title: Long Range Desert Group

text: One of the LRDG's Chevrolet WB trucks is displayed in the Imperial War Museum in London. It was presented to the museum by the LRDG Association, after being recovered from the Libyan desert in 1983 by David Lloyd Owen, by then a retired Major General and chairman of the Association. It is preserved in the condition in which it was discovered, rusted but largely intact.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: A series of radio interviews were made with members of the LRDG in 1941 by the New Zealand Broadcasting Unit. Some can be heard online on the catalogue of Ngā Taonga Sound & Vision:


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Vyjayanthi Movies is an Indian film production company established in 1974 by C. Aswani Dutt. It is one of the biggest film production houses in Telugu cinema. Vyjayanthi Movies is especially known for its big-budget productions with top movie stars and lavish production values. It is credited with producing some of the most iconic films in Telugu cinema. It has subsidiaries, Swapna Cinema and Three Angels Studio run by Aswani Dutt's daughters Swapna Dutt and Priyanka Dutt.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Aswani Dutt started his film career as an executive producer for a black and white film directed by K. Viswanath. He wanted to produce a film with his favourite actor N. T. Rama Rao (NTR) and approached him. Named by NTR, Vyjayanthi Movies commenced production, under the proprietorship of Aswani Dutt with the successful film, "Eduruleni Manishi" in 1975. The logo of the production house contains the image of NTR as Lord Sri Krishna, with a Sankha in his hand and Earth behind him.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: The production house went on to make films with the top most actors of Telugu cinema like NTR, ANR, Krishna, Sobhan Babu, Krishnam Raju, Chiranjeevi, and Akkineni Nagarjuna. Many of the films produced by Vyjayanthi Movies were directed by K. Bapayya and K. Raghavendra Rao.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Vyjayanthi Movies produced several Telugu films like "Agni Parvatam" (1985), "Jagadeka Veerudu Athiloka Sundari" (1990), "Indra" (2002) which were very successful at the box-office. Vyjayanthi Movies introduced popular actors like Jr. NTR, Mahesh Babu, Ram Charan, Allu Arjun, and Nara Rohit to the Telugu cinema.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Vyjayanthi Movies had a successful run until it hit a rough patch with "Sakthi" in 2011. After this, Aswani Dutt took a seven-year hiatus. He produced "Mahanati" in 2018 which became one of the highest grossing films of the year.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: In 2014, Ashwani Dutt's elder daughter, Swapna Dutt, inherited "Swapna Cinema" from her father. Under this banner, Swapna and her sister, Priyanka Dutt produced "Yevade Subramanyam". This was a big success story at the box office in 2015. In 2018, this banner produced a biopic on the late actress, Savitri. The biopic, titled "Mahanati" stars Keerthi Suresh, Dulquer Salmaan, Samantha Ruth Prabhu, and Vijay Devarakonda. It was critically acclaimed and highly successful at the box office.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Aswani Dutt's younger daughter, Priyanka Dutt launched a new production house named "Three Angels Studio" in 2008. She produced her first film, "Baanam" (2009), through this company and introduced Nara Rohit to Telugu Cinema. The film was critically acclaimed, but did not do well at the box office. She then produced the anthology film "Om Shanti" in 2010. It stars Nikhil Siddharth, Kajal Aggarwal, Bindu Madhavi and Navdeep.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: After the success of "Jagadeka Veerudu Athiloka Sundari" (1990), Aswani Dutt wanted to do fantasy film highlighting the CGI. So a film titled "Bhooloka Veerudu" was started in the direction of Singeetam Srinivasa Rao with Chiranjeevi in the lead role. After completing two schedules, the project was shelved as they realized that they didn't have a proper story in hand and hence shelved the film.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Ram Gopal Varma narrated a story to Aswani Dutt which he liked. Varma was making "Daud" at that time and felt that the shooting of "Daud" might be stalled due to Sanjay Dutt's legal issues. So Varma narrated the story to Aswani Dutt and Chiranjeevi which they liked. Aswani Dutt started the project with Chiranjeevi as the lead in the direction of Ram Gopal Varma. After Sanjay Dutt's release, the shooting of "Daud" resumed. Then Aswani Dutt realized that the storylines for these two films are similar. As he was not comfortable in doing a film which had the same storyline to another film, he stalled the project.


title: Vyjayanthi Movies

text: Raghavendra Movie Corporation, Siri Media Arts, and United Producers (Aswani Dutt, Allu Aravind, and K. Raghavendra Rao)


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" is a song written by Jim Steinman. It was released in 1977 on the album "Bat Out of Hell", with vocals by the American musician Meat Loaf alongside Ellen Foley. An uncommonly long song for a single, it has become a staple of classic rock radio and has been described as the "greatest rock duet".


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" was one of seven songs developed for "Bat Out of Hell", with the first three songs having originated from Steinman's "Peter Pan"-based rock musical, "Neverland". Steinman, Meat Loaf, and Ellen Foley (who had been cast as Wendy in "Neverland") had all worked together on the National Lampoon Road Tour, where the singers had a history of performing over-the-top musical comedy sketches together.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: After numerous failed attempts by Steinman and Meat Loaf to secure record label support for the album, Mark "Moogy" Klingman brought the project to the attention of Utopia bandmate Todd Rundgren for potential production work. Rundgren, under the impression that the album had the support of RCA subsidiary Utopia Records, agreed to produce at Bearsville Studios near Woodstock, New York, where he was working as an engineer and producer. But Rundgren discovered that the Utopia Records deal did not exist, and was essentially paying for the album's production himself. Rundgren offered Albert Grossman, founder of Bearsville Studios and the Bearsville Records label, the right of first refusal.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Both Steinman and Rundgren were influenced by Phil Spector and his "Wall of Sound", and Rundgren crafted arrangements translated from Steinman's vision of what the song should be. Jim Steinman had stated that he wanted to write "the ultimate car/sex song in which everything goes horribly wrong in the end."


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: The song opens with a male and female character reminiscing about days as a young high school couple on a date. They are parking by a lake and having fun, experiencing "paradise by the dashboard light", until the young male character insists they're "gonna go all the way tonight".


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: The male character's advances are mirrored by New York Yankees announcer Phil Rizzuto broadcasting a portion of a baseball game that serves as a metaphor for the male character's attempts to achieve his goal, accompanied by funk instrumentation and back-and-forth dialog between the male and female characters.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Just as the male character is about to score (via the suicide squeeze), the female character interjects, telling him to "Stop right there!" She refuses to go any further unless the male character first promises to love her forever and marry her. Reluctant to make such a long-term commitment, the male character repeatedly asks her to consent and promises to give his answer in the morning. The female character remains steadfast, and the male character finally offers his promise: "I started swearing to my God and on my mother's grave/That I would love you to the end of time".


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Back in the present, both characters express how each can no longer stand the other. Remaining true to the vow he made on that night in the past, he is now "praying for the end of time" to arrive and relieve him from his obligation. The song gradually fades out, juxtaposing his gloomy "it was long ago, it was far away, it was so much better than it is today!" with her nostalgic "it never felt so good, it never felt so right, we were glowing like the metal on the edge of a knife".


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: In early live performances of the song, this part (and thus the conclusion of the song itself) was followed by a spoken-word epilogue by Meat Loaf and Karla DeVito, where they, still in character as the two protagonists, argued about what to keep after the couple's divorce (having been presumably married for a number of years). The argument was cut short by DeVito shouting "...And I'll keep the baby!", which left Meat Loaf's character speechless, previously unaware of the pregnancy; immediately after, he ended the argument by screaming incoherently at her. The exchange was repeated with different female vocalists, in different versions and with different endings, in most of Meat Loaf's subsequent live tours and remained in the set until his death, when it was still occasionally performed by Meat Loaf and his featured vocalist Patti Russo.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: After 10 days of rehearsals, the song was recorded at Bearsville Studios, with Meat Loaf and Ellen Foley providing vocals, producer Todd Rundgren playing guitar, Rundgren's Utopia bandmates Kasim Sulton on bass and Roger Powell on synthesizer, and Roy Bittan and Max Weinberg of Bruce Springsteen's E Street Band on piano and drums, respectively. Foley recorded her singing part in one take.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: The baseball play-by-play section, written specifically for New York Yankees announcer Phil Rizzuto using phrases he would actually say while announcing, was recorded by Rizzuto with Steinman and Rundgren at The Hit Factory in New York in 1976. Rizzuto publicly maintained he was unaware that his contribution would be equated with sex in the finished song. However, Meat Loaf asserts that Rizzuto was fully aware of the context of what he was recording, and feigned ignorance only to stifle criticism.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Meat Loaf felt that Rundgren's initial mix of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" rendered the song unsuitable for inclusion on the album. After several attempts by several people, John Jansen mixed the version of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" included on the album.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Upon hearing the finished album, Albert Grossman at Bearsville Records turned it down, but E Street band member Steven Van Zandt contacted Steve Popovich, who accepted "Bat Out Of Hell" for his own Epic Records subsidiary, Cleveland International Records.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" was the third single released from "Bat Out of Hell", 10 months after the album's release, following "You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth" and "Two Out of Three Ain't Bad". In October 1978, after the success of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light," "You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth" was re-released with "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" as the B-side, with this release peaking at No. 39 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Even though the version of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" released as a single was shortened from the 8:28 album version to 7:55, it is one of the longest songs to be released uncut on one side of a 7-inch 45 rpm record. The only difference between the version on the album and the full version released as a single is that the single version fades out almost immediately after the final line is sung. In some countries, a shorter 5:32 edit was released. The largest change is the complete removal of the "baseball play-by-play" section.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Meat Loaf convinced the label to give him to produce films of live-on-soundstage performances of three of the songs from "Bat Out of Hell", including "Paradise by the Dashboard Light". Ellen Foley, who sang on the album, declined to be on the "Bat Out Of Hell" tour, and Karla DeVito assumed live performance responsibilities, so the music video was created by syncing the video of DeVito's performance to the audio of Foley's vocals. 35mm prints of these films were distributed to movie theaters holding midnight screenings of "The Rocky Horror Picture Show", as a short subject to play before the feature (in which Meat Loaf appeared). Very few of these prints are still extant and/or in playable condition.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: "The Old Grey Whistle Test" broadcast the "Bat Out of Hell" promotional film, and audience response was such that they showed the film again the following week. Meat Loaf was invited to perform live on the show with the Neverland Express, and he and Karla DeVito's February, 1978 performance of "Paradise By the Dashboard Light" would become one of the show's benchmark performances.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: The video became a staple on MTV in the network's early years. Rundgren speculated in a 2017 "Billboard" interview that the length of the song's video (the longest music video available at the time) made it ideal for VJs to play when they needed extra time between songs.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: In the original video as released to television and in 35mm prints, the male/female "Hot Summer Night" prologue from "You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth" was spoken live by Jim Steinman and Karla DeVito before the song performance. On the "Hits Out of Hell" music video compilation, the prologue was removed and spliced in front of the video for "You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth", ostensibly to properly replicate the album "Bat Out of Hell", and the video for "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" goes right into the performance.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: The single had modest success in the United States, peaking at number 39 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on September 23, 1978 and remaining on the chart for 10 weeks. In the Netherlands, the single became Meat Loaf's biggest all-time hit, reaching number one at the end of 1978, going on to be a hit there again in 1988. In Belgium, the single stalled at number 2 where it stayed for 5 weeks, being blocked from the Number 1 position the whole time by the Village People's "Y.M.C.A.". In various Dutch all-time charts, such as the Radio 2 Top 2000 or Radio Veronica's All Time Top 1000, the song consistently charts inside the top 30. In the United Kingdom the song did not chart at all, but is well known and is a classic rock staple.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: In an interview with Foley after Meat Loaf's death in 2022, Chris Willman of "Variety" described the song as "rock's greatest duet" and potentially "the greatest duet ever recorded". Foley replied that the song was "pretty close behind" "Up Where We Belong" by Jennifer Warnes and Joe Cocker.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Two tracks on "", Meat Loaf's second installment of what would eventually be a 3-album "Bat Out of Hell" trilogy, contain lyrics that reference "Paradise by the Dashboard Light". "Objects in the Rear View Mirror May Appear Closer Than They Are" quotes "It was long ago and it was far away" and the next track on the album, Steinman's monologue "Wasted Youth", begins with the same "I remember every little thing as if it happened only yesterday" opening line from "Paradise by the Dashboard Light".


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Steinman included "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" in Act One of his 2017 rock musical "". The song is performed by the characters Falco and Sloane.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: In April 2008, AT&T featured Meat Loaf and Tiffany in a parody of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" for their GoPhone national commercial campaign, releasing the commercial in both an extended music video version and a short commercial edit.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: A cappella group The Dartmouth Aires sang the song in the 2011 season finale of the American television competition "The Sing-Off" and won second place.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: On "Glee's" season 3 episode, "Nationals", Cory Monteith and Lea Michele performed the song as characters Finn Hudson and Rachel Berry. This episode was first broadcast on May 15, 2012.


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: In 2015, Tom Cruise performed a lip sync battle of the song on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon".


title: Paradise by the Dashboard Light

text: Live performance recordings of the song have been included on several Meat Loaf albums, including "Live at Wembley" (1987), "Live Around the World" (1996), and "" (2004)


title: Brad Whitford

text: Bradley Ernest Whitford (born February 23, 1952) is an American musician who is best known for serving as the rhythm and co-lead guitarist for the hard rock band Aerosmith for which he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001. He has also worked as a songwriter for the group, co-composing well-received tracks such as 1976's "Last Child".


title: Brad Whitford

text: Whitford graduated from Reading Memorial High School in 1970. After attending the Berklee College of Music, Whitford played in local bands Cymbals of Resistance, Teapot Dome, Earth, Inc., and finally a band called Justin Thyme before joining Aerosmith in 1971, replacing original guitarist Ray Tabano. Aerosmith would go on to be one of the most successful bands of the 1970s. However, following a string of less successful albums in the late 1970s, Whitford left the band in 1981 to work on his own project with singer Derek St. Holmes, simply called Whitford/St. Holmes. The project was dissolved after a sole self-titled album was released in 1981, although Whitford/St. Holmes reunited for a 2015 tour, at which a follow up album titled "Reunion" was sold.


title: Brad Whitford

text: Whitford briefly toured with the Joe Perry Project, featuring former Aerosmith bandmate Joe Perry, before both Perry and Whitford rejoined Aerosmith in 1984. In the mid-late 1980s, all band members completed drug rehabilitation, including Whitford, who completed programs to combat his alcohol abuse. Whitford remains sober to this day and continues to be an active member in Aerosmith.


title: Brad Whitford

text: Whitford also served as a producer for a well-known Boston band, the Neighborhoods, who were led by a rabid Aerosmith fan, David Minehan. When, in 1994, Whitford was forced to leave unexpectedly in the middle of an Asian tour due to family illness, Minehan was flown to Japan where he performed in Whitford's place for several days until Whitford returned.


title: Brad Whitford

text: Whitford missed the start of Aerosmith's 2009 summer tour after requiring surgery as a result of a head injury sustained while getting out of his Ferrari, joining the tour after a month.


title: Brad Whitford

text: In 2010, Whitford was announced as one of the guitarists to take part in the "Experience Hendrix" tour, playing songs performed and inspired by Jimi Hendrix along with other musicians such as Joe Satriani, Sacred Steel, Jonny Lang, Eric Johnson, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Ernie Isley, Living Colour, Hubert Sumlin, Chris Layton, and bassist Billy Cox.


title: Brad Whitford

text: Along with fellow Aerosmith guitarist Joe Perry, Whitford was included in the "Guitar World" book "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time" in 2007.


title: Brad Whitford

text: While Joe Perry is Aerosmith's better known guitarist and the band's principal songwriter with Steven Tyler, Whitford has made significant contributions to the band's repertoire over the years. This includes co-writing Aerosmith's hit "Last Child" as well as some of Aerosmith's heaviest songs: "Nobody's Fault" and "Round and Round", and playing lead guitar on "Sick as a Dog" and "Back In the Saddle" (on which Perry plays six string bass), "Last Child", and on the ballads "You See Me Crying" and "Home Tonight", "Lord of the Thighs" and "Love in an Elevator". The version of "Lord of the Thighs" on their 1978 live album "Live! Bootleg" in particular is perhaps his most famous soloing moment. When Aerosmith made their comeback in the late 1980s, Whitford continued to co-write tracks such as "Permanent Vacation" and "Hoodoo/Voodoo Medicine Man", and plays occasional lead guitar on some more recent tracks as well as during many live performances.


title: Brad Whitford

text: Concerning his lesser role in the band's songwriting process, Whitford has said, "I don't consider myself a terribly prolific writer. I can write music with other people if they're better songwriters than I am. I really can't create a song. It's very difficult to do. That's why the people that can do it are very few and far between. I'm certainly not that type of a guy. More of a guitar player, more of the kind of [guy] who comes up with enough riffs and ideas to write a song. But to write lyrics and come up with a melody for it, it won't happen."


title: Brad Whitford

text: Said Aerosmith lead singer Steven Tyler of the two guitarists, "Joe is self-taught and his playing comes from raw emotion. Not that Brad's doesn't, but his style is more schooled."


title: Brad Whitford

text: Slash, lead guitarist of Guns N' Roses cites Whitford as one of his heaviest influences, stating: "I identified with Joe Perry's image, both soundwise and visually...but I was also totally into Brad Whitford's guitar solos, and he had a more direct influence on the way I play than anybody realizes."


title: Brad Whitford

text: Brad Whitford plays lead guitar, co-leads, or plays the guitar solo on the following Aerosmith songs.


title: Brad Whitford

text: At current performances, Whitford can be seen playing a wide array of solid-body guitars, some including Floyd Rose locking tremolos: Gretschs, several Floyd Rose Discovery Series guitars, a Shoreline Gold painted (Stratocaster style) Melancon Pro Artist, a Gibson Les Paul Goldtop along with a wide variety of Fender Stratocasters. Whitford continues to tour primarily with vintage Fender Stratocasters and Gibson Les Pauls for Aerosmith concerts as well as smaller gigs.


title: Brad Whitford

text: Meanwhile, Aerosmith's original heyday in the late 1970s saw both Whitford and co-guitarist Joe Perry arm themselves with aggressive-looking guitars from BC Rich (Whitford favored an unpainted BC Rich Eagle, while Perry often played an alien-looking red BC Rich Bich).


title: Brad Whitford

text: On the amplifier front, Whitford has created his own amplifier company – 3 Monkeys Amplification and tours with many of their products. Furthermore, he also uses Paul Reed Smith amps. Additionally, Whitford has used a myriad of pedals throughout his career including many boutique ones.


title: Radha Soami

text: Radha Soami is a spiritual tradition founded by Shiv Dayal Singh in 1861 on Basant Panchami Day in Agra, India.


title: Radha Soami

text: His parents were followers of Guru Nanak of Sikhism and a spiritual guru Tulsi Sahib from Hathras. After completing his education, Shiv Dayal Singh gained employment as a Persian language translator, left that role and spent increasing amount of his time to religious pursuits. He was influenced by the teachings of Tulsi Sahib of Hathras, who taught Surat Shabd Yoga (which is defined by Radha Soami teachers as “union of the soul with the divine, inner sound”); guru bhakti (“devotion to the master”); and high moral living, including a strict lacto-vegetarian diet. He accompanied Tulsi Saheb a lot. He didn't take initiation from him, however. The movement does not promote celibacy, and most of the masters in its various lineages have been married. The teachings seem to be related to forms of 18th- and 19th-century esoteric mysticism that were circulating at the time in northern India. The founding date of the movement is considered to be 1861 when Shiv Dayal Singh began publicly to give discourses.


title: Radha Soami

text: As per some subtraditions, it derives its name from the word "Radha Soami" means Lord of the Soul. "Radha Soami" is used to indicate towards Shiv Dayal Singh. The followers of Shiv Dayal Singh used to consider him the Living Master and incarnation of God (Lord Vishnu/Krishna) After his death, Salig Ram and his other followers started the Radha Soami movement, which later got separated into different branches/denominations, including the Radha Soami Satsang Soami Bagh Agra, Radha Soami Satsang Beas, Radha Soami Satsang Dayalbagh, and Radha Swami Satsang Dinod.


title: Radha Soami

text: According to Mark Juergensmeyer, the term Radha Soami literally refers to Radha as the soul and "Soami" ("swami", lord). According to Salig Ram, quotes Juergensmeyer, these terms are symbolic and mean "master of energy", derived from the Vaishnava understanding of "Radha as the power of energy of God" (Shakti). It is a referent to the consciousness in a person and the cosmic energy source, states Juergensmeyer. However, the founder Shri Shiv Dayal Singh himself never used the term. According to some other scholars, the name is derived from Shiv Dayal Singh's wife. His wife Narayani Devi was nicknamed Radha Ji by his followers. So, being the husband (Soami Ji Maharaj) of Radha Ji (Narayani Devi), Shiv Dayal Singh was named Radha Soami.


title: Radha Soami

text: The writings of Shiv Dayal Singh, "Sar Bachan", use the term "Sat Nam", rather than Radha Soami. The gurus and the tradition that followed him used the term Radha Soami during the initiation rites, meditation practices and as mutual greeting. This has led to the fellowship being commonly called Radha Soami. In some subtraditions of Radha Soami, states Lucy DuPertuis, the guru's charisma is considered as the "formless absolute", being in his presence is equivalent to experiencing the incarnation of the Satguru, the guru is identified as the Radha Soami.


title: Radha Soami

text: The Radha Soami tradition can be traced back to the spiritual master Shiv Dayal Singh (honorifically titled Soami Ji Maharaj) who was born on August 25, 1818, in the north Indian city of Agra. His parents were followers of Guru Nanak of Sikhism and a spiritual guru Tulsi Saheb from Hathras. After completing his education, Shiv Dayal Singh gained employment as a Persian language translator, left that role and spent increasing amount of his time to religious pursuits. He was influenced by the teachings of Tulsi Sahib of Hathras, who taught Surat Shabd Yoga (which is defined by Radha Soami teachers as “union of the soul with the divine, inner sound”); guru bhakti (“devotion to the master”); and high moral living, including a strict lacto-vegetarian diet. He accompanied Tulsi Saheb a lot. He didn't take initiation from him, however. The movement does not promote celibacy, and most of the masters in its various lineages have been married. The teachings seem to be related to forms of 18th- and 19th-century esoteric mysticism that were circulating at the time in northern India. The founding date of the movement is considered to be 1861 when Shiv Dayal Singh began publicly to give discourses.


title: Radha Soami

text: After Shiv Dayal Singh 's death in 1878 he was succeeded by several disciples, including his wife Narayan Devi (“Radhaji”); his brother Partap Singh (“Chachaji Saheb”); Sanmukh Das (appointed head of the sadhus); the army havildar/sergeant Baba Jaimal Singh, Gharib Das of Delhi; and the postmaster general of the Northwest provinces, Salig Ram (alias Rai Salig Ram), each of whom started their own distinct centers. According to some scholars, Shiv Dayal Singh passed leadership to Salig Ram. After their deaths, multiple followers were claimed to be the rightful heirs, and this eventually led to a large proliferation of various masters and satsangs (“fellowships”) throughout India that were regarded by their followers to be the true manifestations of Shiv Dayal Singh and his teachings, described as Sant Mat (“the path of the saints”).


title: Radha Soami

text: The masters gave birth to over 20 lineages (guru-shishya traditions), most of which already disappeared. The most famous living branches are Radha Soami Satsang Soami Bagh Agra, Radha Soami Satsang Beas, Radha Soami Satsang Dayalbagh, and Ruhani Satsang.


title: Radha Soami

text: The largest branch is the Radha Soami Satsang Beas (RSSB) with the headquarters in Beas City, established by one of Shiv Dayal Singh 's disciples, Jaimal Singh, in the North Indian state of Punjab in the 1891, who practised Surat Shabd Yoga on the bank of river Beas. The Beas has grown enormously over the decades under the guiding hands of each subsequent successor (from Sawan Singh to Sardar Bahadur Maharaj Jagat Singh and Maharaj Charan Singh to the current master, Gurinder Singh). There are estimated to be two million initiates of the Beas masters worldwide. The one of a split the Beas is Dera Sacha Sauda (1948) led by Mastana Balochistani.


title: Radha Soami

text: In Agra, the birthplace of the movement, there are three main satsang centers of branches. The Radha Soami Satsang Soami Bagh Agra with center at Soami Bagh occupies the original site in Agra, where a large memorial tomb is being built to honor the movement founder, and administered by the Central Administrative Council which established by second successor Maharaj Saheb in 1902. The second center is Peepal Mandi, which was founded by Rai Salig Ram who was then succeeded by his son, grandson, and currently his great-grandson, Agam Prasad Mathur. And the largest of the Agra-based branches is Radha Soami Satsang Dayalbagh with center at Dayalbagh, which is located across the street from Soami Bagh. This branch was founded in 1907 at Ghazipur by Kamta Prasad Sinha and in 1913 the headquarters were moved to Agra, it has flourished under the following leadership of Anand Sarup, Gurcharandas Mehta, Dr. M.B. Lal Sahab, and most recently as of this date Prof. Prem Saran Satsangi.


title: Radha Soami

text: The Ruhani Satsang ( Kirpal Light Satsang) in Delhi, founded by Kirpal Singh, a disciple of the Beas master, Sawan Singh, became popular in the United States under the leadership of Thakar Singh. The Ruhani Satsang followed by the Sawan Kirpal Ruhani Mission and its international organization Science of Spirituality (SOS), founded by Kipral Singh's son.


title: Radha Soami

text: Other Radha Soami subtraditions and groups that have garnered a significant following include Manavta Mandir, established by Baba Faqir Chand in 1962 at Hoshiarpur in the Punjab; the Tarn Taran satsang founded by Bagga Singh; Radha Swami Satsang Dinod, founded by Param Sant Tarachand Ji Maharaj (Bade Maharaj Ji), current master Param Sant Huzur Kanwar Saheb Ji Maharaj and several others scattered through North and South India.


title: Radha Soami

text: In addition, there are Radha Soami-influenced, derived from the Radha Soami often westernized groups but denies their connection, namely the Eckankar led by Paul Twitchell (a former disciple of Kirpal Singh), the similar American syncretistic Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness of John-Roger Hinkins, the linked to the Beas Elan Vital (formerly Divine Light Mission), established by Hans Maharaj, and "Quan Yin method" of Ching Hai (a female student of Thakar Singh).


title: Radha Soami

text: The Radha Soami Satsang believes that living gurus are necessary for a guided spiritual life. They do not install the Guru Granth Sahib or any other scriptures in their sanctum, as they consider it ritualistic. Instead, the guru sits in the sanctum with the "satsang" (group of Sikh faithfuls) and they listen to preachings from the Adi Granth and sing hymns together. They believe in social equality, forbid caste distinctions and have also attracted Dalits to their tradition. They are active outside India too.


title: Radha Soami

text: The Radha Soami are strict vegetarians. They are active in charitable work such as providing free medical services and help to the needy. They do not believe in orthodox Sikh ritual practices such as covering one's head inside the temple or removing shoes, nor do they serve "karah prasad" (offering) at the end of prayers. Their basic practices include "Surat Shabd Yoga" (meditation on inner light and sound), initiation of disciple into the path by a living guru, obedience to the guru, a moral life that is defined by abstinence from meat, drugs, alcohol and sex outside marriage. They also believe that "jivanmukti" or inner liberation is possible during one's lifetime with guidance of the living guru.


title: Radha Soami

text: However, some of these practices vary depending on the branches of the Radha Soami sect (Beas, Dayalbagh, Dinod).


title: Monster Magnet

text: Monster Magnet is an American rock band. Hailing from Red Bank, New Jersey, the group was founded in 1989 by Dave Wyndorf (vocals and guitar), John McBain (guitar) and Tim Cronin (vocals and drums); they have since gone through several lineup changes, leaving Wyndorf as the only constant member. Monster Magnet has released ten studio albums to date, and they are best known for their 1990s hits "Negasonic Teenage Warhead" and "Space Lord". The band has also been credited for developing and popularizing the stoner rock genre, along with Masters of Reality, Kyuss, Fu Manchu and Sleep.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Original names for the band were Dog of Mystery, Airport 75, Triple Bad Acid and King Fuzz before finally settling on Monster Magnet, taken from the name of a 1960s toy made by Wham-O, which Wyndorf liked when he was a child.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 1989, Monster Magnet released two demo cassettes: "Forget About Life, I'm High on Dope" and "I'm Stoned, What Ya Gonna Do About It?". The band's first "official" release was a single "Lizard Johnny/Freakshop USA" on Long Island-based Circuit Records. The first demo and single were recorded as a three piece (McBain, guitar and bass, Wyndorf, guitar and vocals, Cronin, drums and vocals). Before the second demo Jon Kleiman and Joe Calandra joined on drums and bass respectively. Thus the lineup was composed of McBain on guitar, Wyndorf on guitar and vocals, Cronin on vocals, Kleiman on drums and Calandra on bass. The EP "Monster Magnet" followed, on Glitterhouse Records of Germany, containing the songs "Snake Dance" and "Nod Scene", (both of which would appear again on "Spine of God"), and "Tractor", (which would be re-recorded later for "Powertrip").


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 1990 the band signed with Caroline Records and released a single "Murder/Tractor". Cronin left shortly after; although he would remain in the background- particularly at live shows- contributing to auditory effects, lights, and visuals, for many years. In 1991 they released their first full-length album, the cult classic "Spine of God" on the labels Go Get Organized/Atypeek Music, Primo Scree, Glitterhouse Records, Caroline Records, Glitterhouse Records. The album is hailed as one of the classics of the stoner rock genre ranking 28th on Heavy Planet's "Top 50 of All Time". The album contained the single "Medicine" (which would be re-recorded ten years later on "God Says No"), which was also the band's first music video. The band followed with a tour alongside rising grunge band Soundgarden. The tour helped the band get a recording contract with major record label A&M Records.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Their final release with Caroline Records was an EP titled "Tab" which included, among two other marathon-length songs, a 32-minute track called "Tab...". The Tab EP was recorded before Spine of God, yet released after it. McBain quit the band soon after and was replaced by Atomic Bitchwax guitarist Ed Mundell.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 1992, Monster Magnet was signed to A&M Records, and their first album on the label, "Superjudge", was released the following year. Despite being released on a major label, it fared poorly commercially. The songs "Twin Earth" and "Face Down" were released as singles (with accompanying videos), but it did little to help promote the album.


title: Monster Magnet

text: "Dopes to Infinity" (1995), the follow-up record, had a hit single, "Negasonic Teenage Warhead", which benefitted from a music video that received regular rotation on MTV. Still, the album was not as successful as the band had hoped.


title: Monster Magnet

text: After the Dopes to Infinity tour, Wyndorf moved to Las Vegas, Nevada in order to begin working on "Powertrip" (1998), a breakthrough hit that finally earned the band a gold record. Guitarist Phil Caivano joined the band in 1998. "Space Lord", the first single, was a major radio hit and the band went on tour with successful bands Aerosmith, Metallica and Rob Zombie. The band also toured as one of the opening acts of the bands Hole and Marilyn Manson co-headlined Beautiful Monsters Tour. Following the well-publicized falling out between the outspoken vocalists of Hole and Marilyn Manson, Monster Magnet continued touring with Manson and opened the first three shows of his Rock is Dead Tour. The songs "Powertrip", "Temple of Your Dreams", and "See You In Hell" also received airplay on rock radio stations. The album charted at No. 97 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Monster Magnet

text: After a two-year tour supporting "Powertrip", the band released "God Says No" (2001), charting at No. 153 on "Billboard". However, it failed to match the commercial success of the band's previous release. After the release, Joe Calandra and Jon Kleiman left the band. They would be replaced by Jim Baglino and Michael Wildwood who recorded "Monolithic Baby!" and, after a short stint, Wildwood was replaced by former Love Among Freaks drummer Bob Pantella, respectively. The band also left A&M Records during this period.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Following the split from A&M Records, Monster Magnet wrote and performed "Live For The Moment", which was the former entrance theme of WWE wrestler Matt Hardy from 2002 to 2010. The song also appeared on the "WWF Forceable Entry" compilation.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 2003, Monster Magnet released "Greatest Hits", a double album featuring their best songs, some rarities, and music videos from their time with A&M. They then signed to the European label SPV, and in early 2004 released "Monolithic Baby!" throughout Europe. The US release followed in May on SPV America. The band had a minor hit with the song "Unbroken (Hotel Baby)".


title: Monster Magnet

text: In March 2005, Caivano departed after seven years service in a split described as amicable by Wyndorf. A followup to "Monolithic Baby!" was expected in March 2006, to coincide with their European tour, along with re-releases of "Spine of God" and "Tab", both featuring new artwork and liner notes; however the tour and album releases failed to materialize.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 2007, it was announced that Monster Magnet would release a new album, "4-Way Diablo", which had been put back for a year because of Wyndorf's overdose. It was released later that year. Later in 2007, another greatest hits collection, "20th Century Masters – The Millennium Collection: The Best of Monster Magnet", was released. "Powertrip" was used as the official theme song for the WWE pay-per-view event No Way Out 2007.


title: Monster Magnet

text: On November 24, 2009, it was announced that Monster Magnet had signed a new deal with Napalm Records. The band also announced that they would enter the studio in January 2010 to record a new album for a summer release. According to Wyndorf, the band is very pleased with the label, which is "doing a good job".


title: Monster Magnet

text: The new album, "Mastermind", was released in October 2010. The band embarked on a massive European tour, in August and then in November–December 2010, to promote their new album. After the tour, Ed Mundell left the band after 18 years "to collaborate with other musicians and producers", forming The Ultra Electric Mega Galactic. Wyndorf stated that Garrett Sweeny (Riotgod) replaced Ed on the tour.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In the fall of 2011, Monster Magnet toured and performed the seminal "Dopes to Infinity" record in its entirety throughout Europe. One year later they did the same thing with their 1992 album "Spine of God".


title: Monster Magnet

text: "Last Patrol" was released in North America on October 15, 2013. Monster Magnet's website also announced a North American tour for the album, their first in ten years. However, the remaining shows in mid-December got cancelled because of Wyndorf's influenza. The tour resumed in Europe in January and continued through February. Wyndorf stated that the band would play at each show the entire "Last Patrol".


title: Monster Magnet

text: In November 2014 a reworked version of "Last Patrol" called "" was released, and in October 2015, a reworked version of "Mastermind" called "Cobras and Fire (The Mastermind Redux)" was released. Featuring re-recordings and new arrangements, they contained a less polished, psychedelic production. In 2016, the band reissued the A&M era LPs with bonus content via Spinefarm Records. They toured Europe again.


title: Monster Magnet

text: As of December 2020, Monster Magnet has been working on their eleventh studio album. It was mentioned that same month by "Loudwire" in their "88 of 2021's Most Anticipated Rock + Metal Albums" list. The band released the first single of the album "A Better Dystopia" on March 23, 2021: "Mr. Destroyer", a cover of the Poobah song. "A Better Dystopia" is 12 tracks of cover songs. Released on May 21, 2021, the album received critical acclaim.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Monster Magnet's style is heavily influenced by 1970s space rock bands such as Hawkwind, and early metal bands such as Black Sabbath, Deep Purple, Blue Öyster Cult, Captain Beyond and Sir Lord Baltimore. Their music has been classified as stoner rock, space rock, psychedelic rock, hard rock, heavy metal and acid rock.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In addition to recording covers such as Black Sabbath's "Into the Void" ("Master of Reality", 1971) and Hawkwind's "Brainstorm" ("Doremi Fasol Latido", 1972), Wyndorf sometimes incorporated elements of space rock staples into his own songs. For instance, the "Dopes to Infinity" title track borrows some of its lyrics from "Lord of Light" ("ibid."), and "Superjudge"'s "Twin Earth" is a reinterpretation of Captain Beyond's "Mesmerization Eclipse" ("Captain Beyond", 1972). The main guitar riff to the track Dopes To Infinity is lifted from The Sir Lord Baltimore song "Woman Tamer" ("Sir Lord Baltimore", 1971). The band has cited British new wave/post-punk band Depeche Mode as an influence on its music. They covered Depeche Mode's "Black Celebration" for "For the Masses", a 1998 Depeche Mode tribute album.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Wyndorf is a fan of 1960s comic books, particularly ones by Jack Kirby. He mentions Kirby in the song "Melt" from "God Says No". He also mentions Marvel Comics characters MODOK (on "Baby Götterdämmerung" from "Powertrip") and Ego the Living Planet (on "Ego, The Living Planet" from "Dopes to Infinity"). "Mindless Ones" from the album "Last Patrol" has references to the race of the same name, Dormammu, Great Vishanti and The Ancient One from Marvel's 'Doctor Strange'. "All Shook Out" from "God Says No" has a reference to "Children of the Atom" which is a reference to X-Men, also from Marvel Comics. Additionally, Marvel's Fantastic Four is referenced in the song "The Titan Who Cried Like a Baby" on their "Mastermind" album.


title: Monster Magnet

text: The television drama series "Sons of Anarchy" uses Monster Magnet tracks frequently. Those featured include "Monolithic" in season 1 (episode 10), "Radiation Day", "Slut Machine" and "Freeze and Pixelate" in season 2 (episodes 1, 4 and 13), and "100 Million Miles" in season 3 (episode 12).


title: Monster Magnet

text: Tracks from the 2001 album "God Says No" have been used in television series, including the sci-fi TV series "Alphas" ("Heads Explode"), and "The Shield", which featured the track "God Says No" in an early episode.


title: Monster Magnet

text: The reality series "Viva La Bam" also used several tracks from "Monolithic Baby!", such as 'Slut Machine', 'Supercruel', and 'Unbroken' during multiple episodes.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Tracks from the 1995 album "Dopes to Infinity" were included on the soundtrack for "The Matrix" ("Look to Your Orb for the Warning") and "The Girl Next Door" ("Dopes to Infinity"). The soundtrack of the 1994 movie "S.F.W." features an early, otherwise-unreleased version of a song originally from "Dopes to Infinity", "Negasonic Teenage Warhead". The 1999 film Beowulf features the track "Lord 13" from Monster Magnet's early 1990s EP "Tab" during its end credits. The film "Boys" (1996) features the track "The Secret".


title: Monster Magnet

text: Several tracks from the 1998 Monster Magnet album "Powertrip" have been featured in film soundtracks, including "See You in Hell" in "Bride of Chucky" (1998), "Powertrip" in "Soldier" (1998), "Crop Circle" in "Urban Legend" (1998), and "Space Lord" in "" (2006). "Big God", the bonus track on the Japanese edition of the album (and also B-side to "Space Lord"), appears in "" (2000).


title: Monster Magnet

text: Tracks from the 2001 album "God Says No" have also been used in films. "Heavy Metal 2000" (2000) includes "Silver Future"; "Made" (2001) includes "Down in the Jungle"; and "Dracula 2000" (2000) includes "Heads Explode", and part of the music video for "Heads Explode" is also shown in "Dracula 2000". The 2004 mountain bike film "New World Disorder V - Disorderly Conduct" features "Radiation Day" and "Slut Machine" on its soundtrack.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Monster Magnet contributed a cover of the MC5 song "Kick Out the Jams" to the "Varsity Blues" soundtrack. They also performed their track "Master of Light" from "Monolithic Baby!" live in a scene in the movie "Torque".


title: Monster Magnet

text: The Marvel Comics character Negasonic Teenage Warhead, featured in the 2016 film "Deadpool" and its sequel, is named after the song of the same name from the band's album "Dopes to Infinity".


title: Monster Magnet

text: As teenagers, Wyndorf and Caivano played in punk/power pop band Shrapnel from the late 70s until 1985. The band was managed by Legs McNeil, put out two indie singles and an EP on Elektra Records, played with the Ramones at CBGB, featured guitar from future producer Daniel Rey, and appeared both on the Uncle Floyd Show and in a Frank Miller issue of Amazing Spider-Man.


title: Monster Magnet

text: Since the mid-1990s, Cronin and Kleiman have fronted The Ribeye Bros. In 2003, Pantella mixed and plays bass on The Glasspack's "Bridgeburner" album. Mundell also played lead guitar on The Glasspack's track "Peepshow". The album was released on Small Stone Records in May 2004.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 2010, Ed Mundell left Monster Magnet to collaborate with new musicians and producers. In 2011 he formed The Ultra Electric Mega Galactic, and has contributed to albums for Sasquatch, Abrahma, 9 Chambers. His solo album "Space Time Employment Agency" is slated for 2013.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 2007 Pantella joined The Atomic Bitchwax. Also in 2007, Pantella and Baglino formed RIOTGOD, along with Garrett Sweeny (of Psycho Daisy), and Mark Sunshine.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 2010, Pantella appeared on LadyKiller's debut self-titled release. He is credited as having played drums on 13 of the 16 songs, in addition to having tracked more than half of the album at his recording studio in Sayerville, New Jersey.


title: Monster Magnet

text: In 2010, the first single "American Dream" was released on One Voice by Capricorn, a band formed by Phil Caivano, Todd Youth (of Murphy's Law, Danzig, Ace Frehley, Glen Campbell and The Chelsea Smiles) and Karl Rosqvist (of Danzig, The Chelsea Smiles and Michael Monroe).


title: Al dente

text: In cooking, al dente () describes pasta or rice that is cooked to be firm to the bite. The etymology is Italian "to the tooth".


title: Al dente

text: In contemporary Italian cooking, the term identifies the ideal consistency for pasta and involves a brief cooking time. "Molto al dente" is the culinary term for slightly undercooked pasta. Undercooking pasta is used in the first round of cooking when a pasta dish is going to be cooked twice.


title: Al dente

text: According to the American Diabetes Association, pasta that is cooked "al dente" has a lower glycemic index than pasta that is cooked soft. When cooking commercial pasta, the "al dente" phase occurs right after the white of the pasta center disappears.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Clothing laws vary considerably around the world. In most countries, there are no laws which prescribe what clothing is required to be worn. However, the community standards of clothing are set indirectly by way of prosecution of those who wear something that is not socially approved. Those people who wear insufficient clothing can be prosecuted in many countries under various offences termed indecent exposure, public indecency, nudity or other descriptions. Generally, these offences do not themselves define what is and what is not acceptable clothing to constitute the offence, and leave it to a judge to determine in each case.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Most clothing laws concern which parts of the body must "not" be exposed to view; there are exceptions. Some countries have strict clothing laws, such as in some Islamic countries. Other countries are more tolerant of non-conventional attire and are relaxed about nudity. Many countries have different laws and customs for men and women, what may be allowed or perceived often varies by gender.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Separate laws are usually in place to regulate obscenity, which includes certain depictions of people in various states of undress, and child pornography, which may include similar photographs of children.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In some countries, non-sexual toplessness or nudity is legal. However, private or public establishments can establish a dress code which requires visitors to wear prescribed clothing.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: There are a variety of laws around the world which affect what people can and cannot wear. For example, some laws require a person in authority to wear the appropriate uniform. For example, a police officer on duty may be required to wear a uniform; and it can be illegal for the general public to wear a police officer's uniform. The same could apply to firefighters and other emergency personnel. In some countries, for example in Australia, the boy scouts uniform is also protected.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In most courts of law, lawyers and judges are required by law or custom to wear court dress, which may entail robes or traditional wigs.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In many countries, regulations require workers to wear protective clothing, such as safety helmets, shoes, vests, etc., as appropriate. The obligation is generally on employers to ensure that their workers wear the appropriate protective clothing. Similarly, health regulations may require those who handle food to wear hair covering, gloves and other clothing.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In addition to nude beaches and similar exceptional locations, there are some public events in which nudity is tolerated more than usual, such as the naked bike rides held in several countries.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: There are many specific circumstances where body parts have to be covered, often for safety or sanitary reasons.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In Australia, indecent exposure laws only refer to the genital area. However, many local councils impose their own rules, and have the power to ask topless people to leave an area. Additionally, women who go topless are sometimes slapped with more vague charges such as being a public nuisance, or offensive behaviour.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: On public beaches, local bylaws are not heavily enforced, and women can often sunbathe topless without issues.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Breastfeeding in public is a legal right in Australia. Under the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, no business or service provider can discriminate against a breastfeeding woman.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Ever since 1940, in the Title VI of the Penal Code, naming crimes against sexual dignity (until 2009 crimes against [social] conventions), the fourth chapter is dedicated to a crime named "public outrage [related] to modesty" (, ).


title: Clothing laws by country

text: It is composed of two articles, Art. 233 "Obscene Act", "to practice an obscene act in a public place, or open or exposed to the public", punished with arrest of three months to one year or a fine; and Art. 234 "Obscene Written Piece or Object", to do, import, export, purchase or have in one's property, to ends of trade, distribution or public display, any written, drawn, painted, stamped or object piece of obscenity, punished with arrest of six months to one years or a fine.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: It is often used against people who expose their nude bodies in public environments that were not warranted a license to cater to the demographic interested in such practice (the first such place was the Praia do Abricó in Rio de Janeiro, in 1994), even if no sexual action took place, and it may include, for example, a double standard for the chest area of women and men in which only women are penalized. Such a thing took place in the 2012 FEMEN protests in São Paulo.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Brazil has about 35 spaces open or mostly open to the public where it is possible to freely practice nudism, its sole public spaces being 8 beaches. They are not criminalized when the clothes-free area is private and away from a view from the street, or through legislation when the beaches are officiated by a municipal decree, for example. It has hosted the meeting of the International Federation of Naturism in 2008, and there is a growing interest in the practice.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In Canada, s.173 of the "Criminal Code"  prohibits "indecent acts". There is no statutory definition in the Code of what constitutes an indecent act (other than that the exposure of the genitals for a sexual purpose to anyone under 16 years of age), so the decision of what state of undress is "indecent", and thereby unlawful, is left to judges to decide. Judges have held, for example, that nude sunbathing is not indecent. Also, streaking is similarly not regarded as indecent. Section 174 prohibits being "nude" in a public place or in public view without "a lawful excuse", but defines "nude" only as being "so clad as to offend against public decency or order". The courts have found that nude swimming is not offensive under this definition.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Toplessness is also not an indecent act under s.173. In 1991, Gwen Jacob was arrested for walking in a street in Guelph, Ontario, while topless. She was acquitted in 1996 by the Ontario Court of Appeal on the basis that the act of being topless is not in itself a sexual act or indecent. The case has been referred to in subsequent cases for the proposition that the mere act of public nudity is not sexual or indecent or an offence. Since then, the court ruling has been tested and upheld several times.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: A Canadian legal advice web site observes, "Canada has a tangle of confusing and inconsistently-enforced nudity laws. ... The public nudity section is one of the few areas of the Criminal Code that requires the attorney general's consent to lay a charge, implying a certain grey area around what constitutes illegal nudity. According to the government's Public Prosecution Service, the attorney general's consent is needed for two reasons: to avoid the specific harm that could result from prosecuting an innocent person; and to avoid the general harm resulting from prosecuting a case that is not in the public interest.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Germany has a long history of allowing mixed sex public nudity in designated areas (e.g., beaches and parks). This was true before WWII, after WWII in both West and East Germany and currently. Some of these areas are where clothing is optional and some are where clothing is forbidden (i.e., mandatory nudity). In non-designated areas, appearing nude in public "counts as a minor breach of the law. Prosecutions can follow if another citizen is offended, but few ever are."


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In India, British colonial acts such as "indecent exposure", "public indecency", and so on, that involve exposure of a specific body part (genitals, buttocks, anus, nipples on women), a specific intention or effect (being sexually suggestive, offending or annoying observers) are illegal.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: People in India have the right to wear any dress they like. The Constitution of India gives their citizens the right to wear anything as per their comfort.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In New Zealand, there is no specific law prohibiting nudity in public places. If a person is nude "and" also exhibiting lewd and lascivious, or obscene behaviour, then they may fall foul of obscenity laws.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: The Police Offences Act 1908 prescribed imprisonment with hard labor for anyone who "willfully and obscenely exposes his person in any public place or within the view thereof". Male offenders could, at the court's discretion, also be sentenced to be whipped. This was replaced in 1981 by the Summary Offences Act, which abolished the hard labor and whipping and changed the offence to consist of the intentional and obscene exposure of the "genitals" rather than the "person". As well as excusing exposure of the buttocks or female breast from the offence, the change implies – since the words "genitals" and "obscenely" are both specified – that neither one can be automatically taken to imply the other. Public nudity is generally prosecuted under the offensive behaviour or disorderly conduct provisions instead.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: The High Court of New Zealand has upheld a conviction of disorderly conduct for nudity in the street, because it was not a place where nudity was known to occur or commonplace. Being nude in the street is likely to incur a small fine if a complaint is made against the person, or if the person ignores a police order to cover themselves. However in practice, the likelihood of being prosecuted for nudity on a public "beach" is low, and in the past authorities have declined to prosecute topless and nude people on beaches.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In 1991, a High Court judge quashed a conviction of offensive behaviour for nudity on a beach in the presence of children, on the grounds that, since the beach in question was "a place where it was not uncommon for persons to sunbathe in the nude", a reasonable person would "regard the conduct... as inappropriate, unnecessary, and in bad taste, but not arousing feelings of anger, disgust, or outrage." New Zealand is a common law country, which means that judicial decisions determine the law that subsequent cases must follow.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In Qatar, the penal code punishes and forbids the wearing of revealing or indecent clothes, this dressing-code law is enforced by a government body called "Al-Adheed". In 2012, a Qatari NGO organized a campaign of "public decency" after they deemed the government to be too lax in monitoring the wearing of revealing clothes; defining the latter as "not covering shoulders and knees, tight or transparent clothes". The campaign targets foreigners who constitute the majority of Qatar's population.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In Singapore, public nudity and nudity in private premises exposed to public view are illegal under section 27A of the Miscellaneous Offences (Public Order and Nuisance) Act.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In South Africa specific clothing laws exist for the general public. Nudity is treated under indecent exposure. On 3 April 2015 the country's first official clothing optional beach, Mpenjati Beach near Trafalgar in KwaZulu-Natal, opened after the Hibiscus Coast Local Municipality approved the South African Nudist Association's (SANNA) application. Although nudity has gradually been tolerated on Sandy Bay in Cape Town after the National Party (NP) lost the election in 1994, and strict enforcement of its moral values is no longer applied, it is not an official legally recognised public nude beach. Partial nudity is also tolerated on other beaches.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Since 2008, the municipality of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates has ensured that signs are posted on beaches warning women against topless bathing and indecent exposure contrary to the cultural values of the UAE. There is no fine for breaking this rule, however a warning is issued and if necessary, ejection from the beach. This was said to be in response to residents' complaints about tourists sunbathing topless or nude and changing their clothes in public.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: There are also signs at malls and shopping centers that advocates modest clothing which indicates that shoulders and knees must be covered, and public nudity is against the law. Violation of the law lead to a warning to cease and desist at first and would be followed with arrest if the person chooses to disobey the law.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: There are three legal jurisdictions in the United Kingdom (England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland). There are a further three jurisdictions that are Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey). The details of the law regarding public nudity differ substantially between them. In general nudity is not an explicit offence but there are various offences that may apply to nudity in unsuitable circumstances. What constitutes unsuitable circumstances varies according to the jurisdiction but nudity is legal in a much wider range of circumstances than many people assume.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: The Crown Prosecution Service has published guidance for England and Wales., as have the College of Policing.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: British Naturism has published guidance for England and Wales, and Scotland. They are preparing guidance for Northern Ireland.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In England and Wales the two statutes most likely to be applicable are s.5 Public Order Act 1986, and for aggressive nudity s.66 Sexual Offences Act 2003.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Stephen Gough, popularly known as the Naked Rambler, has been repeatedly prosecuted for public nudity in the UK.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In the United States there are variety of different offenses, such as "indecent exposure", "public lewdness", "public indecency", "disorderly conduct" and so on, which may involve exposure of a specific body part (genitals, buttocks, anus, nipples on women), or a specific intention or effect (being sexually suggestive, offending or annoying observers). In some cases, a member of the opposite sex must be present. In Florida, designated nudity areas are given an explicit exception. There are also some specific prohibitions against sexual acts, such as having sexual intercourse in public, or publicly caressing someone in a sexual way. In Indiana and Tennessee, there are specific prohibitions against showing a noticeably erect penis through clothing, or other sensitive areas through semi-transparent clothing. In some states, indecent conduct can also occur on private property, depending on the intent or effect of the act. In some cases there are exceptions for spouses, breastfeeding, and in New York, theatre performances. In most states, there is a governing state statute which defines the offense; in Maryland and Massachusetts, indecency is defined by case law. Some local (county and municipal) governments also regulate personal exposure, as well as commercial activities such as strip clubs.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Case law in general governs the interpretation of the statutory definition, and in some cases allows for additional exceptions.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In general, exposure of the head, upper chest, and limbs is legal, and considered socially acceptable except among certain religious communities.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Federal, state, and local regulations for certain occupations require various pieces of protective clothing for the safety of the wearer. Such items include hard hats, safety vests, life jackets, aprons, hairnets, and steel-toe boots.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: In the first decade of the twenty-first century, there was some controversy in some southern U.S. states over the wearing of trousers so low as to expose the underwear (sagging). The practice was banned in some places.


title: Clothing laws by country

text: Some states and towns have loose, or no, regulations for requiring clothing. The city of San Francisco has a history of public nudity, including at public events such as Bay to Breakers. The town of Brattleboro, Vermont, experienced a brief period during which there was public nudity, until a law was passed banning it.


title: Color vision

text: Color vision, a feature of visual perception, is an ability to perceive differences between light composed of different wavelengths (i.e., different spectral power distributions) independently of light intensity. Color perception is a part of the larger visual system and is mediated by a complex process between neurons that begins with differential stimulation of different types of photoreceptors by light entering the eye. Those photoreceptors then emit outputs that are propagated through many layers of neurons and then ultimately to the brain. Color vision is found in many animals and is mediated by similar underlying mechanisms with common types of biological molecules and a complex history of evolution in different animal taxa. In primates, color vision may have evolved under selective pressure for a variety of visual tasks including the foraging for nutritious young leaves, ripe fruit, and flowers, as well as detecting predator camouflage and emotional states in other primates.


title: Color vision

text: Isaac Newton discovered that white light after being split into its component colors when passed through a dispersive prism could be recombined to make white light by passing them through a different prism. The visible light spectrum ranges from about 380 to 740 nanometers. Spectral colors (colors that are produced by a narrow band of wavelengths) such as red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet can be found in this range. These spectral colors do not refer to a single wavelength, but rather to a set of wavelengths: red, 625–740 nm; orange, 590–625 nm; yellow, 565–590 nm; green, 500–565 nm; cyan, 485–500 nm; blue, 450–485 nm; violet, 380–450 nm.


title: Color vision

text: Wavelengths longer or shorter than this range are called infrared or ultraviolet, respectively. Humans cannot generally see these wavelengths, but other animals may.


title: Color vision

text: Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.


title: Color vision

text: In very low light levels, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic: light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect.


title: Color vision

text: The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colors such as blue and yellow.


title: Color vision

text: There are a variety of colors in addition to spectral colors and their hues. These include grayscale colors, shades of colors obtained by mixing grayscale colors with spectral colors, violet-red colors, impossible colors, and metallic colors.


title: Color vision

text: Grayscale colors include white, gray, and black. Rods contain rhodopsin, which reacts to light intensity, providing grayscale coloring.


title: Color vision

text: Shades include colors such as pink or brown. Pink is obtained from mixing red and white. Brown may be obtain from mixing orange with gray or black. Navy is obtained from mixing blue and black.


title: Color vision

text: Violet-red colors include hues and shades of magenta. The light spectrum is a line on which violet is one end and the other is red, and yet we see hues of purple that connect those two colors.


title: Color vision

text: Impossible colors are a combination of cone responses that cannot be naturally produced. For example, medium cones cannot be activated completely on their own; if they were, we would see a 'hyper-green' color.


title: Color vision

text: Color vision is categorized foremost according to the dimensionality of the color gamut, which is defined by the number of primaries required to represent the color vision. This is generally equal to the number of photopsins expressed: a correlation that holds for vertebrates but not invertebrates. The common vertebrate ancestor possessed four photopsins (expressed in cones) plus rhodopsin (expressed in rods), so was tetrachromatic. However, many vertebrate lineages have lost one or many photopsin genes, leading to lower-dimension color vision. The dimensions of color vision range from 1-dimensional and up:


title: Color vision

text: Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells known as cone cells. Cone cells contain different forms of opsin – a pigment protein – that have different spectral sensitivities. Humans contain three types, resulting in trichromatic color vision.


title: Color vision

text: Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein covalently linked to a light-absorbing prosthetic group: either 11-"cis"-hydroretinal or, more rarely, 11-"cis"-dehydroretinal.


title: Color vision

text: The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and which is finalized in the visual cortex and associative areas of the brain.


title: Color vision

text: For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red receptors, microspectrophotometry has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S cones and M cones do not directly correspond to blue and green, although they are often described as such. The RGB color model, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color but is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.


title: Color vision

text: The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with so-called normal color vision;


title: Color vision

text: Two complementary theories of color vision are the trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory. The trichromatic theory, or Young–Helmholtz theory, proposed in the 19th century by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, posits three types of cones preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red, respectively. Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in 1872. It states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are generally accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the adjacent diagram.


title: Color vision

text: Green–magenta and blue—yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, a single eye cannot perceive a bluish-yellow or a reddish-green. Although these two theories are both currently widely accepted theories, past and more recent work has led to criticism of the opponent process theory, stemming from a number of what are presented as discrepancies in the standard opponent process theory. For example, the phenomenon of an after-image of complementary color can be induced by fatiguing the cells responsible for color perception, by staring at a vibrant color for a length of time, and then looking at a white surface. This phenomenon of complementary colors demonstrates cyan, rather than green, to be the complement of red and magenta, rather than red, to be the complement of green, as well as demonstrating, as a consequence, that the reddish-green color proposed to be impossible by opponent process theory is, in fact, the color yellow. Although this phenomenon is more readily explained by the trichromatic theory, explanations for the discrepancy may include alterations to the opponent process theory, such as redefining the opponent colors as red vs. cyan, to reflect this effect. Despite such criticisms, both theories remain in use.


title: Color vision

text: A recent demonstration, using the Color Mondrian, has shown that, just as the color of a surface that is part of a complex 'natural' scene is independent of the wavelength-energy composition of the light reflected from it alone but depends upon the composition of the light reflected from its surrounds as well, so the after image produced by looking at a given part of a complex scene is also independent of the wavelength energy-composition of the light reflected from it alone. Thus, while the color of the after-image produced by looking at a green surface that is reflecting more "green" (middle-wave) than "red" (long-wave) light is magenta, so is the after image of the same surface when it reflects more "red" than "green" light (when it is still perceived as green). This would seem to rule out an explanation of color opponency based on retinal cone adaptation.


title: Color vision

text: A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.


title: Color vision

text: Cones and rods are not evenly distributed in the human eye. Cones have a high density at the fovea and a low density in the rest of the retina. Thus color information is mostly taken in at the fovea. Humans have poor color perception in their peripheral vision, and much of the color we see in our periphery may be filled in by what our brains expect to be there on the basis of context and memories. However, our accuracy of color perception in the periphery increases with the size of stimulus.


title: Color vision

text: The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X chromosome; defective encoding of these leads to the two most common forms of color blindness. The "OPN1LW" gene, which encodes the opsin present in the L cones, is highly polymorphic; one study found 85 variants in a sample of 236 men. A small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome. X chromosome inactivation means that while only one opsin is expressed in each cone cell, both types may occur overall, and some women may therefore show a degree of tetrachromatic color vision. Variations in "OPN1MW", which encodes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants have no effect on spectral sensitivity.


title: Color vision

text: Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both Helmholtz's trichromatic theory and Hering's opponent-process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent processes arise at the level of retinal ganglion cells and beyond. In Hering's theory, opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of red-green, blue-yellow, and light-dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.


title: Color vision

text: Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the optic nerve to the optic chiasma: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma, the visual tracts are referred to as the optic tracts, which enter the thalamus to synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).


title: Color vision

text: The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receives axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.


title: Color vision

text: After synapsing at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary visual cortex (V1) located at the back of the brain within the occipital lobe. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color processing becomes much more complicated.


title: Color vision

text: In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual system. A given cell that might respond best to long-wavelength light if the light is relatively bright might then become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision. These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such "double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw; their existence in primates was suggested by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel, first demonstrated by C.R. Michael and subsequently proven by Bevil Conway. As Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1 called blobs, and are thought to come in two flavors, red–green and blue-yellow. Red-green cells compare the relative amounts of red-green in one part of a scene with the amount of red-green in an adjacent part of the scene, responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of color constancy explained by Edwin H. Land in his retinex theory.


title: Color vision

text: From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO. Area V4 was initially suggested by Semir Zeki to be exclusively dedicated to color, and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others, a finding confirmed by subsequent studies. The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color but it is worth noting that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1, V2 and V3. Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called globs. This is the part of the brain in which color is first processed into the full range of hues found in color space.


title: Color vision

text: Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior temporal lobe. "IT" cortex is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as the ventral stream or the "what pathway", distinguished from the dorsal stream ("where pathway") that is thought to analyze motion, among other features.


title: Color vision

text: Color is a feature of visual perception by an observer. There is a complex relationship between the wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color. Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher John Locke recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "inverted spectrum" thought experiment. For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light. This inversion has never been demonstrated in experiment, though.


title: Color vision

text: Synesthesia (or ideasthesia) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes. The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.


title: Color vision

text: The Himba people have been found to categorize colors differently from most Westerners and are able to easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades ("zuzu" in Himba), very light ("vapa"), vivid blue and green ("buru") and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.


title: Color vision

text: Psychophysical experiments have shown that color is perceived before the orientation of lines and directional motion by as much as 40ms and 80 ms respectively, thus leading to a perceptual asynchrony that is demonstrable with brief presentation times.


title: Color vision

text: In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to color constancy; the ability of the visual system to preserve the appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as color constancy.


title: Color vision

text: In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light source from the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a "chromatic adaptation transform" (CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (color balance), while keeping other colors also looking realistic. For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between ICC profiles with different white points. Adobe Photoshop, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.


title: Color vision

text: Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human "visible spectrum". Bees and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find nectar in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet "colors" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light; their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.


title: Color vision

text: The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals, in general, have a color vision of a limited type, and usually have red-green color blindness, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans.


title: Color vision

text: In most Catarrhini (Old World monkeys and apes—primates closely related to humans), there are three types of color receptors (known as cone cells), resulting in trichromatic color vision. These primates, like humans, are known as trichromats. Many other primates (including New World monkeys) and other mammals are dichromats, which is the general color vision state for mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.


title: Color vision

text: Many invertebrates have color vision. Honeybees and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision which is insensitive to red but sensitive to ultraviolet. "Osmia rufa", for example, possess a trichromatic color system, which they use in foraging for pollen from flowers. In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the main groups of hymenopteran insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and sawflies) mostly have three types of photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's." Papilio" butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in stomatopods (such as the mantis shrimp) having between 12 and 16 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.


title: Color vision

text: Vertebrate animals such as tropical fish and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals. In bird vision, tetrachromacy is achieved through up to four cone types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone photopigment (LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored oil droplet in its inner segment. Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell. Pigeons may be pentachromats.


title: Color vision

text: Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal geckos and frogs have the capability of seeing color in dim light. At least some color-guided behaviors in amphibians have also been shown to be wholly innate, developing even in visually deprived animals.


title: Color vision

text: In the evolution of mammals, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by gene duplication. Eutherian mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally have less-effective two-receptor (dichromatic) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and yellow—but cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have redeveloped the ability to distinguish longer wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one-amino-acid mutations in opsin genes. The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to the identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious.


title: Color vision

text: However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans. New World monkeys may or may not have color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the owl monkeys are cone monochromats, and both sexes of howler monkeys are trichromats. Visual sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive opsin protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome.


title: Color vision

text: Several marsupials, such as the fat-tailed dunnart ("Sminthopsis crassicaudata"), have trichromatic color vision.


title: Color vision

text: Marine mammals, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats.


title: Color vision

text: Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In herbivorous primates, color perception is essential for finding proper (immature) leaves. In hummingbirds, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the other hand, nocturnal mammals have less-developed color vision since adequate light is needed for cones to function properly. There is evidence that ultraviolet light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the animal kingdom, especially insects. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common electronic transitions in the matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment.


title: Color vision

text: The evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to diurnal (daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants. Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropods—the only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.


title: Color vision

text: Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some cataract surgery patients. Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas. These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.


title: Color vision

text: Ultraviolet vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.


title: Color vision

text: A "physical color" is a combination of pure spectral colors (in the visible range). In principle there exist infinitely many distinct spectral colors, and so the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional vector space (a Hilbert space). This space is typically notated "H". More technically, the space of physical colors may be considered to be the topological cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the centroid of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness.


title: Color vision

text: An element "C" of "H" is a function from the range of visible wavelengths—considered as an interval of real numbers ["W","W"]—to the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength "w" in ["W","W"] its intensity "C"("w").


title: Color vision

text: A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. We call this space R.


title: Color vision

text: Since each wavelength "w" stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be represented by 3 functions "s"("w"), "m"("w"), "l"("w") corresponding to the response of the "S", "M", and "L" cone cells, respectively.


title: Color vision

text: Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a physical color "C" in "H" stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to "w"), over the interval ["W","W"], of "C"("w")·"s"("w"), of "C"("w")·"m"("w"), and of "C"("w")·"l"("w"). The triple of resulting numbers associates with each physical color "C" (which is an element in "H") a particular perceived color (which is a single point in R). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the "physical" space "H" can all result in the same single perceived color in R, so a perceived color is not unique to one physical color.


title: Color vision

text: Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space "H" to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space R.


title: Color vision

text: Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in R. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone represents maintaining the same chromaticity while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of spectral colors is also a color.


title: Color vision

text: In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a psychophysical approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them "S", "M", and "L". To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities ("I", "I", "I") for the "S", "M", and "L" lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their ("I", "I", "I") matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of "S", "M", "L" would have to be added with some intensity to the "physical test color", and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.


title: Color vision

text: By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities ("I", "I", "I") as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is formed. (Note that when one of "S", "M", "L" had to be added to the test color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone has the property that moving directly away from the origin corresponds to increasing the intensity of the "S", "M", "L" lights proportionately. Again, a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular such cross-section, corresponding to constant "X"+"Y"+"Z" of the CIE 1931 color space, gives the CIE chromaticity diagram.