title: Joplin, Missouri

text: After the May 22, 2011 tornado came through a number of unofficial murals and monuments popped up across the city showcasing the community's spirit to rebuild the city and come back stronger than before. These popups also showcased the beginning of an arts renaissance in Joplin which still can be seen throughout the city today. One of many monuments which popped up was the Rainbow Tree which can be found on 20th Street between Indiana Avenue and Illinois Avenue. The Rainbow Tree is a tree which was destroyed in the May 22, 2011 tornado that the community decorated with bird houses, bird feeders, colored paint, and a sign saying "Help Us Feed The Birds", which is not to be confused with the since fallen Spirit Tree. After the tornado butterflies became a major part of the artistic works in the city due to the stories of children seeing butterfly entities carrying people through the sky shortly after the tornado which spread across the community of Joplin. One of the first works in Joplin to incorporate Butterflies was the "Butterfly Effect: Dreams Take Flight" Mural which is located on the Northwest corner of 15th and Main Street. The piece was painted by Dave Loewenstein with the support of a 20 community member design team and more than 300 community volunteers.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: On March 15, 2018, the City of Joplin conducted an independent tourism study which covered the purpose of the study, evaluation process, competitive market summary, recommendations, and implementations. In the overview, the City states its strategic priorities for tourism which were improve the visitor experience, increase the number of visitors, capture visitor spending, and emphasize results-driven tourism marketing. The purpose of the study was to provide direction for Joplin to help define the focus for future tourism efforts. In the study the city mentions the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the tourism market in the region as well as recommendations to increase tourism in the city. One of the recommendations in the study was to develop a conference center with an incorporated or adjacent hotel which could accommodate groups up to 2,500 and include multi-use exhibit space, breakout rooms and the newest technology. Another recommendation was to enhance downtown by encouraging hotel development in downtown, supporting and promoting development of empire market and food culture, supporting development of an Arts & Entertainment complex, supporting efforts of Connect2Culture and the broader art community relating facilities and programs downtown, hosting a variety of special events downtown, promoting downtown as a location for dining, shopping and culture, and continuing Main Street and downtown core improvements. It is recommended that the first step for the CVB Board is to discuss and decide which of the recommendations they see as priorities and take these to City Council for their recommendation. Additionally, the CVB should start collecting visitor data, undertake Identity and Branding study (with the city as lead or in partnership with the city), work on increasing lodging tax, ear-marked for conference center use the Tourism Study as a roadmap for future decision-making.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: In September 2019, Joplin unveiled the Rotary Sculpture Garden in Mercy Park which is home to 9 new sculptures with more on the way. The project was a joint effort of Joplin Rotary Club and Joplin Daybreak Rotary Club and all the Sculptures were donated. One by Sharon and Lance Beshore, one by Barbara and Jim Hicklin, and seven by Harry M. Cornell Jr., an art collector and chairman emeritus of Leggett & Platt Inc. On February 7, 2019, the Joplin Rotary Club donated over $9,800 which funded signage at the entrance of the walking paths in Mercy Park. The sculpture garden represents a $200,000 investment by community members who looked for the works of art, bought them, and donated them for permanent display.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: The Ghost Light or Spooklight, a mysterious orb spotted by locals and tourists, is also located in the region around Joplin.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Joplin is the center of what is regionally known as the Four State Area: Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and Kansas. Joplin is located north of I-44, its passage to the west into Oklahoma. In recent years, the residential development of Joplin has spread north to Webb City. The historic now-decommissioned U.S. Route 66 passes through Joplin, as 7th Street.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Roanoke, Arbor Hills, Blendville, Gateway Drive, Iron Gates, Eastmorland, Midway, Murphysburg, North Heights, Oak Pointe, Royal Heights, Silver Creek, Sunnyvale, Sunset Ridge, Westberry Square, and Cedar Ridge are among the many neighborhoods in Joplin.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Joplin has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"), as defined by the Köppen climate classification system, with cool, dry winters and hot, humid summers; the severe weather season from April through June is the wettest time of year. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July. On average, 52.7 days of + highs, 4.5 days of + highs, 12.5 days where the high fails to rise above freezing, and 1.1 nights of sub- occur per year. It has an average annual precipitation of , including an average of snow. Extremes in temperature range from on February 13, 1905 up to on July 14, 1954; the last or below and the last + reading occurred on February 3 and August 2, 2011, respectively.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: The city is located in Tornado Alley. Notable severe weather events in the past half-century include an F3 tornado in 1971; a tornado in 1973; an EF1 tornado on May 8, 2009; a blizzard on February 1, 2011; and an EF5 tornado on May 22, 2011.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: As of 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $30,555, and for a family was $38,888. Males had a median income of $28,569 versus $20,665 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,738. About 10.5% of families and 14.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.8% of those under age 18 and 9.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: As of the 2010 census, 50,150 people, 20,860 households, and 12,212 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,448.4 people per square mile (559.2/km). The 23,322 housing units averaged 678.9 per square mile (262.1/km). The racial makeup of the city is 87.6% White, 3.3% African American, 1.8% Native American, 1.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 1.7 from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 4.5% of the population.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Of the 20,860 households, 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.1% were married couples living together, 13.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.5% were not families; 29.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 25.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.89.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 24.21% under the age of 19, 9.4% from 20 to 24, 25.12% from 25 to 44, 22.16% from 45 to 64, and 13.18% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Local government for the City of Joplin is provided through a nine-member city council, whose members are elected by voters citywide, with four seats being assigned to designated geographic zones of the city. City council members include the city's mayor, who is responsible for serving as meeting chair and official spokesman for the city council; and the mayor pro tem, who is responsible for performing the mayor's duties in absence. Both positions are elected every two years by their fellow council members.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Law enforcement services are provided by the Joplin Police Department. On the state-level, the city is represented in the Missouri House of Representatives by Republican Lane Roberts of the 161st District, although a small portion of the city lies within the 162nd District represented by Republican Bob Bromley and in the Missouri Senate by Republican Bill White. The city also lies within Missouri's 7th congressional district, currently represented by Billy Long (R-Springfield).


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Joplin is home to 11 public elementary schools in the Joplin R-VIII School District: Cecil Floyd, Columbia, Eastmorland, Irving, Jefferson, Kelsey Norman, McKinley, Royal Heights, Soaring Heights, Stapleton, and West Central. It has three public middle schools, East, North, and South, and one high school, Joplin High School. The first high school was founded in 1885 and was located at the intersection of West 4th Street and Byers Ave. The JHS student population was nearly 2,200 children in the 2008–2009 school year. A school bond issue for $57.4 million was passed in April 2007, allowing the district to build two new middle schools (East and South Middle Schools) to replace the old Memorial and South Middle schools, and to give a major renovation and double the size of North Middle School. Joplin also has many private schools, such as College Heights Christian School, Martin Luther School, Thomas Jefferson Independent Day School, Christ's Community Discovery School, and more. St. Mary's Catholic Elementary School, St. Peter's Middle School, and McAuley Catholic High School are private Catholic schools established in 1885.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Missouri Schools for the Severely Disabled (MSSD) is a state operated program serving Missouri students with severe disabilities in the greater Joplin area at College View State School.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: The Joplin College of Physicians and Surgeons operated from 1880 to 1884. Today, Joplin is home to Missouri Southern State University, founded in 1937 as a junior college and expanded in the following decades. The one Bible college is Ozark Christian College. Messenger College also operated in Joplin until 2012 when the Pentecostal Church of God moved the campus to Euless, Texas that year.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences announced in March 2015 its intention to establish a campus in Joplin with a large osteopathic medicine program, to be located in Mercy Hospital-Joplin's former long-term temporary location near the site of the destroyed St. John's Regional Medical Center.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: In 2017, KCU took in their first class of future physicians at the Farber-McIntire Campus. The campus is nearly 20,000 square feet and includes a large lecture hall, learning studio and lab dedicated to osteopathic manipulative medicine courses. The school's simulation suite includes 24 standardized patient exam rooms and three simulation rooms featuring high-fidelity, programmable robots in fully equipped medical, surgical, obstetrical and trauma settings. Extended video conferencing capabilities connect the Joplin campus to the KC campus, allowing students, faculty and staff to share learning opportunities. KCU-Joplin also shares a partnership with Freeman Health Systems and Mercy Hospital Joplin.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Joplin is served by the Joplin Public Library. In 2013, the Economic Development Administration awarded the city $20 million to relocate the dated library to a new facility along 20th Street, in the heart of the tornado area. In June 2017, the new 48,000 square foot state-of-the art library opened to the public. Costing nearly $20,000,000, the new facility has meeting and event rooms and spaces, an outdoor plaza and courtyard, children's, teen and adult book collection areas, and maker-spaces and equipment for creative arts and business innovators.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Joplin is served by the mainline of the Kansas City Southern (KCS) railroad, as well as by branchlines of the BNSF Railway and Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad (MNA). The city was once a beehive of railroad activity; however, many of the original railroad lines serving Joplin, such as the Missouri and North Arkansas Railroad, were abandoned after the demise of the mining and industrial enterprises. The Missouri and North Arkansas had connected Joplin with Helena, Arkansas. Passenger trains have not served the city since the 1960s. The Joplin Union Depot is still intact along the KCS mainline, and efforts are underway to restore it. Despite the decline in some rail lines in and around Joplin during the past five decades, many of the original lines still remain. Aside from the former Frisco Railroad route from Joplin to Webb City and the Carthage to Wichita, Kansas, lines that have since been converted into bike/hike trails, most of the original routes still remain in place under the control of the BNSF, KCS, and M&NA railroad companies.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Interstate 44 connects Joplin with Springfield and St. Louis to the east and Tulsa and Oklahoma City to the west. U.S. Route 71 runs east of the city, connecting Joplin to Kansas City to the north and Fort Smith, Arkansas, to the south. The segment from Kansas City to Joplin was designated Interstate 49 on December 12, 2012.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Range Line Road is the primary north and south commercial district with traffic approaching 25,000 vehicles daily. In 2022 the Range Line Road bridge over Kansas City Southern Railroad line was replaced and made taller and wider to accommodate growth.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Previously, strong support existed for an extension of Interstate 66 along the current Interstate 44 alignment from St. Louis and extending along the U.S. 400 alignment to Wichita, Kansas, but, despite lobbying by both Missouri and Kansas, the project has been cancelled due to resistance farther east and west along the proposed extended alignment.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: Joplin once boasted an extensive trolley and inter-urban rail system. Today, part of the city is served by the Sunshine Lamp Trolley, which commenced service in July 2007, and expanded to three routes in 2009.


title: Joplin, Missouri

text: In addition, the Joplin Regional Airport provides daily roundtrip flights to Denver international airport and Chicago-O'Hare International Airport operated by United express as United Airlines.


title: RTVE

text: The Corporación de Radio y Televisión Española, S.A. (; ), known as Radiotelevisión Española or RTVE, is the state-owned public corporation that assumed in 2007 the indirect management of the Spanish public radio and television service known as Ente Público Radiotelevisión Española.


title: RTVE

text: It provides multi-station television (TVE) and radio services (RNE), as well as online and streaming services. Since the entry into force of the "Ley de Financiación de RTVE" in 2009, RTVE is primarily funded by a combination of subsidies from the General State Budget and a fee levied on the private agents' gross revenue (3.0 % for private free-to-air channels, a 1.5 % for private subscription channels and a 0.9 % for telecom companies).


title: RTVE

text: RTVE is a full member of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). The corporation's central headquarters are located in Pozuelo de Alarcón.


title: RTVE

text: Spanish state-wide public broadcasting services have undergone numerous restructurings and reorganisations throughout its history, and have assumed numerous identities. Their history may be traced back to the first radio broadcasts of Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from Salamanca, developed as propaganda tool for the Rebel faction during the Spanish Civil War. RNE was founded on 19 January 1937 and was subservient to the State Delegation for Press and Propaganda led by Vicente Gay Forner.


title: RTVE

text: Throughout the Francoist dictatorship, the national radio service depended successively on the FET y de las JONS's Vice-Secretariat for Popular Education (VSEP), on the (since 1945) and on the Ministry of Information and Tourism, since the creation of the latter in 1951. In July 1945, in the wake of the transfer of responsibilities over Press and Propaganda to the Ministry of National Education, radio broadcasting became a standalone directorate general: the "Dirección General de Radiodifusión" ('Directorate General for Radio Broadcasting').


title: RTVE

text: After some time on trial, the first Televisión Española (TVE) signal broadcast on 28 October 1956 from the Madrid's Paseo de la Habana, reaching the roughly 600 television receivers existing in Madrid at the time. In October 1973, the two networks for respectively radio and television broadcasting, RNE and TVE, were consolidated into the "Servicio Público Centralizado Radiotelevisión Española" ('RTVE Centralised Public Service'). Up until the 1980s, with the creation of regional broadcasters ETB and TV3, TVE held the monopoly on television broadcasting in the country.


title: RTVE

text: Further consolidations followed in 1977, at which time RTVE became an . In 1979, TVE and RNE were joined by Radiocadena Española (RCE), an old radio service that, unlike RNE, could broadcast commercials. Under the purview of the 1980 , the public broadcasting services were configured as a legal public entity () with its own jurisdiction, the .


title: RTVE

text: The former cinema newsreels service NO-DO was merged into RTVE to be dismantled in 1981. Since then, the NO-DO archives are property of RTVE and its conservation is on their hands and Filmoteca Nacional's. In 1989, RCE was dismantled and its radio service was merged into RNE.


title: RTVE

text: In accordance with the Law of State Radio and Television of 5 June 2006, and in the face of an enormous deficit, the RTVE Public Body and the companies TVE, S.A. and RNE, S.A were dissolved, and on 1 January 2007, Corporación RTVE came into existence. RTVE was thus constituted as a fully autonomous "sociedad mercantil estatal", assuming the corporate form of a "sociedad anónima" fully participated by the State. For the first time, the chair of the public broadcasting services was appointed by the Cortes Generales (the legislative) rather than by the Government of Spain (the executive), as it had been previously the case with the directors-general of the "ente público" and the "servicio público de radiodifusión".


title: RTVE

text: As part of the 2007 restructuring, a controversial plan was put into action to reduce the workforce by 4,855 through attrition and retirement incentives.


title: RTVE

text: In 2012 political tensions associated with the austerity policies enacted by the ruling right-leaning People's Party (PP) resulted in departures of personnel, which were interpreted by interviewed journalists as an effort to purge critical political comment from RTVE's content. In 2012 the PP began staffing RTVE with party veterans. Considerable controversy was caused when Ana Pastor was fired.


title: RTVE

text: On 11 June 2013, RTVE was one of the few known European broadcasters to condemn and criticise the closure of Greece's state broadcaster ERT.


title: RTVE

text: In December 2018, RTVE launched a web with Filmoteca Española, which is available via Internet with more than 4000 videos of Spanish films and documentaries.


title: RTVE

text: Amid the inability to reach a parliamentary agreement for the renovation of the administration board of RTVE, Rosa María Mateo was appointed as Provisional Sole Administrator in July 2018. In February 2021, the renovation was unblocked and José Manuel Pérez Tornero was shortlisted as the future chairman of the corporation. Thus, the new board was constituted on 26 March 2021.


title: RTVE

text: In October 2021, the corporation's decision to deny a travel of a group of RTVE journalists to Tindouf to attend an event organised by the Polisario Front and thus be presumably able to interview Brahim Ghali stirred controversy and led to the renunciation of both TVE and RNE heads of the international informative services.


title: RTVE

text: RTVE's own television service comes under the Televisión Española (TVE) division of RTVE. All of TVE's channels broadcast in Spanish, with the exception of the broadcast of Catalan-language segments in La 1 and La 2 in the territory of Catalonia produced by .


title: RTVE

text: The domestic offer provided by TVE comprises two generalist channels (La 1 and La 2) and three thematic channels: Teledeporte (sports programming), 24 Horas (news) and Clan (children's programming). Together with the broadcast of the standard definition signal, they are also available in High-definition.


title: RTVE

text: Regarding international broadcasting, TVE commercializes the following channels: TVE Internacional, 24 Horas Internacional, , and Clan Internacional.


title: RTVE

text: The domestic offer provided by RNE includes the following radio stations: Radio Nacional (generalist radio station), Radio Clásica (classical music), Radio 3 (cultural and alternative programming aimed at young people), Ràdio 4 (Catalan-language station broadcast in Catalonia and Andorra) and Radio 5 (24-hour radio news station).


title: RTVE

text: Radio Exterior (REE) is the RNE's international broadcasting service on short wave, with an audience of 80 million listeners (surpassed only by the BBC and Vatican Radio). This station is also transmitted via DAB for Spain and by satellite. Besides Spanish, REE also transmits programming in French, Arabic, Ladino, Portuguese, Russian and English.


title: RTVE

text: RTVE's online portal is located at 'rtve.es'. The website is managed by RTVE's Interactive Media department (). It hosts the corporation's over-the-top media service, RTVE Play, which replaced the old 'RTVE a la carta' in June 2021, adding additional features. RTVE streams content in the Americas on the 'RTVE Play+' pay subscription service.


title: RTVE

text: Besides the catalogue from the RTVE Archive, it allows users to listen and watch live feeds of the network's radio and television stations, as well as original programming from Playz, a hub of streaming content aimed towards a young audience. The RTVE.es portal also features blogs and news stories.


title: RTVE

text: RTVE is also responsible for the "Instituto Oficial de Radio y Televisión" (IORTV, Official Institute of Radio and TV) and the "Orquesta Sinfónica y Coro de RTVE" (RTVE Symphony Orchestra and Choir). RTVE (as RNE) was admitted to full active membership of the European Broadcasting Union in 1955. TVE joined the Eurovision Network in 1960. The corporation has contributed to the production of more than 300 films, many of which have received awards at international film festivals around the world. From 1979 to 1987, a second radio network known as Radiocadena Española was also a part of RTVE. RCE stations, unlike RNE, showed advertising. RCE was merged into RNE between 1987 and 1989. NO-DO was also merged into RTVE in 1980. Since NO-DO's closure in 1982, RTVE and Filmoteca Española are responsible for maintaining NO-DO's archives.


title: RTVE

text: Pursuant to the 2006 Law of State Radio and Television, management of the national public service is entrusted to '. The Board (') of the RTVE is the main body of RTVE, and appoints the executive officers of RTVE and its companies, approves its organisation, and approves most major activities. The Board is composed of 12 members; 8 members are chosen by Congress and 4 by the Senate, each by two-thirds majority and each for a non-renewable mandate of 6 years, and 2 members appointed by Congress must be proposed by the 2 main trade unions at RTVE.


title: RTVE

text: The Chair has operational control of day-to-day operations, in order to execute the decisions and guidance of the Board. The Chair is appointed by, and may be dismissed by, Congress. Before the 2006 Act, this position was filled by the role of the Director General, which had a "de facto" total control of RTVE. In practice, the Director General had been chosen by the Government for their political profile.


title: RTVE

text: Corporación RTVE is described as a "state mercantile society" ("sociedad mercantil estatal") with special autonomy and independence from the government and the general state administration, and it performs its functions through TVE and RNE.


title: RTVE

text: Most staff are civil servants. The News Council is an internal supervisory body composed of RTVE journalists with the aim of safeguarding RTVE's independence.


title: RTVE

text: The current RTVE board constituted on 26 March 2021 is chaired by José Manuel Pérez Tornero, also featuring Elena Sánchez Caballero, , Carmen Sastre, , , Roberto Lakidain, , Consuelo Aparicio and Concepción Cascajosa as board members. Upon the renunciation of Pérez Tornero in September 2022, Elena Sánchez Caballero was elected by the board as the acting chair of the RTVE corporation.


title: RTVE

text: Since the entry into force of the "Ley de Financiación de RTVE" in 2009, RTVE is primarily funded by a combination of subsidies from the General State Budget and a fee levied on the private agents' gross revenue (3.0 % for private free-to-air channels, a 1.5 % for private subscription channels and a 0.9 % for telecom companies).


title: RTVE

text: As of 2021, a preliminary draft for the "Ley General de Comunicación Audiovisual" reportedly foresees the extension of the 1.5% fee on gross revenues to international streaming platforms offering services in Spain (such as Netflix, HBO, Disney+, Amazon Prime Video or YouTube) and the drop of the 0.9% fee for telecom companies, although the latter will continue contributing in terms of the fee levied for the occupation of the spectrum. RTVE will also be able to monetize limited forms of advertising, such as sponsorships and advertising in its international channels.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: Jackson was born in Wendell, Idaho, to Maurita (or Maurite) Kathleen Gilbert and Curtis Loys Jackson, Sr. on February 15, 1942, according the "LA Times". Her mother provided drama, singing, and dancing lessons for Sherry and her two brothers, Curtis L. Jackson, Jr., and Gary L. Jackson, beginning in their formative years. After her husband died in 1948, Maurita moved the family from Wendell to Los Angeles, California.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: By one account Maurita, who had been told while still in Idaho that her children should be in films, was referred to a theatrical agent by a tour bus driver whom they met in Los Angeles. According to another, she was referred by the friend of an agent who saw Sherry eating ice cream on the Sunset Strip. Apocryphal perhaps, but within the year Sherry had her first screen test, for "The Snake Pit" with Olivia de Havilland, and by the age of seven appeared in her first feature film, the 1949 musical "You're My Everything", which starred Anne Baxter and Dan Dailey.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: In 1950, young Sherry became friends with actor Steve Cochran while working with him on "The Lion and the Horse". Steve introduced his friend, writer Montgomery Pittman, to Sherry's widowed mother. A romance developed, and Pittman married Maurita Jackson in a small ceremony on June 4, 1952, in Torrance, California, with Sherry as flower girl and younger brother Gary as ring-bearer; Cochran himself was Pittman's best man. In 1955 Cochran hired Pittman to write his next film, "Come Next Spring", the first that Cochran produced himself. Sherry played the part of Cochran's mute daughter Annie Ballot, a role Pittman wrote specifically for his step-daughter.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: During the course of appearing in several of the "Ma and Pa Kettle" movies during the 1950s as Susie Kettle, one of the titular couple's numerous children, Jackson also appeared in "The Breaking Point", which starred John Garfield in his penultimate film role. In 1952 she portrayed the emotionally volatile visionary and ascetic Jacinta Marto in "The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima" and the following year played John Wayne's daughter in the football-themed "Trouble Along the Way".


title: Sherry Jackson

text: Jackson may be best remembered for her five-season run as older daughter Terry Williams on "The Danny Thomas Show" (known as "Make Room for Daddy" during the first three seasons) from 1953 to 1958. During the course of her five years on the series, she established a strong bond with her on-screen mother, Jean Hagen, but Hagen left the series after the third season in 1956.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: Worn out from the relentless pace of the production, Jackson left the program at the beginning of season six, once her five-year contract expired. To allow the writers to finish the character off, actress Penny Parker appeared in the role for fourteen episodes of season seven, in which the character gets married and moves away. Jackson's impact on the "Danny Thomas" viewing audience was such that, on February 8, 1960, she received a star for "Television" at 6324 Hollywood Blvd. on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Jackson did return as Terry for the premiere episode of the new series "Make Room for Granddaddy" in 1970.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: Over the next few years, Jackson broadened her range of acting roles by guest starring in dozens of television series, appearing as a hit woman on "77 Sunset Strip", a freed Apache captive who yearns to return to the reservation on "The Tall Man", an alcoholic on "Mr. Novak", a woman accused of murder on "Perry Mason," and an unstable mother-to-be on "Wagon Train". Sherry also appeared as a first season guest on "The Rifleman" episode “The Sister” playing the part of a horse riding sibling of two doting brothers. She played a gunslinger's promiscuous young bride in the Western series "Maverick" episode entitled "Red Dog" with Roger Moore, Lee Van Cleef and John Carradine. After a 1965 appearance on "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.", she then made guest appearances on "Lost in Space" ("The Space Croppers", reuniting with her "Danny Thomas" co-star, Angela Cartwright), "My Three Sons", "Gunsmoke", "Rawhide", "The Wild Wild West" ("The Night of the Vicious Valentine" and "The Night of the Gruesome Games", as two different characters), "Batman", and the original "" series. On the latter program, she made one of her more memorable portrayals as the android Andrea in the episode "What Are Little Girls Made Of?".


title: Sherry Jackson

text: In 1966, Jackson was cast as Katherine "Kate" Turner, a young woman from Boston who takes over a wagon train after the death of the trailmaster, in the episode "Lady of the Plains" of the syndicated series "Death Valley Days". DeForest Kelley plays a gambler, Elliott Webster, who falls in love with her though she is engaged to marry once the wagon train reaches Salt Lake City.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: When Blake Edwards remade the television series "Peter Gunn" as a feature film entitled "Gunn" (1967), Jackson was filmed in a nude scene that appeared only in the international version, not the U.S. release. Stills of the nude scene appeared in the August 1967 issue of "Playboy" magazine, in a pictorial entitled "Make Room For Sherry". The movie has not yet been released on VHS or DVD.


title: Sherry Jackson

text: In 1968 Jackson co-starred in "The Mini-Skirt Mob" as a member of an all-female motorcycle gang, and appeared in the 1973 film "Cotter" opposite Don Murray and Carol Lynley. In subsequent years she appeared in TV movies such as "Wild Women" (1970), "Hitchhike!" (1974), "The Girl on the Late, Late Show" (1974), "Returning Home" (1975), "Enigma" (1977), "Curse of the Moon Child" (1977) and "Casino" (1980).


title: Sherry Jackson

text: In the 1970s through early 1980s she made guest appearances on such TV shows as "Love, American Style", "The Rockford Files", "Starsky & Hutch", "The Blue Knight", "Switch", "The Streets of San Francisco", "Barnaby Jones", "The Incredible Hulk", "Fantasy Island", "Vega$", "Alice", "Charlie's Angels" and "CHiPs".


title: Sherry Jackson

text: In 1967, Jackson began a five-year relationship with business executive and horse breeder Fletcher R. Jones, a union that ended on November 7, 1972, when Jones was killed in a plane crash eight miles east of Santa Ynez Airport in Santa Barbara County, California. Five months after Jones's death, Jackson filed a palimony suit against his estate, asking for more than $1 million ($ million today), with her attorneys stating that Jones had promised to provide her with at least $25,000 a year for the rest of her life.


title: Pokémon: Master Quest

text: Pokémon: Master Quest is the fifth season of "Pokémon" and the fifth and final season of Pokémon: The Original Series, known in Japan as . It originally aired in Japan from August 9, 2001, to November 14, 2002, on TV Tokyo, in the United States from September 14, 2002, to October 25, 2003, on Kids' WB. It was the first season of Pokémon to be digitally animated as opposed to cel animation, starting with the episode "Here's Lookin' at You, Elekid".


title: Pokémon: Master Quest

text: The season follows the adventures of the ten-year-old Pokémon trainer Ash Ketchum and his electric mouse partner Pikachu as they collect Gym Badges in the fictional Johto region so they can compete in the Johto League competition.


title: Pokémon: Master Quest

text: The Japanese opening songs are "Aim to be a Pokémon Master" (めざせポケモンマスター 2001, Mezase Pokémon Masutā 2001) by Whiteberry for 29 episodes, and "Ready Go!" by Naomi Tamura for 36 episodes. The ending songs are "Face Forward Team Rocket!" (前向きロケット団!, Maemuki Roketto-dan!) by Team Rocket trio for 29 episodes, and "Pocket-ering Monster-ing" (ポケッターリ・モンスターリ, Pokettāri Monsutāri) by Kana for 36 episodes. The English opening song is "Believe in Me" by David Rolfe. A shortened version of the English opening song was used for the end credits.


title: Pokémon: Master Quest

text: In the United States, two three-disc DVD sets were released by Viz Video and Ventura Distribution, which each contained 32 episodes each (10/11 episodes per DVD). These DVDs are now out of print.


title: Pokémon: Master Quest

text: Viz Media and Warner Home Video released "Pokémon: Master Quest – The Complete Collection" on DVD in the United States on October 11, 2016.


title: CinemaScope

text: CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, and less often later, for shooting widescreen films that, crucially, could be screened in theatres using existing equipment, albeit with a lens adapter. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras, the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal 2.55:1, almost twice as wide as the previously common Academy format's 1.37:1 ratio. Although the technology behind the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by later developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, CinemaScope's anamorphic format has continued to this day. In film-industry jargon, the shortened form, 'Scope, is still widely used by both filmmakers and projectionists, although today it generally refers to any 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.40:1, or 2.55:1 presentation or, sometimes, the use of anamorphic lensing or projection in general. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens.


title: CinemaScope

text: French inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called "Anamorphoscope" in 1926. It was that process which later formed the basis of CinemaScope. Chrétien's process used lenses that employed an optical trick, which produced an image twice as wide as those that were being produced with conventional lenses. That was done using an optical system called "Hypergonar", which compressed the image laterally when the film was being shot, and dilated it when the film was projected. Chrétien attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention but, at that time, the industry was not sufficiently impressed.


title: CinemaScope

text: By 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival: television. Yet Cinerama and the early 3D films, both launched in 1952, succeeded in defying that trend, which in turn persuaded Spyros Skouras, the head of 20th Century-Fox, that technical innovation could help to meet the television challenge. Skouras tasked Earl Sponable, head of Fox's research department, with devising a new, impressive, projection system, but something that, unlike Cinerama, could be retrofitted to existing theatres at a relatively modest cost. Herbert Brag, Sponable's assistant, remembered Chrétien's hypergonar lens.


title: CinemaScope

text: The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype "anamorphoser" (later shortened to anamorphic) lens. Meanwhile, Sponable tracked down Professor Chrétien, whose patent for the process had expired, so Fox purchased his existing Hypergonars, and the lenses were flown to Fox's studios in Hollywood. Test footage shot with the lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process, based on Chrétien's invention, which was to be known as CinemaScope.


title: CinemaScope

text: 20th Century Studios's pre-production of "The Robe", originally committed to origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production (using Eastmancolor, but processed by Technicolor). The use of the CinemaScope technology became a key feature of the film's marketing campaign. Two other CinemaScope productions were also planned: "How to Marry a Millionaire" and "Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef." So that production of the first CinemaScope films could proceed without delay, shooting started using the best three of Chrétien's Hypergonars, while Bausch & Lomb continued working on their own versions. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to respond to the challenge from television by providing a key point of difference.


title: CinemaScope

text: Chrétien's Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects, primarily loss-of-squeeze at close camera-to-subject distances, plus the requirement of two camera assistants. Bausch & Lomb, Fox's prime contractor for the production of the lenses, initially produced an improved Chrétien-formula adapter lens design (CinemaScope Adapter Type I), and subsequently produced a dramatically improved and patented Bausch & Lomb formula adapter lens design (CinemaScope Adapter Type II).


title: CinemaScope

text: Ultimately, Bausch & Lomb formula combined lens designs incorporated both the prime lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit (initially in 35, 40, 50, 75, 100 and 152 mm focal lengths, later including a 25 mm focal length). The combined lenses continue to be used to this day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers' lenses are often preferred for so-called production applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion, or a combination of both characteristics.


title: CinemaScope

text: CinemaScope was developed to use a separate film for sound (see Audio below), thus enabling the full silent 1.33:1 aperture to be available for the picture, with a 2:1 anamorphic squeeze applied that would allow an aspect ratio of 2.66:1. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print, the ratio of the image was reduced to 2.55:1. This reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as fox-holes. Later still an optical soundtrack was added, further reducing the aspect ratio to 2.35:1 (1678:715). This change also meant a shift in the optical center of the projected image. All of Fox's CinemaScope films were made using a silent/full aperture for the negatives, as was this studio's practice for all films, whether anamorphic or not.


title: CinemaScope

text: In order to better hide so-called negative assembly splices, the ratio of the image was later changed by others to 2.39:1 (1024:429). All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55:1 (special 'Scope aperture plate) or 2.66:1 (standard Full/Silent aperture plate, preferred by many producers and all optical houses), and 2.35:1 or 2.39:1 or 2.40:1 is simply a hard-matted version of the others.


title: CinemaScope

text: Fox selected "The Robe" as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature. During its production, "How to Marry a Millionaire" and "Beneath the 12-Mile Reef" also went into Cinemascope production. "Millionaire" finished production first, before "The Robe", but because of its importance, "The Robe" was released first.


title: CinemaScope

text: 20th Century Studios used its influential people to promote CinemaScope. With the success of "The Robe" and "How to Marry a Millionaire," the process enjoyed success in Hollywood. Fox licensed the process to many of the major American film studios.


title: CinemaScope

text: Walt Disney Productions was one of the first companies to license the CinemaScope process from Fox. Among the features and shorts they filmed with it, they created the live-action epic "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea," considered one of the best examples of early CinemaScope productions. Walt Disney Productions' "Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom", which won an Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) in 1953, was the first cartoon produced in Cinemascope. The first animated feature film to use CinemaScope was "Lady and the Tramp" (1955), also from Walt Disney Productions.


title: CinemaScope

text: Due to initial uncertainty about whether the process would be adopted widely, a number of films were shot simultaneously with anamorphic and regular lenses. Despite early success with the process, Fox did not shoot every production by this process. They reserved CinemaScope as a trade name for their A productions, while B productions in black and white were begun in 1956 at Fox under the trade name, RegalScope. The latter used the very same optics as CinemaScope, but, usually, a different camera system (such as Mitchell BNCs at TCF-TV studios for RegalScope rather than Fox Studio Cameras at Fox Hills studios for CinemaScope).


title: CinemaScope

text: Fox officials were keen that the sound of their new widescreen film format should be as impressive as the picture, and that meant it should include true stereophonic sound.


title: CinemaScope

text: Previously, stereo sound in the commercial cinema had always employed separate sound films; Walt Disney's 1940 release "Fantasia", the first film with stereophonic sound, had used Disney's Fantasound system, which utilized a three-channel soundtrack played from separate optical film. Early post-war stereo systems used with Cinerama and some 3-D films had used multichannel audio played from a separate magnetic film. Fox had initially intended to use three-channel stereo from magnetic film for CinemaScope.


title: CinemaScope

text: However, Hazard E. Reeves' sound company had devised a method of coating 35 mm stock with magnetic stripes and designed a three-channel (left, center, right) system based on three stripes, one on each edge of the film outside the perforations, and one between the picture and the perforations in approximately the position of a standard optical soundtrack. Later it was found possible to add a narrower stripe between the picture and perforations on the other side of the film; this fourth track was used for a surround channel, also sometimes known at the time as an effects channel. In order to avoid hiss on the surround/effects channel from distracting the audience the surround speakers were switched on by a 12 kHz tone recorded on the surround track only while wanted surround program material was present.


title: CinemaScope

text: This four-track magnetic sound system was also used for some non-CinemaScope films; for example "Fantasia" was re-released in 1956, 1963, and 1969 with the original Fantasound track transferred to four-track magnetic.


title: CinemaScope

text: CinemaScope itself was a response to early realism processes Cinerama and 3-D. Cinerama was relatively unaffected by CinemaScope, as it was a quality-controlled process that played in select venues, similar to the IMAX films of recent years. 3-D was hurt, however, by studio advertising surrounding CinemaScope's promise that it was the "miracle you see without glasses." Technical difficulties in presentation spelled the true end for 3-D, but studio hype was quick to hail it a victory for CinemaScope.


title: CinemaScope

text: In April 1953, a technique simply now known as wide-screen appeared and was soon adopted as a standard by all flat film productions in the US. In this process, a fully exposed 1.37:1 Academy ratio-area is cropped in the projector to a wide-screen aspect ratio by the use of an aperture plate, also known as a soft matte. Most films shot today use this technique, cropping the top and bottom of a 1.37:1 image to produce one at a ratio of 1.85:1.


title: CinemaScope

text: Aware of Fox's upcoming CinemaScope productions, Paramount introduced this technique in March's release of "Shane" with the 1.66:1 aspect ratio, although the film was not shot with this ratio originally in mind. Universal-International followed suit in May with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio for "Thunder Bay". By summer of 1953, Paramount, Universal, MGM, Columbia, Belarusfilm and even Fox's B-unit contractors, under the banner of Panoramic Productions had switched from filming flat shows in a 1.37:1 format, and used variable flat wide-screen aspect ratios in their filming, which would become the standard of that time.


title: CinemaScope

text: By this time Chrétien's 1926 patent on the Hypergonar lens had expired while the fundamental technique that CinemaScope utilised was not patentable because the anamorphoscope had been known for centuries. Anamorphosis had been used in visual media such as Hans Holbein's painting, "The Ambassadors" (1533). Some studios thus sought to develop their own systems rather than pay Fox.


title: CinemaScope

text: In response to the demands for a higher visual resolution spherical widescreen process, Paramount created an optical process, VistaVision, which shot horizontally on the 35 mm film roll, and then printed down to standard four-perforation vertical 35 mm. Thus, a negative with a finer grain was created and release prints had less grain. The first Paramount film in VistaVision was "White Christmas". VistaVision died out for feature production in the late 1950s with the introduction of faster film stocks, but was revived by Industrial Light & Magic in 1975 to create high quality visual effects for "Star Wars" and ILM's subsequent film projects.


title: CinemaScope

text: RKO used the Superscope process in which the standard 35 mm image was cropped and then optically squeezed in post-production to create an anamorphic image on film. Today's Super 35 is a variation of this process.


title: CinemaScope

text: Another process called Techniscope was developed by Technicolor Inc. in the early 1960s, using normal 35 mm cameras modified for two perforations per (half) frame instead of the regular four and later converted into an anamorphic print. Techniscope was mostly used in Europe, especially with low-budget films.


title: CinemaScope

text: Many European countries and studios used the standard anamorphic process for their wide-screen films, identical in technical specifications to CinemaScope, and renamed to avoid the trademarks of Fox. Some of these include Euroscope, Franscope, and Naturama (the latter used by Republic Pictures). In 1953, Warner Bros. also planned to develop an identical anamorphic process called Warnerscope but, after the premiere of CinemaScope, Warner Bros. decided to license it from Fox instead.


title: CinemaScope

text: Although CinemaScope was capable of producing a 2.66:1 image, the addition of magnetic sound tracks for multi-channel sound reduced this to 2.55:1.


title: CinemaScope

text: The fact that the image was expanded horizontally when projected meant that there could be visible graininess and brightness problems. To combat this, larger film formats were developed (initially a too-costly 55 mm for "Carousel" and "The King and I") and then abandoned (both films were eventually reduction printed at 35 mm, although the aspect ratio was kept at 2.55:1). Later Fox re-released "The King and I" in the 65/70 mm format. The initial problems with grain and brightness were eventually reduced thanks to improvements in film stock and lenses.


title: CinemaScope

text: The CinemaScope lenses were optically flawed, however, by the fixed anamorphic element, which caused the anamorphic effect to gradually drop off as objects approached closer to the lens. The effect was that close-ups would slightly overstretch an actor's face, a problem that was soon referred to as "the mumps". This problem was avoided at first by composing wider shots, but as anamorphic technology lost its novelty, directors and cinematographers sought compositional freedom from these limitations. Issues with the lenses also made it difficult to photograph animation using the CinemaScope process. Nevertheless, many animated short films and a few features were filmed in CinemaScope during the 1950s, including Walt Disney's "Lady and the Tramp" (1955).


title: CinemaScope

text: CinemaScope 55 was a large-format version of CinemaScope introduced by Twentieth Century Fox in 1955, which used a film width of 55.625 mm.


title: CinemaScope

text: Fox had introduced the original 35 mm version of CinemaScope in 1953 and it had proved to be commercially successful. But the additional image enlargement needed to fill the new wider screens, which had been installed in theatres for CinemaScope, resulted in visible film grain. A larger film was used to reduce the need for such enlargement. CinemaScope 55 was developed to satisfy this need and was one of three high-definition film systems introduced in the mid-1950s, the other two being Paramount's VistaVision and the Todd-AO 70 mm film system.


title: CinemaScope

text: Fox determined that a system that produced a frame area approximately 4 times that of the 35mm CinemaScope frame would be the optimal trade-off between performance and cost, and it chose the 55.625 mm film width as satisfying that. Camera negative film had larger grain than the film stocks used for prints, so there was a consistent approach in using a larger frame on the film negative than on prints. While the image area of a print has to allow for a soundtrack, a camera negative does not. CinemaScope 55 had different frame dimensions for the camera negative and struck prints.


title: CinemaScope

text: The negative film had the perforations (of the CS Fox-hole type) close to the edge of the film and the camera aperture was 1.824" by 1.430" (approx. 46 mm x 36 mm), giving an image area of 2.61 sq. inch. This compares to the 0.866" by 0.732" (approx. 22 mm x 18.6 mm) frame of a modern anamorphic 35 mm negative, which provides a frame area of 0.64 sq. inch. On the print film, however, there was a smaller frame size of approximately 1.34" x 1.06" (34 mm x 27 mm) to allow space for the 6 magnetic soundtracks. Four of these soundtracks (two each side) were outside the perforations, which were further from the edges of the print film than in the negative film; the other two soundtracks were between the perforations and the image. The pull-down for the negative was 8 perforations, while for the smaller frame on the print film, it was 6 perforations. In both cases, however, the frame had an aspect ratio of 1.275:1, which when expanded by a 2:1 anamorphic lens resulted in an image of 2.55:1.


title: CinemaScope

text: A camera originally built for the obsolete Fox 70 mm Grandeur film format more than 20 years before was modified to work with the new 55 mm film. Bausch & Lomb, the firm that created the original anamorphic CinemaScope lenses, was contracted by Fox to build new Super CinemaScope lenses that could cover the larger film frame.


title: CinemaScope

text: Fox shot two of their Rodgers and Hammerstein musical series in CinemaScope 55: "Carousel", and "The King and I". But it did not make 55 mm release prints for either film; both were released in conventional 35 mm CinemaScope with a limited release of "The King and I" being shown in 70 mm.


title: CinemaScope

text: The company substituted Todd-AO for its wide-gauge production process, having acquired a financial interest in the process from the Mike Todd estate.


title: CinemaScope

text: Subsequent to the abandonment of CinemaScope 55, Century, which had made the 55/35mm dual-gauge projector for Fox (50 sets were delivered), redesigned this projector head into the present day 70/35mm Model JJ, and Ampex, which had made the 55/35mm dual gauge penthouse magnetic sound reproducer head specifically for CinemaScope 55, abandoned this product (but six-channel Ampex theater systems persisted, these being re-purposed from 55/35mm to 70mm Todd-AO/35mm CinemaScope).


title: CinemaScope

text: Although commercial 55 mm prints were not made, some 55 mm prints were produced. Samples of these prints reside in the Earl I. Sponable Collection at Columbia University. Several 55/35mm projectors and at least one 55/35mm reproducer are in the hands of collectors.


title: CinemaScope

text: Cinemascope 55 was originally intended to have a six-track stereo soundtrack. The premiere engagement of "Carousel" in New York did use one, recorded on magnetic film interlocked with the visual image, as with Cinerama. This proved too impractical, and all other engagements of "Carousel" had the standard four-track stereo soundtrack (sounded on the actual film) as was then used in all CinemaScope releases.


title: CinemaScope

text: Lens manufacturer Panavision was initially founded in late 1953 as a manufacturer of anamorphic lens adapters for movie projectors screening CinemaScope films, capitalizing on the success of the new anamorphic format and filling in the gap created by Bausch and Lomb's inability to mass-produce the needed adapters for movie theaters fast enough. Looking to expand beyond projector lenses, Panavision founder Robert Gottschalk soon improved upon the anamorphic camera lenses by creating a new lens set that included dual rotating anamorphic elements which were interlocked with the lens focus gearing. This innovation allowed the Panavision lenses to keep the plane of focus at a constant anamorphic ratio of 2x, thus avoiding the horizontally-overstretched mumps effect that afflicted many CinemaScope films. After screening a demo reel comparing the two systems, many U.S. studios adopted the Panavision anamorphic lenses. The Panavision technique was also considered more attractive to the industry because it was more affordable than CinemaScope and was not owned or licensed-out by a rival studio. Confusingly, some studios, particularly MGM, continued to use the CinemaScope credit even though they had switched to Panavision lenses. Virtually all MGM CinemaScope films after 1958 are actually in Panavision.


title: CinemaScope

text: By 1967, even Fox had begun to abandon CinemaScope for Panavision (famously at the demand of Frank Sinatra for "Von Ryan's Express"), although a significant amount of the principal photography was actually filmed using CinemaScope lenses. Fox eventually capitulated completely to third-party lenses. "In Like Flint" with James Coburn and "Caprice" with Doris Day, were Fox's final films in CinemaScope.


title: CinemaScope

text: Fox originally intended CinemaScope films to use magnetic stereo sound only, and although in certain areas, such as Los Angeles and New York City, the vast majority of theaters were equipped for four-track magnetic sound (four-track magnetic sound achieving nearly 90 percent penetration of theaters in the greater Los Angeles area) the owners of many smaller theaters were dissatisfied with contractually having to install expensive three- or four-track magnetic stereo, and because of the technical nature of sound installations, drive-in theaters had trouble presenting stereophonic sound at all. Due to these conflicts, and because other studios were starting to release anamorphic prints with standard optical soundtracks, Fox revoked their policy of stereo-only presentations in 1957, and added a half-width optical soundtrack, while keeping the magnetic tracks for those theaters that were able to present their films with stereophonic sound. These so-called "mag-optical" prints provided a somewhat sub-standard optical sound and were also expensive to produce. It made little economic sense to supply those theaters which had only mono sound systems with an expensive striped print. Eventually Fox, and others, elected to supply the majority of their prints in standard mono optical sound form, with magnetic striped prints reserved for those theaters capable of playing them.


title: CinemaScope

text: Magnetic-striped prints were expensive to produce; each print cost at least twice as much as a print with a standard optical soundtrack only. Furthermore, these striped prints wore out faster than optical prints and caused more problems in use, such as flakes of oxide clogging the replay heads. Due to these problems, and also because many cinemas never installed the necessary playback equipment, magnetic-sound prints started to be made in small quantities for roadshow screenings only, with the main release using standard mono optical-sound prints. As time went by roadshow screenings were increasingly made using 70 mm film, and the use of striped 35 mm prints declined further. Many CinemaScope films from the 1960s and 1970s were never released in stereo at all. Finally, the 1976 introduction of Dolby Stereo – which provided similar performance to striped magnetic prints albeit more reliable and at a far lower cost – caused the four-track magnetic system to become totally obsolete.


title: CinemaScope

text: The song "Stereophonic Sound" written by Cole Porter for the 1955 Broadway musical "Silk Stockings" mentions CinemaScope in the lyrics. The first verse is: "Today to get the public to attend the picture show/ It’s not enough to advertise a famous star they know/ If you wanna get the crowds to come around/ You gotta have glorious Technicolor/ Breathtaking CinemaScope and stereophonic sound." The musical was adapted for film in 1957 and was indeed filmed in CinemaScope. (Although the song refers to Technicolor, the film was actually made in Metrocolor.)


title: CinemaScope

text: While the lens system has been retired for decades, Fox has used the trademark in recent years on at least three films: "Down with Love", which was shot with Panavision optics but used the credit as a throwback to the films it references, and the Don Bluth films "Anastasia" and "Titan A.E." at Bluth's insistence. However these films are not in true CinemaScope because they use modern lenses. CinemaScope's association with anamorphic projection is still so embedded in mass consciousness that all anamorphic prints are now referred to generically as 'Scope prints.


title: CinemaScope

text: Similarly, the 2016 release "La La Land" was shot on film (not digitally) with Panavision equipment in a 2.55:1 widescreen format, but not true CinemaScope. However, the film's opening credits do say "Presented in CinemaScope" ("presented", not "shot") as a tribute to 1950s musicals in that format. This credit appears initially in black-and-white and in a narrow format. It then widens to widescreen and dissolves to the old-fashioned CinemaScope logo, in color.


title: CinemaScope

text: In the 1963 Jean-Luc Godard film "Contempt" ("Le Mepris"), filmmaker Fritz Lang makes a disparaging comment about CinemaScope: "Oh, it wasn't meant for human beings. Just for snakes – and funerals." Ironically, "Contempt" was shot in , a process with a similar format to CinemaScope.


title: CinemaScope

text: During the production of 1999's "The Iron Giant," director Brad Bird wanted to advertise the film with the CinemaScope name and logo, but Fox wouldn't allow its use. A reference to Cinemascope was included during the end credits of the 2015 "Signature Edition" re-release.


title: CinemaScope

text: In the 1988 film "Hairspray" and the 2007 remake, there are references to CinemaScope. In both instances, they are comments made in regard to Tracy Turnblad's weight, implying that she's too big to be seen on a television screen. In the 1988 version, a comment was said in dialogue by one of the current "coolest kids in town" during Tracy's audition. In the remake of 2007, also during Tracy's audition, it was a lyric sung by Amber von Tussle, singing, "This show isn't broadcast in CinemaScope!" in the song "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs".


title: CinemaScope

text: In 2017, Fox used the trademark and credit once more on "Logan Noir" as a throwback to Fox's black-and-white films, despite neither the Noir version or theatrical version of the film being true CinemaScope.


title: CinemaScope

text: In 2022, Arctic Monkeys' song "Jet Skis On The Moat" mentions CinemaScope in the lyrics: "Jet skis on the moat/ They shot it all in CinemaScope".


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera (; Latin for "hole bearers"; informally called "forams") are single-celled organisms, members of a phylum or class of amoeboid protists characterized by streaming granular ectoplasm for catching food and other uses; and commonly an external shell (called a "test") of diverse forms and materials. Tests of chitin (found in some simple genera, and Textularia in particular) are believed to be the most primitive type. Most foraminifera are marine, the majority of which live on or within the seafloor sediment (i.e., are benthic), while a smaller number float in the water column at various depths (i.e., are planktonic), which belong to the suborder Globigerinina. Fewer are known from freshwater or brackish conditions, and some very few (nonaquatic) soil species have been identified through molecular analysis of small subunit ribosomal DNA.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera typically produce a test, or shell, which can have either one or multiple chambers, some becoming quite elaborate in structure. These shells are commonly made of calcium carbonate () or agglutinated sediment particles. Over 50,000 species are recognized, both living (6,700–10,000) and fossil (40,000). They are usually less than 1 mm in size, but some are much larger, the largest species reaching up to 20 cm.


title: Foraminifera

text: In modern scientific English, the term "foraminifera" is both singular and plural (irrespective of the word's Latin derivation), and is used to describe one or more specimens or taxa: its usage as singular or plural must be determined from context. Foraminifera is frequently used informally to describe the group, and in these cases is generally lowercase.


title: Foraminifera

text: The earliest known reference to foraminifera comes from Herodotus, who in the 5th century BCE noted them as making up the rock that forms the Great Pyramid of Giza. These are today recognized as representatives of the genus "Nummulites". Strabo, in the 1st Century BCE, noted the same foraminifera, and suggested that they were the remains of lentils left by the workers who built the pyramids.


title: Foraminifera

text: Robert Hooke observed a foraminifera under the microscope, as described and illustrated in his 1665 book "Micrographia:"I was trying several small and single Magnifying Glasses, and casually viewing a parcel of white Sand, when I perceiv'd one of the grains exactly shap'd and wreath'd like a Shell[...] I view'd it every way with a better Microscope and found it on both sides, and edge-ways, to resemble the Shell of a small Water-Snail with a flat spiral Shell[...]Antonie van Leeuwenhoek described and illustrated foraminiferal tests in 1700, describing them as minute cockles; his illustration is recognizable as being "Elphidium". Early workers classified foraminifera within the genus "Nautilus", noting their similarity to certain cephalopods. It was recognised by Lorenz Spengler in 1781 that foraminifera had holes in the septa, which would eventually grant the group its name. Spengler also noted that the septa of foraminifera arced the opposite way from those of nautili and that they lacked a nerve tube.


title: Foraminifera

text: Alcide d'Orbigny, in his 1826 work, considered them to be a group of minute cephalopods and noted their odd morphology, interpreting the pseudopodia as tentacles and noting the highly reduced (in actuality, absent) head. He named the group "foraminifères", or "hole-bearers", as members of the group had holes in the divisions between compartments in their shells, in contrast to nautili or ammonites.


title: Foraminifera

text: The protozoan nature of foraminifera was first recognized by Dujardin in 1835. Shortly after, in 1852, d'Orbigny produced a classification scheme, recognising 72 genera of foraminifera, which he classified based on test shape—a scheme that drew severe criticism from colleagues.


title: Foraminifera

text: H.B. Brady's 1884 monograph described the foraminiferal finds of the "Challenger" expedition. Brady recognized 10 families with 29 subfamilies, with little regard to stratigraphic range; his taxonomy emphasized the idea that multiple different characters must separate taxonomic groups, and as such placed agglutinated and calcareous genera in close relation.


title: Foraminifera

text: This overall scheme of classification would remain until Cushman's work in the late 1920s. Cushman viewed wall composition as the single most important trait in classification of foraminifera; his classification became widely accepted but also drew criticism from colleagues for being "not biologically sound".


title: Foraminifera

text: Geologist Irene Crespin undertook extensive research in this field, publishing some ninety papers—including notable work on foraminifera—as sole author as well as more than twenty in collaboration with other scientists.


title: Foraminifera

text: Cushman's scheme nevertheless remained the dominant scheme of classification until Tappan and Loeblich's 1964 classification, which placed foraminifera into the general groupings still used today, based on microstructure of the test wall. These groups have been variously moved around according to different schemes of higher-level classification. Pawlowski's (2013) use of molecular systematics has generally confirmed Tappan and Loeblich's groupings, with some being found as polyphyletic or paraphyletic; this work has also helped to identify higher-level relationships among major foraminiferal groups.


title: Foraminifera

text: who referred to as an order, Foraminiferida. Loeblich (1987) and Tappan (1992) reranked Foraminifera as a class as it is now commonly regarded.


title: Foraminifera

text: The Foraminifera have typically been included in the Protozoa, or in the similar Protoctista or Protist kingdom. Compelling evidence, based primarily on molecular phylogenetics, exists for their belonging to a major group within the Protozoa known as the Rhizaria. Prior to the recognition of evolutionary relationships among the members of the Rhizaria, the Foraminifera were generally grouped with other amoeboids as phylum Rhizopodea (or Sarcodina) in the class Granuloreticulosa.


title: Foraminifera

text: The Rhizaria are problematic, as they are often called a "supergroup", rather than using an established taxonomic rank such as phylum. Cavalier-Smith defines the Rhizaria as an infra-kingdom within the kingdom Protozoa.


title: Foraminifera

text: Some taxonomies put the Foraminifera in a phylum of their own, putting them on par with the amoeboid Sarcodina in which they had been placed.


title: Foraminifera

text: Although as yet unsupported by morphological correlates, molecular data strongly suggest the Foraminifera are closely related to the Cercozoa and Radiolaria, both of which also include amoeboids with complex shells; these three groups make up the Rhizaria. However, the exact relationships of the forams to the other groups and to one another are still not entirely clear. Foraminifera are closely related to testate amoebae.


title: Foraminifera

text: The most striking aspect of most foraminifera are their hard shells, or tests. These may consist of one of multiple chambers, and may be composed of protein, sediment particles, calcite, aragonite, or (in one case) silica. Some foraminifera lack tests entirely. Unlike other shell-secreting organisms, such as molluscs or corals, the tests of foraminifera are located inside the cell membrane, within the protoplasm. The organelles of the cell are located within the of the test, and the of the test allow the transfer of material from the pseudopodia to the internal cell and back.


title: Foraminifera

text: The foraminiferal cell is divided into granular endoplasm and transparent ectoplasm from which a pseudopodial net may emerge through a single opening or through many perforations in the test. Individual pseudopods characteristically have small granules streaming in both directions. Foraminifera are unique in having "granuloreticulose pseudopodia"; that is, their pseudopodia appear granular under the microscope; these pseudopodia are often elongate and may split and rejoin each other. These can be extended and retracted to suit the needs of the cell. The pseudopods are used for locomotion, anchoring, excretion, test construction and in capturing food, which consists of small organisms such as diatoms or bacteria.


title: Foraminifera

text: Aside from the tests, foraminiferal cells are supported by a cytoskeleton of microtubules, which are loosely arranged without the structure seen in other amoeboids. Forams have evolved special cellular mechanisms to quickly assemble and disassemble microtubules, allowing for the rapid formation and retraction of elongated pseudopodia.


title: Foraminifera

text: In the gamont (sexual form), foraminifera generally have only a single nucleus, while the agamont (asexual form) tends to have multiple nuclei. In at least some species the nuclei are dimorphic, with the somatic nuclei containing three times as much protein and RNA than the generative nuclei. However, nuclear anatomy seems to be highly diverse. The nuclei are not necessarily confined to one chamber in multi-chambered species. Nuclei can be spherical or have many lobes. Nuclei are typically 30-50 µm in diameter.


title: Foraminifera

text: Some species of foraminifera have large, empty vacuoles within their cells; the exact purpose of these is unclear, but they have been suggested to function as a reservoir of nitrate.


title: Foraminifera

text: Mitochondria are distributed evenly throughout the cell, though in some species they are concentrated under the pores and around the external margin of the cell. This has been hypothesised to be an adaptation to low-oxygen environments.


title: Foraminifera

text: Several species of xenophyophore have been found to have unusually high concentrations of radioactive isotopes within their cells, among the highest of any eukaryote. The purpose of this is unknown.


title: Foraminifera

text: Modern Foraminifera are primarily marine organisms, but living individuals have been found in brackish, freshwater and even terrestrial habitats. The majority of the species are benthic, and a further 50 morphospecies are planktonic. This count may, however, represent only a fraction of actual diversity, since many genetically distinct species may be morphologically indistinguishable.


title: Foraminifera

text: Benthic foraminifera are typically found in fine-grained sediments, where they actively move between layers; however, many species are found on hard rock substrates, attached to seaweeds, or sitting atop the sediment surface.


title: Foraminifera

text: The majority of planktonic foraminifera are found in the globigerinina, a lineage within the rotaliida. However, at least one other extant rotaliid lineage, "Neogallitellia", seems to have independently evolved a planktonic lifestyle. Further, it has been suggested that some Jurassic fossil foraminifera may have also independently evolved a planktonic lifestyle, and may be members of Robertinida.


title: Foraminifera

text: A number of forams have unicellular algae as endosymbionts, from diverse lineages such as the green algae, red algae, golden algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates. These mixotrophic foraminifers are particularly common in nutrient-poor oceanic waters. Some forams are kleptoplastic, retaining chloroplasts from ingested algae to conduct photosynthesis.


title: Foraminifera

text: Most foraminifera are heterotrophic, consuming smaller organisms and organic matter; some smaller species are specialised feeders on phytodetritus, while others specialise in consuming diatoms. Some benthic forams construct feeding cysts, using the pseuodopodia to encyst themselves inside of sediment and organic particles. Certain foraminifera prey upon small animals such as copepods or cumaceans; some forams even predate upon other forams, drilling holes into the tests of their prey. One group, the xenophyophores, has been suggested to farm bacteria within their tests, although studies have failed to find support for this hypothesis. Suspension feeding is also common in the group, and at least some species can take advantage of dissolved organic carbon.


title: Foraminifera

text: A few foram species are parasitic, infecting sponges, molluscs, corals, or even other foraminifera. Parasitic strategies vary; some act as ectoparasites, using their pseudopodia to steal food from the host, while others burrow through the shell or body wall of their host to feed on its soft tissue.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera are themselves eaten by a host of larger organisms, including invertebrates, fish, shorebirds, and other foraminifera. It has been suggested, however, that in some cases predators may be more interested in the calcium from foram shells than in the organisms themselves. Several aquatic snail species are known to selectively feed upon foraminifera, often even preferring individual species.


title: Foraminifera

text: Certain benthic foraminifera have been found to be capable of surviving anoxic conditions for over 24 hours, indicating that they are capable of selective anaerobic respiration. This is interpreted as an adaptation to survive changing oxygenic conditions near the sediment-water interface.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera are found in the deepest parts of the ocean such as the Mariana Trench, including the Challenger Deep, the deepest part known. At these depths, below the carbonate compensation depth, the calcium carbonate of the tests is soluble in water due to the extreme pressure. The Foraminifera found in the Challenger Deep thus have no carbonate test, but instead have one of organic material.


title: Foraminifera

text: Nonmarine foraminifera have traditionally been neglected in foram research, but recent studies show them to be substantially more diverse than previously known. They are known to inhabit disparate ecological niches, including mosses, rivers, lakes and ponds, wetlands, soils, peat bogs, and sand dunes.


title: Foraminifera

text: The generalized foraminiferal life-cycle involves an alternation between haploid and diploid generations, although they are mostly similar in form. The haploid or gamont initially has a single nucleus, and divides to produce numerous gametes, which typically have two flagella. The diploid or agamont is multinucleate, and after meiosis divides to produce new gamonts. Multiple rounds of asexual reproduction between sexual generations are not uncommon in benthic forms.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera exhibit morphological dimorphism associated with their reproductive cycle. The gamont, or sexually reproducing haploid form, is "megalospheric"—that is, its "proloculus", or first chamber, is proportionally large. The gamont is also known as the "A" form. Gamonts, despite having typically larger proloculi, also generally have smaller overall test diameter than do agamonts.


title: Foraminifera

text: After reaching maturity, the gamont divides via mitosis to produce thousands of gametes which are also haploid. These gametes all have a full set of organelles, and are expelled from the test into the environment leaving the test undamaged. Gametes are not differentiated into sperm and egg, and any two gametes from a species can generally fertilize each other.


title: Foraminifera

text: When two gametes combine, they create a diploid, multi-nucleated cell known as the "agamont," or "B" form. In contrast to the gamont, the agamont is "microspheric", with a proportionally small first chamber but typically larger overall diameter with more chambers. The agamont is the asexual reproduction phase of the foraminifera; upon reaching adulthood, the protoplasm entirely vacates the test and divides its cytoplasm meiotically via multiple fission to form a number of haploid offspring. These offspring then begin to form their megalospheric first chamber before dispersing.


title: Foraminifera

text: In some cases the haploid young may mature into a megalospheric form which then reproduces asexually to produce another megalospheric, haploid offspring. In this case, the first megalospheric form is referred to as the "schizont" or "A" form, while the second is referred to as the gamont or "A" form.


title: Foraminifera

text: Maturation and reproduction occur more slowly in cooler and deeper water; these conditions also cause forams to grow larger. "A" forms always seem to be much more numerous than are "B" forms, likely due to the reduced likelihood of two gametes encountering one another and successfully combining.


title: Foraminifera

text: In unilocular species, the "A" form and "B" form are still present. As in the microspheric morph of multilocular forams, the asexually reproducing "B" form is larger than the sexually reproducing "A" form.


title: Foraminifera

text: Forams in the family Spirillinidae have amoeboid gametes rather than flagellated. Other aspects of reproduction in this group are generally similar to that of other groups of forams.


title: Foraminifera

text: The calcareous spirillinid "Patellina corrugata" has a slightly different reproductive strategy than most other foraminifera. The asexually reproducing "B" form produces a cyst that surrounds the entire cell; it then divides within this cyst and the juvenile cells cannibalise the calcite of the parent's test to form the first chamber of their own test. These "A" forms, upon maturity, gather into groups of up to nine individuals; they then form a protective cyst around the whole group. Gametogenesis occurs within this cyst, producing very low numbers of gametes. The "B" form larvae are produced inside of the cyst; any nuclei that are not bound into cells are consumed as food for the developing larvae. "Patellina" in "A" form is reportedly dioecious, with sexes referred to as the "plus" and "minus"; these sexes differ in number of nuclei, with the "plus" form having three nuclei and the "minus" form having four nuclei. The "B" form is again larger than the "A" form.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminiferal tests serve to protect the organism within. Owing to their generally hard and durable construction (compared to other protists), the tests of foraminifera are a major source of scientific knowledge about the group.


title: Foraminifera

text: Openings in the test that allow the cytoplasm to extend outside are called apertures. The "primary" aperture, leading to the exterior, take many different shapes in different species, including but not limited to rounded, crescent-shaped, slit-shaped, hooded, radiate (star-shaped), dendritic (branching). Some foraminifera have "toothed", flanged, or lipped primary apertures. There may be only one primary aperture or multiple; when multiple are present, they may be clustered or equatorial. In addition to the primary aperture, many foraminifera have "supplemental" apertures. These may form as relict apertures (past primary apertures from an earlier growth stage) or as unique structures.


title: Foraminifera

text: Test shape is highly variable among different foraminifera; they may be single-chambered (unilocular) or multi-chambered (multilocular). In multilocular forms, new chambers are added as the organism grows. A wide variety of test morphologies is found in both unilocular and multilocular forms, including spiraled, serial, and milioline, among others.


title: Foraminifera

text: Many foraminifera exhibit dimorphism in their tests, with megalospheric and microspheric individuals. These names should not be taken as referring to the size of the full organism; rather, they refer to the size of the first chamber, or "proloculus". Tests as fossils are known from as far back as the Ediacaran period, and many marine sediments are composed primarily of them. For instance, the limestone that makes up the pyramids of Egypt is composed almost entirely of nummulitic benthic Foraminifera. It is estimated that reef Foraminifera generate about 43 million tons of calcium carbonate per year.


title: Foraminifera

text: Genetic studies have identified the naked amoeba "Reticulomyxa" and the peculiar xenophyophores as foraminiferans without tests. A few other amoeboids produce reticulose pseudopods, and were formerly classified with the forams as the Granuloreticulosa, but this is no longer considered a natural group, and most are now placed among the Cercozoa.


title: Foraminifera

text: Molecular clocks indicate that the crown-group of foraminifera likely evolved during the Neoproterozoic, between 900 and 650 million years ago; this timing is consistent with Neoproterozoic fossils of the closely related filose amoebae. As fossils of foraminifera have not been found prior to the very end of the Ediacaran, it is likely that most of these Proterozoic forms did not have hard-shelled tests.


title: Foraminifera

text: The mysterious vendozoans of the Ediacaran period have been suggested to represent fossil xenophyophores. However, the discovery of diagenetically altered C sterols associated with the remains of "Dickinsonia" cast doubt on this identification and suggest it may instead be an animal. Other researchers have suggested that the elusive trace fossil "Paleodictyon" and its relatives may represent a fossil xenophyophore and noted the similarity of the extant xenophyophore "Occultammina" to the fossil; however, modern examples of "Paleodictyon" have not been able to clear up the issue and the trace may alternately represent a burrow or a glass sponge. Supporting this notion is the similar habitat of living xenophyophores to the inferred habitat of fossil graphoglyptids; however, the large size and regularity of many graphoglyptids as well as the apparent absence of xenophyae in their fossils casts doubt on the possibility. As of 2017 no definite xenophyophore fossils have been found.


title: Foraminifera

text: Test-bearing foraminifera have an excellent fossil record throughout the Phanerozoic eon. The earliest known definite foraminifera appear in the fossil record towards the very end of the Ediacaran; these forms all have agglutinated tests and are unilocular. These include forms like "Platysolenites" and "Spirosolenites".


title: Foraminifera

text: Single-chambered foraminifera continued to diversity throughout the Cambrian. Some commonly encountered forms include "Ammodiscus, Glomospira," "Psammosphera," and "Turritellella"; these species are all agglutinated. They make up part of the Ammodiscina, a lineage of spirillinids that still contains modern forms. Later spirillinids would evolve multilocularity and calcitic tests, with the first such forms appearing during the Triassic; the group saw little effects on diversity due to the K-Pg extinction.


title: Foraminifera

text: The earliest multi-chambered foraminifera are agglutinated species, and appear in the fossil record during the middle Cambrian period. Due to their poor preservation they cannot be positively assigned to any major foram group.


title: Foraminifera

text: The earliest known calcareous-walled foraminifera are the Fusulinids, which appear in the fossil record during the Llandoverian epoch of the early Silurian. The earliest of these were microscopic, planispirally coiled, and evolute; later forms evolved a diversity of shapes including lenticular, globular, and perhaps most famously, elongated rice-shaped forms. Later species of fusulinids grew to much larger size, with some forms reaching 5 cm in length; reportedly, some specimens reach up to 14 cm in length, making them among the largest foraminifera extant or extinct. Fusulinids are the earliest lineage of foraminifera thought to have evolved symbiosis with photosynthetic organisms. Fossils of fusulinids have been found on all continents except Antarctica; they reached their greatest diversity during the Visean epoch of the Carboniferous. The group then gradually declined in diversity until finally going extinct during the Permo-Triassic extinction event.


title: Foraminifera

text: During the Tournaisian epoch of the Carboniferous, Miliolid foraminifera first appeared in the fossil record, having diverged from the spirillinids within the Tubothalamea. Miliolids suffered about 50% casualties during both the Permo-Triassic and K-Pg extinctions but survived to the present day. Some fossil miliolids reached up to 2 cm in diameter.


title: Foraminifera

text: The earliest known Lagenid fossils appear during the Moscovian epoch of the Carboniferous. Seeing little effect due to the Permo-Triassic or K-Pg extinctions, the group diversified through time. Secondarily unilocular taxa evolved during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.


title: Foraminifera

text: The earliest Involutinid fossils appear during the Permian; the lineage diversified throughout the Mesozoic of Eurasia before apparently vanishing from the fossil record following the Cenomanian-Turonian Ocean Anoxic Event. The extant group planispirillinidae has been referred to the involutinida, but this remains the subject of debate.


title: Foraminifera

text: The Robertinida first appear in the fossil record during the Anisian epoch of the Triassic. The group remained at low diversity throughout its fossil history; all living representatives belong to the Robertinidae, which first appeared during the Paleocene.


title: Foraminifera

text: The first definite Rotaliid fossils do not appear in the fossil record until the Pliensbachian epoch of the Jurassic, following the Triassic-Jurassic event. Diversity of the group remained low until the aftermath of the Cenomanian-Turonian event, after which the group saw a rapid diversification. Of this group, the planktonic Globigerinina—the first known group of planktonic forams—first appears in the aftermath of the Toarcian Turnover; the group saw heavy losses during both the K-Pg extinction and the Eocene-Oligocene extinction, but remains extant and diverse to this day. An additional evolution of planktonic lifestyle occurred in the Miocene or Pliocene, when the rotaliid "Neogallitellia" independently evolved a planktonic lifestyle.


title: Foraminifera

text: Dying planktonic Foraminifera continuously rain down on the sea floor in vast numbers, their mineralized tests preserved as fossils in the accumulating sediment. Beginning in the 1960s, and largely under the auspices of the Deep Sea Drilling, Ocean Drilling, and International Ocean Drilling Programmes, as well as for the purposes of oil exploration, advanced deep-sea drilling techniques have been bringing up sediment cores bearing Foraminifera fossils. The effectively unlimited supply of these fossil tests and the relatively high-precision age-control models available for cores has produced an exceptionally high-quality planktonic Foraminifera fossil record dating back to the mid-Jurassic, and presents an unparalleled record for scientists testing and documenting the evolutionary process. The exceptional quality of the fossil record has allowed an impressively detailed picture of species inter-relationships to be developed on the basis of fossils, in many cases subsequently validated independently through molecular genetic studies on extant specimens


title: Foraminifera

text: Because certain types of foraminifera are found only in certain environments, their fossils can be used to figure out the kind of environment under which ancient marine sediments were deposited; conditions such as salinity, depth, oxygenic conditions, and light conditions can be determined from the different habitat preferences of various species of forams. This allows workers to track changing climates and environmental conditions over time by aggregating information about the foraminifera present.


title: Foraminifera

text: In other cases, the relative proportion of planktonic to benthic foraminifera fossils found in a rock can be used as a proxy for the depth of a given locality when the rocks were being deposited.


title: Foraminifera

text: Since at least 1997, the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) has been investigated as an analogy for understanding the effects of global warming and of massive carbon inputs to the ocean and atmosphere, including ocean acidification. Humans today emit about 10 Gt of carbon (about 37 Gt CO2e) per year, and at that rate will release a comparable amount to the PETM in about one thousand years. A main difference is that during the PETM the planet was ice-free, as the Drake Passage had not yet opened and the Central American Seaway had not yet closed. Although the PETM is now commonly held to be a case study for global warming and massive carbon emission, the cause, details, and overall significance of the event remain uncertain.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera have significant application in the field of biostratigraphy. Due to their small size and hard shells, foraminifera may be preserved in great abundance and with high quality of preservation; due to their complex morphology, individual species are easily recognizable. Foraminifera species in the fossil record have limited ranges between the species' first evolution and their disappearance; stratigraphers have worked out the successive changes in foram assemblages throughout much of the Phanerozoic. As such, the assemblage of foraminifera within a given locality can be analyzed and compared to known dates of appearance and disappearance in order to narrow down the age of the rocks. This allows paleontologists to interpret the age of sedimentary rocks when radiometric dating is not applicable. This application of foraminifera was discovered by Alva C. Ellisor in 1920.


title: Foraminifera

text: Calcareous fossil foraminifera are formed from elements found in the ancient seas where they lived. Thus, they are very useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography. They can be used, as a climate proxy, to reconstruct past climate by examining the stable isotope ratios and trace element content of the shells (tests). Global temperature and ice volume can be revealed by the isotopes of oxygen, and the history of the carbon cycle and oceanic productivity by examining the stable isotope ratios of carbon; see δ18O and δ13C. The concentration of trace elements, like strontium (Sr), magnesium (Mg), lithium (Li) and boron (B), also hold a wealth of information about global temperature cycles, continental weathering, and the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle. Geographic patterns seen in the fossil records of planktonic forams are also used to reconstruct ancient ocean currents.


title: Foraminifera

text: The oil industry relies heavily on microfossils such as forams to find potential hydrocarbon deposits. For the same reasons they make useful biostratigraphic markers, living foraminiferal assemblages have been used as bioindicators in coastal environments, including indicators of coral reef health. Because calcium carbonate is susceptible to dissolution in acidic conditions, foraminifera may be particularly affected by changing climate and ocean acidification.


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera have many uses in petroleum exploration and are used routinely to interpret the ages and paleoenvironments of sedimentary strata in oil wells. Agglutinated fossil foraminifera buried deeply in sedimentary basins can be used to estimate thermal maturity, which is a key factor for petroleum generation. The Foraminiferal Colouration Index (FCI) is used to quantify colour changes and estimate burial temperature. FCI data is particularly useful in the early stages of petroleum generation (about 100 °C).


title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera can also be used in archaeology in the provenancing of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as limestone, are commonly found to contain fossilised foraminifera. The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: The Jerónimos Monastery or Hieronymites Monastery (, ) is a former monastery of the Order of Saint Jerome near the Tagus river in the parish of Belém, in the Lisbon Municipality, Portugal. It became the necropolis of the Portuguese royal dynasty of Aviz in the 16th century but was secularized on 28 December 1833 by state decree and its ownership transferred to the charitable institution, Real Casa Pia de Lisboa.


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: The Jerónimos Monastery is one of the most prominent examples of the late Portuguese Gothic Manueline style of architecture in Lisbon. It was erected in the early 1500s near the launch point of Vasco da Gama's first journey, and its construction funded by a tax on the profits of the yearly Portuguese India Armadas. In 1880, da Gama's remains and those of the poet Luís de Camões (who celebrated da Gama's first voyage in his 1572 epic poem, "The Lusiad"), were moved to new carved tombs in the nave of the monastery's church, only a few meters away from the tombs of the kings Manuel I and John III, whom da Gama had served. In 1983, the Jerónimos Monastery was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the nearby Tower of Belém.


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: The Jerónimos Monastery replaced the church formerly existing in the same place, which was dedicated to "Santa Maria de Belém" and where the monks of the military-religious Order of Christ provided assistance to seafarers in transit. The harbour of "Praia do Restelo" was an advantageous spot for mariners, with a safe anchorage and protection from the winds, sought after by ships entering the mouth of the Tagus. The existing structure was inaugurated on the orders of Manuel I (1469–1521) at the courts of Montemor o Velho in 1495, as a final resting-place for members of the House of Aviz, in his belief that an Iberian dynastic kingdom would rule after his death. In 1496, King Manuel petitioned the Holy See for permission to construct a monastery at the site. The Hermitage of Restelo ("Ermida do Restelo"), as the church was known, was already in disrepair when Vasco da Gama and his men spent the night in prayer there before departing on their expedition to India in 1497.


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: The construction of the monastery and church began on 6 January 1501, and was completed 100 years later. King Manuel originally funded the project with money obtained from the "Vintena da Pimenta", a 5 percent tax on commerce from Africa and the Orient, equivalent to of gold per year, with the exception of those taxes collected on the importation of pepper, cinnamon and cloves, which went directly to the Crown. With the influx of such riches, the architects were not limited to small-scale plans, and resources already prescribed for the Monastery of Batalha, including the Aviz pantheon, were redirected to the project in Belém.


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: Manuel I selected the religious order of Hieronymite monks to occupy the monastery, whose role it was to pray for the King's eternal soul and to provide spiritual assistance to navigators and sailors who departed from the port of Restelo to discover lands around the world. This the monks did for over four centuries until 1833, when the religious orders were dissolved and the monastery was abandoned.


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: The monastery was designed in a manner that later became known as Manueline: a richly ornate architectural style with complex sculptural themes incorporating maritime elements and objects discovered during naval expeditions, carved in limestone. Diogo de Boitaca, the architect, pioneered this style in the Monastery of Jesus in Setúbal. Boitaca was responsible for drawing the plans and contracting work on the monastery, the sacristy, and the refectory. For its construction he used "calcário de lioz", a gold-coloured limestone quarried from Ajuda, the valley of Alcántara, Laveiras, Rio Seco and Tercena. Boitaca was succeeded by the Spaniard Juan de Castillo, who took charge of construction around 1517. Castilho gradually moved from the Manueline to the Spanish Plateresque style, an ornamentation that included lavish decorations suggesting the decorative features of silverware ("plata"). The construction came to a halt when King Manuel I died in 1521.


title: Jerónimos Monastery

text: Several sculptors left their mark on this building: Nicolau Chanterene added depth with his Renaissance themes, while the architect Diogo de Torralva resumed construction of the monastery in 1550, adding the main chapel, the choir, and completing the two stories of the monastery, using only Renaissance motifs. Diogo de Torralva's work was continued in 1571 by Jérôme de Rouen (also called Jerónimo de Ruão) who added some classical elements. The construction stopped in 1580 with the union of Spain and Portugal, as the building of the Escorial in Spain was now draining away all the allocated funds.