title: Ancona

text: On 23 May 1915, Italy entered World War I and joined the Entente Powers. In 1915, following Italy's entry, the battleship division of the Austro-Hungarian Navy carried out extensive bombardments causing great damage to all installations and killing several dozen people. Ancona was one of the most important Italian ports on the Adriatic Sea during the Great War.


title: Ancona

text: During World War II, the city was taken by the Polish 2nd Corps against Nazi German forces, as Free Polish forces were serving as part of the British Army. Poles were tasked with capture of the city on 16 June 1944 and accomplished the task a month later on 18 July 1944 in what is known as the battle of Ancona. The attack was part of an Allied operation to gain access to a seaport closer to the Gothic Line in order to shorten their lines of communication for the advance into northern Italy.


title: Ancona

text: Jews began to live in Ancona in 967 A.D. It has been claimed that in 1270, a Jewish resident of Ancona, Jacob of Ancona, travelled to China, four years before Marco Polo, and documented his impressions in a book called "The City of Lights". From 1300 and on, the Jewish community of Ancona grew steadily, most due to the city importance and it being a center of trade with the Levant. In that year, Jewish poet Immanuel the Roman tried to lower high taxation taken from the Jewish community of the city. Over the next 200 years, Jews from Germany, Spain, Sicily and Portugal immigrated to Ancona, due to persecutions in their homeland and thanks to the pro-Jewish attitude taken towards Ancona Jews due to their importance in the trade and banking business, making Ancona a trade center. In 1550, the Jewish population of Ancona numbered about 2700 individuals.


title: Ancona

text: In 1555, pope Paul IV forced the Crypto-Jewish community of the city to convert to Christianity, as part of his Papal Bull of 1555. While some did, others refused to do so and thus were hanged and then burnt in the town square. In response, Jewish merchants boycotted Ancona for a short while. The boycott was led by Dona Gracia Mendes Nasi.


title: Ancona

text: Though emancipated by Napoleon I for several years, in 1843 Pope Gregory XVI revived an old decree, forbidding Jews from living outside the ghetto, wearing identification sign on their clothes and other religious and financial restrictions. Public opinion did not approve of these restrictions, and they were cancelled a short while after.


title: Ancona

text: The Jews of Ancona received full emancipation in 1848 with the election of Pope Pius IX. In 1938, 1177 lived in Ancona; 53 Jews were sent away to Germany, 15 of them survived and returned to the town after World War II. The majority of the Jewish community stayed in town or emigrated due to high ransoms paid to the fascist regime. In 2004, about 200 Jews lived in Ancona.


title: Ancona

text: Two synagogues and two cemeteries still exist in the city. The ancient Monte-Cardeto cemetery is one of the biggest Jewish cemeteries in Europe and tombstones are dated to 1552 and on. It can still be visited and it resides within the .


title: Ancona

text: The climate of Ancona is humid subtropical (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification) and the city lies on the border between mediterranean and more continental regions. Precipitations are regular throughout the year. Winters are cool (January mean temp. ), with frequent rain and fog. Temperatures can reach or even lower values outside the city centre during the most intense cold waves. Snow is not unusual with air masses coming from Northern Europe or from the Balkans and Russia, and can be heavy at times (also due to the "Adriatic sea effect"), especially in the hills surrounding the city centre. Summers are usually warm and humid (July mean temp. ). Highs sometimes can reach values around , especially if the wind is blowing from the south or from the west (föhn effect off the Apennine mountains). Thunderstorms are quite common, particularly in August and September, when can be intense with occasional flash floods and even large hail. Spring and autumn are both seasons with changeable weather, but generally mild. Extremes in temperature have been (in 1967) and (in 1968) / (in 1983).


title: Ancona

text: In 2007, there were 101,480 people residing in Ancona (the greater area has a population more than four times its size), located in the province of Ancona, Marches, of whom 47.6% were male and 52.4% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 15.54 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 24.06 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Ancona residents is 48, compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Ancona grew by 1.48 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The current birth rate of Ancona is 8.14 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.


title: Ancona

text: , 92.77% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Albania, Romania and Ukraine): 3.14%, followed by the Americas: 0.93%, East Asia: 0.83%, and North Africa: 0.80%.


title: Ancona

text: Ancona Cathedral, dedicated to Judas Cyriacus, was consecrated at the beginning of the 11th century and completed in 1189. Some writers suppose that the original church was in the form of a basilica and belonged to the 7th century. An early restoration was completed in 1234. It is a fine Romanesque building in grey stone, built in the form of a Greek cross, and other elements of Byzantine art. It has a dodecagonal dome over the centre slightly altered by Margaritone d'Arezzo in 1270. The façade has a Gothic portal, ascribed to Giorgio da Como (1228), which was intended to have a lateral arch on each side.


title: Ancona

text: The interior, which has a crypt under each transept, in the main preserves its original character. It has ten columns which are attributed to the temple of Venus. The church was restored in the 1980s.


title: Ancona

text: The Arch of Trajan is a marble structure high, but only wide, standing on a high platform approached by a wide flight of steps, and is one of the finest surviving Roman monuments in the Marches. It was built in the year 114/115 as an entrance to the causeway atop the harbour wall and is named in honour of Trajan, the emperor who made the harbour. Most of its original bronze ornaments have disappeared. The archway is flanked by pairs of fluted Corinthian columns on pedestals. A pediment bears inscriptions. The format is that of the Arch of Titus in Rome, but made taller, so that the bronze figures surmounting it, of Trajan, his wife Plotina and sister Marciana, would figure as a landmark for ships approaching Rome's greatest Adriatic port.


title: Ancona

text: There are also several buildings by Giorgio da Sebenico, combining Gothic and Renaissance elements: the "Palazzo Benincasa", the "Loggia dei Mercanti", the Franciscan church of "San Francesco alle Scale" and "Sant'Agostino", Augustinian church with statues portraying St. Monica, St. Nicola da Tolentino, St. Simplicianus and Blessed Agostino Trionfi; in the 18th century it was enlarged by Luigi Vanvitelli and turned into a palace after 1860.


title: Ancona

text: The National Archaeological Museum of the Marche Region is housed in the Palazzo Ferretti, built in the late Renaissance by Pellegrino Tibaldi; it preserves frescoes by Federico Zuccari. The Museum is divided into several sections:


title: Ancona

text: The Municipal Art Gallery (Pinacoteca Civica Francesco Podesti) is housed in the Palazzo Bosdari, reconstructed between 1558 and 1561 by Pellegrino Tibaldi. Works in the gallery include:


title: Ancona

text: Other artists present include Francesco Podesti, Ciro Ferri and Arcangelo di Cola. Modern artists featured are Anselmo Bucci, Massimo Campigli, Bruno Cassinari, Enzo Cucchi, Carlo Levi, Aligi Sassu, Orfeo Tamburi and others.


title: Ancona

text: Ancona is served by Ancona Airport (IATA: AOI, ICAO: LIPY), in Falconara Marittima and named after Raffaello Sanzio.


title: Ancona

text: European Coastal Airlines, a former seaplane operator from Croatia, established trans-Adriatic flights between Croatia and Italy in November 2015, and offered four weekly flights from Ancona Falconara Airport to Split (59 minutes) and Rijeka (49 minutes).


title: Ancona

text: The Ancona railway station is the main railway station of the city and is served by regional and long-distance trains. The other stations are Ancona Marittima, Ancona Torrette, Ancona Stadio, Palombina and Varano.


title: Ancona

text: The A14 motorway serves the city with the exits "Ancona Nord" ("An. North") and "Ancona Sud" ("An. South").


title: Ancona

text: The Ancona trolleybus system has been in operation since 1949. Ancona is also served by an urban and suburban bus network operated by Conerobus.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The University of Aberdeen (; abbreviated as Aberd. in post-nominals; ) is a public research university in Aberdeen, Scotland. It is an ancient university founded in 1495 when William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen and Chancellor of Scotland, petitioned Pope Alexander VI on behalf of James IV, King of Scots to establish King's College, making it Scotland's 3rd oldest university and the 5th oldest in the English-speaking world and the United Kingdom. Aberdeen is consistently ranked among the top 160 universities in the world and is ranked within the top 20 universities in the United Kingdom according to "The Times" and "The Sunday Times", and 13th in the UK according to "The Guardian".


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university comprises three colleges—King's College, Marischal College, and Christ's College—that are now mainly ceremonial. The university as it is currently constituted was formed in 1860 by a merger between King's College and Marischal College, a second university founded in 1593 as a Protestant alternative to the former. The university's iconic buildings act as symbols of wider Aberdeen, particularly Marischal College in the city centre and the crown steeple of King's College in Old Aberdeen. There are two campuses; the predominantly utilised King's College campus dominates the section of the city known as Old Aberdeen, which is approximately two miles north of the city centre. Although the original site of the university's foundation, most academic buildings apart from the King's College Chapel and Quadrangle were constructed in the 20th century during a period of significant expansion. The university's Foresterhill campus is next to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary and houses the School of Medicine and Dentistry as well as the School of Medical Sciences. Together these buildings form one of Europe's largest health campuses. The annual income of the institution for 2020–21 was £235.9 million of which £45.9 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £228.6 million.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Aberdeen has students from undergraduate to doctoral level (as of ), including many international students. An abundant range of disciplines are taught at the university, with 650 undergraduate degree programmes offered in the 2012–13 academic year. Aberdeen has educated a wide range of notable alumni, and the university played key roles in the Scottish Reformation, Scottish Enlightenment, and the Scottish Renaissance. Five Nobel laureates have since been associated with the university: two in Chemistry, one in Physiology or Medicine, one in Physics, and one in Peace.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: There appears to have existed in Old Aberdeen, from a very early period, a "studium generate," or university, attached to the episcopal chapter of the See of Aberdeen. It is said to have been founded in 1157 by Edward, Bishop of Aberdeen, and although, according to Hector Boece, it still existed at the period when King's College was founded, it is probable that it had in some way ceased to answer the purposes which it must have been designed to serve, since King James IV, in his letter to Pope Alexander VI, requesting him to found a university in Old Aberdeen, mentions as the chief motive for the undertaking, the profound ignorance of the inhabitants of the north of Scotland, and the great deficiency of properly educated men to fill the clerical office in that part of his kingdom.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The first university in Aberdeen, King's College, formally The University and King's College of Aberdeen (Collegium Regium Aberdonense), was founded on 10 February 1494 by William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen, Chancellor of Scotland, and a graduate of the University of Glasgow drafting a request on behalf of King James IV to Pope Alexander VI resulting in a papal bull being issued. It seems that James was keen to ensure that Scotland had as many universities as England at the time, and it was to possess all the privileges enjoyed by those of Paris and Bologna, two of the most highly favoured in Europe. The university, modelled on that of the University of Paris and intended principally as a law school, soon became the most famous and popular of the Scots seats of learning, largely due to the prestige of Elphinstone and his friend, Hector Boece, the first principal appointed in 1500. Its aim was to train doctors, teachers and clergy who would serve the communities of northern Scotland, as well as lawyers and administrators for the Scottish Crown. It was a collegiate foundation with 36 full-time staff and students and walls protecting it from the outside world. In 1497 the college established the first chair of medicine in the English-speaking world.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The first book (there was no printing press in Scotland at the time) to be printed in Edinburgh and in Scotland was the Aberdeen Breviary, which was written by both Elphinstone and Boece in 1509.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Following the Scottish Reformation in 1560, King's College was purged of its Roman Catholic staff but in other respects was largely resistant to change. George Keith, the fifth earl marischal, was a moderniser within the college and supportive of the reforming ideas of Peter Ramus and Andrew Melville. In April 1593 he founded a second university in the 'New Town', Marischal College. It is also possible the founding of another college in nearby Fraserburgh by Sir Alexander Fraser, a business rival of Keith, was instrumental in its creation. Aberdeen was highly unusual at this time for having two universities in one city: as 20th-century university prospectuses observed, Aberdeen had the same number as existed in England at the time (the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge).


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Initially, Marischal College offered the principal of King's College a role in selecting its academics, but this was refused – the first blow in a developing rivalry. Marischal College, in the commercial heart of the city (rather than the ancient but much smaller collegiate enclave of Old Aberdeen), was quite different in nature and outlook. For example, it was more integrated into the life of the city, such as allowing students to live outwith the college. The two rival colleges often clashed, sometimes in court, but also in brawls between students on the streets of Aberdeen. Duncan Liddell endowed the first chair in mathematics at Marischal College in 1613, but the first professor was not appointed until 1626.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: As the institutions put aside their differences, a process of attempted (but unsuccessful) mergers began in the 17th century. During this time, both colleges made notable intellectual contributions to the Scottish Enlightenment. Both colleges supported the Jacobite rebellion and following the defeat of the 1715 rising were largely purged by the authorities of their academics and officials.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The nearest the two colleges had come to full union was as the "Caroline University of Aberdeen", a merger initiated by Charles I in 1641, which united the two colleges for twenty years. Following the civil conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a more complete unification was attempted following the ratification of Parliament by Oliver Cromwell during the interregnum in 1654. This united university survived until the Restoration whereby all laws made during this period were rescinded by Charles II and the two colleges reverted to independent status. Charles I is still recognised as one of the university's founders, due to his part in creating the Caroline University and his benevolence towards King's College.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Aberdeen Philosophical Society (known locally as the Wise Club) was created by Thomas Reid, George Campbell, David Skene, John Gregory, John Stewart, and Robert Traill, and held its first meeting in the Old Red Lion Inn on 12 January 1758. From its inception, the society was an intimate, private body whose members were drawn exclusively from the learned professions, and this feature differentiated it from the more open and socially inclusive societies like the Glasgow Literary Society or the Select Society of Edinburgh. Over 133 papers were given and discussed at the meeting, and many of these formed the basis of books subsequently published. The society was eventually disbanded in March 1773. The society and its individual members played a key role in the Scottish Enlightenment, and it was the most important forum for the promotion of enlightened thought and values in Aberdeen. The Philosophical Society was revived in 1840, with the object of receiving and debating original scientific, literary and philosophical papers from its members; however, the decision was taken on 13 September 1939 to discontinue its meetings, chiefly in view of the difficulties posed by the war, although it does not appear to have been ever formally wound up.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Free Church of Scotland founded Christ's College in Aberdeen in 1843 for the training of ministers. An extravagant Gothic building, with a commanding oriel window and tower, was erected for the college at the western end of Union Street in 1850. Linked to the college was a museum and library (containing 17,000 volumes). Following the church reunion of 1929, Christ's College became a Church of Scotland college and was also integrated into the University of Aberdeen; henceforth, the university has been composed of three colleges. The college building is no longer used by either the church or the university, and the college is contained completely within the buildings of King's College, maintaining its own divinity library. The university hosted its first meeting of the British Science Association in 1859. Having no suitable meeting place to host the meeting, the town raised the money themselves by personal subscription and built the Music Hall. It was capable of holding about 2,500 people and so successful was the meeting that associate membership, necessary to gain access to the proceedings, had to be capped. Prominent among the local organisers were Professors James Clerk Maxwell (Natural Philosophy) and James Nicol (Geology) of Marischal College. Prince Albert, the Prince Consort, took on the role of president for the year. The young Maxwell himself, still only 28, spoke on three different subjects, one being a presentation of his newly discovered law of molecular velocities in a gas. The ‘Maxwell distribution law’, as it is now known, is the law of physics with the strongest Aberdeen connection. In addition, Sir Charles Lyell, president of the Geological Section of the British Academy, and a champion Charles Darwin's work, made one of the first announcements that Darwin had undertaken a body of work on evolution and was about to release his findings. The organisers felt that they might be risking something in holding the meeting much further north than they had done before but in the event the Aberdeen meeting was the most well attended the BA had ever had.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Further unsuccessful suggestions for union were brought about throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. William Ogilvie, known as the Rebel Professor, proposed a paper on the union and reform of the two colleges in 1787, but the proposals were rejected by seven (known as the 'seven wise Masters') out of ten professors at King's. The evolving examination system and university research now required much higher academic standards from the students. The two colleges in Aberdeen merged on 15 September 1860 in accordance with the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858, which also created a new medical school at Marischal College. The 1858 Act of Parliament stated the ""united University shall take rank among the Universities of Scotland as from the date of erection of King's College and University."" The university is thus Scotland's third oldest and the United Kingdom's fifth oldest university.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The transference of the arts classes from Marischal to King's College required the extension of King's at the cost of £20,000. This included the rebuilding of two sides of the quadrangle for the class-rooms (1862) and the erection of the library (1870), which for many years had occupied the nave of the chapel.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: In 1873, university students voted against university degrees being open to women. However, all faculties were open to women in 1892, and in 1894 the first 20 matriculated females began their studies at the university. Four women graduated in arts by 1898, and by the following year, women made up a quarter of the faculty.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The closing of the quadrangle of Marischal College was completed during the university's quatercentenary in 1906, which was officially opened by Edward VII and Alexandra, and which saw some of the most extravagant celebrations and expressions of civic pride ever demonstrated in Aberdeen. Four days of festivities took place across the city, which included church services, banquets, torchlight processions, and fireworks displays. In all, the cost of the four days of festivities was the modern equivalent of £1.34 million. The ceremony saw the granting of honorary degrees to over a hundred public and academic figures from across the academic world. In an extravagant display of luxury, Lord Strathcona, the then chancellor of the university, spent £8518 in entertaining around 2500 invited guests in a tent specially designed for the occasion. After having received an honorary degree (LLD) in 1905, Thomas Hardy celebrated Aberdeen as ‘a University which can claim in my opinion to an exceptional degree that breadth of view & openness of mind that all Universities profess to cultivate, but many stifle’. Hardy wrote a poem for a special number of the student publication, "Alma Mater", in celebration of the quatercentenary of the university.‘I looked and thought, "All is too gray and cold


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Men count for the stability of the time’In the 20th century, the university expanded greatly, particularly at King's College. New buildings were constructed on the land around King's College throughout the 20th century. Initially, these were built to match the ancient buildings (e.g. the New King's lecture rooms and Elphinstone Hall), but later ones from the 1960s onward were constructed in brutalist style. Meanwhile, the Foresterhill campus began to train medical students in the 1930s next to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: During the mid-20th century departments which had been at Marischal College moved into one of these new buildings (most at King's College) and by the late 20th-century Marischal College had been abandoned by all but the Anatomy Department, a graduation hall and the Marischal Museum (Marischal College has now been restored as the headquarters of Aberdeen City Council, which is leasing a portion of the complex from the university). Following extensive fundraising, a £57 million new university library (the Sir Duncan Rice Library) opened in autumn 2011 at the King's College campus to replace the outgrown Queen Mother Library and was officially opened by the Queen in September 2012. Today, most students spend most of their time in modern buildings which provide up-to-date facilities for teaching, research and other activities such as dining. However, the old buildings at King's College are still in use as lecture and tutorial rooms and accommodation for various academic departments.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: In February 2020, the Scottish Funding Council (SFC) found that in approving a financial settlement agreement with the former Principal Sir Ian Diamond, the university failed to make best use of public funds or exercise good governance. As a result of the investigation, the university was ordered to repay £119,000 of grant finance to the SFC and undertake an externally-facilitated examination of its governance and culture.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university's main campus is at King's College in Old Aberdeen, where the original buildings are still in use in addition to many 20th century buildings. A second campus at Foresterhill accommodates the School of Medicine, Medical Science and Nutrition. In addition, there are smaller facilities at other sites such as the Royal Cornhill Hospital to the west of the city centre, and the Rowett Institute in Bucksburn.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The King's College campus covers an area of some 35 hectares around the ancient King's College buildings and the High Street. It hosts around two-thirds of the university's built estate and most student facilities, and lies 2 miles north of Aberdeen city centre. The university does not own all the buildings on the "campus" which also include private houses, shops and businesses (although many of these rely heavily on custom from the university community) and it is best thought of as a district of the city dominated by the university. It can be reached from the city centre by bus routes 1, 2, 13, 19 and 20 operated by First Aberdeen and from northern Aberdeenshire or Aberdeen bus station by various routes operated by Stagecoach Bluebird.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The historic King's College buildings form a quadrangle with an interior court, two sides of which have been rebuilt and expanded with a library wing in the 19th century. The Crown Tower and the chapel, the oldest parts, date from around 1500. The original foundation contained the chapel, the Great Hall and living accommodation, with its own kitchen and brewery, a well in the quadrangle, and a college garden to provide herbs and vegetables. The Grammar School was just outside the walls, in front of the college. The Crown Tower is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft (12 m) high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and Imperial crown, both sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. This crown, also known as the "Crown of Kings", frequently acts as a symbol of the university. The choir of the chapel contains original oak-canopied stalls, miserere seats, and lofty open screens in the French flamboyant style. They were preserved by the college's Principal during the Reformation, who fought off local barons who had attacked the nearby St Machar's Cathedral. The Cromwell Tower, created between 1658 and 1662 opposite the Crown Tower, was originally built as residential accommodation, but an observatory was built on top in 1826. The library wing was converted into an exhibition and conference venue in the 1990s and today also houses the university's Business School.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The first of the modern age of construction in the King's campus began with the construction in 1913 of the New Building (now known as ""New King's""), largely in a similar architectural style to the old buildings. A large manse located on the lawn opposite King's College was removed before the First World War. New King's groups to form a yet larger quadrangle-like green for the campus also bordered by the High Street, King's and Elphinstone Hall, a traditional 1930 replacement for the Great Hall. The Elphinstone Hall was subsequently used as a dining facility but is now used for graduations, examinations, fairs, and other large university events.However, most students and staff spend relatively little time in these historic buildings, with a large number of modern ones housing most facilities and academic departments. Most date from the second half of the 20th century. Some of these echo the existing architecture of Old Aberdeen, such as the Fraser Noble Building with its distinctive concrete crown designed to resemble the one adorning King's College. Other buildings were constructed of stone in the 1950s (e.g. the Taylor Building and Meston Building). A number of other buildings are designed in the brutalist style, such as the Arts Lecture Theatre and adjoining William Guild Building, opened in 1969 to house the School of Psychology. Also on the site is the Cruickshank Botanic Garden which was presented to the university in 1899 and is open to the public.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Powis Gateway forms the east gate and archway from College Bounds, Old Aberdeen. These oriental style towers with minarets have provoked much interest over the years. At one time there was a portrait of John Leslie dressed in Turkish costume, on the walls of Powis House, but there is no obvious connection between the estate and the Middle East. The gateway is also adorned with panels bearing the coats of arms of the Lairds of Powis. The Estate of Powis was owned by the Frasers—their crest is shown on the towers—until the marriage of an heiress to a Leslie. Powis House was built by Hugh Leslie. The house was the home of John Leslie, Professor of Greek at Kings College. It was subsequently owned by the Burnett family. In 1936, J.G. Burnett sold most of the estate to Aberdeen Town Council who built a housing estate in the area comprising over 300 residences.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Sir Duncan Rice Library was designed by Danish architects Schmidt Hammer Lassen and completed in 2011. It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in September 2012 and named after Duncan Rice, a previous Principal of the university. This seven-storey tower, clad in zebra-like jagged stripes of white and clear glass, replaced the smaller Queen Mother Library as the university's main library and can be seen prominently from the entire campus and much of the city. It is open to the public and outstanding views of the city and coastline are available from the upper floors. In addition to expanded facilities it also houses public exhibition space and the university's historic collections, comprising more than a quarter of a million ancient and priceless books and manuscripts collected over five centuries since the university's foundations. Other libraries are in the Taylor Building on the same campus (for law books and materials) and at Foresterhill (for medicine and medical sciences). The university's library service (i.e. including all libraries) holds over one million books.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The most recent building is the Science Teaching Hub. Completed in 2021, the building contains laboratories for subjects including biological sciences, chemistry, geosciences and medical sciences.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Aberdeen Sports Village, located across King Street from the Old Aberdeen campus, houses sports facilities and the aquatics centre.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university's Foresterhill Campus is located approximately to the east of the Old Aberdeen campus and is home to the university's Life Sciences and Medicine facilities. It is co-located with Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Royal Aberdeen Children's Hospital and Aberdeen Maternity Hospital, all teaching hospitals operated by regional health board NHS Grampian. The campus accommodates the School of Medicine, Medical Science and Nutrition; the School of Psychology; and the School of Biological Sciences. It also includes the Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, the Institute of Medical Sciences, Institute of Applied Health Sciences, Institute of Dentistry, and Institute of Education for Medical & Dental Sciences.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Foresterhill site is managed jointly with NHS Grampian. The university has had a presence at Foresterhill since around 1938, and the management of the site was formalised in 1997 by the completion of an operational agreement between the two parties.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: A new campus in Doha, Qatar was established in May 2017. Known as AFG College with the University of Aberdeen, it is a partnership with Al Faleh Group for Educational and Academic Services (AFG). The courses currently offered are accounting, finance and business management. The campus Principal is Brian Buckley and Dean is Russell Williams. A new campus is expected to open in September 2022 with a 4,000 student capacity.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Marischal College is a neo-Gothic building, having been rebuilt in 1836–41, and greatly extended several years later. Formerly an open three-sided court, the college now forms a quadrangle as additions to the buildings were opened by Edward VII in 1906 and form the current facade from Broad Street. The building is widely considered to be one of the best examples of neo-Gothic architecture in Great Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie was a native of Aberdeen as well as an alumnus of the university. The Mitchell Tower at the rear is named for the benefactor (Dr Charles Mitchell) who paid for the graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 1895 was part of celebrations of the 400th anniversary of the university.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Until 1996, Marischal College housed the Departments of Molecular & Cell Biology and Biomedical Sciences, which had been there for many decades. From 1996, the departments moved to Kings College campus and Foresterhill campus. Teaching no longer takes place at Marischal College, with many of the departments formerly based there having moved to King's College some decades previously. While graduations and other events (e.g. concerts) took place in the cathedral-like Mitchell Hall in the north wing, for many years much of the building (including the frontage to the street) was derelict.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The majority of the building was leased to Aberdeen City Council in 2008, with significant re-development taking place to allow the council to occupy it as its new administrative headquarters. Occupation of the rear portion of the building is retained by the university including the former Marischal Museum and Mitchell Hall, which was used previously for graduation and other academic ceremonies before moving to Elphinstone Hall at King's College.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: A small campus at Hilton became part of the university estate following a merger in 2001 between the university and the Aberdeen campus of the Northern College of Education, and temporarily became home to the university's Faculty of Education. It was less than a mile southwest of King's College campus. Following the renovation of the MacRobert Building at King's College to house the School of Education (completed in 2005), the Hilton campus was closed and sold to developers. The campus was demolished and the land is now occupied by a residential development called "The Campus".


title: University of Aberdeen

text: In common with the other ancient universities in Scotland, the university's structure of governance is largely regulated by the Universities (Scotland) Acts of 1858. This gives the university a tripartite constitution comprising the General Council of senior academics and graduates, the University Court responsible for finances and administration, and the Academic Senate ("Senatus Academicus")—the university's supreme academic body.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: There are correspondingly three main officers of the university. It is nominally headed by the chancellor, a largely ceremonial position traditionally held by the Bishop of Aberdeen, but as a result of the Scottish Reformation holders are now elected for life by the General Council. There is also a rector of the university, who chairs the University Court and is elected by the students for a three-year term to represent their interests. There are also four assessors, ten masters, including the principal and vice principal, and the factor or procurator.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The administrative head and chief executive of the university is its principal and vice-chancellor. The principal acts as chair of the "Senatus Academicus", and his status as vice-chancellor enables him to perform the functions reserved to the chancellor in the latter's absence, such as the awarding of degrees.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The chancellor is the nominal head of the university. The chancellor since 2013 is Queen Camilla. She is the first female chancellor of the university. The chancellor, or, if necessary, his or her deputy, confers degrees on graduates and chairs the university's General Council.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The rector of the university has been—since 1860—elected by the students to serve a three-year term of office; before that, the office was appointed. The rector's duties are to chair meetings of the University Court and to represent student views on that body. In November 2021, a new rector was elected by the student body of the university, Martina Chukwuma-Ezike, the CEO of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation. Other notable Aberdeen rectors have included Winston Churchill, Andrew Carnegie, H. H. Asquith, Maggie Chapman and Clarissa Dickson Wright, who was Aberdeen's first female rector.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The principal and vice-chancellor of the university is Professor George Boyne. He joined the university on 1 August 2018 and was officially installed in his role on 16 January 2019.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: This body was created by the commissioners during the merger of King's and Marischal in 1870. It was part of a series of reforms introduced to rectify the method of government, with the Court acting as a court of appeal from the Senatus. The Court originally consisted of six members; the rector, representing the students, the principal, and one assessor each to the chancellor, the rector, the General Council and the Senatus. However, today the Court consists of many more members. The Court's principal role is to oversee the management of the revenue, property and other resources of the university.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Academic Senate (Latin "Senatus Academicus") is the supreme academic body for the university. Its members include all the professors of the university, certain senior readers, a number of senior lecturers and lecturers and elected student senate representatives. It is responsible for authorising degree programmes and issuing all degrees to graduates, and for managing student discipline. The president of the Senate is the university principal.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university is composed of three colleges: Christ's College, King's College and Marischal College. The purpose of the colleges at Aberdeen is mainly ceremonial, as students are housed in separate residential halls or private accommodations. Originally, Medicine and Law were taught at Marischal and Arts and Divinity at King's College; however, since 2009 all of the teaching is now done at King's College and Foresterhill.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university is divided into 12 schools which are organised within a broad range of disciplines, with the larger schools sub-divided into three teaching colleges.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Multi-disciplinary institutes and research centres allow the university's experts to collaborate on pioneering research projects.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university's coat of arms is an integral part of the current logo, which along with the colours burgundy and white, is used extensively on campus signage, printed materials, and online.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university's coat of arms incorporates those of the founders and locations of the two colleges it is derived from. In the top left quadrant are the arms of the burgh of Old Aberdeen, with the addition of a symbol of knowledge being handed down from above. Top right are those of George Keith, the fifth Earl Marischal. Bottom left are those of Bishop William Elphinstone. The bottom right quarter is a simplified version of the three castles which represent the city of Aberdeen (this symbol of the city also appears prominently on the arms of The Robert Gordon University).


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The motto of the University of Aberdeen is "Initium Sapientiae Timor Domini", which translates from Latin as ""The beginning of wisdom is fear of the Lord"". It is a quote from the Old Testament of the Bible, Psalm 111, verse 10. It also appears in the Book of Proverbs (9:10). The motto can be seen at the archway beside New King's on the High Street at the King's College campus, as well as other campus locations and in formal settings such as on graduation certificates.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: A university tartan was created in 1992 as part of the celebrations for the 500th anniversary of the university which took place in 1995. The tartan was designed by the Weavers Incorporation of Aberdeen and Harry Lindley and incorporates colours from the university's coat of arms.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Academic dress has been worn in the University of Aberdeen since mediaeval times. Aberdeen shared with the other ancient universities the wearing of scarlet gowns ("toga rubra") and a trencher for undergraduates, but by the middle of the twentieth century its use amongst the students had faded. Bursars formerly wore a black gown, and were made to perform menial services about college. Female students wore a trencher with scarlet tassels, while male students wore black tassels.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Academic dress is usually worn only at formal occasions, such as at graduation, Founder's Day, or academic processions which take place for ceremonial reasons. For undergraduate degrees (e.g. MA, BSc, LLB etc.), a long black gown is worn with a hood of black silk and lined with silk in a colour which varies depending on discipline. For example, the lining is white silk for all Master of Arts degrees, green silk for Bachelor of Science in pure sciences, and crimson silk for MBChB. A black mortarboard is also worn. For master's degrees (e.g. MSc, MLitt etc.) a long black gown is worn, with a white silk hood lined in a colour that varies by discipline. For PhD, the doctor's scarlet robe is worn with black facings and sleeve lining, along with a black "John Knox" cap. For other doctoral degrees (e.g. EdD, LLD etc.), the scarlet robe has facings and sleeve linings in a different colour.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The academic year at Aberdeen was originally based upon the Scottish Term and Quarter Days, beginning with Martinmas (October – November), Candlemas (January – March), and ending with Whitsunday (April – June). However, today the academic term is divided into two semesters, the First Half-Session and the Second-Half Session, beginning in September and ending in May. Written examinations are sat in November and April and May, and graduation is celebrated either in November or at the end of June.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Aberdeen is consistently ranked among the top 200 universities in the world and is ranked within the top 20 universities in the United Kingdom according to The Guardian. In the 2019 "Times Higher Education University Impact Rankings", Aberdeen was ranked 31st in the world for impact on society. Aberdeen was also named the 2019 Scottish University of the Year by The Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide. Over 75 per cent of the university's research was classified as 'world leading' or 'internationally excellent' in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Its highest internationally ranked subject is Divinity and Religious Studies, which is ranked at joint 25th in the world and 7th in the UK. It also has an excellent reputation for medical research and many of its subjects are ranked in top 10 in the UK, including Accounting & Finance (ranked 4th in the UK, Complete 2021), Civil Engineering (10th in the UK, Complete 2021), Computing Science (9th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Dentistry (9th in the UK, Complete 2020; 1st in the UK, Guardian 2021), Education (9th in the UK, Complete 2021), Electrical and Electronic Engineering (8th in the UK, Complete 2020), Law (6th in the UK, Complete 2021; 10th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Medicine (4th in the UK, Complete 2021; 2nd in the UK, Guardian 2021), Linguistics (5th in the UK, Complete 2021), Musics (10th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Physics (7th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Sociology (10th in the UK, Guardian 2021), and Sports Science (2nd in the UK, Complete 2021; 10th in the UK, Guardian 2021). Economics was ranked 11th in the UK by Times Subject Rankings and 12th in the UK by Complete University Guide 2019.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Aberdeen was ranked 9th for the average entry tariff by the Complete University Guide 2021 and 9th in the UK for the average entry tariff by Guardian 2021 rankings.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university has one of the smallest percentages of students from lower-class backgrounds, being ranked fifth from bottom for class equality. The university participates in widening access schemes such as the Children's University, REACH Scotland, Access Aberdeen, and ASPIRENorth, in order to promote a more widespread uptake of those traditionally under-represented at university.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Gifford Lectures, established in 1887 by Adam Gifford, began at the university (along with the other ancient universities in Scotland) with E.B Tylor's lecture on the Natural History of Religion between 1889 and 1991. Since then, over 30 Gifford Lectures have been given at the university, with some distinguished figures including Hannah Arendt, Alfred North Whitehead, Karl Barth, Paul Tillich, Michael Polanyi, N.T. Wright, and Jaroslav Pelikan.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: A public lecture series was held in 2011 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the publication of the King's James Bible. The university is also host to the annual Andrew Carnegie Lecture Series which began in 2014, with the first lecture given by Matthew Barzun.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Elphinstone Institute hosts its own monthly lecture series, which began in 2016, in the MacRobert Building, with lectures usually given on local or Scottish topics. (The Elphinstone Institute also organises The Toulmin Prize, a short-fiction competition with a North East Scotland focus that is open to amateur writers.) The School of Engineering also hosts the RV Jones Distinguished Lecture Series which provides invited lectures from distinguished speakers in areas of engineering related to research within the School of Engineering.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The library at university has undergone many trials and tribulations: it was first located in the nave of King's College Chapel and then moved to a new site in the college in 1870. The current library contains one of the most extensive university library collections in the United Kingdom, with over a million volumes and a quarter of a million ancient and priceless books and manuscripts, including the Hortus sanitatis. The library at Aberdeen was given the right of legal deposit under the Statute of Anne (1710) but this was rescinded in 1837, and as a result has a rare collection of pre-Victorian novels.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The core of the original library at King's College was formed from Elphinstone's books that he left to the university. The books were originally housed in a room in the south east tower (now the round tower). They were then moved to a building on the south side of Kings College Chapel, and in 1773 to the west end of the chapel. They were located in 1870 to a new building as illustrated. This library was extended in 1885, with galleries being installed in 1912, reading desks in 1932 and a mezzanine floor in 1964. The Queen Mother Library had been the university's main library since 1965, and the original library in King's College was replaced with the King's College Conference Centre in 1991. The Queen Mother Library was refurbished and expanded in 1982.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Sir Duncan Rice Library was officially opened on 24 September 2012 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh, replacing the Queen Mother Library. It was designed by the Danish architectural firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen at the cost of £57 million. The building sits on a base of Scottish stone. The ground floor is double-height with seven floors above. The building is clad in zebra-like jagged stripes of white and clear glass. In the interior void spaces are located centrally. Contrasting with the geometric exterior, the central atrium formed by the void spaces has an organic form, shifting in location across the levels. It has won numerous awards for its architecture.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university also has the Taylor Library and European Documentation Centre (law with official UK and EU publications), which is located in Old Aberdeen, and the Medical Library on the Foresterhill Campus covers the Medicine and Medical Sciences disciplines. Christ's College also possesses its own Divinity library.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university maintains several museums and galleries, open free to the public. The university's collections are internationally renowned and are recognised as of national significance by the Scottish Government. Originating in the eighteenth century, they now have over 300,000 items across a wide range of Human Culture, Medicine and Health, and Natural History. The Zoology Museum is officially classified as a Recognised Collection of national significance to Scotland and features displays from protozoa to the great whales, including taxidermy, skeletal material, study skins, fluid-preserved specimens and models.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: As of the university had students, of which were postgraduates. In 2009/10 students represented 120 countries with about 46% men, 54% women. Of all of undergraduates, 19% were mature students (i.e. aged 25 years or more). The university has more than 550 different undergraduate degree programmes and more than 120 postgraduate taught programmes.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The student body is represented by a students' association known as Aberdeen University Students' Association (AUSA). Additionally, the elected Rector of the University of Aberdeen serves along with the rector's assessor and AUSA president as a students' representatives on the University Court.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: AUSA does not operate a traditional students' union, instead operating out of a university building, Johnston, helping to support students and provide events and studying space. A large students' union formerly occupied an impressive granite building on the corner of Gallowgate and Upperkirkgate in the city centre, opposite Marischal College, but it closed in 2003. A second, smaller union opened at nearby Littlejohn Street a couple of years later, but by 2010 it too had closed.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The organisation has been involved in the creation of "The Hub", a university-owned dining and social centre created by an extensive renovation of the former Central Refectory at the King's College campus. It provides facilities for the whole university community (students and staff) and opened in 2006. A more traditional social space, the Butchart Student Centre, opened in 2009. It acts as the HQ of the Students' Association and provides a wide range of student facilities, but due to city council licensing regulations there is no bar. Facilities at the Butchart Centre include a large cafe, second-hand bookstore, facilities for student societies and offices. The Butchart Centre was converted from what had been the campus sports centre before the opening of the Aberdeen Sports Village nearby. AUSA operates out of the Johnston Building.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: There are over a hundred clubs and societies formally affiliated with the students' association. The students' association is responsible for sport at the university, which is managed by the Aberdeen University Sports Union, an AUSA committee. All registered students are eligible to join any of these clubs or societies.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university's oldest student organisation is the Aberdeen University Debater, founded by JF Maclennan in 1848 as the King's College Debating Society. In 1871, a Literary Society was started by WM Ramsay, and four years later a Choral Society came to life. In 1884, the society also took the first steps towards the introduction of a students' representative council under support from Alexander Bain, the then Rector. The creation of the Union in 1895 provided a new debating chamber in Marischal College and the society's first permanent home. The chamber beneath Mitchell Hall in Marischal College is Scotland's oldest purpose-built debating chamber.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The first successful university newspaper, "Alma Mater", began under the auspices of the University of Aberdeen Debating Society in 1883. The "Alma Mater" was replaced by "The Gaudie", which has been in circulation since 1934, and is currently free-of-charge. The Gaudie is recognised as one of the oldest student newspapers in Scotland and the United Kingdom. It currently consists of 32 pages split into the sections News, Features, Science and Environment, Opine, International, Puzzles, Satire, Life and Style, Arts, Gaming and Tech, and Sports.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Aberdeen Student Show is a musical and theatrical show, usually with a strong comedy element, staged every year since 1921. Its purpose is to raise money for charity, as part of the Aberdeen Students' Charities Campaign (“ASCC”). From the start it has involved a number of young writers, performers and musicians who have gone on to greater renown in the fields of theatre, media and the arts.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Each year a student-led torcher parade is held. First held in 1889, it is the largest of its kind in Europe. Student groups and societies build floats and parade in fancy dress through the city centre to raise money for local charities. Traditionally spectators donate money in the form of coppers, a colloquial term for 1p and 2p coins.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Aberdeen Future Fund is an alumni fund run by the Development Trust. Since founding in 1998, Aberdeen Future Fund has raised over £2.5 million of unrestricted funds. Past projects have included a book fund for the Heavy Demand section in the library, providing "Safe Campus" leaflets, contributing to the student hardship fund, providing training mannequins for Clinical Skills, the organ for King's College Chapel, and funding for intramural sports.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Halls of residence are managed by the university. Two large concentrations of university accommodation are provided on the campus in Old Aberdeen and one mile north at the Hillhead Student Village, accessible by a walk through Seaton Park.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Campus accommodation in the heart of Old Aberdeen consists of self-catered King's Hall and Elphinstone Road Halls.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Following their first year, the majority of students live in private accommodation off-campus or in privately owned halls of residence. In recent years, rents and availability of accommodation has seen more second and third year students returning to university halls.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The university has a "First-Year Accommodation Guarantee" providing that the student accept their firm offer before a set date prior to the beginning of term. In 2014–15, the university ran out of rooms and had to resort to temporary accommodation. The university continues to monitor accommodation costs and where possible offers discretionary support to students, to improve access to higher education.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The first modern halls of residence built by the university on the King's College campus was Crombie halls, named after James Edward Crombie. They opened in 1960. The Crombie-Johnston halls were closed in 2017 following a decline in demand for catered accommodation.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The students' association is responsible for sport at the university, which is managed by the Aberdeen University Sports Union, an AUSA committee. Established in 1889, it's affiliated to the BUCS and SSS and encompasses over fifty sports clubs. There are large playing fields at the back of King's College and also Aberdeen Sports Village, a partnership between the University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen City Council and sportscotland. It opened on 24 August 2009. An extension containing the aquatics centre opened in 2014.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: A notable club is the Aberdeen University Football Club, which was formed in 1872, and currently competes in the SJFA North First Division. The Aberdeen University Rugby Football Club, founded in 1871, has a long history of producing both Scottish and British Lions players.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The annual boat race between Aberdeen University Boat Club and Robert Gordon University Boat Club has been competed for since 1995. The University of Aberdeen has lost only four times, in 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2013.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Aberdeen Sports Village served as one of the official pre-games training venues of the Cameroon Olympic Team prior to the London 2012 Olympic Games.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: There are a large number of ensembles at the University of Aberdeen. Some are directed by academic staff, while others are run by students both in and out of the department and include; Balinese Gamelan, Baroque Ensemble, Big Band, Cantores ad Portam, Chapel Choir, Choral Society, Concert Band, String Orchestra and Symphony Orchestra.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: There are a number of student media organisations at the University of Aberdeen. These include "The Gaudie" (student newspaper), Granite City TV and Aberdeen Student Radio (ASR).


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The Sponsio Academica is the oath, originally in Latin, taken by students matriculating into the four ancient Scottish universities (Edinburgh, St. Andrews, Aberdeen and Glasgow). This tradition now has been digitised at Aberdeen and is agreed to as part of an online matriculation process. Originally, new students matriculated in Mitchell Hall where the Chancellor would give a welcoming address.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Since 1888 the School of Medicine has used a form of the Sponsio Academica for graduating students to affirm in response to the discontinuation of the oath hitherto taken by students in all faculties:"I solemnly declare that as a Graduate of Medicine of the University of Aberdeen, I will exercise my profession to the best of my knowledge and ability, for the good of all persons whose health may be placed in my care, and for the public weal; that I will hold in due regard the honourable traditions and obligations of the Medical Profession, and will do nothing inconsistent therewith; and that I will be loyal to the University and endeavour to promote its welfare and maintain its reputation.'


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Usually held annually in February, on Founders’ Day, the university community pays tribute to its historic origins as an ancient university and in particular, the role played by William Elphinstone and other benefactors in the establishment of the university. The ceremony begins with an academic procession through the university and concludes with a service in King's College Chapel. Talks are given by university lecturers and invited guests. A candle is lit in the chapel to give thanks to Elphinstone and the other patron fathers.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The rector, an ancient post dating back to the foundation of the university in 1495, is the students’ representative, particularly in welfare matters, and sits on the University Court.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Tradition dictates that the University of Aberdeen's new rector must ride through Old Aberdeen aloft a bull carried at shoulder height by students of the university. The ceremony includes a colourful academic procession representing civic, student and academic life in Aberdeen. University staff and students, along with representatives from the City and Aberdeenshire Councils, Incorporated Trades, MSPs, and alumni, attend the ceremony which is followed by a reception in the King's Conference Centre.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: The reception culminates with the new Rector being carried by the student mascot, Angus the Bull, from King's College to the St Machar Bar in the High Street of Old Aberdeen, where tradition also dictates that he buy a round of drinks for his student supporters.


title: University of Aberdeen

text: Bajan, a medieval term (literally 'yellow beak' – bec jaune), describing trainees in the pre-student year, was traditionally applied to Aberdeen University first year undergraduates. Female undergraduates were referred to as "bajanellas". Second year students were called 'Semis', and these usually played jokes upon or clashed with bajans. Semis would usually tear first year's gowns.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort (stylized as Wrong Turn VI in the opening credits) is a 2014 American slasher film directed by Valeri Milev. It is served as a soft reboot and the sixth installment in the "Wrong Turn" film series.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: The film was released on DVD and digitally on October 21, 2014. It was followed by another reboot, titled simply "Wrong Turn" (2021).


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: The Hillicker brothers Three Finger, Saw Tooth, and One Eye murder a pair of bikers, Daria and Nick, at the bike trail in West Virginia. The brothers are under the care of their demented relatives Jackson and Sally, the caretakers of the local medieval hotel resort Hobbs Springs. Danny attends the resort for a family inheritance along with his girlfriend Toni, her brother Rod and their friends; Vic, Charlie, Bryan, and his girlfriend Jillian. Upon arrival, he is welcomed by Sally and Jackson, his cousins, but unbeknownst to his friends, the cannibals and Jackson murdered elderly hotel guest Agnes Fields in the hallway.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: Bryan and Jillian, who are shopping for groceries the next day, are informed by a concerned Sheriff Doucette of the disappearances of the townsfolk including the hotel guests and Agnes. As he drives away, Doucette runs into a roadblock where he is killed by Three Finger. Alarmed by Bryan and Jillian's news of the townsfolk's fate, Danny's friends became suspicious to the nature of his cousins and his interest of staying with his family causing his relationship with the others to deteriorate. Toni sends Vic to find Danny who has gone hunting with Jackson out in the woods. Vic sees Saw Tooth devouring a deer that was killed by Danny during the hunt. When Danny plans on renovating the hotel to re-open next year, his friends reluctantly agree to stay. Jillian and Bryan, however, plan to leave the town and steal items from the hotel for money. While doing so, they discover a hidden door to a basement that leads to an underground bathhouse where Jillian gets horny and seduces Bryan into having sex with her. Right after Bryan makes Jillian climax midway through, the cannibals abruptly attack the couple. Bryan is hit in the head, giving him a crippling brain injury and Jillian is brutally dismembered without Bryan to protect her, but Sally stops them from killing Bryan. She then drags him to her bedroom and rapes him. Next, she asphyxiates him with her pillow under Jackson's orders.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: Now turning against his friends during a heated argument with Toni, Danny is introduced by Jackson and Sally to his long-lost cannibalistic relatives at the clearing. They explain to Danny, who is a Hillicker, of their origins. Vic follows them and overhears their conversation. He is then captured by the Hillickers who cut his throat and tear his innards out for the whole clan to eat for the ceremony. As the rest of the group begin to leave the next morning, Toni, Rod and Charlie discover Jackson cooking meals in the kitchen with dismembered corpses of the victims, including Bryan and Jillian. Horrified, they attempt to escape only to run into the cannibals who kill both Charlie and Rod. Toni arms herself with a rifle from the armory and enters the bathhouse to confront Sally about manipulating Danny against his friends. As they fight, Toni disfigures Sally and shoots off her leg with the rifle. Enraged, Jackson orders Danny to kill Toni but he lets her escape. Jackson pursues her until Toni retaliates by stabbing him in the head with the door keys, killing him. The cannibals surround Toni as Danny leaves her to be killed by Three Finger.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: One year after the reopening of the resort renamed as Hillicker Springs, Danny becomes the new manager and continues the sordid family tradition by having sex with Sally at the bathhouse as the other Hillickers watch.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: Director Declan O'Brien was replaced by film director Valeri Milev for the sixth installment in the "Wrong Turn" franchise. Which originally served as a sequel to "" (2012) to complete the prequel trilogy, but was scrapped. Shooting for the sixth film was reported to have commenced in March 2014 in Bulgaria.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: Fox Home Entertainment released it on home video on October 21, 2014. It grossed over $1 million in combined DVD and Blu-ray sales in North America.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: "28 Days Later Analysis" reported on it being ten years "since actress Eliza Dushku played Jessie, a woman chased by a gang of cannibal hillbillies. A ten year run with five sequels makes the Wrong Turn film series one of the longest running horror franchises in recent history". Joel Harley of "Starburst" rated it 7/10 stars and wrote, "If anything, this is one of the best entries yet." Steve Barton of Dread Central rated it 1.5/5 stars and called it "all crap with a few good moments", though he praised Sadie Katz's acting.


title: Wrong Turn 6: Last Resort

text: In October 2014, a court case was filed in Ireland over the unauthorized use of a photo of a woman who went missing in County Wexford. The judge declined to issue a temporary injunction, but the case came back to court in early November 2014. As a result of the lawsuit, distributor 20th Century Fox recalled all DVD and Blu-ray releases of the film with no plan to repress or re-release and have also pulled all online streaming sources. The movie was eventually re-released with the photo in question blurred out.


title: Lady Dorothy Macmillan

text: Lady Dorothy Evelyn Macmillan (; 28 July 190021 May 1966) was an English socialite and the third daughter of Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire, and Evelyn Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire. She was married to Harold Macmillan from 1920 until her death.


title: Lady Dorothy Macmillan

text: She spent her first eight years at Holker Hall, Lancashire (located in the county of Cumbria post-1974); and Lismore Castle, Ireland. She became known as Lady Dorothy from the age of eight, when her father succeeded to the dukedom of Devonshire, and the family moved into Chatsworth House, Derbyshire, and the other ducal estates. She received lessons in French, German, riding and golf. From the age of sixteen she lived with the family at Rideau Hall, Ottawa, where her father served as Governor General of Canada.


title: Lady Dorothy Macmillan

text: In 1920 she married publisher and Conservative politician Harold Macmillan, who had been on her father's staff in Canada. Their lavish wedding, on 21 April at St. Margaret's, Westminster, was attended by royalty, aristocracy and leading literary figures, and was hailed as the social event of the London season.


title: Lady Dorothy Macmillan

text: Lady Dorothy was a dutiful political wife and the couple remained together (despite her long-lasting affair with Conservative politician Robert Boothby) until her death from a heart attack at the Macmillan family estate at Birch Grove, West Sussex, in 1966. Her husband, who was created Earl of Stockton in 1984, outlived her by 20 years.


title: Lady Dorothy Macmillan

text: In 1929 Lady Dorothy began a lifelong affair with the Conservative politician Robert Boothby, an arrangement that scandalised high society but remained unknown to the general public. Philip Frere, a partner in Frere Cholmely solicitors, urged Macmillan not to divorce his wife, which at that time would have been fatal to a public career even for the "innocent party". Macmillan and Lady Dorothy lived largely separate lives in private thereafter. The stress caused by this may have contributed to Macmillan's nervous breakdown in 1931. He was often treated with condescension by his aristocratic in-laws and was observed to be a sad and isolated figure at Chatsworth in the 1930s. Campbell suggests that Macmillan's humiliation was first a major cause of his odd and rebellious behaviour in the 1930s then, in subsequent decades, made him a harder and more ruthless politician than his rivals Eden and Butler.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The Marriott World Trade Center was a 22-story, 825-room hotel at 3 World Trade Center within the World Trade Center complex in Manhattan, New York City. It opened in April 1981 as the Vista International Hotel and was the first major hotel to open in Lower Manhattan south of Canal Street since 1836. It was also known as World Trade Center 3 (WTC 3 or 3 WTC), the World Trade Center Hotel, the Vista Hotel, and the Marriott Hotel throughout its history.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The hotel was damaged in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. It was destroyed beyond repair as a result of the September 11 attacks, due to structural damage caused by the collapse of the Twin Towers, specifically the South Tower. The hotel was not replaced as part of the new World Trade Center complex, although its address was reused for a tower at 175 Greenwich Street.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The building was a 22-story steel-framed structure with 825 rooms and six basement levels (labeled B1 through B6).


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The hotel was connected to the North and South towers via underground entrances at concourse level, and a small pedestrian walkway that extended from the west promenade of the Marriott to the North Tower on plaza level. On the 22nd floor, there was a gym that was the largest of any hotel in New York City at the time, with a swimming pool and a running track facing the Hudson River. The hotel also had of meeting space on the entire third floor, along with the New Amsterdam Ballroom on the main floor. It was considered a four-diamond hotel by the American Automobile Association (AAA).


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: Inside the complex, there were a few establishments including The American Harvest Restaurant, The Greenhouse Café, Tall Ships Bar & Grill, the 'Times Square Gifts' store, The Russia House Restaurant, The Grayline New York Tour Bus ticket counter, and a hair salon named Olga's.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The hotel was first known as the Vista International Hotel, but also became known as World Trade Center 3 (WTC 3 or 3 WTC), the World Trade Center Hotel, the Vista Hotel and the Marriott Hotel. The building was designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill with construction beginning in March 1979. The hotel opened on April 1, 1981, with 100 of 825 rooms available, and it was completed in July 1981. Shortly before the opening day of the Marriott, a fire broke out on the 7th floor. The Vista International was the first major hotel to open in Lower Manhattan south of Canal Street since 1836.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The building was originally owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which sold it to KUO Hotels of Korea. In 1989, the Port Authority bought it back for $78 million but the operating rights remained in the hands of Hilton International as management agent. On November 9, 1995, it was sold to Host Marriott Corporation for $141.5 million. This was one year after the reopening due to an extensive renovation following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. The new company started operations in January 1996.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: In 2002, Host Marriott Corporation was offered an opportunity to rebuild the hotel in the same location within the World Trade Center site as its lease which was signed until 2094 had not expired. Marriott declined the offer, and in October 2003, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey voted on an agreement under which the Host Marriott Corporation would "surrender the premises" resulting in termination of the lease and thus giving the land to the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: On February 26, 1993, the hotel was seriously damaged as a result of the World Trade Center bombing. Terrorists affiliated with al-Qaeda took a Ryder truck loaded with 1,500 pounds (682 kilograms) of explosives and parked it in the North Tower parking garage below the hotel's ballroom. At 12:18 p.m. (EDT), the explosion destroyed or seriously damaged the lower and sub levels of the World Trade Center complex. After extensive repairs, the hotel reopened on November 1, 1994, and one year later was purchased by Marriott.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: On September 11, 2001, the hotel had 940 registered guests. In addition, the National Association for Business Economics (NABE) was holding its yearly conference at the hotel from September 8 to 11, 2001.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: When American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower (1 WTC) at 8:46 a.m. EDT, its landing gear fell on the hotel's roof. Firefighters used the lobby as a staging area, and were also in the hotel to evacuate guests that may have still been inside. Firefighters also reported human remains of entire corpses on the roof from people that had jumped or accidentally fell from the burning towers. The collapse of the South Tower (2 WTC) at 9:59 a.m. EDT essentially split the building in half. The collapse of the North Tower at 10:28 a.m. EDT destroyed the rest of the hotel aside from a small section that was farthest from the North Tower. Fourteen people who had been trying to evacuate the partially destroyed hotel after the first collapse managed to survive the second collapse in this small section. The section of the hotel that had managed to survive the collapse of the Twin Towers had been upgraded after the 1993 bombing.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: On the afternoon of September 11, photographer Thomas E. Franklin captured the now-iconic image "Raising the Flag at Ground Zero", depicting the U.S. flag being raised by firefighters upon a flagpole believed to have been Marriott property located on what remained of the hotel grounds.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: As a result of the collapse of the Twin Towers, the hotel was destroyed beyond repair. Only a small three-story section of the southernmost part of the building remained standing, all of which was eventually removed. In the remnants of the lobby, picture frames with the pictures inside them were still hanging on the walls. Approximately 40 people died in the hotel, including two hotel employees who had stayed to aid the evacuation and a number of firefighters who had been clearing the hotel and using it as a staging ground.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: In January 2002, the remnants of the hotel were completely dismantled. The National September 11 Memorial & Museum exists where the hotel once stood.


title: Marriott World Trade Center

text: The building and its survivors were featured in the television special documentary film "Hotel Ground Zero", which premiered September 11, 2009 on the History Channel.


title: Shaving

text: Shaving is the removal of hair, by using a razor or any other kind of bladed implement, to slice it down—to the level of the skin or otherwise. Shaving is most commonly practiced by men to remove their facial hair and by women to remove their leg and underarm hair. A man is called "clean-shaven" if he has had his beard entirely removed.


title: Shaving

text: Both men and women sometimes shave their chest hair, abdominal hair, leg hair, underarm hair, pubic hair, or any other body hair. Head shaving is much more common among men. It is often associated with religious practice, the armed forces and some competitive sports such as swimming, running, and extreme sports. Historically, head shaving has also been used to humiliate, punish, for purification or to show submission to an authority. In more recent history, head shaving has been used in fund-raising efforts, particularly for cancer research organizations and charitable organizations which serve cancer patients. The shaving of head hair is also sometimes done by cancer patients when their treatment may result in hair loss.


title: Shaving

text: Before the advent of razors, hair was sometimes removed using two shells to pull the hair out or using water and a sharp tool. Around 3000 BC when copper tools were developed, copper razors were invented. The idea of an aesthetic approach to personal hygiene may have begun at this time, though Egyptian priests may have practiced something similar to this earlier. Alexander the Great strongly promoted shaving the beard for Macedonian soldiers before battle because he feared the enemy would grab them. In some Native American tribes, at the time of contact with British colonists, it was customary for men and women to remove all body hair.


title: Shaving

text: Straight razors are known to have been manufactured in Sheffield, England since the 18th century. In the United States, getting a straight razor shave in a barbershop and self-shaving with a straight razor were still common in the early 1900s. The popularisation of self-shaving changed this. According to an estimate by New York City barber Charles de Zemler, barbers' shaving revenue dropped from about 50 percent around the time of the Spanish–American War to 10 percent in 1939 due to the invention of the safety razor and electric razor.


title: Shaving

text: Safety razors have been known to exist since at least 1876 when the single-edge Star safety razor was patented by brothers Frederick and Otto Kampfe. The razor was essentially a small piece of a straight razor attached to a handle using a clamp mechanism. Before each shave the blade had to be attached to a special holder, stropped with a leather belt, and placed back into the razor. After a time, the blade needed to be honed by a cutler.


title: Shaving

text: In 1895, King Camp Gillette invented the double-edged safety razor, which utilised inexpensive, disposable blades sharpened from two sides. It took him until 1901 to build a working, patentable model, and commercial production began in 1903. The razor gained popularity during World War I when the U.S. military started issuing Gillette shaving kits to its servicemen: in 1918, the Gillette Safety Razor Company sold 3.5 million razors and 32 million blades. After the First World War, the company changed the pricing of its razor from a premium $5 to a more affordable $1, leading to another big surge in popularity. The Second World War led to a similar increase in users when Gillette was ordered to dedicate its entire razor production and most blade production to the U.S. military. During the war, 12.5 million razors and 1.5 billion blades were provided to servicemen.


title: Shaving

text: In 1970, Wilkinson Sword introduced the 'bonded blade' razor, which consisted of a single blade housed in a plastic cartridge. Gillette followed in 1971 with its Trac II cartridge razor that utilised two blades. Gillette built on this twin blade design for a time, introducing new razors with added features such as a pivoting head, lubricating strip, and spring-mounted blades until their 1998 launch of the triple-bladed Mach3 razor. Schick launched a four-blade Quattro razor later the same year, and in 2006 Gillette launched the five-blade Fusion. Since then, razors with six and seven blades have been introduced.


title: Shaving

text: Wholly disposable razors gained popularity in the 1970s after Bic brought the first disposable razor to market in 1974. Other manufacturers, Gillette included, soon introduced their own disposable razors, and by 1980 disposables made up more than 27 percent of worldwide unit sales for razors.


title: Shaving

text: Shaving can be done with a straight razor or safety razor (called 'manual shaving' or 'wet shaving') or an electric razor (called 'dry shaving') or beard trimmer.


title: Shaving

text: The removal of a full beard often requires the use of scissors or an electric (or beard) trimmer to reduce the mass of hair, simplifying the process.


title: Shaving

text: There are two types of manual razors: straight razor and safety razors. Safety razors are further subdivided into double-edged razors, single edge, injector razors, cartridge razors and disposable razors.


title: Shaving

text: Double-edge razors are named so because the blade that they use has two sharp edges on opposite sides of the blade. Current multi-bladed cartridge manufacturers attempt to differentiate themselves by having more or fewer blades than their competitors, each arguing that their product gives a greater shave quality at a more affordable price.


title: Shaving

text: Before wet shaving, the area to be shaved is usually doused in warm to hot water by showering or bathing or covered for several minutes with a hot wet towel to soften the skin and hair. A lathering or lubricating agent such as cream, shaving soap, gel, foam or oil is normally applied after this. Lubricating and moisturizing the skin to be shaved helps prevent irritation and damage known as razor burn. Many razor cartridges include a lubricating strip, made of polyethylene glycol, to function instead of or in supplement to extrinsic agents. It also lifts and softens the hairs, causing them to swell. This enhances the cutting action and sometimes permits cutting the hairs slightly below the surface of the skin. Additionally, during shaving, the lather indicates areas that have not been addressed. When soap is used, it is generally applied with a shaving brush, which has long, soft bristles. It is worked up into a usable lather by the brush, either against the face, in a shaving mug, bowl, scuttle, or palm of the hand.


title: Shaving

text: Since cuts are more likely when using safety razors and straight razors, wet shaving is generally done in more than one pass with the blade. The goal is to reduce the amount of hair with each pass, instead of trying to eliminate all of it in a single pass. This also reduces the risks of cuts, soreness, and ingrown hairs. Alum blocks and styptic pencils are used to close cuts resulting from the shave.


title: Shaving

text: An aftershave lotion or balm is sometimes used after finishing shaving. It may contain an antiseptic agent such as isopropyl alcohol, both to prevent infection from cuts and to act as an astringent to reduce skin irritation, a perfume, and a moisturizer to soften the facial skin.


title: Shaving

text: The electric razor (electric shaver) consists of a set of oscillating or rotating blades, which are held behind a perforated metal screen which prevents them from coming into contact with the skin and behaves much like the second blade in a pair of scissors. When the razor is held against the skin, the whiskers poke through the holes in the screen and are sliced by the moving blades. In some designs the blades are a rotating cylinder. In others they are one or more rotating disks or a set of oscillating blades. Each design has an optimum motion over the skin for the best shave and manufacturers provide guidance on this. Generally, circular or cylindrical blades (rotary-type shaver) move in a circular motion and oscillating blades (foil-type shaver) move left and right. Hitachi has produced foil-type shavers with a rotary blade that operates similarly to the blade assembly of a reel-type lawn mower. The first electric razor was built by Jacob Schick in 1928.


title: Shaving

text: The main disadvantages of electric shaving are that it may not cut the whiskers as closely as razor shaving does and it requires a source of electricity. The advantages include fewer cuts to the skin, quicker shaving and no need for water and lather sources. The initial cost of electric shaving is higher, due to the cost of the shaver itself, but the long-term cost can be significantly lower, since the cutting parts do not need replacement for approximately 18 months and a lathering product is not required. Some people also find they do not experience ingrown hairs (pseudofolliculitis barbae, also called razor bumps), when using an electric shaver.


title: Shaving

text: In contrast to wet shaving, electric shave lotions are intended to stiffen the whiskers. Stiffening is achieved by dehydrating the follicles using solutions of alcohols and a degreaser such as isopropyl myristate. Lotions are also sold to reduce skin irritation, but electric shaving does not usually require the application of any lubrication.


title: Shaving

text: Mechanical shavers powered by a spring motor have been manufactured, although in the late 20th century they became rare. Such shavers can operate for up to two minutes each time the spring is wound and do not require an electrical outlet or batteries. Such type of shaver, the "Monaco" brand, was used on American space flights in the 1960s and 1970s, during the Apollo missions.


title: Shaving

text: A trimmer has two adjacent blades, each with teeth on its cutting edge. One blade oscillates alongside a stationary blade so that the teeth cut any hair that falls between them. The main advantage of a trimmer, unlike shaving tools, is that longer beards can be trimmed to a short length efficiently and effectively, including as preparation for shaving.


title: Shaving

text: Shaving can have numerous side effects, including cuts, abrasions, and irritation. Many side effects can be minimized by using a fresh blade, applying plenty of lubrication, shaving in the direction of hair growth, and avoiding pressing the razor into the skin. A shaving brush can also help to lift the hair and spread the lubrication. The cosmetic market in some consumer economies offers many products to reduce these effects; they commonly dry the affected area, and some also help to lift out the trapped hair(s). Some people who shave choose to use only single-blade or wire-wrapped blades that shave farther away from the skin. Others have skin that cannot tolerate razor shaving at all; they use depilatory shaving powders to dissolve hair above the skin's surface, or grow a beard. Some anatomical parts, such as the scrotum, require extra care and more advanced equipment due to the uneven surface of the skin when the testicles shrivel during coldness, or its imbalance when the testicles hang low due to being warmer.


title: Shaving

text: Cuts from shaving can bleed for about fifteen minutes. Shaving cuts can be caused by blade movement perpendicular to the blade's cutting axis or by regular / orthogonal shaving over prominent bumps on the skin (which the blade incises). As such, the presence of acne can make shaving cuts more likely, and extra care must be exercised. The use of a fresh, sharp blade as well as proper cleaning and lubrication of skin can help prevent cuts. Some razor blade manufacturers include disposal containers or receptacles to avoid injuries to anyone handling the garbage.


title: Shaving

text: Razor burn is an irritation of the skin caused by using a blunt blade or not using proper technique. It appears as a mild rash 2–4 minutes after shaving (once hair starts to grow through sealed skin) and usually disappears after a few hours to a few days, depending on severity. In severe cases, razor burn can also be accompanied by razor bumps, where the area around shaved hairs get raised red welts or infected pustules.


title: Shaving

text: A rash at the time of shaving is usually a sign of lack of lubrication. Razor burn is a common problem, especially among those who shave coarse hairs on areas with sensitive skin like the bikini line, pubic hair, underarms, chest, and beard. The condition can be caused by shaving too closely, shaving with a blunt blade, dry shaving, applying too much pressure when shaving, shaving too quickly or roughly, or shaving against the grain.


title: Shaving

text: Ways to prevent razor burn include keeping the skin moist, using a shaving brush and lather, using a moisturizing shaving gel, shaving in the direction of the hair growth, resisting the urge to shave too closely, applying minimal pressure, avoiding scratching or irritation after shaving, avoiding irritating products on the shaved area (colognes, perfumes, etc.) and using an aftershave cream with aloe vera or other emollients. Putting a warm, wet cloth on one's skin helps as well, by softening hairs. This can also be done by using pre-shave oil before the application of shaving cream. Essential oils such as coconut oil, tea-tree oil, peppermint oil, and lavender oil help to soothe skin after shaving. They have anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antibacterial properties.


title: Shaving

text: In some cases multi-bladed razors can cause skin irritation by shaving too close to the skin. Switching to a single- or double-bladed razor and not stretching the skin while shaving can mitigate this.


title: Shaving

text: One other technique involves exfoliating the skin before and after shaving, using various exfoliating products, included but not limited to, brushes, mitts, and loofah. This process removes dead skin cells, reducing the potential for ingrown hairs and allowing the razor to glide across the skin smoothly decreasing the risk of the razor snagging or grabbing causing razor burn.


title: Shaving

text: Pseudofolliculitis barbae is a medical term for persistent inflammation caused by shaving. It is also known by the initials PFB or colloquial terms such as razor bumps.


title: Shaving

text: Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker, coarser or darker. This belief arose because hair that has never been cut has a naturally tapered end as it emerges from the skin's hair follicle, whereas, after cutting, there is no taper. The cut hair may thus appear to be thicker, and feel coarser as a result of the sharp edges on each cut strand. The fact that shorter hairs are "harder" (less flexible) than longer hairs also contributes to this effect. Hair can also appear darker after it grows back because hair that has never been cut is often lighter from sun exposure. In addition, as humans grow older hair tends to grow coarser and in more places on the face and body. For example, teenagers may start shaving their face or legs at around 16, but as they age hair will start to grow more abundantly and thicker, leading some to believe this was due to the shaving, but in reality is just part of the maturation process.


title: Shaving

text: Hindu, Jain and Buddhist (usually only monks or nuns) temples have ceremonies of shaving the hair from the scalp of priests, nuns, and certain followers, as a symbol of their renunciation of worldly fashion and esteem. Amish men and some other plain peoples shave their beard until they are married, after which they allow it to grow but continue to shave their mustaches. Tonsure is the practice of some Christian churches.


title: Shaving

text: In Hinduism, in certain communities, a child's birth hair is shaved off as part of a set of religious rites (samskaras)


title: Shaving

text: Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen said: The definition of the beard as stated by the scholars of (Arabic) language is: the hair of the face, jawbone and cheeks, in the sense that all the hair on the cheeks, jawbone and chin is part of the beard and removing any of it is counted as a sin, because the Messenger said: “Let your beards grow,” “Leave your beards alone,” “Let your beards increase,” “Let your beards be full.” This indicates that it is not permissible to remove anything from the beard. However, Ibn Omar, a companion of the Prophet Muhammad, used to cut from his beard anything that outgrew a fist’s length.


title: Shaving

text: According to the Shia scholars, the length of beard should not exceed the width of a fist. Trimming of facial hair is allowed, however, shaving it is Haram (forbidden).


title: Shaving

text: Observant Jewish men are subject to restrictions on the shaving of their beards, as Leviticus 19:27 forbids the shaving of the "corners of the head" and prohibits the "marring" of the "corners of the beard". The Hebrew word used in this verse refers specifically to shaving with a blade against the skin; rabbis at different times and places have interpreted it in many ways.


title: Shaving

text: Tools like scissors and electric razors, which cut the hair between two blades instead of between blade and skin, are permitted.


title: Oldowan

text: The Oldowan (or Mode I) was a widespread stone tool archaeological industry (style) in prehistory. These early tools were simple, usually made with one or a few flakes chipped off with another stone. Oldowan tools were used during the Lower Paleolithic period, 2.6 million years ago up until at least 1.7 million years ago, by ancient Hominins (early humans) across much of Africa. This technological industry was followed by the more sophisticated Acheulean industry (two sites associated with "Homo erectus" at Gona in the Afar Region of Ethiopia dating from 1.5 and 1.26 million years ago have both Oldowan and Acheulean tools).


title: Oldowan

text: The term "Oldowan" is taken from the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where the first Oldowan stone tools were discovered by the archaeologist Louis Leakey in the 1930s. However, some contemporary archaeologists and palaeoanthropologists prefer to use the term "Mode 1" tools to designate pebble tool industries (including Oldowan), with "Mode 2" designating bifacially worked tools (including Acheulean handaxes), "Mode 3" designating prepared-core tools, and so forth.


title: Oldowan

text: Classification of Oldowan tools is still somewhat contentious. Mary Leakey was the first to create a system to classify Oldowan assemblages, and built her system based on prescribed use. The system included choppers, scrapers, and pounders. However, more recent classifications of Oldowan assemblages have been made that focus primarily on manufacture due to the problematic nature of assuming use from stone artefacts. An example is Isaac et al.'s tri-modal categories of "Flaked Pieces" (cores/choppers), "Detached Pieces" (flakes and fragments), "Pounded Pieces" (cobbles utilized as hammerstones, etc.) and "Unmodified Pieces" (manuports, stones transported to sites). Oldowan tools are sometimes called "pebble tools", so named because the blanks chosen for their production already resemble, in pebble form, the final product.


title: Oldowan

text: It is not known for sure which hominin species created and used Oldowan tools. Its emergence is often associated with the species "Australopithecus garhi" and its flourishing with early species of "Homo" such as "H. habilis" and "H. ergaster". Early "Homo erectus" appears to inherit Oldowan technology and refines it into the Acheulean industry beginning 1.7 million years ago.


title: Oldowan

text: The oldest known Oldowan tools have been found in Gona, Ethiopia (near the Awash River), and are dated to about 2.6 mya.


title: Oldowan

text: The use of tools by apes including chimpanzees and orangutans can be used to argue in favour of tool-use as an ancestral feature of the hominin family. Tools made from bone, wood, or other organic materials were therefore in all probability used before the Oldowan. Oldowan stone tools are simply the oldest recognisable tools which have been preserved in the archaeological record.


title: Oldowan

text: There is a flourishing of Oldowan tools in eastern Africa, spreading to southern Africa, between 2.4 and 1.7 mya. At 1.7 mya., the first Acheulean tools appear even as Oldowan assemblages continue to be produced. Both technologies are occasionally found in the same areas, dating to the same time periods. This realisation required a rethinking of old cultural sequences in which the more "advanced" Acheulean was supposed to have succeeded the Oldowan. The different traditions may have been used by different species of hominins living in the same area, or multiple techniques may have been used by an individual species in response to different circumstances.


title: Oldowan

text: Sometime before 1.8 mya "Homo erectus" had spread outside of Africa, reaching as far east as Java by 1.8 mya and in Northern China by 1.66 mya. In these newly colonised areas, no Acheulean assemblages have been found. In China, only "Mode 1" Oldowan assemblages were produced, while in Indonesia stone tools from this age are unknown.