title: Cabin pressurization

text: Post-war piston airliners such as the Lockheed Constellation (1943) made the technology more common in civilian service. The piston-engined airliners generally relied on electrical compressors to provide pressurized cabin air. Engine supercharging and cabin pressurization enabled aircraft like the Douglas DC-6, the Douglas DC-7, and the Constellation to have certified service ceilings from . Designing a pressurized fuselage to cope with that altitude range was within the engineering and metallurgical knowledge of that time. The introduction of jet airliners required a significant increase in cruise altitudes to the range, where jet engines are more fuel efficient. That increase in cruise altitudes required far more rigorous engineering of the fuselage, and in the beginning not all the engineering problems were fully understood.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The world's first commercial jet airliner was the British de Havilland Comet (1949) designed with a service ceiling of . It was the first time that a large diameter, pressurized fuselage with windows had been built and flown at this altitude. Initially, the design was very successful but two catastrophic airframe failures in 1954 resulting in the total loss of the aircraft, passengers and crew grounded what was then the entire world jet airliner fleet. Extensive investigation and groundbreaking engineering analysis of the wreckage led to a number of very significant engineering advances that solved the basic problems of pressurized fuselage design at altitude. The critical problem proved to be a combination of an inadequate understanding of the effect of progressive metal fatigue as the fuselage undergoes repeated stress cycles coupled with a misunderstanding of how aircraft skin stresses are redistributed around openings in the fuselage such as windows and rivet holes.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The critical engineering principles concerning metal fatigue learned from the Comet 1 program were applied directly to the design of the Boeing 707 (1957) and all subsequent jet airliners. For example, detailed routine inspection processes were introduced, in addition to thorough visual inspections of the outer skin, mandatory structural sampling was routinely conducted by operators; the need to inspect areas not easily viewable by the naked eye led to the introduction of widespread radiography examination in aviation; this also had the advantage of detecting cracks and flaws too small to be seen otherwise. Another visibly noticeable legacy of the Comet disasters is the oval windows on every jet airliner; the metal fatigue cracks that destroyed the Comets were initiated by the small radius corners on the Comet 1's almost square windows. The Comet fuselage was redesigned and the Comet 4 (1958) went on to become a successful airliner, pioneering the first transatlantic jet service, but the program never really recovered from these disasters and was overtaken by the Boeing 707.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: Even following the Comet disasters, there were several subsequent catastrophic fatigue failures attributed to cabin pressurisation. Perhaps the most prominent example was Aloha Airlines Flight 243, involving a Boeing 737-200. In this case, the principal cause was the continued operation of the specific aircraft despite having accumulated 35,496 flight hours prior to the accident, those hours included over 89,680 flight cycles (takeoffs and landings), owing to its use on short flights; this amounted to more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure. Aloha 243 was able to land despite the substantial damage inflicted by the decompression, which had resulted in the loss of one member of the cabin crew; the incident had far-reaching effects on aviation safety policies and led to changes in operating procedures.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The supersonic airliner Concorde had to deal with particularly high pressure differentials because it flew at unusually high altitude (up to ) and maintained a cabin altitude of . Despite this, its cabin altitude was intentionally maintained at . This combination, while providing for increasing comfort, necessitated making Concorde a significantly heavier aircraft, which in turn contributed to the relatively high cost of a flight. Unusually, Concorde was provisioned with smaller cabin windows than most other commercial passenger aircraft in order to slow the rate of decompression in the event of a window seal failing. The high cruising altitude also required the use of high pressure oxygen and demand valves at the emergency masks unlike the continuous-flow masks used in conventional airliners. The FAA, which enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft, determined that, in relation to Concorde's higher operating altitude, the best response to a pressure loss incident would be to perform a rapid descent.


title: Cabin pressurization

text: The designed operating cabin altitude for new aircraft is falling and this is expected to reduce any remaining physiological problems. Both the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB airliners have made such modifications for increased passenger comfort. The 787's internal cabin pressure is the equivalent of altitude resulting in a higher pressure than for the altitude of older conventional aircraft; according to a joint study performed by Boeing and Oklahoma State University, such a level significantly improves comfort levels. Airbus has stated that the A350 XWB provides for a typical cabin altitude at or below , along with a cabin atmosphere of 20% humidity and an airflow management system that adapts cabin airflow to passenger load with draught-free air circulation. The adoption of composite fuselages eliminates the threat posed by metal fatigue that would have been exacerbated by the higher cabin pressures being adopted by modern airliners, it also eliminates the risk of corrosion from the use of greater humidity levels.


title: Containment

text: Containment was a geopolitical strategic foreign policy pursued by the United States during the Cold War to prevent the spread of communism after the end of World War II. The name was loosely related to the term "cordon sanitaire", which was containment of the Soviet Union in the interwar period.


title: Containment

text: As a component of the Cold War, this policy caused a response from the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between détente (relaxation of relations) and rollback (actively replacing a regime). The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by US diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II term of US President Harry S. Truman. As a description of US foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to US Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, which was later used in a magazine article.


title: Containment

text: There were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s, anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a free soil strategy of containment to stop the expansion of slavery until it later collapsed. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy:


title: Containment

text: The Federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a 'cordon of freedom' around slavery, hemming it in until the system's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery.


title: Containment

text: Between 1873 and 1877, Germany repeatedly intervened in the internal affairs of France's neighbors. In Belgium, Spain, and Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck exerted strong and sustained political pressure to support the election or appointment of liberal, anticlerical governments. That was part of an integrated strategy to promote republicanism in France by strategically and ideologically isolating the clerical-monarchist regime of President Patrice de MacMahon. It was hoped that by surrounding France with a number of liberal states, French republicans could defeat MacMahon and his reactionary supporters. The modern concept of containment provides a useful model for understanding the dynamics of this policy.


title: Containment

text: After the 1917 October Revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a "cordon sanitaire", a ring of non-communist states, to isolate Soviet Russia. Translating that phrase, US President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine."


title: Containment

text: The World War I allies launched an incursion into Russia, ostensibly to create an eastern front against Germany. In reality, the policy was anti-Bolshevik as well, and its economic warfare took a major toll on all of Russia. By 1919, the intervention was entirely anti-communist, although the unpopularity of the assault led it to be gradually withdrawn. The US simultaneously engaged in covert action against the new Soviet government. While the campaigns were officially pro-democracy, they often supported the White Terror of former tsarist generals like G. M. Semenov and Alexander Kolchak.


title: Containment

text: The US initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933 in the hope to expand American export markets.


title: Containment

text: The Munich Agreement of 1938 was a failed attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe. The US tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia from 1937 to 1941, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor.


title: Containment

text: After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II, the US and the Soviet Union found themselves allied against Germany and used rollback to defeat the Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan.


title: Containment

text: Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell Harriman, US Ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed optimist" regarding US–Soviet relations, was disillusioned by what he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning Poland. Harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Truman's views on the Soviet Union.


title: Containment

text: In February 1946, the US State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the US Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the "Long Telegram":


title: Containment

text: Kennan's cable was hailed in the State Department as "the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed." Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic reception to timing: "Six months earlier the message would probably have been received in the State Department with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disapproval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant." Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the "Long Telegram" and proposing concrete policy recommendations based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24, 1946.


title: Containment

text: In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct." Navy Secretary James Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal "Foreign Affairs" under the pseudonym "X." Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal "godfather of containment" on account of his work in distributing Kennan's writing. The use of the word "containment" originates from this so-called "X Article": "In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."


title: Containment

text: Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power "by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat." Second, Kennan admitted a failure in the article to specify the geographical scope of "containment", and that containment was not something he believed the United States could necessarily achieve everywhere successfully. ,


title: Containment

text: After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, a Democrat, made a dramatic speech that is often considered to mark the beginning of the Cold War. In March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, which were fighting communist subversion. Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian regimes" and "free peoples," the speech marks the adoption of containment as official US policy. Congress appropriated the money.


title: Containment

text: Truman's motives on that occasion have been the subject of considerable scholarship and several schools of interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945–1947 in Poland, Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere awakened the American public to the new danger to freedom to which Truman responded. In the revisionist view of William Appleman Williams, Truman's speech was an expression of longstanding American expansionism. In the" realpolitik" view of Lynn E. Davis, Truman was a naive idealist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching disputes in terms like democracy and freedom that were alien to the communist vision.


title: Containment

text: According to psychological analysis by Deborah Larson, Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between him and his predecessor, Roosevelt. "I am here to make decisions, and whether they prove right or wrong I am going to take them," he once said.


title: Containment

text: The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to president's self-image of a strong and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech was not a response to any particular Soviet action but to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress. Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude that it suggested until several months later.


title: Containment

text: The British, with their own position weakened by economic distress, urgently called on the US to take over the traditional British role in Greece. Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson took the lead in Washington, warning congressional leaders in late February 1947 that if the United States did not take over from the British, the result most probably would be a "Soviet breakthrough" that "might open three continents to Soviet penetration." Truman was explicit about the challenge of communism taking control of Greece. He won wide support from both parties as well as experts in foreign policy inside and outside the government. It was strongly opposed by the left, notably by former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who ran against Truman in the 1948 presidential campaign.


title: Containment

text: Truman, under the guidance of Acheson, followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, and NATO, a 1949 military alliance between the US and Western European nations. Because containment required detailed information about communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November 1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Union's first nuclear test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as NSC 68. It concluded that a massive military buildup was necessary to deal with the Soviet threat. According to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others:


title: Containment

text: There were three alternative policies to containment under discussion in the late 1940s. The first was a return to isolationism, minimizing American involvement with the rest of the world, a policy that was supported by conservative Republicans, especially from the Midwest, including former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. Taft. However, many other Republicans, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, said that policy had helped cause World War II and so was too dangerous to revive.


title: Containment

text: The second policy was continuation of the détente policies that aimed at friendly relationships with the Soviet Union, especially trade. Roosevelt had been the champion of détente, but he was dead, and most of his inner circle had left the government by 1946. The chief proponent of détente was Henry Wallace, a former vice president and the Secretary of Commerce under Truman. Wallace's position was supported by far left elements of the CIO, but they were purged in 1947 and 1948. Wallace ran against Truman on the Progressive Party ticket in 1948, but his campaign was increasingly dominated by Communists, which helped to discredit détente.


title: Containment

text: The third policy was rollback, an aggressive effort to undercut or destroy the Soviet Union itself. Military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by James Burnham and other conservative strategists in the late 1940s. After 1954, Burnham and like-minded strategists became editors and regular contributors to William F. Buckley Jr.'s "National Review" magazine.


title: Containment

text: Truman himself adopted a rollback strategy in the Korean War after the success of the Inchon landings in September 1950, only to reverse himself after the Chinese counterattack two months later and revert to containment. General Douglas MacArthur called on Congress to continue the rollback policy, but Truman fired him for insubordination.


title: Containment

text: Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a rollback strategy was considered against communism in Eastern Europe from 1953 to 1956. Eisenhower agreed to a propaganda campaign to roll back the influence of communism psychologically, but he refused to intervene in the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, mainly for fear that it would cause World War III. Since late 1949, when the Soviets had successfully tested an atomic bomb, they had been known to possess nuclear weapons.


title: Containment

text: The US followed containment when it first entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a communist invasion by North Korea. Initially, this directed the action of the US to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty, thereby allowing North Korea's survival as a state. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the US and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy instead and to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under UN auspices. General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th Parallel into North Korea. The Chinese, fearful of a possible US presence on their border or even an invasion by them, then sent in a large army and defeated the UN forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Truman publicly hinted that he might use his "ace in the hole" of the atomic bomb, but Mao was unmoved. The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed back to roughly around the original border, with minimal changes. Truman criticized MacArthur's focus on absolute victory and adopted a "limited war" policy. His focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was finally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "no-win policy."


title: Containment

text: Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, were concerned that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and the eventual liberation of Eastern Europe. Dulles was named secretary of state by incoming President Eisenhower, but Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising made containment a bipartisan doctrine. Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American position in the Cold War.


title: Containment

text: In the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the top officials in Washington debated using rollback to get rid of Soviet nuclear missiles, which were threatening the United States. There was fear of a nuclear war until a deal was reached in which the Soviets would publicly remove their nuclear weapons, the United States would secretly remove its missiles from Turkey and to avoid invading Cuba. The policy of containing Cuba was put into effect by President John F. Kennedy and continued until 2015.


title: Containment

text: Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?" President Lyndon Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear war. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting the Bible: "Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further." Goldwater lost to Johnson in the 1964 election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by General William Westmoreland for US ground forces to advance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise Men. The group included Kennan, Acheson and other former Truman advisors.


title: Containment

text: Rallies in support of the troops were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would lead to demands for victory and rollback. Military responsibility was divided among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman.


title: Containment

text: Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as détente, a relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, thinking in terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced US military presence in Vietnam to the minimum required to contain communist advances, in a policy called Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon the policy in 1973 by enacting the Case–Church Amendment, which ended US military involvement in Vietnam and led to successful communist invasions of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.


title: Containment

text: President Jimmy Carter came to office in 1977 and was committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights. However, in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, containment was again made a priority. The wording of the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoed that of the Truman Doctrine.


title: Containment

text: Following the communist victory of Vietnam, Democrats began to view further communist advance as inevitable, but Republicans returned to the rollback doctrine. Ronald Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected US president in 1980. He took a more aggressive approach to dealings with the Soviets and believed that détente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, American policy makers worried that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Persian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided technical and economic assistance to the Afghan guerrillas (mujahideen) fighting against the Soviet army.


title: Containment

text: The conclusion of the Cold War in 1992 marked the official end of the containment policy, but the US kept its bases in the areas around Russia, such as those in Iceland, Germany, and Turkey. Much of the policy later helped influence US foreign policy towards China in the 21st century.


title: Russell Mael

text: Russell Craig Mael (born October 5, 1948) is an American singer best known as the lead singer for the band Sparks which he formed in 1971 with his elder brother Ron Mael. Mael is known for his wide vocal range, in particular his far-reaching falsetto. He has a flamboyant and hyperactive stage presence which contrasts sharply with Ron Mael's deadpan scowling. The band released an album with British rock band Franz Ferdinand, as the supergroup FFS, titled "FFS", released in 2015. The Mael brothers are the founders of Lil' Beethoven Records.


title: Russell Mael

text: Russell Craig Mael was born on October 5, 1948, in Los Angeles, California. The Mael brothers grew up in Pacific Palisades – a relatively affluent suburb of Los Angeles – with their father Meyer, who was a graphic designer and caricaturist for the "Hollywood Citizen-News", and their mother, Miriam ("née" Moskowitz), a librarian. Both Meyer and Miriam were the children of Jewish immigrants, Meyer of Austrian and Russian descent and Miriam Polish; despite this, a source affiliated with the brothers' 2021 documentary stated that they "weren't raised, nor do they identify as Jewish", and the documentary does not mention their Jewish heritage. Much of the Mael brother's inspiration came from their father taking them to the cinema as children, where they developed an interest in film, visual arts and narrative. Meyer died when Mael was 8.


title: Russell Mael

text: After being educated at Palisades High School, both brothers enrolled at UCLA; Ron began a course in cinema and graphic arts in 1963 while Russell studied theatre arts and filmmaking during 1966–1968.


title: Russell Mael

text: Mael is known for his wide vocal range, and his most notable vocal trait is a far-reaching falsetto. An "NME" review described Russell's falsetto as a "stratospheric blend of Marc Bolan and Tiny Tim". He is also known for his flamboyant and hyperactive stage presence which contrasted sharply with Ron's deadpan scowling.


title: Russell Mael

text: He has recorded 24 albums with his band, Sparks. The band has a cult following around the world and are best known for the song "This Town Ain't Big Enough for Both of Us", which reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Russell Mael

text: The pair appeared as themselves in the 1977 disaster film "Rollercoaster", performing live. They also appeared in episode 22 of season 6 of "Gilmore Girls". Mael appeared in a cameo as a gallows singer in the 2018 Western "Damsel", and both he and Ron appear as themselves in "Annette", a musical film directed by Leos Carax that they wrote and composed.


title: Russell Mael

text: In June 2018, Edgar Wright announced he would be making a documentary on Sparks. He had covered the band's concert in London in May at O2 Forum Kentish Town. This concert would also be a part of the documentary. The film, "The Sparks Brothers", had its world premiere at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival on January 30, 2021.


title: Russell Mael

text: In 2017, a reviewer noted that while the brothers' biographies recount a Los Angeles childhood in which they surfed and were both models for mail order catalogues, their private lives are otherwise almost entirely unknown. "Well, we're in good company with Bob Dylan", was their reported response. "We feel the less you do know, it keeps the mythology and the image in a better position." Even to the question of whether they have partners or spouses, they refused to give an indication, insisting that "the vagueness is more interesting than the reality."


title: Russell Mael

text: It was, however, mentioned in Edgar Wright's 2021 documentary "The Sparks Brothers" that Russell dated Miss Christine of The GTOs, and had a brief fling with the Go-Go's member Jane Wiedlin, who was an additional vocalist on the Sparks track "Cool Places".


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Ingrid Ellen Michaelson (born December 8, 1979) is an American singer-songwriter and actress. Her first album, "Slow the Rain," was released in 2005, and she has since released eight more albums: "Girls and Boys," "Be OK", "Everybody", "Human Again", "Lights Out", "It Doesn't Have to Make Sense", "Songs for the Season", and her most recent, "Stranger Songs." Her two highest-charting singles are "The Way I Am" (2007) and "Girls Chase Boys" (2014), at #37 and #52 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, respectively.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Michaelson is half Swedish and was born in 1979 in New York City to artistic parents. Her father, Carl Michaelson, was a manager of copyrights for the publishing company Carl Fischer Music and a composer on the side ("The Praise of Christmas"). Her mother, Elizabeth Egbert, was a sculptor, of Dutch ancestry. As a child, Michaelson performed in a musical theatre group called Staten Island Kids On Stage. She took up piano at age 4, and trained until age 7 at Manhattan's Third Street Music School, continuing for many more years at the Jewish Community Center of Staten Island's Dorothy Delson Kuhn Music Institute. While there she met vocal coach Elizabeth McCullough, who worked with her through high school. Michaelson is a graduate of Staten Island Technical High School and Binghamton University, where she received a degree in theater. While at Binghamton University, she was a member of the Binghamtonics, a co-ed "a cappella" group, as well as the Pappy Parker Players, an improv comedy group, and the theatre repertory company under Sue Peters. Her time at Binghamton is mentioned in her song "The Hat."


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2006, Michaelson independently released her second album, "Girls and Boys". The album, like her previous music, was streamed on Myspace. A music producer from the ABC drama "Grey's Anatomy" found her music online. After being contacted by the music producer, Michaelson began to be approached by several record companies. Wanting to retain all of the rights she had as an independent artist, Michaelson developed a deal with Original Signal Recordings, acting as the marketing and distribution arm for Michaelson's label. Through Original Signal, Michaelson re-released "Girls and Boys" into mainstream marketing on September 18, 2007. It peaked at #63 on the Billboard charts and received positive reviews from critics. Additionally, in 2007, "The Way I Am", a song from the album, was featured in an Old Navy commercial. The 30-second ad played on the major US networks and most prime-time shows for a few days. In less than 3 weeks, more than 65 appearances in prime-time had been made, including 17 season premieres.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2008, Michaelson released her third album, and first compilation album, "Be OK". The album debuted at #35 on the Billboard charts and received mixed to positive reviews. The album features the single "Be OK", which received a large amount of exposure on several shows and commercials. Michaelson joined the Hotel Cafe Tour that fall in support of the album, whose proceeds went toward cancer research. In 2009, Michaelson released her fourth album, "Everybody". "Everybody" debuted on #18 on the Billboard charts and received positive reviews. It features the single "Maybe", which received positive reviews and was featured on several television programs. Her show in Sydney, Australia, at the Metro Theater is available online at MoshCam, a website that shows pre-recorded concerts.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2010, Michaelson digitally released the single "Parachute", a song that she wrote but was recorded by Cheryl Cole on Cole's album "3 Words". The song has not been featured on any albums, but is available on both iTunes and Amazon. In 2012, Michaelson released her fifth album, "Human Again". "Human Again" debuted at #5 on the Billboard charts and received very positive reviews, with critics praising the album's unique sound. Michaelson's first tour leg for the album, The Human Again Tour, was sold out almost every night of the tour. After the first tour, Michaelson continued to tour on 3 other legs, two in North America, and one across the world. The first leg of Michaelson's tour was held from April to May. The second leg, The Human Again Summer Tour, was held from June to August. The Third Leg, The Human Again Fall Tour, began in September. Michaelson also played 3 shows in Australia, where Human Again was the first formally released record of hers.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In September 2012, she was featured in a campaign called "30 Songs / 30 Days" to support "," a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: On February 4, 2014, Michaelson released the lead single, "Girls Chase Boys", from her album "Lights Out". The song reached #52 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Afterlife" and "Time Machine" were released as the second and third singles with moderate commercial success.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: On April 25, 2014, "Lights Out" was released. The deluxe edition, which was released in November later that year, contains an additional six bonus tracks.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: On April 29, 2016, Michaelson released the song "Hell No". It serves as the lead single from her seventh studio album, "It Doesn't Have to Make Sense", which was released on August 26, 2016, through Cabin 24 Records. In July she released a second video of "Hell No," which incorporates members of the Deaf West theater company performing the lyrics in American Sign Language. In support of the album, Michaelson embarked on the "Hell No Tour" beginning October 6, 2016, in Cincinnati, OH.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: On 12 May 2017, a 5-track EP titled "Alter Egos" was released. It consists of re-worked songs from "It Doesn't Have to Make Sense" with guest vocalists on each track.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2017, Michaelson contributed "Smallest Light" and "Stay Right Where You Are" to the soundtrack for the film "The Space Between Us".


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: On 26 October 2018, Michaelson released a Christmas album called "Ingrid Michaelson's Songs for the Season". In January 2019, Michaelson announced she was composing the score for a musical adaptation of "The Notebook". On May 10, 2019, she released "Missing You", which serves as the lead single off of her ninth studio album, "Stranger Songs". Michaelson first announced the album via her Twitter in January 2018, writing that it would be inspired by the Netflix series "Stranger Things". The album was released on June 28, 2019.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In July 2020, Michaelson was nominated for her first Emmy Award in the Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics category for the song "Build it Up", written specifically for the finale of Hulu's hit miniseries "Little Fires Everywhere".


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2006, Michaelson teamed up with William Fitzsimmons on his album "Goodnight," which was released that same year.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Michaelson and her friend Sara Bareilles co-wrote "Winter Song" which was featured on "The Hotel Café Presents Winter Songs," a compilation of both original recordings as well as classic holiday tracks sung by a lineup of female singer-songwriters. Michaelson performed "Winter Song" with Bareilles for President Obama and his family as well as many spectators at the National Christmas Tree Lighting in December 2010. In 2011, "Winter Song" reached #2 on the Irish Singles Chart.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Michaelson provided back-up vocals on two songs from PlayRadioPlay!'s album "Texas," including "I'm a Pirate, You're a Princess" and the title track, "Texas". She provided back-up vocals on Greg Laswell's album, "Take A Bow", which was released on May 4, 2010. Collaboration was done on the songs "Take Everything", "My Fight (For You)", and "Come Clean".


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Michaelson's bandmate, Allie Moss released a 2009 EP, "Passerby". Its song "Corner" was selected by British Telecommunications in the UK for their BT Infinity television commercials. Other past and present band members include Chris Kuffner (bass), Bess Rogers (guitar), Saul Simon MacWilliams (keys), Billy Libby (guitar), Sarab Singh (drums) and Elliot Jacobson (drums).


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2010, Michaelson co-wrote the song "Parachute" with Marshall Altman which was covered by British singer Cheryl Cole on her debut solo album "3 Words"; it peaked at #5 on the UK Singles Chart. Michaelson initially believed the track was "so poppy" that she could not release it herself. However, after the song was reworked by "Everybody" producer Dan Romer to make a more "interesting, funky production", Michaelson released the song as a personal single. There are two different music videos for the song.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Of the release of "Parachute" and upcoming material, Michaelson explained in a 2010 interview with "Billboard.com", "I just felt like I wanted to put something out. I'm not ready to put a full album out, so we thought we'd put this out and see how people take it or don't take it." She said that she expects to release her next album, "probably in the middle of next year".


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In 2012, Michaelson and Laswell co-wrote and sang the duet "Landline", which appeared on his album of the same name.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Her 2014 album, "Lights Out", was a collaborative effort. "On all my previous records, I'd written all the songs myself. It was one producer and me locked in a room for months," she said. "Not that that was bad, but I think that everything has a season. I never wanted to kind of give up control. I think I'm letting go of a lot of things – embracing the idea of allowing people to help me in all facets of my life. I think that I was a bit of a control freak, and I'm just more open to letting people be part of things that they weren't part of before. It's really liberating. I had the best time ever on the last record. It was just really wonderful to be able to share the success with other people." Michaelson has also appeared on "The Nerdist Podcast" with Chris Hardwick.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: Michaelson played the role of Sonya Rostova temporarily in the Broadway musical "Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812" from July 3 to August 13, 2017, while actress Brittain Ashford was on leave.


title: Ingrid Michaelson

text: In January 2019, it was reported that Michaelson was writing the music and lyrics for a musical adaptation of "The Notebook".


title: Bowfinger

text: Bowfinger is a 1999 American satirical buddy comedy film directed by Frank Oz. The film depicts a down-and-out filmmaker in Hollywood attempting to make a film on a small budget with a star who does not know that he is in the movie. It was written by Steve Martin, who also stars alongside Eddie Murphy in two roles, and Heather Graham as an ambitious would-be starlet.


title: Bowfinger

text: "Bowfinger" was released in the United States on August 13, 1999, to largely positive reviews, and grossed $98 million. The film is considered by many as one of Eddie Murphy's best and most underappreciated films.


title: Bowfinger

text: B movie film producer Bobby Bowfinger has been saving up to direct a movie since he was ten years old—he now has $2,184 to pay for production costs. He has a script (""Chubby Rain"") penned by an accountant, Afrim, and a camera operator, Dave, with access to studio-owned equipment. Bowfinger then lines up several actors who are hungry for work, along with a crowd of illegal Mexican immigrants for a camera crew; the only other thing he needs is access to a studio in order to distribute his masterwork.


title: Bowfinger

text: He extracts a promise from a high-ranking Universal Pictures executive, Jerry Renfro, that Universal will distribute the film if it includes currently-hot action star Kit Ramsey. Ramsey—a pompous, neurotic, and paranoid actor—refuses, so Bowfinger constructs a plan to covertly film all of Ramsey's scenes without his knowledge. The actors, told that Ramsey is method acting and will not be interacting with them outside of their scenes, walk up to Ramsey in public and recite their lines while hidden cameras catch Ramsey's confused reactions.


title: Bowfinger

text: The plan goes well at first: Ramsey (who is a member of an organization called MindHead) swallows the movie's alien invasion premise and believes he is genuinely being stalked by aliens, resulting in an exceptionally genuine and intense performance. However, the strain on his already-precarious mental state leads him to go into hiding in order to maintain his sanity, stalling the film's production.


title: Bowfinger

text: Bowfinger resorts to hiring a Ramsey lookalike named Jiff. Jiff is unassuming, amiable and very naive. For a shot, Bowfinger persuades him to run across a busy freeway by assuring him the many cars racing by are all "stunt drivers". During a chat with the other cast members, Jiff reveals that he is Kit's twin brother, explaining the likeness. Using this new knowledge, Bowfinger tasks Jiff with finding out Kit's location and plans so they can ambush him and film the final scene.


title: Bowfinger

text: Only one scene remains to be shot: the finale set at the Griffith Observatory. Though otherwise pleased with Kit's unscripted dialogue, Bowfinger considers his character's final line "Gotcha, suckas!" to be the key moment of the film. Bowfinger directs Daisy to guide Kit through the scene under the guise of showing him how to get rid of the "aliens". During the filming, Kit becomes terrified and struggles to deliver the final line. At this point, Kit's MindHead mentor, Terry Stricter, who has discovered evidence that Kit's "aliens" may not be just in his head, shows up at the observatory and shuts down production.


title: Bowfinger

text: Bowfinger's camera crew show him B-roll footage of Kit Ramsey they were filming off-set, just in case they caught anything they could use. The footage shows Kit donning a paper bag over his head and exposing himself to the Laker Girl Cheerleading Squad, something Terry Stricter previously dissuaded him from doing. Bowfinger blackmails Stricter and the MindHead leadership with the footage, threatening to release it and ruin Ramsey's career (which would impact MindHead's finances as Ramsey is a major donor). MindHead advises the star to finish the project. Bowfinger and the cast and crew finally get to attend the film's premiere, and are awed. Following the apparent success of the film, Bowfinger receives a FedEx envelope containing an offer to direct a martial arts film in Taiwan starring Jiff Ramsey. The film ends with an elaborate fight scene from the new movie, "Fake Purse Ninjas", featuring everyone who worked on "Chubby Rain".


title: Bowfinger

text: The film was produced by Brian Grazer's company Imagine Entertainment, in conjunction with Universal Studios. The working title for the film was "Bowfinger's Big Thing". Martin originally wrote the role of "Kit Ramsey" with an actor such as Keanu Reeves in mind, but Brian Grazer suggested Eddie Murphy instead and Martin approved. The film was initially scheduled for a July 30, 1999 release, but in May 1999, Universal Studios pushed its release back to August 27, 1999. Its final release date was August 13, 1999. The film's costs amounted to US$44 million. The executives at Universal wanted to cut the freeway scene because they felt it would be too expensive; Martin replied he would not cut the funniest scene in the film.


title: Bowfinger

text: Graham described Daisy in an interview with CNN's "Entertainment News". "It's about these losers in Hollywood who want to make a movie, and I'm this naive, innocent girl who wants to be an actress. I'm willing to stop at nothing." Graham stated that she has a "special attachment" to the roles she chooses, and explained "I think it's kind of like you fall in love with the person, like you fall in love with the script." The character of Daisy was inspired by actress Anne Heche, whom writer Steve Martin was dating at the time.


title: Bowfinger

text: The fictional organization "MindHead" has been compared by film critics to the Church of Scientology. Paul Clinton wrote in "CNN" online: ""Bowfinger" could just be viewed as an out-there, over-the-top spoof about Hollywood, films, celebrities and even the Church of Scientology. But Martin has written a sweet story about a group of outsiders with impossible dreams." Andrew O'Hehir wrote in "Salon" that "Too much of 'Bowfinger' involves the filmmakers' generically wacky pursuit of the increasingly paranoid Kit, who flees into the clutches of a pseudo-Scientology outfit called MindHead (their slogan: 'Truth Through Strength')." "The Denver Post", the "Daily Record" and the "San Francisco Chronicle" made similar comparisons, and the "Albuquerque Journal" and the "Fort Worth Star-Telegram" called MindHead a "thinly veiled" parody of Scientology. A review in "The New York Times" described actor Terence Stamp's role in the film as "a cult leader for a Scientology-like organization called Mind Head", and "The Dallas Morning News" and the "Houston Chronicle" made similar statements about Stamp's character. Writer Steve Martin told the "New York Daily News" "I view it as a pastiche of things I've seen come and go through the years", and stated "Scientology gets a lot of credit or blame right now, because they're the hottest one." "The Cincinnati Enquirer" noted in its review "For the record, Mr. Martin denies MindHead is based on Scientology."


title: Bowfinger

text: The film spoofs the cult of celebrity and experiences film producers can undergo when attempting to get a movie made in Hollywood. "Time Out Film Guide" called the film a "satire on Hollywood's lunatic fringe." The "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" noted that "it takes swipes at stupid action films" and "the ageism of the industry." The "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" also noted Eddie Murphy's ability to spoof himself in the film, including "kidding his own legendary paranoia, evoking his real-life sex scandal and allowing himself to be the butt of Martin's extended gag." Leonard Schwarz of "Palo Alto Online" described the film as "arch and knowing about the ways of Hollywood", including "producers who want to keep their cars more than their kids when they get divorced." Russell Smith of "The Austin Chronicle" noted the film's satire of "L.A. movie culture, and brain-dead blockbuster films." An article in the "San Francisco Chronicle" by Bob Graham wrote that "Martin the writer plants some wicked barbs in Hollywood's rear end about creative financing of movies and hoarding of profits, the art of the deal, hipper-than-thou attitudes and exploitation." Laurie Scheer writes in "Creative Careers in Hollywood" "Steve Martin's performance as Bobby Bowfinger is one that is not to be missed, especially if you are choosing a career as a producer."


title: Bowfinger

text: Themes within the film have been compared to Mel Brooks' "The Producers"; a critique in the "Denver Rocky Mountain News" wrote that the film has "...the madcap velocity of Mel Brooks' "The Producers"." Roger Ebert wrote that "Like Mel Brooks' "The Producers", it's about fringe players who strike out boldly for the big time." "The New York Times" wrote that "The title character in the hilarious, good-hearted "Bowfinger" is a tireless schemer who, like Zero Mostel in "The Producers", is part of a great show-biz tradition: being ruthless, delusional and hellbent on turning lemons into lemonade." Jeff Millar of the "Houston Chronicle" compared Steve Martin's character in the film to Edward Wood, Jr., and Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" described Bowfinger International Pictures as "a company so threadbare even schlockmeister Ed Wood would've looked down on it." Comparisons were also made to Tim Burton's eponymous film about the director, "Ed Wood".


title: Bowfinger

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 81% based on 111 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "A witty commentary on modern film-making, with enough jokes to keep it entertaining throughout."


title: Bowfinger

text: At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Bowfinger

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half out of four stars, and wrote ""Bowfinger" is one of those comedies where everything works." The film received three out of four stars from the "TLA Video & DVD Guide", where it was described as a "goodspirited, funny look at a hack Hollywood producer who will go to any lengths to get his film made."


title: Bowfinger

text: The "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" gave the film a rating of "A−" in its review, writing "This is one terrific comedy that doesn't let up for an instant." The "Rocky Mountain News" highlighted the film as a "Critics' Choice", and wrote that "Steve Martin takes gentle but funny aim at Hollywood" in the film.


title: Bowfinger

text: In "The Washington Post", Jane Horwitz described the film as a "riotous farce". The "Kansas City Star" called it a "frequently hilarious comedy".


title: Bowfinger

text: "The New York Times" highly recommended the film, and reviewer Janet Maslin wrote "This hilarious, good-hearted spiritual descendant of "The Producers" is a comic coup for Mr. Martin."


title: Bowfinger

text: A review in the "Deseret Morning News" was critical, giving the film two and a half out of four stars, and called it a "funny but frantic and somewhat mean-spirited comedy." A review in "The Austin Chronicle" was also critical. Film critic Russell Smith gave the film two and a half stars, and wrote "As a diehard Martin fan, I'm still hoping for a comeback, but it'll take better efforts than this to get me back in his cheering section." Leonard Maltin also gave the film two and a half stars, and wrote in his "Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide" "Likeable costars carry this comedy a long way; there are some good laughs throughout, but it's never as satisfying as you'd like it to be."


title: Bowfinger

text: Stacey Wilson Hunt from Vulture considered "Bowfinger" as Murphy's underrated classic. About that, Murphy said: "I love "Bowfinger". That's a funny one. It was all mostly on page—I don't remember doing a lot of improvising. I kind of played what he wanted to play. It was all Steve Martin's creation."


title: Bowfinger

text: The film debuted at the #2 spot behind "The Sixth Sense", with an initial box office weekend return of 18.2 million at 2,700 theaters in the United States. It held onto the number two spot in its second week, earning an additional $10.7 million and grossing $35.7 million in its first ten days. As of September 7, 1999, "Bowfinger" was at the fourth spot, with a weekend return of $7 million and a total gross of $55.5 million. By September 13, 1999, the film had slipped to 5th place, with a weekend return of $3.7 million, for a total take of $60.5 million. By October 11, 1999, the film had earned $65 million in the United States. The film did not fare as well overseas as it did in the United States.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The New Zealand Wars took place from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand colonial government and allied Māori on one side and Māori and Māori-allied settlers on the other. They were previously commonly referred to as the Land Wars or the Māori Wars, while Māori language names for the conflicts included ("the great New Zealand wars") and ("the white man's anger"). Historian James Belich popularised the name "New Zealand Wars" in the 1980s, although according to Vincent O'Malley, the term was first used by historian James Cowan in the 1920s.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Though the wars were initially localised conflicts triggered by tensions over disputed land purchases, they escalated dramatically from 1860 as the government became convinced it was facing united Māori resistance to further land sales and a refusal to acknowledge Crown sovereignty. The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Kīngitanga (Māori King) movement and also conquest of farming and residential land for British settlers. Later campaigns were aimed at quashing the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Pai Mārire religion, which was strongly opposed to the conquest of Māori land and eager to strengthen Māori identity.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: At the peak of hostilities in the 1860s, 18,000 British Army troops, supported by artillery, cavalry and local militia, battled about 4,000 Māori warriors in what became a gross imbalance of manpower and weaponry. Although outnumbered, the Māori were able to withstand their enemy with techniques that included anti-artillery bunkers and the use of carefully placed pā, or fortified villages, that allowed them to block their enemy's advance and often inflict heavy losses, yet quickly abandon their positions without significant loss. Guerrilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns, the lives of about 1,800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, and total Māori losses over the course of all the wars may have exceeded 2,100.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Violence over land ownership broke out first in the Wairau Valley in the South Island in June 1843, but rising tensions in Taranaki eventually led to the involvement of British military forces at Waitara in March 1860. The war between the government and Kīngitanga Māori spread to other areas of the North Island, with the biggest single campaign being the invasion of the Waikato in 1863–1864, before hostilities concluded with the pursuits of Riwha Tītokowaru in Taranaki (1868–1869) and Rangatira (chief) Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki on the east coast (1868–1872).


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Although Māori were initially fought by British Army forces, the New Zealand government developed its own military force, including local militia, rifle volunteer groups, the specialist Forest Rangers and kūpapa (pro-government Māori). Some 2,500 men from Australia were recruited for the New Zealand militia regiments. The government also responded with legislation to imprison Māori opponents and confiscate expansive areas of the North Island for sale to settlers, with the funds used to cover war expenses; punitive measures that on the east and west coasts provoked an intensification of Māori resistance and aggression.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The 1840 English language version of the Treaty of Waitangi guaranteed that individual Māori "iwi" (tribes) should have undisturbed possession of their lands, forests, fisheries and other "taonga" (treasures) in return for becoming British subjects, selling land to the government only (the right of pre-emption) and surrendering sovereignty to the British Crown. In the Māori language version of the Treaty, however, the word "sovereignty" was translated as "kawanatanga" which was a new word meaning "governance." This led to considerable disagreement over the meaning of the Treaty. Some Māori wanted to sign to consolidate peace and in hopes of ending the long intertribal Musket Wars (1807–1842) others wanted to keep their tino rangatiratanga, such as the Tūhoe in the Ureweras.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties. In the early period of contact, Māori had generally sought trade with Europeans. The British and the French had established mission stations, and missionaries had received land from iwi for houses, schools, churches, and farms.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Traders, Sydney businessmen and the New Zealand Company had bought large tracts of land before 1840. The Treaty of Waitangi included the right of pre-emption on land sales, and the New Zealand colonial government, pressured by immigrant European settlers, tried to speed up land sales to provide farmland. This met resistance from the Kīngitanga (Māori King) movement that emerged in the 1850s and opposed further European encroachment.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Governor Thomas Gore Browne's provocative purchase of a disputed block of land at Waitara in 1859 set the government on a collision course with the Kīngitanga movement, and the government interpreted the Kīngitanga response as a challenge to the Crown's authority. Governor Gore Browne succeeded in bringing 3500 Imperial troops from the Australian colonies to quash this perceived challenge, and within four years a total of 9,000 British troops had arrived in New Zealand, assisted by more than 4,000 colonial and "kūpapa" (pro-government Māori) fighters as the government sought a decisive victory over the "rebel" Māori.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The use of a punitive land confiscation policy from 1865, depriving "rebel" Māori of the means of living, fuelled further Māori anger and resentment, fanning the flames of conflict in Taranaki (1863–1866) and on the east coast (1865–1866).


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The various conflicts of the New Zealand wars span a considerable period, and the causes and outcomes differ widely. The earliest conflicts in the 1840s happened at a time when Māori were still the predominant power, but by the 1860s settler numbers and resources were much greater. From about 1862 British troops began arriving in much greater number, summoned by Governor George Grey for his Waikato invasion, and in March 1864 total troop numbers peaked at about 14,000 (9,000 Imperial troops, more than 4,000 colonial and a few hundred "kūpapa").


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The first armed conflict between Māori and the European settlers took place on 17 June 1843 in the Wairau Valley, in the north of the South Island. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the New Zealand Company—which held a false title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Māori off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata. Fighting broke out and 22 Europeans were killed, as well as four to six Māori. Nine of the Europeans were slain after being captured. In early 1844, the new governor, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Wairau Affray—described as the Wairau Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the New Zealand Wars to take place in the South Island.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of New Zealand, around the Bay of Islands, between March 1845 and January 1846. In 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor. At this time Hōne Heke challenged the authority of the British, beginning by cutting down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororāreka. The flagstaff had previously flown the colours of United Tribes of New Zealand but now carried the Union Jack and therefore symbolised the grievances of Heke and his ally Te Ruki Kawiti, as to changes that had followed the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: There were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. While land acquisition by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) had been controversial, the rebellion led by Heke was directed against the colonial forces with the CMS missionaries trying to persuade Heke to end the fighting. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, the small and ineptly led British force had been beaten at the Battle of Ōhaeawai. Grey, with the financial support and far more troops armed with 32-pounder cannons that had been denied to FitzRoy, attacked and occupied Kawiti's fortress at Ruapekapeka, forcing Kawiti to retreat. Heke's confidence waned after he was wounded in battle with Tāmati Wāka Nene and his warriors, and by the realisation that the British had far more resources than he could muster, including some Pākehā Māori, who supported the colonial forces.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: After the Battle of Ruapekapeka, Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. They approached Tāmati Wāka Nene to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Governor Grey, who accepted the advice of Nene that Heke and Kawiti should not be punished for their rebellion. The fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The Hutt Valley campaign of 1846 came as a sequel to the Wairau Affray. The causes were similar—dubious land purchases by the New Zealand Company and the desire of the settlers to move on to land before disputes over titles were resolved—and the two conflicts shared many of the same protagonists. The campaign's most notable clashes were the Māori dawn raid on an imperial stockade at Boulcott's Farm on 16 May 1846 in which eight British soldiers and an estimated two Māori died, and the Battle of Battle Hill from 6–13 August as British troops, local militia and "kūpapa" pursued a Ngāti Toa force led by chief Te Rangihaeata through steep and dense bushland. Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was also taken into custody during the campaign; he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The bloodshed heightened settlers' fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a strong military force to guard against attack. In April 1847 an accidental shooting of a minor Wanganui Māori chief led to a bloody revenge attack on a settler family; when the perpetrators were captured and hanged, a major raid was launched on the town as a reprisal, with homes plundered and burned and livestock stolen. Māori besieged the town before mounting a frontal attack in July 1847. A peace settlement was reached in early 1848.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The catalyst for the First Taranaki War was the disputed sale to the Crown of a 240 hectare block of land at Waitara, despite a veto by the paramount chief of Te Āti Awa tribe, Wiremu Kīngi, and a "solemn contract" by local Māori not to sell. Governor Browne accepted the purchase with full knowledge of the circumstances and tried to occupy the land, anticipating it would lead to armed conflict, and a demonstration of the substantive sovereignty the British believed they had gained in the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi. Hostilities began on 17 March 1860. The war was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as volunteer soldiers and militia, against Māori forces that fluctuated between a few hundred and about 1,500. The Victorian government sent its corvette HMVS Victoria to supply men and perform shore bombardments and coastal patrols, while maintaining supply routes between Auckland and New Plymouth. After a series of battles and actions the war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Māori casualties totalled about 200. Though there were claims by the British that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable and humiliating result. Historians have also been divided on the result. Historian James Belich has claimed that Māori succeeded in thwarting the British bid to impose sovereignty over them, and had therefore been victorious. Belich also states that the Māori victory was a hollow one, leading to the invasion of the Waikato.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Governor Thomas Gore-Browne began making arrangements for a Waikato campaign to destroy the "Kīngitanga" stronghold at the close of the First Taranaki War. Preparations were suspended in December 1861 when he was replaced by Sir George Grey, but Grey revived plans for an invasion in June 1863. He persuaded the Colonial Office in London to send more than 10,000 Imperial troops to New Zealand and General Sir Duncan Cameron was appointed to lead the campaign. Cameron used soldiers to build the 18 km-long Great South Road to the border of Kīngitanga territory and on 9 July 1863 Grey ordered all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the Waikato River; when his ultimatum was rejected the vanguard of the army crossed the frontier into Kīngitanga territory and established a forward camp. A long series of bush raids on his supply lines forced Cameron to build an extensive network of forts and redoubts through the area. In a continual buildup of force, Cameron eventually had 14,000 British and colonial soldiers at his disposal, including 2,500 volunteers from Australia who were integrated into the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Waikato militia regiments; as well as steamers and armoured vessels for use on the Waikato River. They fought a combined Māori contingent of about 4,000.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Cameron and his Kīngitanga foe engaged in several major battles including the Battle of Rangiriri and a three-day siege at Orakau, capturing the Kīngitanga capital of Ngāruawāhia in December 1863, before completing their Waikato conquest in April 1864. The Waikato campaign cost the lives of 700 British and colonial soldiers and about 1,000 Māori.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The "Kīngitanga" Māori retreated into the rugged interior of the North Island and in 1865 the New Zealand Government confiscated about 12,000 km of Māori land (4% of New Zealand's land area) for white settlement—an action that quickly provoked the Second Taranaki War.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Between 1863 and 1866 there was a resumption of hostilities between Māori and the New Zealand Government in Taranaki, which is sometimes referred to as the Second Taranaki War. The conflict, which overlapped the wars in Waikato and Tauranga, was fuelled by a combination of factors: lingering Māori resentment over the sale of land at Waitara in 1860 and government delays in resolving the issue; a large-scale land confiscation policy launched by the government in late 1863; and the rise of the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Pai Marire syncretic religion, which was strongly opposed to the alienation of Māori land and eager to strengthen Māori identity. The Hauhau movement became a unifying factor for Taranaki Māori in the absence of individual Māori commanders.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The style of warfare after 1863 differed markedly from that of the 1860–1861 conflict, in which Māori had taken set positions and challenged the army to an open contest. From 1863 the army, working with greater numbers of troops and heavy artillery, systematically took possession of Māori land by driving off the inhabitants, adopting a "scorched earth" strategy of laying waste to Māori villages and cultivations, with attacks on villages, whether warlike or otherwise. Historian Brian Dalton noted: "The aim was no longer to conquer territory, but to inflict the utmost 'punishment' on the enemy; inevitably there was a great deal of brutality, much burning of undefended villages and indiscriminate looting, in which loyal Maoris often suffered." As the troops advanced, the Government built an expanding line of redoubts, behind which settlers built homes and developed farms. The effect was a creeping confiscation of almost of land, with little distinction between the land of loyal or rebel Māori owners. The outcome of the armed conflict in Taranaki between 1860 and 1869 was a series of enforced confiscations of Taranaki tribal land from Māori blanketed as being in rebellion against the Government.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: East coast hostilities erupted in April 1865 and, as in the Second Taranaki War, sprang from Māori resentment of punitive government land confiscations coupled with the embrace of radical Pai Marire expression. The religion arrived on the east coast from Taranaki in early 1865. The subsequent ritual killing of missionary Carl Volkner by Pai Mārire (or Hauhau) followers at Opotiki on 2 March 1865 sparked settler fears of an outbreak of violence and later that year the New Zealand government launched a lengthy expedition to hunt for Volkner's killers and neutralise the movement's influence. Rising tensions between Pai Mārire followers and conservative Māori led to a number of wars between and within Māori "iwi", with "kūpapa" armed by the government in a bid to exterminate the movement.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Major conflicts within the campaign included the cavalry and artillery attack on Te Tarata pā near Opotiki in October 1865 in which about 35 Māori were killed, and the seven-day siege of Waerenga-a-Hika in November 1865. The government confiscated northern parts of Urewera land in January 1866 in a bid to break down supposed Māori support for Volkner's killers and confiscated additional land in Hawke's Bay a year later after a rout of a Māori party it deemed a threat to the settlement of Napier.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: War flared again in Taranaki in June 1868 as Riwha Titokowaru, chief of Ngāruahine, responded to the continued surveying and settlement of confiscated land with well-planned and effective attacks on settlers and government troops in an effort to block the occupation of Māori land. Coinciding with a violent raid on a European settlement on the East Coast by Te Kooti, the attacks shattered what European colonists regarded as a new era of peace and prosperity, creating fears of a "general uprising of hostile Māoris".


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Titokowaru, who had fought in the Second Taranaki War, was the most skilful West Coast Māori warrior. He also assumed the roles of a priest and prophet of the extremist Hauhau movement of the Pai Mārire religion, reviving ancient rites of cannibalism and propitiation of Māori gods with the human heart torn from the first slain in a battle. Although Titokowaru's forces were numerically small and initially outnumbered in battle 12 to one by government troops, the ferocity of their attacks provoked fear among settlers and prompted the resignation and desertion of many militia volunteers, ultimately leading to the withdrawal of most government military forces from South Taranaki and giving Titokowaru control of almost all territory between New Plymouth and Wanganui. Although Titokowaru provided the strategy and leadership that had been missing among tribes that had fought in the Second Taranaki War and his forces never lost a battle during their intensive campaign, they mysteriously abandoned a strong position at Tauranga-ika Pā and Titokowaru's army immediately began to disperse. Kimble Bent, who lived as a slave with Titokowaru's "hapū" after deserting from the 57th Regiment, told Cowan 50 years later the chief had lost his "mana tapu", or sacred power, after committing adultery with the wife of another chief.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Once Titokowaru was defeated and the East Coast threat minimised, the alienation of Māori land, as well as the political subjugation of Māori, continued at an even more rapid pace.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Te Kooti's War was fought in the East Coast region and across the heavily forested central North Island and Bay of Plenty between government military forces and followers of spiritual leader Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki. The conflict was sparked by Te Kooti's return to New Zealand after two years of internment on the Chatham Islands, from where he had escaped with almost 200 Māori prisoners of war and their families. Te Kooti, who had been held without trial on the island for two years, asked that he and his followers be left in peace, but within two weeks they were being pursued by a force of militia, government troops and Māori volunteers. The pursuit turned into a four-year guerrilla war, involving more than 30 expeditions by colonial and Māori troops against Te Kooti's dwindling number of warriors.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Although initially fighting defensively against pursuing government forces, Te Kooti went on the offensive from November 1868, starting with the so-called Poverty Bay massacre, a well-organised lightning strike against selected European settlers and Māori opponents in the Matawhero district, in which 51 men, women and children were slaughtered and their homes set alight. The attack prompted another vigorous pursuit by government forces, which included a siege at Ngatapa pā that came to a bloody end: although Te Kooti escaped the siege, Māori forces loyal to the government caught and executed more than 130 of his supporters, as well as prisoners he had earlier seized. Dissatisfied with the Māori King Movement's reluctance to continue its fight against European invasion and confiscation, Te Kooti offered Māori an Old Testament vision of salvation from oppression and a return to a promised land. Wounded three times in battle, he gained a reputation for being immune to death and uttered prophecies that had the appearance of being fulfilled. In early 1870 Te Kooti gained refuge from Tūhoe tribes, which consequently suffered a series of damaging raids in which crops and villages were destroyed, after other Māori "iwi" were lured by the promise of a £5,000 reward for Te Kooti's capture. Te Kooti was finally granted sanctuary by the Māori king in 1872 and moved to the King Country, where he continued to develop rituals, texts and prayers of his Ringatū faith. He was formally pardoned by the government in February 1883 and died in 1893.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: A 2013 Waitangi Tribunal report said the action of Crown forces on the East Coast from 1865 to 1869—the East Coast Wars and the start of Te Kooti's War—resulted in the deaths of proportionately more Māori than in any other district during the New Zealand wars. It condemned the "illegal imprisonment" on the Chatham Islands of a quarter of the East Coast region's adult male population and said the loss in war of an estimated 43 percent of the male population, many through acts of "lawless brutality", was a stain on New Zealand's history and character.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The New Zealand campaigns involved Māori warriors from a range of "iwi", most of which were allied with the Kīngitanga movement, fighting a mix of Imperial troops, local militia groups, the specialist Forest Rangers and kūpapa, or "loyalist" Māori.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: In 1855 just 1,250 Imperial troops, from two under-strength British regiments, were in New Zealand. Although both were scheduled to depart at the end of the year, Browne succeeded in retaining one of them for use in New Plymouth, where settlers feared the spread of intertribal violence. At the outbreak of Taranaki hostilities in 1860, reinforcements were brought from Auckland to boost the New Plymouth garrison, raising the total force of regulars to 450 and for many months the total number of Māori under arms exceeded the number of troops in Taranaki. In mid-April the arrival of three warships and about 400 soldiers from Australia marked the beginning of the escalation of imperial troop numbers.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The buildup increased rapidly under Grey's term as governor: when the second round of hostilities broke out in Taranaki in May 1863 he applied to the Secretary of State in London for the immediate dispatch of three more regiments and also wrote to the Australian governors asking for whatever British troops that could be made available. Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron, the Commander-in-Chief of the British troops in New Zealand, began the Waikato invasion in July with fewer than 4,000 effective troops in Auckland at his disposal, but the continuous arrival of regiments from overseas rapidly swelled the force.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The Colonial Defence Force, a cavalry unit of about 100 men, was formed by Colonel Marmaduke Nixon in May 1863 and served in Waikato and militia forces were also used throughout the New Zealand wars. The Militia Ordinance 1845 provided for the compulsory training or service within 40 km of their town by all able-bodied European men aged between 18 and 60; the Auckland Militia and Volunteers reached a peak of about 1650 on active service in the early stages of the Waikato campaign; and the last force—the Taranaki Militia—was released from service in 1872.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: A special 65-man bush-scouring corps, the Forest Rangers, composed of local farmers who were familiar with the bush, had proven guerrilla techniques and were capable of "roughing it", was formed in August 1863; the Forest Rangers split into two separate companies in November, with the second led by Gustavus von Tempsky and both served in Waikato and Taranaki. Other rangers corps during the New Zealand wars included the Taranaki Bush Rangers, Patea Rangers, Opotiki Volunteer Rangers, Wanganui Bush Rangers and Wellington Rangers. From September 1863 the first contingents of what was planned as 5,000 military settlers—recruited on the goldfields of Australia and Otago with promises of free grants of land confiscated from "rebel" Māori—also began service in the Waikato. By the end of October the number of military settlers, known as the Waikato Militia, had reached more than 2,600, the majority having come from Australia. By March 1864 troop numbers peaked at 9,000 Imperial troops, 4,000 Colonial troops (3,600 of them Australians), a few hundred "kūpapa" (Maori that fought for the British) for a combined force of about 14,000.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: In November 1864 Premier Frederick Weld introduced a policy of "self-reliance" for New Zealand, which included the gradual but complete withdrawal of Imperial troops, who would be replaced by a colonial force of 1,500. The move came at a time of rising conflict between Grey, who sought more extensive military operations to "pacify" the west coast of the North Island between Taranaki and Wanganui, and Cameron, who regarded such a campaign as unnecessary, impractical and contrary to Imperial policy. Grey blocked Cameron's attempts to dispatch the first regiments from New Zealand in May 1865 and the first regiment finally embarked in January 1866. By May 1867 only the 2/18th Regiment remained in the country, their departure delayed by political pressure over the "peril" still facing settlers; the last soldiers finally left in February 1870.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: About 15 of the 26 major North Island tribal groups sent contingents to join the Waikato campaign, although sometimes they represented a single "hapū" (clan) within the tribe. Continual presence on battlefields remained difficult for most, however, because of the constant need for tribal labour in their home community, so there was a constant turnover of small tribal groups. At Meremere, Paterangi, Hangatiki and Maungatatauri, between August 1863 and June 1864 Māori maintained forces of between 1,000 and 2,000 men, but troops were forced to disperse after each campaign because of labour and domestic needs at home. Belich has estimated that the total Māori mobilisation was at least 4,000 warriors, representing one-third of the total manpower available.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Although they were not part of a structured command system, Māori generally followed a consistent strategic plan, uniting to build skilfully engineered defensive lines up to long. Māori united under proven military commanders, including Rewi Maniapoto and Tikaokao of Ngāti Maniapoto and Wiremu Tamihana of Ngāti Hauā.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Campaigners on both sides of the New Zealand wars had developed distinctive war strategies and tactics. The British set out to fight a European-style war, based on engaging with the opposing forces, besieging and then capturing fortified positions. The British Army were professional soldiers who had experience fighting in various parts of the Empire, many from India and Afghanistan, and were led by officers who were themselves trained by men who had fought at Waterloo.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Many of the Māori fighters had been raised during the Musket Wars, the decades-long bitter intertribal fighting during which warriors had perfected the art of building defensive fortifications around a "pā". During the Flagstaff War Kawiti and Heke appear to have followed a strategy of drawing the colonial forces into attacking a fortified pā, from which the warriors could fight from a strong defensive position that was secure from cannon fire.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The word "pā" means a fortified strong point near a Māori village or community. They were built with a view to defence, but primarily they were built to safely store food. Puketapu Pā and then Ōhaeawai Pā were the first of the so-called "gunfighter "pā"", built to engage enemies armed with muskets and cannons. A strong, wooden palisade was fronted with woven flax leaves ("Phormium tenax") whose tough, stringy foliage absorbed much of the force of the ammunition. The palisade was lifted a few centimetres from the ground so muskets could be fired from underneath rather than over the top. Sometimes there were gaps in the palisade, which led to killing traps. There were trenches and rifle pits to protect the occupants and, later, very effective artillery shelters. They were usually built so that they were almost impossible to surround completely, but usually presented at least one exposed face to invite attack from that direction. They were cheap and easily built—the L-Pa at Waitara was constructed by 80 men overnight—and they were completely expendable. The British repeatedly mounted often lengthy expeditions to besiege a "pā", which would absorb their bombardment and possibly one or two attacks, and then be abandoned by the Māori. Shortly afterwards, a new "pā" would appear in another inaccessible site. "Pā" like these were built in the dozens, particularly during the First Taranaki War, where they eventually formed a cordon surrounding New Plymouth, and in the Waikato campaign.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: For a long time, the modern "pā" effectively neutralised the overwhelming disparity in numbers and armaments. At Ōhaeawai Pā in 1845, at Rangiriri in 1863 and again at Gate Pā in 1864, British and colonial forces discovered that frontal attacks on a defended "pā" were extremely costly. At Gate Pā, during the 1864 Tauranga Campaign, Māori withstood a day-long bombardment in their underground shelters and trenches. The palisade destroyed, the British troops rushed the "pā", whereupon Māori fired on them from hidden trenches, killing 38 and injuring many more in the most costly battle for the Pākehā of the New Zealand Wars. The troops retired and Māori abandoned the "pā".


title: New Zealand Wars

text: British troops soon realised an easy way to neutralise a "pā". Although cheap and easy to build, a gunfighter "pā" required a significant input of labour and resources. The destruction of the Māori economic base in the area around the "pā" made it difficult for the "hapū" to support the fighting men. This was the reasoning behind the bush-scouring expeditions of Chute and McDonnell in the Second Taranaki War.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The biggest problem for the Māori was that their society was ill-adapted to support a sustained campaign. A long campaign would disrupt food supplies and epidemics resulted in significant numbers of deaths among the Māori. While the British could defeat Māori in battle, the defeats were often not decisive. For example, the capture of Ruapekapeka Pā can be considered a British tactical victory, but it was purpose-built as a target for the British, and its loss was not damaging; Heke and Kawiti managed to escape with their forces intact. However the British force consisted of professional soldiers supported by an economic system capable of sustaining them in the field almost indefinitely, in contrast, the Māori warrior was a part-time fighter who also needed to work on producing food.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The main weapon used by the British forces in the 1860s was the Pattern 1853 Enfield. Properly described as a rifled musket, it was loaded down the barrel like a conventional musket but the barrel was rifled. While muskets were accurate to about 60–80 m, an 1853 Enfield was accurate to about 300 m to 400 m in the hands of an experienced soldier; at 100 m an experienced soldier could easily hit a human target. The rifle was 1.44 m long, weighed 4 kg and had a 53 cm socket bayonet. This rifle was also commonly used in the American Civil War by both sides.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The Calisher and Terry carbine (short rifle) was ordered by the New Zealand Government from Calisher and Terry, Birmingham gunsmiths in 1861 after earlier fighting against Māori showed the need for a carbine suited to fighting in heavy bush. This was the favoured weapon of the New Zealand Forest Rangers because of its shortness, its lightness, and its ability to be reloaded while the marksman lay down—unlike the Enfield, which required the soldier to stand to load the powder—and could be loaded on the run. This feature led to a decisive victory for the Forest Rangers at Orakau: several groups of soldiers harried the fleeing Māori but only the Forest Rangers, equipped with carbines, were able to follow them 10 km to the Puniu River shooting as they went.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Revolvers were mainly used by officers but were a general issue for the Forest Rangers. The most common revolver appears to have been the five-shot Beaumont–Adams .44 percussion revolver. Other revolvers in use were the Colt Navy .36 1851 model with open top frame. The Colt was favoured by the Forest Rangers because it was light and accurate being a single-action revolver. Von Tempsky's second company of the Forest Rangers also used the Bowie knife.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: Large areas of land were confiscated from the Māori by the government under the New Zealand Settlements Act in 1863, purportedly as punishment for rebellion. In reality, land was confiscated from both "loyal" and "rebel" tribes alike. More than of land was confiscated. Although about half of this was subsequently paid for or returned to Māori control, it was often not returned to its original owners. The confiscations had a lasting impact on the social and economic development of the affected tribes.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: In the immediate aftermath of the wars in Taranaki, and land confiscations, a new town Parihaka was founded by Te Whiti o Rongomai, based on principles of non-violent resistance. Parihaka's population grew to over 2,000 before the government sent the constabulary to arrest Te Whiti and his supporters on 5 November 1881. Another incident in the aftermath of the New Zealand Wars was the so-called Dog Tax War of 1898.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The legacy of the New Zealand Wars continues, but these days the battles are mostly fought in courtrooms and around the negotiation table. Numerous reports by the Waitangi Tribunal have criticised Crown actions during the wars, and also found that the Māori, too, had breached the treaty. As part of the negotiated out-of-court settlements of tribes' historical claims (Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements), as of 2011 the Crown is making formal apologies to tribes.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The National Day of Commemoration for the New Zealand Wars was inaugurated in 2017 and is held on 28 October. In 2019, a commemorative plaque was unveiled for the New Zealand Wars in the New Zealand House of Representatives.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: The Day of Commemoration came about after a group of students from Otorohanga College in New Zealand had presented a petition to parliament in 2015 asking for more recognition of the Wars as an example of New Zealand history that should be taught in the country's schools. This was agreed to by the government and Jacinda Ardern, the Prime Minister announced in 2019 that within a revised curriculum, the teaching of history would be compulsory in New Zealand. A draft curriculum document was developed and trialled in 2021, and in March 2022 Aotearoa New Zealand Histories and Te Takanga o te Wa, English- and Maori-medium were officially launched.


title: New Zealand Wars

text: A number of fictionalised accounts of the New Zealand Wars have been adapted for film and literature:


title: Sybil Danning

text: Sybil Danning (born Sybille Johanna Danninger) is an Austrian actress, model, and film producer. She is best known for her frequent appearances in B movies during the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Sybil Danning

text: Born in Austria, Danning spent most of her childhood on military bases and traveling with her family around the world. After their return to Austria, she landed a job as a dental hygienist to support her family following her parents' divorce. At the age of sixteen, Danning left her home and relocated to Salzburg, where she enrolled at a school of cosmetology.


title: Sybil Danning

text: Working as a cosmetician, Danning was soon offered fashion shows and photo layouts. She made her onscreen debut in the German comedy, "Komm nur, mein liebstes Vögelein" (1968), followed by the role of Kriemhild in the erotic action film, "The Long Swift Sword of Siegfried" (1971). She continued receiving small parts in films mostly based on her sex symbol image.


title: Sybil Danning

text: In 1978, Danning moved to Hollywood to further her career. Roger Corman's space opera cult classic, "Battle Beyond the Stars" (1980) helped to established her as a B movie actress. She appeared in a number of films during the 1980s: "Chained Heat" (1983), "Hercules" (1983), "Malibu Express" (1985), "" (1985), and "Reform School Girls" (1986).


title: Sybil Danning

text: In 1990, her acting career was disrupted when she suffered a spinal disc herniation while rehearsing a film stunt.


title: Sybil Danning

text: In 2003, Danning was invited by Kevin Clement of the Chiller Theatre, New Jersey, to meet her long-time fans. She went and was overwhelmed by fans who told her they wanted to see her on the big screen again. Chiller Theater prominently featured Danning in her first appearance after her hiatus in its 2004 documentary, "UnConventional". The year 2007 marked Danning's return to the big screen in a faux trailer directed by Rob Zombie titled "Werewolf Women of the SS" for Quentin Tarantino's "Grindhouse", and again for Rob Zombie's 2007 remake of John Carpenter's original 1978 film, "Halloween".


title: Sybil Danning

text: Danning returned to Austria in 2008 to play Patrick Swayze's witness Anna Gruber in the drama film "Jump!", loosely based on the real-life Halsman murder case. She also appeared in five episodes of the gay-themed vampire television series "The Lair" as a sinister vampire out for revenge. In 2010, Danning appeared in the horror film, "Virus X". In 2011, she starred in and produced a horror/music video for American hard rock band, the Last Vegas.


title: Sybil Danning

text: From 2002 to 2003, Danning was a shareholder of the German ice hockey team, SC Riessersee. As the first ever female co-owner of a German hockey team, Danning brought in three American players to the team, and saw the team return to the Vice Championship.


title: Inspector Koo

text: Inspector Koo () is a 2021 South Korean television series starring Lee Young-ae in the title role, alongside Kim Hye-jun, Kim Hae-sook, Kwak Sun-young, Baek Sung-chul and Cho Hyun-chul. The series is about the battle of a former police officer against a female college student who is a serial killer. It aired from October 30 to December 12, 2021 on JTBC's Saturdays and Sundays at 22:30 (KST) time slot. It is also available for streaming on Netflix.


title: Inspector Koo

text: It follows the story of Koo Kyung-yi (Lee Young-ae), whose world is all about games and alcohol, as she digs into a mysterious serial murder case completely disguised as an accident.


title: Reply 1997

text: Reply 1997 () is a 2012 South Korean television series that centers on the lives of six friends in Busan, as the timeline moves back and forth between their past as 18-year-old high schoolers in 1997 and their present as 33-year-olds at their high school reunion dinner in 2012, where one couple will announce that they're getting married. As the first installment of the "Reply" series, it also portrays the extreme fan culture that emerged in the 1990s when first generation idol groups such as H.O.T. and Sechs Kies took center stage and K-pop was just beginning to blossom.


title: Reply 1997

text: The series is one of the highest-rated Korean dramas in cable television history, and has garnered praise from audiences and critics for being well-researched, refreshing, genuine, and full of humor and heart.


title: Reply 1997

text: Set in 1997, the series follows female high school student Sung Shi-won (Jung Eun-ji), who idolizes boyband H.O.T, and her five high school friends. As a teen, Shi-won was obsessed with a boy band. Now 33-years-old, Shi-won and her friends are reviving their memories at their school reunion.


title: Reply 1997

text: The series originally aired live on cable channel tvN in 16 episodes (fourteen 30-minute episodes aired back-to-back over a period of 7 weeks, with the last 2 episodes aired separately and lasting 1 hour each due to the amount of material the staff didn't want to edit out). However, due to its popularity, the 15th and 16th episodes were also aired simultaneously on Mnet, OCN, O'live, Ongamenet and OnStyle.


title: Reply 1997

text: The '90s-set drama didn't have an original soundtrack of its own since a huge aspect of the show's mood is set with era-specific music, one of its defining characteristics. Instead, lead actors Jung Eun-ji and Seo In-guk recorded a 2-part mini OST entitled "Love Story" to thank fans and viewers of the show. Seo was the first season winner of the music audition program "Superstar K", and Eun-ji is the main vocalist of K-pop girl group A Pink. Their duet in Part 1 was a remake of 1990s idol group Cool's "All For You." Their duet in Part 2 is a remake of "Just the Way We Love", from the soundtrack of 1999 film "Love Wind Love Song".


title: Reply 1997

text: The two singles topped the Gaon Single Chart and Billboard's K-Pop Hot 100, and "All For You" became one of the best-selling singles of that year with 2,499,273 downloads. Jung and Seo also gave a live performance on Mnet's "M! Countdown" on 6 September 2012, and on 19 September, the song "All For You" ranked first on another music program, "Music Triangle".


title: Reply 1997

text: Due to popular demand, CJ E&M eventually released a "Director's Edition" soundtrack that feature Jung and Seo's 2 covers, as well as '90s songs played throughout the series. It also included a mini photobook and a behind-the-scenes DVD. Before its official release, the album sold out its 12,500 units via pre-order, surpassing the average soundtrack sales figure of 5,000.


title: Reply 1997

text: The TV serial mostly consisted of idol singers with scant acting experience, and apart from the meta casting of Sechs Kies member Eun Ji-won (who previously worked with director Shin Won-ho and the writing staff on the variety show "1 Night & 2 Days"), it premiered to little hype. But with strong word of mouth, it soon gained recognition as a high-quality production with a distinct sense of identity, becoming a buzz-worthy "syndrome" show (the Korean slang term for a hit show with an ardent fanbase).


title: Reply 1997

text: With Korean cable shows generally considered successful if they hit 1%, "Reply 1997" took cable ratings by storm, and received an immense amount of attention and critical praise. The show has been credited for its laser-sharp attention to detail, re-creating the late '90s with an accuracy that has fans singing its praises. Endless pop culture references are packed into every minute of the show, with little pop culture easter eggs hidden in scenes, callbacks to the trends of the day, and cameos that are in-jokes.


title: Reply 1997

text: It was also a digital success, receiving more than a million hits after it was made available for downloading and streaming on internet and mobile site "Tving". This was attributed to the fact that "Reply 1997" had aired on a cable network (pay television channel), such that several viewers were unable to watch it live.


title: Reply 1997

text: With majority of Korean dramas shot in the capital Seoul, another of the show's charms is its Busan setting, which is treated in a matter-of-fact way as a locale. The realism is aided by the fact that much of the principal cast is actually from the region, who speak with authentic Gyeongsang dialect. The dialogue also uses time-specific, location-specific slang.


title: Reply 1997

text: But '90s nostalgia and meticulous attention to detail is only part of the show's appeal. Fans were also intrigued by the clues which the 2012 scenes dropped at regular intervals about who ends up together, as well as the episodes' subtle twists. And its smart, witty way of addressing the growing pains of its adolescent cast makes it just as relevant in the present as it was back in the late-'90s setting of its primary plot. Audiences have lauded the show's intimacy and realism, with a sincerity that connects with people — even those outside that particular generation.


title: Reply 1997

text: Seo In-guk, Eun Ji-won, Lee Si-eon and Shin So-yul hosted the 15 September 2012 episode of sketch comedy show "Saturday Night Live Korea", which included skits that parody scenes in their series. On 20 September 2012, a special was aired on tvN's "enews" featuring behind-the-scenes videos and a few bloopers from the set.