiperipheral growth, found in lingulids, is similar to mixoperipheral growth but occurs in mostly a flat plate with the shell growing forwards and outwards.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopods, as with molluscs, have an epithelial mantle which secretes and lines the shell, and encloses the internal organs. The brachiopod body occupies only about one-third of the internal space inside the shell, nearest the hinge. The rest of the space is lined with the mantle lobes, extensions that enclose a water-filled space in which sits the lophophore. The coelom (body cavity) extends into each lobe as a network of canals, which carry nutrients to the edges of the mantle.


title: Brachiopod

text: Relatively new cells in a groove on the edges of the mantle secrete material that extends the periostracum. These cells are gradually displaced to the underside of the mantle by more recent cells in the groove, and switch to secreting the mineralized material of the shell valves. In other words, on the edge of the valve the periostracum is extended first, and then reinforced by extension of the mineralized layers under the periostracum. In most species the edge of the mantle also bears movable bristles, often called chaetae or setae, that may help defend the animals and may act as sensors. In some brachiopods groups of chaetae help to channel the flow of water into and out of the mantle cavity.


title: Brachiopod

text: In most brachiopods, diverticula (hollow extensions) of the mantle penetrate through the mineralized layers of the valves into the periostraca. The function of these diverticula is uncertain and it is suggested that they may be storage chambers for chemicals such as glycogen, may secrete repellents to deter organisms that stick to the shell or may help in respiration. Experiments show that a brachiopod's oxygen consumption drops if petroleum jelly is smeared on the shell, clogging the diverticula.


title: Brachiopod

text: Like bryozoans and phoronids, brachiopods have a lophophore, a crown of tentacles whose cilia (fine hairs) create a water current that enables them to filter food particles out of the water. However a bryozoan or phoronid lophophore is a ring of tentacles mounted on a single, retracted stalk, while the basic form of the brachiopod lophophore is U-shaped, forming the brachia ("arms") from which the phylum gets its name. Brachiopod lophophores are non-retractable and occupy up to two-thirds of the internal space, in the frontmost area where the valves gape when opened. To provide enough filtering capacity in this restricted space, lophophores of larger brachiopods are folded in moderately to very complex shapes—loops and coils are common, and some species' lophophores contort into a shape resembling a hand with the fingers splayed. In all species the lophophore is supported by cartilage and by a hydrostatic skeleton (in other words, by the pressure of its internal fluid), and the fluid extends into the tentacles. Some articulate brachiopods also have a brachidium, a calcareous support for the lophophore attached to the inside of the brachial valve, which have led to an extremely reduced lophophoral muscles and the reduction of some brachial nerves.


title: Brachiopod

text: The tentacles bear cilia (fine mobile hairs) on their edges and along the center. The beating of the outer cilia drives a water current from the tips of the tentacles to their bases, where it exits. Food particles that collide with the tentacles are trapped by mucus, and the cilia down the middle drive this mixture to the base of the tentacles. A brachial groove runs round the bases of the tentacles, and its own cilia pass food along the groove towards the mouth. The method used by brachiopods is known as "upstream collecting", as food particles are captured as they enter the field of cilia that creates the feeding current. This method is used by the related phoronids and bryozoans, and also by pterobranchs. Entoprocts use a similar-looking crown of tentacles, but it is solid and the flow runs from bases to tips, forming a "downstream collecting" system that catches food particles as they are about to exit.


title: Brachiopod

text: Most modern species attach to hard surfaces by means of a cylindrical pedicle ("stalk"), an extension of the body wall. This has a chitinous cuticle (non-cellular "skin") and protrudes through an opening in the hinge. However, some genera have no pedicle, such as the inarticulate "Crania" and the articulate "Lacazella;" they cement the rear of the "pedicle" (ventral) valve to a surface so that the front is slightly inclined up away from the surface. In these brachiopods, the ventral valve lacks a pedicle opening. In a few articulate genera such as "Neothyris" and "Anakinetica", the pedicles wither as the adults grow and finally lie loosely on the surface. In these genera the shells are thickened and shaped so that the opening of the gaping valves is kept free of the sediment.


title: Brachiopod

text: Pedicles of inarticulate species are extensions of the main coelom, which houses the internal organs. A layer of longitudinal muscles lines the epidermis of the pedicle. Members of the order Lingulida have long pedicles, which they use to burrow into soft substrates, to raise the shell to the opening of the burrow to feed, and to retract the shell when disturbed. A lingulid moves its body up and down the top two-thirds of the burrow, while the remaining third is occupied only by the pedicle, with a bulb on the end that builds a "concrete" anchor. However, the pedicles of the order Discinida are short and attach to hard surfaces.


title: Brachiopod

text: The pedicle of articulate brachiopods has no coelom, and its homology is unclear. It is constructed from a different part of the larval body, and has a compact core composed of connective tissue. Muscles at the rear of the body can straighten, bend or even rotate the pedicle. The far end of the pedicle generally has rootlike extensions or short papillae ("bumps"), which attach to hard surfaces. However, articulate brachiopods of the genus "Chlidonophora" use a branched pedicle to anchor in sediment. The pedicle emerges from the pedicle valve, either through a notch in the hinge or, in species where the pedicle valve is longer than the brachial, from a hole where the pedicle valve doubles back to touch the brachial valve. Some species stand with the front end upwards, while others lie horizontal with the pedicle valve uppermost.


title: Brachiopod

text: Some early brachiopods—for example strophomenates, kutorginates and obolellates—do not attach using their pedicle, but with an entirely different structure known as the "pedicle sheath", which has no relationship to the pedicle. This structure arises from the umbo of the pedicle valve, at the centre of the earliest (metamorphic) shell at the location of the protegulum. It is sometimes associated with a fringing plate, the colleplax.


title: Brachiopod

text: The water flow enters the lophophore from the sides of the open valves and exits at the front of the animal. In lingulids the entrance and exit channels are formed by groups of chaetae that function as funnels. In other brachiopods the entry and exit channels are organized by the shape of the lophophore. The lophophore captures food particles, especially phytoplankton (tiny photosynthetic organisms), and deliver them to the mouth via the brachial grooves along the bases of the tentacles. The mouth is a tiny slit at the base of the lophophore. Food passes through the mouth, muscular pharynx ("throat") and oesophagus ("gullet"), all of which are lined with cilia and cells that secrete mucus and digestive enzymes. The stomach wall has branched ceca ("pouches") where food is digested, mainly within the cells.


title: Brachiopod

text: Nutrients are transported throughout the coelom, including the mantle lobes, by cilia. The wastes produced by metabolism are broken into ammonia, which is eliminated by diffusion through the mantle and lophophore. Brachiopods have metanephridia, used by many phyla to excrete ammonia and other dissolved wastes. However, brachiopods have no sign of the podocytes, which perform the first phase of excretion in this process, and brachiopod metanephridia appear to be used only to emit sperm and ova.


title: Brachiopod

text: The majority of food consumed by brachiopods is digestible, with very little solid waste produced. The cilia of the lophophore can change direction to eject isolated particles of indigestible matter. If the animal encounters larger lumps of undesired matter, the cilia lining the entry channels pause and the tentacles in contact with the lumps move apart to form large gaps and then slowly use their cilia to dump the lumps onto the lining of the mantle. This has its own cilia, which wash the lumps out through the opening between the valves. If the lophophore is clogged, the adductors snap the valves sharply, which creates a "sneeze" that clears the obstructions. In some inarticulate brachiopods the digestive tract is U-shaped and ends with an anus that eliminates solids from the front of the body wall. Other inarticulate brachiopods and all articulate brachiopods have a curved gut that ends blindly, with no anus. These animals bundle solid waste with mucus and periodically "sneeze" it out, using sharp contractions of the gut muscles.


title: Brachiopod

text: The lophophore and mantle are the only surfaces that absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Oxygen seems to be distributed by the fluid of the coelom, which is circulated through the mantle and driven either by contractions of the lining of the coelom or by beating of its cilia. In some species oxygen is partly carried by the respiratory pigment hemerythrin, which is transported in coelomocyte cells. The maximum oxygen consumption of brachiopods is low, and their minimum requirement is not measurable.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopods also have colorless blood, circulated by a muscular heart lying in the dorsal part of the body above the stomach. The blood passes through vessels that extend to the front and back of the body, and branch to organs including the lophophore at the front and the gut, muscles, gonads and nephridia at the rear. The blood circulation seems not to be completely closed, and the coelomic fluid and blood must mix to a degree. The main function of the blood may be to deliver nutrients.


title: Brachiopod

text: The "brain" of adult articulates consists of two ganglia, one above and the other below the oesophagus. Adult inarticulates have only the lower ganglion. From the ganglia and the commissures where they join, nerves run to the lophophore, the mantle lobes and the muscles that operate the valves. The edge of the mantle has probably the greatest concentration of sensors. Although not directly connected to sensory neurons, the mantle's chaetae probably send tactile signals to receptors in the epidermis of the mantle. Many brachiopods close their valves if shadows appear above them, but the cells responsible for this are unknown. Some brachiopods have statocysts, which detect changes in the animals' position.


title: Brachiopod

text: Lifespans range from 3 to over 30 years. Adults of most species are of one sex throughout their lives. The gonads are masses of developing gametes (ova or sperm), and most species have four gonads, two in each valve. Those of articulates lie in the channels of the mantle lobes, while those of inarticulates lie near the gut. Ripe gametes float into the main coelom and then exit into the mantle cavity via the metanephridia, which open on either side of the mouth. Most species release both ova and sperm into the water, but females of some species keep the embryos in brood chambers until the larvae hatch.


title: Brachiopod

text: The cell division in the embryo is radial (cells form in stacks of rings directly above each other), holoblastic (cells are separate, although adjoining) and regulative (the type of tissue into which a cell develops is controlled by interactions between adjacent cells, rather than rigidly within each cell). While some animals develop the mouth and anus by deepening the blastopore, a "dent" in the surface of the early embryo, the blastopore of brachiopods closes up, and their mouth and anus develop from new openings.


title: Brachiopod

text: The larvae of lingulids swim as plankton for months and are like miniature adults, with valves, mantle lobes, a pedicle that coils in the mantle cavity, and a small lophophore, which is used for both feeding and swimming. The larvae of craniids have no pedicle or shell. As the shell becomes heavier, the juvenile sinks to the bottom and becomes a sessile adult. The larvae of articulate species live only on yolk, and remain among the plankton for only a few days. This type of larva has a ciliated frontmost lobe that becomes the body and lophophore, a rear lobe that becomes the pedicle, and a mantle like a skirt, with the hem towards the rear. On metamorphosing into an adult, the pedicle attaches to a surface, the front lobe develops the lophophore and other organs, and the mantle rolls up over the front lobe and starts to secrete the shell. In cold seas, brachiopod growth is seasonal and the animals often lose weight in winter. These variations in growth often form growth lines in the shells. Members of some genera have survived for a year in aquaria without food.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopod fossils show great diversity in the morphology of the shells and lophophore, while the modern genera show less diversity but provide soft-bodied characteristics. Both fossils and extant species have limitations that make it difficult to produce a comprehensive classification of brachiopods based on morphology. The phylum also has experienced significant convergent evolution and reversals (in which a more recent group seems to have lost a characteristic that is seen in an intermediate group, reverting to a characteristic last seen in an older group). Hence some brachiopod taxonomists believe it is premature to define higher levels of classification such as order, and recommend instead a bottom-up approach that identifies genera and then groups these into intermediate groups.


title: Brachiopod

text: However, other taxonomists believe that some patterns of characteristics are sufficiently stable to make higher-level classifications worthwhile, although there are different views about what the higher-level classifications should be.


title: Brachiopod

text: The "traditional" classification was defined in 1869; two further approaches were established in the 1990s:


title: Brachiopod

text: About 330 living species are recognized, grouped into over 100 genera. The great majority of modern brachiopods are rhynchonelliforms (Articulata).


title: Brachiopod

text: Genetic analysis performed since the 1990s has extended the understanding of the relationship between different organisms. It is now clear the brachiopods do not belong to the Deuterostomia (such as echinoderms and chordates) as was hypothesized earlier, but should be included in the broad group Protostomia, in a subgroup now called Lophotrochozoa. Although their adult morphology seems rather different, the nucleotide sequence of the 18S rRNA indicates that the phoronids (horseshoe worms) are the closest relatives of the inarticulate brachiopods, moreso than articulate brachiopods. For now, the weight of evidence is inconclusive as to the exact relations within the inarticulates. Consequently, it has been suggested to include horseshoe worms in the Brachiopoda as a class named Phoronata in addition to the Craniata and Lingulata, within the subphylum Linguliformea. The other subphylum, Rhynchonelliformea contains only one extant class, which is subdivided into the extant orders Rhynchonellida, Terebratulida and Thecideida.


title: Brachiopod

text: This shows the taxonomy of brachiopods down to the order level, including extinct groups, which make up the majority of species. Extinct groups are indicated with a (†) symbol:


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopods are an entirely marine phylum, with no known freshwater species. Most species avoid locations with strong currents or waves, and typical sites include rocky overhangs, crevices and caves, steep slopes of continental shelves, and in deep ocean floors. However, some articulate species attach to kelp or in exceptionally sheltered sites in intertidal zones. The smallest living brachiopod, "Gwynia", is only about long, and lives in between gravel grains. Rhynchonelliforms, whose larvae consume only their yolks and settle and develop quickly, are often endemic to an area and form dense populations that can reach thousands per meter. Young adults often attach to the shells of more mature ones. On the other hand, inarticulate brachiopods, whose larva swim for up to a month before settling, have wide ranges. Members of the discinoid genus "Pelagodiscus" have a cosmopolitan distribution.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopods have a low metabolic rate, between one third and one tenth of that of bivalves. While brachiopods were abundant in warm, shallow seas during the Cretaceous period, most of their former niches are now occupied by bivalves, and most now live in cold and low-light conditions.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopod shells occasionally show evidence of damage by predators, and sometimes of subsequent repair. Fish and crustaceans seem to find brachiopod flesh distasteful. The fossil record shows that drilling predators like gastropods attacked molluscs and echinoids 10 to 20 times more often than they did brachiopods, suggesting that such predators attacked brachiopods by mistake or when other prey was scarce. In waters where food is scarce, the snail "Capulus ungaricus" steals food from bivalves, snails, tube worms, and brachiopods.


title: Brachiopod

text: Among brachiopods only the lingulids have been fished commercially, and only on a very small scale. It is mostly the fleshy pedicle that is eaten. Brachiopods seldom settle on artificial surfaces, probably because they are vulnerable to pollution. This may make the population of "Coptothyrus adamsi" useful as a measure of environmental conditions around an oil terminal being built in Russia on the shore of the Sea of Japan.


title: Brachiopod

text: Over 12,000 fossil species are recognized, grouped into over 5,000 genera. While the largest modern brachiopods are long, a few fossils measure up to wide. The earliest confirmed brachiopods have been found in the early Cambrian, inarticulate forms appearing first, followed soon after by articulate forms. Three unmineralized species have also been found in the Cambrian, and apparently represent two distinct groups that evolved from mineralized ancestors. The inarticulate "Lingula" is often called a "living fossil", as very similar genera have been found all the way back to the Ordovician. On the other hand, articulate brachiopods have produced major diversifications, and suffered severe mass extinctions—but the articulate Rhynchonellida and Terebratulida, the most diverse present-day groups, appeared at the start of the Ordovician and Carboniferous, respectively.


title: Brachiopod

text: Since 1991 Claus Nielsen has proposed a hypothesis about the development of brachiopods, adapted in 2003 by Cohen and colleagues as a hypothesis about the earliest evolution of brachiopods. This "brachiopod fold" hypothesis suggests that brachiopods evolved from an ancestor similar to "Halkieria", a slug-like animal with "chain mail" on its back and a shell at the front and rear end. The hypothesis proposes that the first brachiopod converted its shells into a pair of valves by folding the rear part of its body under its front.


title: Brachiopod

text: However, fossils from 2007 onwards have supported a new interpretation of the Early-Cambrian tommotiids, and a new hypothesis that brachiopods evolved from tommotiids. The "armor mail" of tommotiids was well-known but not in an assembled form, and it was generally assumed that tommotiids were slug-like animals similar to "Halkieria", except that tommotiids' armor was made of organophosphatic compounds while that of "Halkieria" was made of calcite. However, fossils of a new tommotiid, "Eccentrotheca", showed an assembled mail coat that formed a tube, which would indicate a sessile animal rather than a creeping slug-like one. "Eccentrotheca"'s organophosphatic tube resembled that of phoronids, sessile animals that feed by lophophores and are regarded either very close relatives or a sub-group of brachiopods. "Paterimitra", another mostly assembled fossil found in 2008 and described in 2009, had two symmetrical plates at the bottom, like brachiopod valves but not fully enclosing the animal's body.


title: Brachiopod

text: At their peak in the Paleozoic, the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter-feeders and reef-builders, and occupied other ecological niches, including swimming in the jet-propulsion style of scallops. However, after the Permian–Triassic extinction event, informally known as the "Great Dying", brachiopods recovered only a third of their former diversity. It was often thought that brachiopods were actually declining in diversity, and that in some way bivalves out-competed them. However, in 1980, Gould and Calloway produced a statistical analysis that concluded that both brachiopods and bivalves increased all the way from the Paleozoic to modern times, but bivalves increased faster; the Permian–Triassic extinction was moderately severe for bivalves but devastating for brachiopods, so that brachiopods for the first time were less diverse than bivalves and their diversity after the Permian increased from a very low base; there is no evidence that bivalves out-competed brachiopods, and short-term increases or decreases for both groups appeared synchronously. In 2007 Knoll and Bambach concluded that brachiopods were one of several groups that were most vulnerable to the Permian–Triassic extinction, as all had calcareous hard parts (made of calcium carbonate) and had low metabolic rates and weak respiratory systems.


title: Brachiopod

text: Brachiopod fossils have been useful indicators of climate changes during the Paleozoic era. When global temperatures were low, as in much of the Ordovician, the large difference in temperature between equator and poles created different collections of fossils at different latitudes. On the other hand, warmer periods, such much of the Silurian, created smaller difference in temperatures, and all seas at the low to middle latitudes were colonized by the same few brachiopod species.


title: Brachiopod

text: From about the 1940s to the 1990s, family trees based on embryological and morphological features placed brachiopods among or as a sister group to the deuterostomes. a super-phylum that includes chordates and echinoderms. Closer examination has found difficulties in the grounds on which brachiopods were affiliated with deuterostomes:


title: Brachiopod

text: Nielsen views the brachiopods and closely related phoronids as affiliated with the deuterostome pterobranchs because their lophophores are driven by one cilium per cell, while those of bryozoans, which he regards as protostomes, have multiple cilia per cell. However, pterobranchs are hemichordates and probably closely related to echinoderms, and there is no evidence that the latest common ancestor of pterobranchs and other hemichordates or the latest common ancestor of hemichordates and echinoderms was sessile and fed by means of tentacles.


title: Brachiopod

text: From 1988 onwards analyses based on molecular phylogeny, which compares biochemical features such as similarities in DNA, have placed brachiopods among the Lophotrochozoa, a protostome super-phylum that includes molluscs, annelids and flatworms but excludes the other protostome super-phylum Ecdysozoa, whose members include arthropods. This conclusion is unanimous among molecular phylogeny studies that use a wide selection of genes: rDNA, Hox genes, mitochondrial protein genes, single nuclear protein genes and sets of nuclear protein genes.


title: Brachiopod

text: Some combined studies in 2000 and 2001, using both molecular and morphological data, support brachiopods as Lophotrochozoa, while others in 1998 and 2004 concluded that brachiopods were deuterostomes.


title: Brachiopod

text: The phoronids feed with a lophophore, burrow or encrust on surfaces, and build three-layered tubes made of polysaccharide, possibly chitin, mixed with particles with seabed material. Traditionally they have been regarded as a separate phylum, but increasingly detailed molecular phylogeny studies between 1997 and 2000 have concluded that phoronids are a sub-group of brachiopods. However, an analysis in 2005 concluded that phoronids are a sub-group of bryozoans.


title: Brachiopod

text: While all molecular phylogeny studies and half the combined studies until 2008 conclude that brachiopods are lophotrochozoans, they could not identify which lophotrochozoan phylum were the closest relatives of brachiopods—except phoronids, which are a sub-group of brachiopods. However, in 2008 two analyses found that brachiopods' closest lophotrochozoan relatives were nemertines. The authors found this surprising, since nemertines have spiral cleavage in the early stages of cell division and form a trochophore larva, while brachiopods have radial cleavage and a larva that shows no sign of having evolved from a trochophore. Another study in 2008 also concluded that brachiopods are closely related to nemertines, casting doubt on the idea that brachiopods are part of a clade Lophophorata of lophophore-feeding animals within the lophotrochozoans.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: The Cessna Skymaster is an American twin-engine civil utility aircraft built in a push-pull configuration. Its engines are mounted in the nose and rear of its pod-style fuselage. Twin booms extend aft of the wings to the vertical stabilizers, with the rear engine between them. The horizontal stabilizer is aft of the pusher propeller, mounted between and connecting the two booms. The combined tractor and pusher engines produce centerline thrust and a unique sound. The Cessna O-2 Skymaster is a military version of the Cessna 337 Super Skymaster.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: The first Skymaster, Model 336 Skymaster, had fixed landing gear and initially flew on February 28, 1961. It went into production in May 1963 with 195 being produced through mid-1964.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: In February 1965, Cessna introduced the Model 337 Super Skymaster. The model was larger, and had more powerful engines, retractable landing gear, and a dorsal air scoop for the rear engine. (The "Super" prefix was subsequently dropped from the name.) In 1966, the turbocharged T337 was introduced, and in 1973, the pressurized P337G entered production.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: Cessna built 2993 Skymasters of all variants, including 513 military O-2 versions. Production in America ended in 1982, but was continued by Reims in France, with the FTB337 STOL and the military FTMA "Milirole".


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: The Skymaster handles differently from a conventional twin-engine aircraft, primarily in that if an engine fails, the plane will not yaw toward that engine. Without the issue of differential thrust inherent to conventional (engine-on-wing) twins, engine failure on takeoff will not produce yaw from the runway heading. With no one-engine-out minimum controllable speed (Vmc), in-flight control at any flying speed with an engine inoperative is not as critical as it is with engines on the wing with the associated leverage; however, performance in speed and, particularly, rate of climb are affected. Flying a Skymaster requires a pilot to hold a multiengine rating, although many countries issue a special "centerline thrust rating" for the Skymaster and other similarly configured aircraft.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: Ground handling requires certain attention and procedures. The rear engine tends to overheat and can quit while taxiing on very hot days. Accidents have occurred when the runway is shorter than the single-engine take-off roll and pilots, unaware of a rear engine shutdown, have attempted take-off on the nose engine alone. Federal Aviation Administration Airworthiness Directive 77-08-05 prohibits single-engine take-offs and requires the installation of a placard marked "DO NOT INITIATE SINGLE ENGINE TAKEOFF".


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: The Skymaster's unique sound is made by its rear pusher propeller slicing through turbulent air from the front propeller and over the airframe while its front tractor propeller addresses undisturbed air.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: From 1976 until the middle 1990s, the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection used O-2 variants of the 337 Skymaster as tactical aircraft during firefighting operations. These were replaced with North American OV-10 Broncos, starting in 1993.


title: Cessna Skymaster

text: From 1991 until 2001 the Cuban exile group "Hermanos al Rescate" (Brothers to the Rescue) used Skymasters, among other aircraft, to fly search and rescue missions over the Florida Straits looking for rafters attempting to cross the straits to defect from Cuba, and when they found them, dropped life-saving supplies to them. Rescues were coordinated with the US Coast Guard, which worked closely with the group. They chose Skymasters because their high wing offered better visibility of the waters below, they were reliable and easy to fly for long-duration missions (averaging 7 hours), and they added a margin of safety with twin-engine centerline thrust. In 1996, two of the Brothers to the Rescue Skymasters were shot down by the Cuban Air Force over international waters. Both aircraft were downed by a MiG-29, while a second jet fighter, a MiG-23, orbited nearby.


title: Neal Katyal

text: Neal Kumar Katyal (born March 12, 1970) is an American lawyer and academic. He is a partner at Hogan Lovells and the Paul and Patricia Saunders Professor of National Security Law at Georgetown University Law Center. During the Obama administration, Katyal served as Acting Solicitor General of the United States from May 2010 until June 2011. Previously, Katyal served as an attorney in the Solicitor General's office, and as Principal Deputy Solicitor General in the U.S. Justice Department. As of 2022, he is a partner of Chamath Palihapitiya Social+capital Partnership and a member of the board of Social Capital Ventures Inc.


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal has argued more U.S. Supreme Court cases than any other minority lawyer in American history. He has described himself as an "extremist centrist". While he has been widely praised as one of the United States's leading attorneys, he has been criticized by progressives for arguing against human rights and workers' rights in cases such as "Janus v. AFSCME", "Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis", and "Nestlé USA, Inc. v. Doe".


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal was born in the United States on March 12, 1970, to immigrant parents originally from India. His mother is a pediatrician and his father, who died in 2005, was an engineer. Katyal's sister Sonia is also an attorney and currently teaches law at University of California, Berkeley School of Law. He studied at Loyola Academy, a Jesuit Catholic high school in Wilmette, Illinois. He graduated in 1991 from Dartmouth College, where he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Nu fraternity and the Dartmouth Forensic Union.


title: Neal Katyal

text: President Bill Clinton commissioned him to write a report on the need for more legal "pro bono" work. In 1999 he drafted special counsel regulations, which guided the Mueller investigation of the Russian government's efforts to interfere in the 2016 presidential election. He also represented Vice-President Al Gore as co-counsel in "Bush v. Gore", and represented the deans of most major private law schools in "Grutter v. Bollinger."


title: Neal Katyal

text: While serving at the Justice Department, Katyal argued numerous cases before the Supreme Court, including his successful defense (by an 8–1 decision) of the constitutionality of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in "Northwest Austin v. Holder". Katyal also successfully argued in favor of the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act and won a unanimous decision from the Supreme Court defending former Attorney General John Ashcroft against alleged abuses of civil liberties in the war on terror in "Ashcroft v. al-Kidd". Katyal is also the only head of the Solicitor General's office to argue in the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.


title: Neal Katyal

text: As Acting Solicitor General, Katyal succeeded Elena Kagan, whom President Barack Obama chose to replace the retiring Supreme Court Associate Justice John Paul Stevens.


title: Neal Katyal

text: On May 24, 2011, speaking as Acting Solicitor General, Katyal delivered the keynote speech at the Department of Justice's Great Hall marking Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month. Developing comments he had posted officially on May 20, Katyal issued the Justice Department's first public confession of its 1942 ethics lapse in arguing the "Hirabayashi" and "Korematsu" cases in the US Supreme Court, which had resulted in upholding the internment of American citizens of Japanese descent. He called those prosecutions—which were only vacated in the 1980s—"blots" on the reputation of his office, which the Supreme Court explicitly considers as deserving of "special credence" when arguing cases, and "an important reminder" of the need for absolute candor in arguing the United States government's position on every case. Katyal also lectured at Fordham Law School concerning that decision.


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal was critical of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. While teaching at Georgetown University Law Center for two decades, Katyal was lead counsel for the Guantanamo Bay detainees in the Supreme Court case "Hamdan v. Rumsfeld" (2006), which held that Guantanamo military commissions set up by the George W. Bush administration to try detainees "violate both the UCMJ and the four Geneva Conventions."


title: Neal Katyal

text: Upon leaving the Obama Administration, Katyal returned to Georgetown University Law Center, but also became a partner at the global law firm Hogan Lovells. He specializes in constitutional law, national security, criminal defense and intellectual property, as well as running the appellate practice once run by John Roberts. During law school Katyal clerked one summer at Hogan Lovells, where he worked for Roberts before Roberts's nomination to the US Supreme Court.


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal had a cameo appearance in the third season of the American television series "House of Cards", acting as defense counsel during a Supreme Court argument.


title: Neal Katyal

text: In 2017, American Lawyer Magazine named Katyal its Grand Prize Litigator of the Year for 2016 and 2017.


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal has been criticized for filing briefs taking anti-union positions in two Supreme Court cases, "Janus v. AFSCME". and "Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis". Katyal's employer, Hogan Lovells, characterized Katyal's successes in these cases as a "major win for employers."


title: Neal Katyal

text: In 2020, Katyal represented Nestle and Cargill at the Supreme Court in Nestlé USA, Inc. v. Doe, in a class-action suit brought by former enslaved children who were kidnapped and forced to work on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast. Katyal's argument that Nestle and Cargill should not be held liable for their use of child slave labor because the corporation that supplied Zyklon B to the Nazis to kill Jews and other minorities in extermination camps was not indicted at the Nuremberg trials received considerable criticism from liberal publications like The New Republic.


title: Neal Katyal

text: In 2021, Katyal represented financial giant Citigroup in their efforts to recoup a mistaken transfer of $900 million to creditors of Revlon Inc. Katyal also worked with the prosecution team in "State v. Chauvin".


title: Neal Katyal

text: In 2022, Katyal argued for the respondents in Moore v. Harper before the Supreme Court, a case involving election law, redistricting, and the independent state legislature theory.


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal endorsed President Donald Trump's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court in an op-ed to "The New York Times". When that newspaper's public editor criticized the op-ed for failing to disclose Katyal had active cases being considered by the Court, Katyal responded that it would have been obvious he always has cases being heard by the Supreme Court. Katyal formally introduced Judge Gorsuch on the first day of his Senate Judiciary Committee confirmation hearings.


title: Neal Katyal

text: In addition to Gorsuch, Katyal also spoke highly of President Trump's nomination of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court. In multiple tweets that were cited by Republican Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell in favor of Kavanaugh's confirmation, Katyal praised Kavanaugh's "credentials [and] hardworking nature", and described his "mentoring and guidance" of female law clerks as "a model for all of us in the legal profession". Katyal has also described Kavanaugh as "very gracious", and "incredibly likable". During a July 2018 panel on Kavanaugh's nomination sponsored by The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank, he commented: "It's very hard for anyone who has worked with him, appeared before him, to frankly say a bad word about him." Katyal's comments in support of Kavanaugh were made before Christine Blasey Ford's Senate Judiciary Committee testimony.


title: Neal Katyal

text: The US Justice Department awarded Katyal the Edmund Randolph Award, the highest honor the Department can bestow on a civilian. The "National Law Journal" named Katyal its runner-up for "Lawyer of the Year" in 2006 and in 2004 awarded him its Pro Bono award. "American Lawyer" Magazine considered him one of the top 50 litigators nationally. "Washingtonian Magazine" named him one of the 30 best living Supreme Court advocates; "Legal Times" (jointly owed by American Lawyer Media) profiled him as one of the "90 Greatest Lawyers over the Last 30 Years".


title: Neal Katyal

text: Katyal is married to Joanna Rosen, a physician. His brother-in-law is Jeffrey Rosen, president and CEO of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia. His sister Sonia Katyal is the Chancellor's Professor of Law and co-director of the Berkeley Center for Law & Technology at UC Berkeley.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: "More Than a Feeling" is a song by the American rock band Boston, released as the lead single from the band's 1976 debut album by Epic Records in September 1976, with "Smokin' as the B-side. Tom Scholz wrote the whole song. The single peaked at number five on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The track is now a staple of classic rock radio, and in 2008, it was named the 39th-best hard rock song of all time by VH1. It was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of the "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll" and is ranked number 212 on "Rolling Stone"'s "500 Greatest Songs of All Time", updated from its previous position of number 500 on the 2004 version.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: "More than a Feeling" took Scholz five years to complete. Scholz wrote the lyrics based on the idea of losing someone close, and on the way in which music can connect a person to memories of the past. Though not based on any specific event in Scholz's life, he did take the name Marianne from his cousin. It is one of six songs (five of which eventually appeared on the "Boston" album) that he worked on in his basement from 1968 to 1975, before Boston got its record contract. The drum parts were originally developed by Jim Masdea, although Sib Hashian played the drums on the official release. The song is written in G major, but published sheet music incorrectly shows the verses in D major. The song is in compound AABA form.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: "The Book of Rock Lists" suggests that the chorus riff may itself be a subtle homage to the Kingsmen's classic, "Louie Louie." Scholz has stated in multiple interviews his fondness for the James Gang, and in particular that band's 1970s album, "James Gang Rides Again". Accordingly, the signature riff for "More than a Feeling" bears a resemblance to that composed by Joe Walsh for the "Rides Again" track "Tend My Garden." Scholz credits "Walk Away Renee" by The Left Banke as the song's main inspiration.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: Boston's website says the song is about "the power an old song can have in your life," with Scholz elaborating that "it was sort of a bittersweet ballad." "Ultimate Classic Rock" critic Michael Gallucci points out that this is a common theme in Boston songs.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: The lyrics express the author's discontent with the present and his yearning for a former love named Marianne, whose memory is strongly evoked by an old familiar song. In an interview Scholz was asked, "Who is Marianne?" He replied, "There actually is a Marianne. She wasn't my girlfriend." He explained that when he was 8 or 9 years old he had a much older cousin whom he thought was the most beautiful girl he had ever seen and that he was "secretly in love" with her (laughs), but he has also stated that the lyrics were inspired by his emotions after a school love affair ended, and were influenced by the lyrics of the Left Banke song "Walk Away Renee". "Maximum Guitar" author Andy Aledort pointed out that the guitar chord progression of G-D/F#-Em7-D that follows the line "I see my Marianne walking away" also comes from "Walk Away Renee." Aledort also explains that the guitar solo is unusual in that it incorporates mordents and inverted mordents, which are more typically used in baroque music.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: "Billboard" described "More Than a Feeling" as an "electric guitar-dominated rocker...made commercial with an accessible beat and hand-clap backup and smooth, soaring vocals." "Cash Box" said "it’s a hard-rock offering, but has a sophisticated melody that makes good use of minor chords" and has "attractive" unison guitar work and powerful vocals. "Classic Rock" critic Paul Elliott rated it as "Boston's all-time greatest song".


title: More Than a Feeling

text: "Guitar World" states that when the radio plays "More Than a Feeling", "few can resist indulging in fits of fleet-fingered air guitar and a spirited falsetto sing-along." "Rolling Stone Album Guide" critic Paul Evans states that "as slick as it sounds, 'More Than a Feeling' strikes an uncommonly resonant emotional note." Gallucci rated it Boston's greatest song. "Ultimate Classic Rock" critic Dave Swanson rated it the number-28 all-time classic rock song.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: The song was covered by Yes members Alan White, Tony Kaye and Billy Sherwood in 2007 for the Sherwood-produced all-star album "Rock Infinity".


title: More Than a Feeling

text: In 1992, when Nirvana performed their breakthrough single, "Smells Like Teen Spirit", at the Reading Festival, they incorporated part of "More Than a Feeling" at the beginning, a reference to the similarities between the two songs' main guitar riffs. This part is included on the DVD version of Nirvana's live album, "Live at Reading".


title: More Than a Feeling

text: In 2008 Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee used the song to promote his campaign. Former Boston band member Barry Goudreau made appearances with Huckabee both live and on YouTube. In February 2008, Scholz wrote to Huckabee requesting that he stop using the song, stating: "While I'm flattered that you are fond of my song, I'm shocked that you would use it and the name Boston to promote yourself without my consent. Your campaign's use of 'More Than a Feeling', coupled with the representation of one of your supporters as a member 'of Boston' clearly implies that the band Boston, and specifically one of its members, has endorsed your candidacy, neither of which is true." Huckabee complied with Scholz's request, and videos featuring Barry Goudreau and the song were subsequently removed by the Huckabee campaign.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: The song was covered by WaveGroup Sound as part of the soundtrack for the original "Guitar Hero" released in 2005, and later released as a master recording on "Guitar Hero Smash Hits" and "Guitar Hero Live"s "GHTV".


title: More Than a Feeling

text: The song was made available to download on March 1, 2011, for use in the "Rock Band" music video game series.


title: More Than a Feeling

text: The song is also available as downloadable content (DLC) for the "Rocksmith" guitar learning game. The song is available individually or as part of the 'Rock Hits 70s' Song Pack along with "Jessica" by The Allman Brothers Band and Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water."


title: Football Manager

text: Football Manager (also known as Worldwide Soccer Manager in North America from 2004 to 2008) is a series of football management simulation video games developed by British developer Sports Interactive and published by Sega. The game began its life in 1992 as "Championship Manager". However, following the break-up of their partnership with original publishers Eidos Interactive, triggered by the "fiasco" release of CM4 in 2003, Sports Interactive lost the naming rights to Eidos Interactive, but retained the game engine and data and re-branded the game "Football Manager" with their new publisher Sega. The latest version of "Football Manager", titled "Football Manager 2023", was released on 8 November 2022.


title: Football Manager

text: On 12 February 2004, after splitting from publishers Eidos Interactive, it was announced that Sports Interactive, developers of the "Championship Manager" game, had retained the rights to the source code but not the rights to the title "Championship Manager", which were held onto by Eidos (who previously acquired the brand rights from Domark upon their merger in 1995). These developments led to a further announcement that future Sports Interactive football management games would be released under the famous "Football Manager" brand name. Whilst the "Championship Manager" series would go on, Eidos no longer had any source code, or, indeed a developer for "Championship Manager".


title: Football Manager

text: Having been left without a publisher for its football management series, Sports Interactive teamed up with Sega and later, in April 2006, Sports Interactive was acquired completely by the publisher in a continuing trend of consolidation within the games industry. The first game released under the newly acquired "Football Manager" brand was "Football Manager 2005". Commonly known as "FM 2005", it competed directly with "Championship Manager 5" from Eidos-funded Beautiful Game Studios.


title: Football Manager

text: "Football Manager 2005" included an updated user interface, a refined game engine, updated database and competition rules, pre and post-match information, international player news, cup summary news, a 2D match engine, coach reports on squads, jobcentre for non-playing positions, mutual contract termination, enhanced player loan options, manager "mind games" and various other features.


title: Football Manager

text: "Football Manager" 2005 was released in the UK on 6 November 2004 – closely followed by releases in many other countries around the world – and it became the 5th fastest-selling PC game of all time (according to Eurogamer). The Macintosh version of the game came on the same dual format disk as the Windows version, so its sales were also included.


title: Football Manager

text: "Football Manager 2006" for Windows and Mac OS was released in the UK on 21 October 2005 (2 weeks earlier than the originally stated 4 November release). On the same day as the game's release, Sports Interactive also released a patch to fix some bugs discovered during the Beta and Gold stages of development. In its first week of release, it became the second-fastest-selling PC game of all-time in the UK.


title: Football Manager

text: Essentially a season update of FM 2005, it does however, include many small adjustments and improvements to the general gameplay. These adjustments include team-talks, simplified training and in-game help screens. As well as this, the game is updated by its many researchers (unpaid fans of the game augmented by in-house collaboration). The database is usually updated twice in the period of the release of the game. The first comes with the game and the second is usually downloadable in February as a free data update to reflect the changes which take place during the winter opening of the FIFA transfer window. As has been customary with the series a beta demo of the game was released on 12 September 2005. This was later followed on 30 September by a gold demo. This is a cut-down, limited time version of the full game which is sent to the game manufacturers. With a special download from Sports Interactive, one can play as the fictional football team, Harchester United from Sky One's series "Dream Team".


title: Football Manager

text: The Xbox 360 version was released on 13 April 2006 and is the first home console game in the "Football Manager" series. The full 50 playable league systems are included, as well as a 250,000-strong player database (very near to the figure of the PC version), but due to the large save files of the game, the Xbox hard disk drive is required. The game is also region free.


title: Football Manager

text: This version also makes use of the Xbox Live functionality, allowing players to create online leagues and cups with up to 16 human-controlled teams using team data they have exported from their offline game. Voice chat is fully supported during online play. It has also been confirmed that SI will release new content through the "Marketplace" system.


title: Football Manager

text: On 8 June 2006, Sports Interactive published details on "Football Manager 2007". On 1 October 2006, Sports Interactive released a Gold Demo of "FM 2007", available in two versions, vanilla and strawberry. Both versions allow users to play six months into a season. The strawberry version contains a larger collection of quickstarts so users can try out more leagues. It also contains more graphics than the vanilla version. "Football Manager 2007" was released on 18 October 2006.


title: Football Manager

text: New features in the 2007 version of "FM" include the ability to include pictures for the player as the manager; substantially increased media interaction such as approaches from national newspaper journalists about the upcoming match or asking for comments on a player's performance in recent matches; new varying degrees of criticism or praise for players (happy with form or very pleased with form rather than just one generic good term), a similar feature has been included for such actions as admiring players or attempting to unsettle transfer targets. Improvements have also been made to board request interactions.


title: Football Manager

text: The main improvement lauded by Sports Interactive for this version of "FM" is the improved scouting system. Scouts' and coaches' experience is now shown graphically via bar charts and scouts gain knowledge from areas they have scouted previously. To go with this it is now possible to get feeder/parent club status which allows to either send players to lower league teams to gain experience, make it easier to get work permits, merchandise sales in other areas etc. or, as a lower league team, to receive reserve and youth team players on free, season long loans and to generate extra revenue through associated 'fees' and friendly matches. A patch has been released to combat some of the main bugs in the game, such as unrealistic scout reports and high amounts of injuries sustained whilst playing on the pitch. On 27 July, the "Football Manager" website was updated with a new "Football Manager 2008" section.


title: Football Manager

text: On 3 October 2007 Sega Europe Ltd and Sports Interactive announced "Football Manager 2008" to be released 19 October. However, the release date was brought forward by a day to 18 October 2007, due to some retailers shipping the game early.


title: Football Manager

text: There were a number of new features: all features in matches seamlessly follow on from the previous one; a mini radar pitch appears during tactical changes; improved International management; new skin; advisor system; improved notebook system; a revamped captain selection; improved board and fan confidence system; transfer centre to track transfers; improved match engine; the player may change pitch dimensions; award system overhaul; in-game all-time best elevens; a revamped finance system; collective win bonuses; FaceGen system for new-gen players; new calendar.


title: Football Manager

text: On 3 September 2008, Sports Interactive released a preview video announcing "Football Manager 2009" to be released on 14 November. The main difference from past versions was the inclusion of a 3D match engine for the first time in the game's history. Other new features included the ability to have female managers and staff, a new press conference system, more in-depth feedback from assistant manager and a more realistic transfer system. The latest incarnation of "Football Manager" was also released in DVD format for the first time.


title: Football Manager

text: The use of online-activation DRM utilised by Sports Interactive resulted in issues for consumers activating either online, or phone. This was the result of a well orchestrated DDoS attack launched upon activation servers and phone lines, resulting in many users on the Windows platform unable to activate and play. mOn 17 December 2008, Sports Interactive announced a deal with Arsenal F.C. to release an exclusive version of "Football Manager 2009", containing all official Arsenal squad player pictures, and an exclusive skin in Arsenal's colours. Shortly following this announcement, Sports Interactive reinforced their pursuit of online retailers by offering "Football Manager 2009" through eSellerate for the Mac OS X platform on 23 December. This is the first incarnation of the game to be available to global users through online distribution.


title: Football Manager

text: On 12 August 2009, Sports Interactive & Sega Europe Ltd. announced that "Football Manager 2010" for PC and Apple Macintosh, and "Football Manager Handheld 2010" for PlayStation Portable was to be released on 30 October 2009.


title: Football Manager

text: Include Competitions: Challenge Cup and Challenge Cup qualification, Caribbean Championship "Football Manager" has been hugely successful, managing to gain the number 1 spot in the gaming charts. There have been many improvements made to "FM10", including the following:-


title: Football Manager

text: "FM2011" was released on 5 November 2010. On 23 July 2010 a number of features as well as the design of the box were leaked before an official announcement could be made.


title: Football Manager

text: In a press conference in early September, the makers of the "Football Manager" series revealed a few new features in "Football Manager 2013". These included the addition of a director of football, being able to give certain roles to other staff that managers would have to do themselves in previous games, taxes, a new way of making loan deals and the addition of Classic Mode where players could go through one season in eight hours without having to customize training or deal with team talk. On 28 September 2012, the release date was announced as 2 November 2012. If the game is pre-ordered, a beta version of the game will be available two weeks prior to 2 November, with any saved data being able to be transferred to the release version. New national team was included, South Sudan national football team.


title: Football Manager

text: In August 2013, the Sports Interactive official website unveiled the main tweaks and upgrades to be added in "Football Manager 2014", the most noticeable being the decision to release a simultaneous version for the Linux operating system. Among the other changes announced were extended options in transfer and contract negotiations as well as player conversations, the ability to play with more than just three nations loaded in Classic Mode, a tactical overhaul and improvements to the 3D match engine. Studio Director and long-time "Football Manager" lead Miles Jacobson also announced that for a week in mid-August he would announce one new feature every day via his Twitter feed, the first feature being the ability to arrange testimonial matches. On 13 September 2013, the release date was announced as 31 October 2013. If the game is pre-ordered, a beta version of the game will be available two weeks prior to 31 October, with any saved data being able to be transferred to the release version.


title: Football Manager

text: The 2018 release introduced a "Dynamics" team morale system, which allows managers to see team hierarchies and a more in depth team cohesion rating. The scouting mechanic has also had an overhaul, with it being more lifelike, with scouts knowledge of players scaling between 0 and 100%. A Nintendo Switch version was released on 13 April 2018.


title: Football Manager

text: "Football Manager Mobile", known as "Football Manager Handheld" ("FMH") upon inception, was first released on 13 April 2006 on PlayStation Portable. This was Sports Interactive's first ever game for a handheld console and was designed to be a separate game and play somewhat differently from the PC/Mac versions of the game due to the different nature of the handheld consoles. The game was designed to be more similar in feel and play to earlier Sports Interactive products – being much faster in nature, while retaining the feeling of being a realistic simulation.


title: Football Manager

text: In April 2010, the game became available on the iOS products. The iOS version of the game is very different in nature to that on the PSP and it contains a wholly new UI because of the touch screen nature of those devices. In April 2012, the game was also made available on Android devices in a version very similar in nature to the iOS version. In 2015, a new 2D match engine was introduced for iOS and Android devices, as well as an opportunity to purchase an "in-game editor". These early version of the mobile game utilized the PISD Ltd technology to target the handheld markets. The 2016 edition of the game saw its name change to "Football Manager Mobile". In 2018, "Football Manager Mobile" was ranked #10 on paid games. In 2020, football manager mobile 2020 became the first fmm to reach 1 million downloads in all platforms.


title: Football Manager

text: On 20 April 2007, Sega Europe Ltd and Sports Interactive released details for "Football Manager Live" which would be a brand new massively multiplayer online game based on PISD Ltd technology. Released on 4 November 2008, "Football Manager Live" had its roots set in the "Football Manager" series, but was designed specifically as a massively multiplayer online game. On 12 December 2008, the first Community Day was arranged by Sports Interactive and Sega. The future of the series and many other matters were discussed with a number of fans who decided to show up for the event. On 14 April 2011, it was announced that "Football Manager Live" would be discontinued after all 'Gameworlds' (Servers) completed their next season (28 day period) – due around the end of May 2011.


title: Football Manager

text: On 12 March 2015, Sega Publishing Korea Ltd. and Sports Interactive released details for "Football Manager Online", which would be a brand new massively multiplayer online game.


title: Football Manager

text: Football Manager is represented with a racer named "Football Manager" in the cross-over game, Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed, and is exclusive to the PC version of the game.


title: Football Manager

text: "Football Manager" has been recognized by real-life football clubs as a source for scouting players. In 2008, Everton FC signed a deal with Sports Interactive allowing them to use the game's database to scout players and opposition.


title: Football Manager

text: A video documentary entitled "Football Manager: More Than Just A Game" was produced by journalism graduate and MA student Stephen Milnes and released in October 2010. Another documentary by FilmNova entitled "An Alternative Reality: The Football Manager Documentary" was released in the UK cinemas in October 2014 followed by a release on Steam in March 2015.


title: Football Manager

text: "Football Manager" celebrated its twentieth birthday in the summer of 2012, and to celebrate this milestone Back Page Press released a book including interviews with the creators and players that became legends in-game. Another part of the book will include stories about how the game has taken over one's life.


title: Football Manager

text: In November 2012, Azerbaijani student Vugar Huseynzade was promoted to manager of FC Baku's reserve team based on his success in "Football Manager".


title: Football Manager

text: In 2013, stand-up comedian Tony Jameson performed a show called "Football Manager Ruined My Life"; it was well received at the Edinburgh Festival, before going on to have a successful touring run, culminating in the show being filmed and released on DVD and Steam.


title: Football Manager

text: In the 2000s, an anonymous player of "Football Manager" tipped the Philippine Football Federation regarding the eligibility of Phil and James Younghusband to play for the Philippines men's national football team through the video game. In 2005, the brothers who were then part of the Chelsea youth program were successfully called up to the national team. Phil Younghusband would later become the top goalscorer for the Philippines with at least 50 goals credited to his name.


title: Football Manager

text: In 2020, a part-time "Football Manager" researcher discovered Blackburn Rovers forward Ben Brereton was half-Chilean via a club interview from 2018 and added Brereton's second nationality to the game database. Brereton would regularly be called up by the Chile national team in the "Football Manager 2021" game, which prompted interest from a Chilean "Football Manager" streamer. Brereton received encouragement from Chile head coach Reinaldo Rueda and began the application process for a Chilean passport. Martín Lasarte, who succeeded Rueda in February 2021, called up the Rovers forward for the first time in May that year. He was an unused substitute in Chile's two World Cup qualification fixtures in June before making his debut as a substitute in the Copa América against Argentina.


title: Football Manager

text: "Championship Manager" has been the object of a sociological study where it is concluded that not only football culture is essential to fully live the gaming experience, but also gamers build their sporting identity by playing the game. Other media like films are described as providing only restrictive narratives to the sports fans, while in contrast, sports video games in general and Football Manager in particular provide more fluid narratives, and a wealth of information that helps construct the identity of the football fan, beyond sport itself.


title: Football Manager

text: The "Football Manager" gaming online community has been studied as a workforce to co-construct the crowdsourced database of football players that the game relies on to simulate football matches and careers. The mutual influence of the game and real life football is described as twofold. First, database players simulated potential and real life transfer market activity are mutually shaping each other. The other mutual influence highlighted are the real life football and game metrics that quantify and measure the footballing activity.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: The Kingdom of Finland (; ) was a failed attempt to establish a monarchy in Finland in the aftermath of the Finnish Declaration of Independence from Russia in December 1917 and the Finnish Civil War from January–May 1918. The victorious Whites in the Parliament of Finland began the process of turning Finland into a kingdom and creating a monarchy. Although the country was legally a kingdom for over a year, that was headed by a regent; the king-elect Frederick Charles never reigned nor came to Finland following Germany's defeat in World War I, and republican victories in subsequent elections resulted in the country becoming a republic.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: During the Finnish Civil War of 1918, Finnish Reds on friendly terms with Soviet Russia fought Finnish Whites who allied with the German Empire. Direct aid from the German Baltic Sea Division aided the Whites who won the war. The provisional government established after the Grand Duchy of Finland's declaration of independence leaned heavily toward the Finnish right and included a number of monarchists. The parliament drew up plans to create a Finnish monarchy on the legal theory that the Swedish Constitution of 1772 was still in effect, but there had been an extended interregnum with no monarch on the throne. Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse was elected to the throne of Finland on 9 October 1918 by the Finnish parliament, but he never took the position nor traveled to Finland. Soon after the election, Finnish leaders as well as the population belatedly came to understand the grave situation their German allies were in, and the wisdom of electing a German prince their new leader as Germany was about to lose World War I was called into question. Germany itself became a republic and deposed Kaiser Wilhelm II, and signed an armistice with the Allies in November. The victorious Western powers informed the Finnish government that the independence of Finland would only be recognized if it abandoned its alliance with Germany. As a result, in December 1918 Frederick Charles renounced the throne and the Baltic Sea Division withdrew from Finland. In the March 1919 election, with the Finnish left and socialists able to vote, republicans won a crushing victory. Finland's status as a republic was confirmed in the Finnish Constitution of 1919.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: Finland had declared independence from what was the Russian Empire, at that time embroiled in the Russian Civil War, on 6 December 1917. At the time of the declaration of independence, monarchists were a minority in the Finnish Parliament, and Finland was declared a republic. A civil war followed, and afterwards, while the pro-republican Social Democratic Party was excluded from the Parliament and before a new constitution was adopted, Frederick was elected to the throne of Finland on 9 October 1918.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: Lithuania had already taken a similar step in July 1918, electing Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach and Count of Württemberg, as King Mindaugas II of Lithuania. In Latvia and Estonia, a "General Provincial Assembly" consisting of Baltic-German aristocrats had called upon the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, to recognize the Baltic provinces as a joint monarchy and a German protectorate. Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was nominated Duke of "the United Baltic Duchy" by the Germans.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: At independence, Finland, like the Baltic provinces, had close ties with the German Empire. Germany was the only international power that had supported the preparations for independence, not least by training volunteers as Finnish Jäger troops. Germany had also intervened in the Finnish Civil War, despite its own precarious situation. Finland's position "vis-a-vis" Germany was already evolving towards that of a protectorate by spring 1918, and the election of Prince Frederick, brother-in-law of Wilhelm II, was viewed as a confirmation of the close relations between the two nations. The strongly pro-German prime minister, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, and his government offered the crown to Prince Frederick in October 1918.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: The adoption of a new monarchist constitution had been delayed because it did not get the required qualified majority. The legitimacy of the royal election was based upon the Instrument of Government of 1772, adopted under King Gustav III of Sweden, when Finland had been a part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The same constitutional document had also served as the basis for the rule of the Russian Emperors, as Grand Dukes of Finland, during the 19th century.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: Member of parliament Gustaf Arokallio suggested the monarchical designation "Charles I, King of Finland and Karelia, Duke of Åland, Grand Duke of Lapland, Lord of Kaleva and the North" (; ).


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: By 9 November 1918 the German Emperor William II had abdicated and Germany was declared a republic. Two days later, on 11 November 1918, the armistice between the belligerents of World War I was signed. Little is known of the Allied powers' view regarding the possibility of a German-born prince as the King of Finland. However, warnings received from the West convinced the Finnish government of Prime Minister Lauri Ingmana monarchist himselfto ask Prince Frederick Charles to give up the crown, which he had not yet come to wear in Finland.


title: Kingdom of Finland (1918)

text: The king-elect Frederick Charles renounced the throne on 14 December 1918. Mannerheim, the leader of the Whites during the Finnish Civil War, was appointed as Regent. Republican parties won three-quarters of the parliament's seats in the election of 1919 and Finland adopted a republican constitution. In July 1919, Finland's first president Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg replaced Mannerheim as the first President of the Republic.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish Football Association Challenge Cup, commonly known as the Scottish Cup (; ), is an annual association football knock-out cup competition for men's football clubs in Scotland. The competition was first held in 1873–74. Entry is open to all 122 clubs with full membership of the Scottish Football Association (SFA), along with up to eight other clubs who are associate members.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Although it is the second oldest competition in association football history, after the English FA Cup, the Scottish Cup trophy is the oldest in association football and is also the oldest national trophy in the world. It was first presented to Queen's Park, who won the final match of the inaugural tournament in March 1874. The current holders are Rangers, who won the tournament for the 34th time by defeating Heart of Midlothian 2–0 in the 2022 final.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The tournament starts at the beginning of the Scottish football season, in August. The Scottish Cup Final is usually the last game of the season, taking place at the end of May. Participating teams enter the tournament at different stages depending on their league ranking. The lowest ranked clubs enter the tournament at the preliminary round whilst the highest ranked, those that compete in the Scottish Premiership, enter at the fourth round stage in January.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The competition is a knock-out tournament. In each round of games the teams are paired at random, with the first team drawn listed as the home team. Every game lasts 90 minutes plus any additional stoppage time. The winner of each game advances to the next round, whilst the loser is eliminated from the tournament. In prior seasons, if a game ended in a draw before the fourth round, the fixture was replayed at the home ground of the other team at a later date, before the fourth round. If the replay also ended in a draw, a penalty shoot-out took place to decide the winner. From the fourth round onwards, if the game ended in a draw there was no replay; 30 minutes of extra time would be played, followed by a penalty shoot-out if there is still no winner. Following a vote by the Scottish FA's member clubs in August 2022, it was decided that, for the 2022-23 competition, there would be no replays following the Preliminary Round, extra time and penalties will be used to decide the winner of drawn games from Round One onwards.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The competition has a staggered entry system. For the 2022–23 edition, the preliminary round is contested by 50 clubs. Eighteen Highland League and sixteen Lowland League clubs begin in the first round. Ten Scottish League Two clubs enter the second round. Scottish League One and Scottish Championship clubs start in the third round, while 12 Scottish Premiership clubs enter in the fourth round.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Any club that is a full or associate member of the Scottish Football Association (SFA) is entitled to compete in the tournament. Full members qualify automatically, which includes every team that plays in the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL), Highland League, and Lowland League. Between 1895 and 2007, clubs that were SFA members but not competitors in the country's professional football leagues could only qualify for the tournament through the Scottish Qualifying Cup.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Clubs which are not full members of the SFA may still qualify for the tournament by winning one of the six leagues at tier 6 in the Scottish football league system (East, Midlands, North Caledonian, North Region, South, West) or the East, South and West of Scotland Cup-Winners Shield. Clubs that are members of the Scottish Junior Football Association (SJFA) have been able to qualify since 2007 by winning the Scottish Junior Cup. And since 2015, the winners of the Scottish Amateur Cup are also eligible to qualify.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Players that are registered with a competing club are eligible to play, however, cannot represent more than one club during the same tournament. Each club names eleven players and up to seven substitutes before every match. In order to play in the final match, a player must have also been registered to compete in the semi-final round for the same club. If a club fields a player that is not registered, the club may be expelled from the tournament.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Before the semi-final and final rounds, the venue of each match is determined when the fixtures are drawn; the first club drawn in a fixture is named the home team and chooses the venue for the match, usually its own home ground. In the event of a game ending in a draw, the venue for the replay is the home ground of the second club drawn. The semi-final ties are played at a neutral venue; usually Hampden Park in Glasgow. On occasions when Hampden has been unavailable, such as when it was being renovated in the late 1990s and when it was being transformed into an athletics stadium for the 2014 Commonwealth Games, the semi-finals have been hosted at Celtic Park and Ibrox Stadium, also in Glasgow.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Hampden Park also usually hosts the final match of the tournament. The venue – across three sites in close proximity bearing the name – has hosted the majority of finals including the first in 1874. Other venues that have hosted the final in the tournament's early years are Hamilton Crescent, Kinning Park and the first Cathkin Park; all in Glasgow (although just outside the city boundaries at the time). The last game of the 1896 tournament is the only final that has been hosted outside Glasgow when rivals Heart of Midlothian and Hibernian played at New Logie Green in Edinburgh. Hampden Park has held world and European records for the highest attendance, some of which were recorded at Scottish Cup games. The 1937 final played between Aberdeen and Celtic attracted a crowd of 147,365 spectators which was a world record for a national cup final and remains a European record.


title: Scottish Cup

text: As Scotland is a member of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), the winner of the Scottish Cup qualifies to compete in European-wide competitions organised by UEFA. Between 1960 and 1998, the Scottish Cup winners qualified for the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup along with winners of other domestic cup competitions across Europe before it was abolished. The Scottish Cup winners now qualify to compete in the following season's UEFA Europa League (formerly known as the UEFA Cup). It is possible for the Scottish Cup winners to have already qualified for a UEFA competition through their league ranking in the Scottish Premiership. In this scenario, the qualification spot passes to the highest ranked team in that competition not yet qualified, rather than to the Scottish Cup runners-up. Until 2014, the Scottish Cup runners-up qualified for European competition if the cup winners had also qualified for the Champions League.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish Football Association was founded in 1873 and the Scottish Cup was created as an annual competition for its members. The first Scottish Cup match took place on 18 October 1873 when Renton defeated Kilmarnock 2–0 in the first round. In its early years the competition was dominated by Queen's Park who won the final 10 times in the first twenty years. Vale of Leven, Dumbarton and Renton were also successful during this period. In 1885, the record margin of victory in the tournament was recorded when Arbroath defeated Bon Accord 36–0 in a first round match.It was also the highest scoring professional football game recorded in history.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish Cup trophy is the oldest national trophy and also the oldest association football trophy in the world. It was made by silversmith George Edward & Sons in Glasgow and has been presented to the winners of the tournament since 1874. The solid silver trophy is 50 cm in height and weighs 2.25 kg. The original trophy is displayed at the Scottish Football Museum at Hampden Park. It is removed once each year to be cleaned and presented to the tournament winners. After the presentation ceremony, the trophy is returned to the museum. A replica of the original trophy is given to the tournament winners after the ceremony and is also used for promotional purposes.


title: Scottish Cup

text: A total of 34 clubs have appeared in the final, of whom 25 have won the competition. The most successful club in terms of wins and appearances in the final is Celtic, with 40 wins from 59. Celtic and Rangers have finished runners-up on more occasions than any other club with 18 defeats each in the final. The most recent winner is Rangers, who defeated Heart of Midlothian 2–0 in the 2022 final.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Clubs that win the Scottish Cup can complete a domestic "double" by becoming Scottish league champions in the same season. Only three clubs have won both competitions in the same season. Celtic have completed the domestic league and Scottish Cup double on 19 occasions, followed by Rangers on 18. The only other Scottish club to achieve this feat was Aberdeen, in 1983–84. Since the creation of the Scottish League Cup in 1947, clubs can complete a domestic treble by also winning this tournament in the same season. Rangers and Celtic have achieved this feat on seven occasions. Celtic won four consecutive domestic trebles ("quadruple treble") in 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19 and 2019–20. No team had previously won consecutive trebles.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Some clubs have become renowned for eliminating higher ranked clubs from the tournament despite being underdogs. Division Two club East Fife won the tournament in 1938 by defeating Division One club Kilmarnock, the first team from outside the top-tier of league football to win the trophy. East Fife had previously reached the final in 1927 after eliminating three higher ranked clubs in the preceding rounds. Hibernian became the second second-tier side to win the cup as they defeated Rangers, who were also then in the second tier, in the 2016 final. Only one other club from outside the top-tier of league football has won the competition; non-league Queen's Park defeated Celtic in the 1893 final. Several other clubs have reached the final whilst competing outside the top-tier of league football, but were defeated in the final. These include Dumbarton, Kilmarnock, Airdrieonians, Falkirk (twice), Gretna, Queen of the South, Ross County and Hearts.


title: Scottish Cup

text: In the rounds before the final some notable shocks have occurred. In 1959, Dundee were eliminated by Highland League club Fraserburgh despite having Scotland internationals in their squad. A season later, Eyemouth United reached the quarter-finals after defeating two higher league clubs. In 1967, Berwick Rangers eliminated defending champions Rangers in the first round.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Celtic's shock defeat by First Division club Inverness Caledonian Thistle in 2000 led to the famous newspaper headline "Super Caley go ballistic, Celtic are atrocious". In the 2020–21 competition Highland League club Brora Rangers knocked out Championship leaders Heart of Midlothian, who had been runners-up in each of the two previous seasons. Cup holders St Johnstone were knocked out by League Two (fourth tier) club Kelty Hearts in 2021–22. Drumchapel United of the West of Scotland Football League First Division in the seventh tier of the Scottish pyramid defeated League One side (third tier) F.C. Edinburgh in the 2022-23 edition, the biggest statistical cup shock in the history of the cup with 62 places separating the teams within the league system at the time.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Other results regarded as shocks include Stenhousemuir's win against Aberdeen in 1995 and Albion Rovers' defeat of Motherwell in 2013.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish Cup has been sponsored several times since the first organisation backed the tournament in 1983. The sponsor has been able to determine the name of the competition. There have been four sponsors since 1983 as well as several name changes within the duration of each sponsorship. The competition relies on revenue earned from these agreements although it ran without a title sponsor for over 100 years until the late 1980s.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish Health Education Group was the first organisation to sponsor the Scottish Cup in 1983 with the largest sponsorship package in Scottish football at the time, worth around £200,000. The partnership was praised for the promotion of a healthy lifestyle linked with football. The deal ended in 1989 when Tennent Caledonian Breweries won the sponsorship rights. Tennent's association with the tournament raised the debate about alcohol sponsorship within sports following the riots at the 1980 Scottish Cup Final which resulted in the sale of alcohol being banned at Scottish sporting events. Despite this controversy, the partnership was largely successful and lasted 18 years until 2007. The SFA received around £25 million over the duration of the sponsorship deal. The Scottish Government in association with businessman Willie Haughey sponsored the Scottish Cup between 2008 and 2010. The 2008–09 competition was known as the Homecoming Scottish Cup to promote Scotland's year of homecoming and tourism. The 2009–10 competition was known the Active Nation Scottish Cup to promote a healthy living through football. Carling was an additional sponsor between 2010 and 2014 as the competition's official beer.


title: Scottish Cup

text: Scottish Cup matches are currently broadcast live by both BBC Scotland in Scotland and Premier Sports across the rest of the United Kingdom.


title: Scottish Cup

text: BBC Radio Scotland provide radio coverage including several full live commentaries with additional commentaries broadcast on Radio Scotland's local frequencies. Radio broadcasting rights are also held by BBC Radio nan Gàidheal and BBC Radio 5 Live also carry some games.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish FA sells overseas rights separately from their domestic contract. In Australia, the Scottish Cup is broadcast exclusively by Setanta Sports Australia. Premium Sports hold the rights for the United States, Canada and the Caribbean. In the United States, the tournament is broadcast by ESPN.


title: Scottish Cup

text: The Scottish Cup Final is one of several events reserved for live broadcast in Scotland terrestrial television under the Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events.


title: Granny (video game)

text: Granny is a 2017 indie survival horror video game developed and published by Dennis Vukanovic, under the name DVloper, as a spin-off to his earlier "Slendrina" series. The game features an unnamed protagonist trapped in a house, needing to solve puzzles while avoiding the titular Granny antagonist to get out of the house in a time period of only five or six days.


title: Granny (video game)

text: Reviews for "Granny" were positive, which praised its tense atmosphere and gameplay, but some criticized its graphics. The latest update the game received was version 1.8, Android being updated on November 23, 2022 and iOS being updated on November 24, 2022.


title: Granny (video game)

text: The game is centered on using a variety of items in a period of only five (or six, if a picture puzzle is completed) days to escape the house whilst avoiding the active stalking threat. The player can escape by removing the locks on the front door, by repairing the car in the garage, or by removing the locks from the vault door at the sewer tunnel. These all require a different set of items.


title: Granny (video game)

text: The player has an option to choose between 5 difficulties: Practice, where Granny isn't home; Easy, Normal, Hard and Extreme. In each difficulty, impart from Practice, more locks appear on the front door with Granny becoming faster and floors start to creak. There are also other options to turn on: Nightmare (which changes the game's textures), Extra Locks and Darker. In Nightmare, rats appear around the house which alert Granny, and both Extra Locks and Darker are forced on in Extreme.


title: Granny (video game)

text: Granny roams around the house searching for the player, she uses any sound they make to her advantage and sets bear traps to hinder the player's progress. If caught, Granny will knock the player unconscious, which ends the current day, and onto the next, which spawns the player back in the main bedroom. The player can also get knocked out by several other environmental hazards found throughout the game such as Granny's spider or by falling down from the Attic. If the player is caught on the last day, one of five "game over" cutscenes play, and the player is sent back to the title screen. The player can defend themselves from Granny in a few ways such as making her unconscious or blinding her temporarily by using a variety of different traps and weapons that can be found in the house like the shotgun or pepper spray.


title: Granny (video game)

text: The game's plot is left intentionally vague from the start. In the first game's Steam version, it starts with a cutscene of the player walking through the woods before being subsequently attacked by Granny. The player then awakens in a bed, which starts the game. According to a note found near the basement and evidence scattered throughout the house, the player is not the first person that Granny has trapped and may not be the last.


title: Granny (video game)

text: DVloper has said that the player doesn't have an identity since he wants it to be the person playing.


title: Granny (video game)

text: In "Granny: Chapter Two", Grandpa is introduced who is Granny's husband and is based upon, or possibly, a war veteran. In this game's Steam cutscene, the player is lying in the first game's starting bed before being knocked out and driven to Grandpa's house.


title: Granny (video game)

text: In "Granny 3", both platforms have a cutscene, where the player is walking towards the mansion's front gate and across the drawbridge which then shuts behind them.


title: Granny (video game)

text: In "The Twins" (another DVloper game), there's an option to have both Granny and Grandpa appear as extra antagonists, along with Bob and Buck, which make the game more difficult. In this game, if the player wears a mask of Slendrina and is nearby Granny: love hearts will appear around her head.


title: Granny (video game)

text: All 3 Granny games have references and easter eggs to DVloper's previous series, "Slendrina", such as Slendrina's Child appearing in "Granny: Chapter Two" and Slendrina's Mom in "Granny." But in "Granny 3", it is confirmed that Slendrina is Granny's granddaughter in the game's description.


title: Granny (video game)

text: A sequel, "Granny: Chapter Two", was released for Android on September 6, 2019, iOS the following day, and on Microsoft Windows on December 30 of the same year.