title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The Royal New Zealand Air Force operates eight Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters. These eight aircraft are part of No. 6 Squadron. The squadron is based at RNZAF Base Auckland, and helicopters are assigned to the ships as they are sent on deployments across the globe. The roles of the helicopters include:


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: A number of non-commissioned auxiliary vessels are used for a number or littoral, support and training purposes.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The RNZN does not operate any ship-based unmanned aerial systems. However, according to a recent tender document, there exists some considerable scope for the acquisition of new systems.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: HMNZS "Matataua" (MAT) is a land-based unit (a stone frigate) formed in 2017 (it was previously the Littoral Warfare Unit) with two operational groups, one for military hydrographics and the other clearance diving, and a logistics support group. It combines the former teams for mine counter measures, maritime survey and operational diving and operates four REMUS 100 Autonomous underwater vehicles. MAT is responsible for ensuring access to and the use of harbours, inshore waters and associated coastal zones. The clearance diving group responsibilities include the disposal of explosive ordnance, beach reconnaissance in support of amphibious operations, underwater engineering and underwater search and recovery in support of the NZ Police.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The RNZN has a role to help prevent any unrest occurring in New Zealand. This can be done by having a presence in overseas waters and assisting redevelopment in troubled countries. For example, any unrest in the Pacific Islands has the potential to affect New Zealand because of the large Pacific Island population. The stability of the South Pacific is considered in the interest of New Zealand. The navy has participated in peace-keeping and peace-making in


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The 2002 Maritime Forces Review identified a number of roles that other government agencies required the RNZN to undertake. Approximately 1,400 days at sea are required to fulfil these roles annually.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: Roles include patrolling the exclusive economic zone, transport to offshore islands, and support for the New Zealand Customs Service.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The RNZN formerly produced hydrographic information for Land Information New Zealand under a commercial contract arrangement, however with the decommissioning of the dedicated Hydrographic survey ship HMNZS Resolution this has lapsed and the Navy now focuses on military hydrography.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: Since 2001, both "Anzac"-class frigates have participated in the United States' Operation Enduring Freedom in the Persian Gulf and have conducted maritime patrol operations in support of American and allied efforts in Afghanistan.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: On 21 June 2006 "Te Mana" was in South East Asia, and "Te Kaha" was in New Zealand waters, to be deployed to South East Asia in the second half of 2006.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: All regular force personnel on discharge from the RNZN are liable for service in the Royal New Zealand Navy Fleet Reserve. The Fleet reserve has an active and inactive list. RNZNVR personnel can choose to serve four years in the fleet reserve on discharge.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The primary reserve component of the RNZN is the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNZNVR), which is organised into four units based in Auckland (with a satellite unit at Tauranga), Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin:


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: At present civilians can join the RNZNVR in one of three branches: Administration, Sea Service (for service on inshore patrol vessels), and Maritime Trade Organisation (formerly Naval Control of Shipping). In addition ex regular force personnel can now join the RNZNVR in their former branch, and depending on time out of the service, rank. The requirement to attend compulsory training one night a week has recently been removed.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: Naval Ratings begin an 18-week basic training course (Basic Common Training) prior to commencing their branch training (Basic Branch Training) which focuses on their chosen trade.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The RNZN is funded through a "vote" of the Parliament of New Zealand. The New Zealand Defence Force funds personnel, operating and finance costs. Funding is then allocated to specific "Output Classes", which are aligned to policy objectives.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: Funding allocation in each Output Class includes consumables, personnel, depreciation and a 'Capital Charge'. The Capital Charge is a budgetary mechanism to reflect the cost of Crown capital and was set at 7.5% for the 2009/2010 year.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The Ministry of Defence is responsible for the acquisition of significant items of military equipment needed to meet New Zealand Defence Force capability requirements. Funding for the Ministry of Defence is appropriated separately.


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: The Navy Museum of the Royal New Zealand Navy is located at 64 King Edward Parade, Devonport, Auckland, New Zealand


title: Royal New Zealand Navy

text: Uniforms of the RNZN are very similar to those of the British Royal Navy and other Commonwealth of Nations navies. However, RNZN personnel wear the nationality marker "NEW ZEALAND" on a curved shoulder flash on the service uniform and embroidered on shoulder slip-ons. Also, the RNZN uses the rank of Ensign as its lowest commissioned rank.


title: Babalon

text: Babalon (also known as the Scarlet Woman, Great Mother or Mother of Abominations) is a goddess found in the occult system of Thelema, which was established in 1904 with the writing of "The Book of the Law" by English author and occultist Aleister Crowley. The spelling of the name as 'Babalon' was revealed to Crowley in "The Vision and the Voice". Her name and imagery feature prominently in Crowley's "Liber Cheth vel Vallum Abiegni".


title: Babalon

text: In her most abstract form, Babalon represents the female sexual impulse and the liberated woman. In the creed of the Gnostic Mass she is also identified with Mother Earth, in her most fertile sense. Along with her status as an archetype or goddess, Crowley believed that Babalon had an earthly aspect or avatar; a living woman who occupied the spiritual office of the 'Scarlet Woman'. This office, first identified in "The Book of the Law" is usually described as a counterpart to his own identification as "To Mega Therion" (The Great Beast). The role of the Scarlet Woman was to help manifest the energies of the Aeon of Horus. Crowley believed that several women in his life occupied the office of Scarlet Woman, for which see the list below.


title: Babalon

text: Babalon's consort is Chaos, called the "Father of Life" in the Gnostic Mass, being the male form of the creative principle. Chaos appears in "The Vision and the Voice" and later in "Liber Cheth vel Vallum Abiegni". Separate from her relationship with her consort, Babalon is usually depicted as riding the Beast. She is often referred to as a sacred whore, and her primary symbol is the chalice or graal.


title: Babalon

text: As Crowley wrote in his "The Book of Thoth", "she rides astride the Beast; in her left hand she holds the reins, representing the passion which unites them. In her right she holds aloft the cup, the Holy Grail aflame with love and death. In this cup are mingled the elements of the sacrament of the Aeon".


title: Babalon

text: The Whore of Babylon is referred to in several places in the Book of Revelation, a book which may have had an influence on Thelema, as Aleister Crowley says he read it as a child and imagined himself as the Beast. She is described in Chapter 17:3-6:


title: Babalon

text: Here, Babalon is identified with Binah on the Tree of Life, the sphere that represents the Great Sea and such mother-goddesses as Isis, Bhavani, and Ma'at. Moreover, she represents all physical mothers. Bishops T. Apiryon and Helena write:


title: Babalon

text: Another source is from the system of Enochian magic created by Dr. John Dee and Sir Edward Kelley in the 16th century. This system is based upon a unique language, Enochian, two words of which are certainly relevant. The first is BABALOND, which is translated as "harlot". The other is BABALON, which means "wicked". Some flavour of context in which they appear can be found in a communication received by Dee and Kelley in 1587:


title: Babalon

text: Within the mystical system of the A∴A∴, after the adept has attained the Knowledge and Conversation of his Holy Guardian Angel, he then might reach the next and last great milestone — the crossing of the Abyss, that great spiritual wilderness of nothingness and dissolution. Choronzon is the dweller there, and its job is to trap the traveler in his meaningless world of illusion.


title: Babalon

text: However, Babalon is just on the other side, beckoning. If the adept gives himself totally to her — the symbol of this act being the pouring of the adept’s blood into her graal — he becomes impregnated in her, then to be reborn as a Master of the Temple and a saint that dwells in the City of the Pyramids. From Crowley's book "Magick Without Tears":


title: Babalon

text: She is considered to be a sacred whore because she denies no one, and yet she extracts a great price — the very blood of the adept and their ego-identity as an earthly individual. This aspect of Babalon is described further from the 12th Aethyr:


title: Babalon

text: One of the most extensive descriptions by Crowley of Babalon's daughter is to be found in "The Vision and the Voice", 9th Aethyr, quoted in "The Book of Thoth":


title: Babalon

text: The concept contained within this aspect of Babalon is that of the mystical ideal, the quest to become one with all through the annihilation of the earthly ego ("For as thy blood is mingled in the cup of BABALON, so is thine heart the universal heart."). The blood spilling into the graal of Babalon is then used by her to "flood the world with Life and Beauty" (meaning to create Masters of the Temple that are "released" back into the world of men), symbolized by the Crimson Rose of 49 Petals.


title: Babalon

text: In sex magic, the mixture of female sexual fluids and semen produced in the sexual act with the Scarlet Woman or Babalon is called the elixir of life. Another alternative form of this elixir is the "Elixir Rubeus" consisting of the menstrual blood and semen (abbreviated as "El. Rub." by Crowley in his magical diaries), and is referred to as the "effluvium of Babalon, the Scarlet Woman, which is the menstruum of the lunar current" by Kenneth Grant.


title: Babalon

text: Although Crowley often wrote that Babalon and the Scarlet Woman are one, there are also many instances where the Scarlet Woman is seen more as a representative or physical manifestation of the universal feminine principle. In a footnote to "Liber Reguli", Crowley mentions that of the "Gods of the Aeon," the Scarlet Woman and the Beast are "the earthly emissaries of those Gods." In "The Vision and the Voice", he wrote "This is Babalon, the true mistress of The Beast; of Her, all his mistresses on lower planes are but avatars." In "The Law is for All", he writes:


title: Babalon

text: Aleister Crowley believed that many of his lovers and magical companions were playing a cosmic role, even to the point of fulfilling prophecy. The following is a list of women that he considered to have been (or might have been) scarlet women (quotes are from "The Law is for All"):


title: Pamela Springsteen

text: Pamela Colleen Springsteen (born ) is an American actress and photographer. She had a short acting career, and is best known for playing the role of serial killer Angela Baker in the cult slasher/comedy/horror films "" (1988), and "" (1989). She had two co-starring roles in the obscure comedies "Dixie Lanes" (1988), "The Gumshoe Kid" (1990), and smaller roles in mainstream films like "Fast Times at Ridgemont High" (1982), "Reckless" (1984) and "Modern Girls" (1986). She is a still photographer in the film and music industry. She is the younger sister of Bruce Springsteen.


title: Pamela Springsteen

text: Pamela Springsteen was born in Freehold Township, New Jersey, to Adele Ann (née Zerilli), a legal secretary of Italian ancestry, and Douglas Frederick "Dutch" Springsteen, who was of Dutch and Irish ancestry, and worked as a bus driver. When Springsteen was 7 years old, she moved with her parents to California in 1969. In addition to her older brother Bruce Springsteen, with whom Pamela sometimes went on tour, she has a sister, Virginia Springsteen Shave. She was raised a Catholic.


title: Pamela Springsteen

text: Springsteen took up acting, and was cast in her first role as a young cheerleader in "Fast Times at Ridgemont High". She also appeared as a cheerleader in the 1984 film "Reckless". She appeared in "Modern Girls", and "Scenes from the Goldmine". Her first main supporting role came in 1988 as Judy in the obscure comedy "Dixie Lanes" and had her first lead role during that same year when she played psychotic serial killer Angela Baker in the low budget cult horror "", a role she reprised in 1989's "". The films have earned her a following among horror fans. Due to this she had a 10-minute supporting role as Mary Beth Bensen in a sex comedy by the same makers titled "Fast Food". Her final film appearance to date was in 1990's "The Gumshoe Kid".


title: Pamela Springsteen

text: Springsteen has also made guest appearances on television series' such as "The Facts of Life", "Cagney & Lacey", "Hardcastle and McCormick", and "Family Ties". She left acting in order to pursue her career as a still photographer.


title: Pamela Springsteen

text: Springsteen began her career as a still photographer in the film and music industry. She photographed for a number of her brother's record singles, albums and other publicity stills, and was credited with photography on his album "Lucky Town". She also photographed a number of other album covers for other artists such as Vonda Shepard and N.W.A. She was also credited as the cinematographer on his music video "The Ghost of Tom Joad". She did still photography work on the films "Jack the Dog", "Manhood" and "Berkeley", the television films "The Price of a Broken Heart" and "Dancing at the Harvest Moon", and the documentary "The Making of the Crying Game". She was a photo consultant on the television film "The Devil's Child".


title: Pamela Springsteen

text: Her style of photography has attracted many celebrities, including Courtney Thorne-Smith, Dolly Parton, Tom Hanks, Calista Flockhart, Olivia Newton-John, Jaclyn Smith and rock band Def Leppard.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The Great Sioux War of 1876, also known as the Black Hills War, was a series of battles and negotiations that occurred in 1876 and 1877 in an alliance of Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne against the United States. The cause of the war was the desire of the US government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills. Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and the Sioux and the Cheyenne refused to cede ownership. Traditionally, American military and historians place the Lakota at the center of the story, especially because of their numbers, but some Native Americans believe the Cheyenne were the primary target of the American campaign.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Among the many battles and skirmishes of the war was the Battle of the Little Bighorn; often known as Custer's Last Stand, it is the most storied of the many encounters between the US Army and mounted Plains Indians. Despite the Indian victory, the Americans leveraged national resources to force the Indians to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under US Presidents Ulysses S. Grant and Rutherford B. Hayes. The Agreement of 1877 (, enacted February 28, 1877) officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The Cheyenne had migrated west to the Black Hills and Powder River Country before the Lakota and introduced them to horse culture about 1730. By the late 18th century, the growing Lakota tribe had begun expanding its territory west of the Missouri River. They pushed out the Kiowa and formed alliances with the Cheyenne and Arapaho to gain control of the rich buffalo hunting grounds of the northern Great Plains. The Black Hills, located in present-day western South Dakota, became an important source to the Lakota for lodge poles, plant resources and small game. They are considered sacred to the Lakota culture.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: By the early 19th century, the Northern Cheyenne became the first to wage tribal-level warfare. Because European Americans used many different names for the Cheyenne, the military may not have realized their unity. The US Army destroyed seven Cheyenne camps before 1876 and three more that year, more than any other tribes suffered in this period. From 1860 on, the Cheyenne were a major force in warfare on the Plains. "No other group on the plains achieved such centralized tribal organization and authority." The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, signed with the US by Lakota and Northern Cheyenne leaders following Red Cloud's War, set aside a portion of the Lakota territory as the Great Sioux Reservation. This comprised the western one-half of South Dakota, including the Black Hills region for their exclusive use. It also provided for a large "unceded territory" in Wyoming and Montana, the Powder River Country, as Cheyenne and Lakota hunting grounds. On both the reservation and the unceded territory, white men were forbidden to trespass, except for officials of the U.S. government.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The growing number of miners and settlers encroaching in the Dakota Territory, however, rapidly nullified the protections. The US government could not keep settlers out. By 1872, territorial officials were considering harvesting the rich timber resources of the Black Hills, to be floated down the Cheyenne River to the Missouri, where new plains settlements needed lumber. The geographic uplift area suggested the potential for mineral resources. When a commission approached the Red Cloud Agency about the possibility of the Lakota's signing away the Black Hills, Colonel John E. Smith noted that this was "the only portion [of their reservation] worth anything to them". He concluded that "nothing short of their annihilation will get it from them".


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: As a result, Cheyenne and Lakota began moving west into land belonging to smaller tribes. Most battles in the coming war would be fought "on lands those Indians had taken from other tribes since 1851". The resulting effect was resistance to the Lakotas from the local Crow tribe, which had treaty on the area. Already in 1873, Crow chief Blackfoot had called for U.S. military actions against the Indian intruders. The steady Lakota invasion into treaty areas belonging to the smaller tribes guaranteed that the United States would find allies in the Arikaras and the Crows who saw the Cheyenne and Lakotas as trespassers.]


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: In 1874, the government dispatched the Custer Expedition to examine the Black Hills. The Lakota were alarmed at his expedition. Before Custer's column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln, news of their discovery of gold was telegraphed nationally. The presence of valuable mineral resources was confirmed the following year by the Newton–Jenney Geological Expedition. Prospectors, motivated by the economic panic of 1873, began to trickle into the Black Hills in violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty. This trickle turned into a flood as thousands of miners invaded the Hills before the gold rush was over. Organized groups came from states as far away as New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Initially, the United States Army struggled to keep miners out of the region. In December 1874, for example, a group of miners led by John Gordon from Sioux City, Iowa, managed to evade Army patrols and reached the Black Hills, where they spent three months before the Army ejected them. Such evictions, however, increased political pressure on the Grant Administration to secure the Black Hills from the Lakota.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: In May 1875, Sioux delegations headed by Spotted Tail, Red Cloud, and Lone Horn traveled to Washington, D.C. in an eleventh-hour attempt to persuade President Ulysses S. Grant to honor existing treaties and stem the flow of miners into their territories. They met with Grant, Secretary of the Interior Columbus Delano, and Commissioner of Indian Affairs Edward Smith. The US leaders said that the Congress wanted to pay the tribes $25,000 for the land and have them relocate to Indian Territory (in present-day Oklahoma). The delegates refused to sign a new treaty with these stipulations. Spotted Tail said, "You speak of another country, but it is not my country; it does not concern me, and I want nothing to do with it. I was not born there ... If it is such a good country, you ought to send the white men now in our country there and let us alone." Although the chiefs were unsuccessful in finding a peaceful solution, they did not join Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the warfare that followed.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Later that year, a US commission was sent to each of the Indian agencies to hold councils with the Lakota. They hoped to gain the people's approval and thereby bring pressure on the Lakota leaders to sign a new treaty. The government's attempt to secure the Black Hills failed. While the Black Hills were at the center of the growing crisis, Lakota resentment was growing over expanding US interests in other portions of Lakota territory. For instance, the government proposed that the route of the Northern Pacific Railroad would cross through the last of the great buffalo hunting grounds. In addition, the US Army had carried out several devastating attacks on Cheyenne camps before 1876.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The number of Indian combatants in the war is disputed with estimates ranging from 900 up to 4,000 warriors. The seven bands of the Lakota Sioux in the 1870s numbered perhaps 15,000 men, women, and children, but most of them were living on the Great Sioux Reservation and were noncombatants. An Indian agent in November 1875 said the Indians living in the unceded areas numbered "a few hundred warriors." General Crook estimated that he might face up to 2,000 warriors. Most of the Sioux who remained in the unceded territory where the war would take place were Oglala and Hunkpapa, numbering about 5,500 in total. Added to this were about 1,500 Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho for a total hostile Indian population of about 7,000, which might include as many as 2,000 warriors. The number of warriors participating in the Battle of the Little Bighorn is estimated at between 900 and 2,000.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The Indians had advantages in mobility and knowledge of the country, but all Indians were part-time warriors. In spring, they were partially immobilized by the weakness of their horses which had survived the long winter on limited forage. Much of summer and fall they spent hunting buffalo to feed their families. About one half of the Indian warriors were armed with guns, ranging from repeating rifles to antiquated muskets, and one half with bows and arrows. The short, stout Indian bow was designed to be used from horseback and was deadly at short range, but nearly worthless against a distant or well-fortified enemy. Ammunition was in short supply. Indian warriors had traditionally fought for individual prestige, rather than strategic objectives, although Crazy Horse seems to have instilled in the Sioux some sense of collective endeavor. The Cheyenne were the most centralized and best organized of the Plains Indians. The Sioux and Cheyenne were also at war with their long-time enemies, the Crow and Shoshone, which drained off many of their resources.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: To combat the Sioux the U.S. army had a string of forts ringing the Great Sioux Reservation and unceded territory. The largest force arrayed against the Indians at one time was in summer 1876 and consisted of 2,500 soldiers deployed in the unceded territory and accompanied by hundreds of Indian scouts and civilians. Many of the soldiers were recent immigrants and inexperienced on the frontier and in Indian warfare. Cavalry soldiers were armed with .45 caliber, single-action revolvers and the Springfield model 1873, a single-shot, breech-loading rifle which gave the soldiers a large advantage in range over most Indian firearms.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Grant and his administration began to consider alternatives to the failed diplomatic venture. In early November 1875, Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan, commander of the Division of the Missouri, and Brigadier General George Crook, commander of the Department of the Platte, were called to Washington, D.C. to meet with Grant and several members of his cabinet to discuss the Black Hills issue. They agreed that the Army should stop evicting trespassers from the reservation, thus opening the way for the Black Hills Gold Rush. In addition, they discussed initiating military action against the bands of Lakota and Northern Cheyenne who had refused to come to the Indian agencies for council. Indian Inspector Erwin C. Watkins supported this option. "The true policy in my judgement," he wrote, "is to send troops against them in the winter, the sooner the better, and whip them into subjection."


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Concerned about launching a war against the Lakota without provocation, the government instructed Indian agents in the region to notify all Lakota and Sioux to return to the reservation by January 31, 1876, or face potential military action. The US agent at Standing Rock Agency expressed concern that this was insufficient time for the Lakota to respond, as deep winter restricted travel. His request to extend the deadline was denied. General Sheridan considered the notification exercise a waste of time. "The matter of notifying the Indians to come in is perhaps well to put on paper," he commented, "but it will in all probability be regarded as a good joke by the Indians."


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Meanwhile, in the council lodges of the non-treaty bands, Lakota leaders seriously discussed the notification for return. Short Bull, a member of the Soreback Band of the Oglala, later recalled that many of the bands had gathered on the Tongue River. "About one hundred men went out from the agency to coax the hostiles to come in under pretense that the trouble about the Black Hills was to be settled," he said. "...All the hostiles agreed that since it was late [in the season] and they had to shoot for "tipis" [i.e., hunt buffalo] they would come in to the agency the following spring."


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: As the deadline of January 31 passed, the new Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Q. Smith, wrote that "without the receipt of any news of Sitting Bull's submission, I see no reason why, in the discretion of the Hon. the Secretary of War, military operations against him should not commence at once." His superior, Secretary of the Interior Zachariah Chandler agreed, adding that "the said Indians are hereby turned over to the War Department for such action on the part of the Army as you may deem proper under the circumstances." On February 8, 1876, General Sheridan telegraphed Generals Crook and Terry, ordering them to commence their winter campaigns against the "hostiles", thus starting The Great Sioux War of 1876–77.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: While General Terry stalled, General Crook immediately launched the first strike. He dispatched Colonel Joseph J. Reynolds with six companies of cavalry, who located a village of about 65 lodges and attacked on the morning of March 17, 1876. Crook accompanied the column but did not play any command role. His troops initially took control of and burned the village, but they quickly retreated under enemy fire. The US troops left several soldiers on the battlefield, an action which led to Colonel Reynolds' court-martial. The US captured the band's pony herd, but the following day, the Lakota recovered many of their horses in a raid. At the time, the Army believed they had attacked Crazy Horse; however, it had actually been a village of Northern Cheyenne (led by Old Bear, Two Moons and White Bull) with a few Oglala (led by He Dog.)


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: In the late spring of 1876 a second, much larger campaign was launched. From Fort Abraham Lincoln marched the Dakota Column, commanded by General Alfred Terry, with 15 companies or about 570 men, including Custer and all 12 companies of the Seventh Cavalry. The Montana Column, commanded by Colonel John Gibbon, departed Fort Ellis. General Crook commanded a third column that departed Fort Fetterman to head north. The plan was for all three columns to converge simultaneously on the Lakota hunting grounds and pin down the Indians between the approaching troops.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: General Crook's column was the first to make contact with the northern bands in the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. While Crook claimed a victory, most historians note that the Indians had effectively checked his advance. Thus the Battle of the Rosebud was at the very least a tactical draw if not a victory for the Indians. Afterward General Crook remained in camp for several weeks awaiting reinforcements, essentially taking his column out of the fighting for a significant period of time.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and the Seventh Cavalry were ordered out from the main Dakota Column to scout the Rosebud and Big Horn river valleys. On June 25, 1876, they encountered a large village on the west bank of the Little Bighorn. The US troops were seriously beaten in the Battle of the Little Bighorn and nearly 270 men were killed, including Custer. Custer split his forces just prior to the battle and his immediate command of five cavalry companies was annihilated without any survivors. Two days later, a combined force consisting of Colonel Gibbon's column, along with Terry's headquarters staff and the Dakota Column infantry, reached the area and rescued the US survivors of the Reno-Benteen fight. Gibbon then headed his forces to the east, chasing trails but unable to engage the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors in battle.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Reinforced with the Fifth Cavalry, General Crook took to the field. Hooking up briefly with General Terry, he soon moved out on his own but did not find a large village. Running short on supplies, his column turned south and made what became called the Horsemeat March toward mining settlements to find food. On September 9, 1876, an advance company from his column en route to Deadwood to procure supplies stumbled across a small village at Slim Buttes, which they attacked and looted. Crazy Horse learned of the assault on the village and the next day led a counter-attack, which was repulsed. After reaching Camp Robinson, Crook's forces disbanded.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: In the wake of Custer's defeat at the Little Bighorn, the Army altered its tactics. They increased troop levels at the Indian agencies. That fall, they attached most of the troops to the Army for operations. They seized horses and weapons belonging to friendly bands at the agencies, for fear they would be given to the resisting northern bands. In October 1876, Army troops surrounded the villages of Red Cloud and Red Leaf. They arrested and briefly confined the leaders, holding them responsible for failing to turn in individuals arriving in camp from hostile bands. The US sent another commission to the agencies. According to historian Colin Calloway, "Congress passed a law extinguishing all Lakota rights outside the Great Sioux Reservation."


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie and his Fourth Cavalry were transferred to the Department of the Platte following the defeat at the Little Bighorn. Stationed initially at Camp Robinson, they formed the core of the Powder River Expedition that departed in October 1876 to locate the northern villages. On November 25, 1876, his column discovered and defeated a village of Northern Cheyenne in the Dull Knife Fight in Wyoming Territory. With their lodges and supplies destroyed and their horses confiscated, the Northern Cheyenne soon surrendered. They hoped to be allowed to remain with the Sioux in the north. They were pressured to relocate to the reservation of the Southern Cheyenne in Indian Territory. After a difficult council, they agreed to go.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: When they arrived at the reservation in present-day Oklahoma, conditions were very difficult: inadequate rations, no buffalo left alive near the reservation, and malaria. A portion of the Northern Cheyenne, led by Little Wolf and Dull Knife, attempted to return to the north in the fall of 1877 in the Northern Cheyenne Exodus. They succeeded in reaching the north. After they divided into two bands, that led by Dull Knife was captured and imprisoned in an unheated barracks at Fort Robinson without food or water. When the Cheyenne escaped on January 9, 1878, many died at US Army hands in the subsequent Fort Robinson massacre. Eventually the US government granted the Northern Cheyenne a northern reservation, the Northern Cheyenne Reservation in present-day southern Montana.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Another strategy of the US Army was to place troops deep within the heartland of Lakota Territory. In the fall of 1876, Colonel Nelson A. Miles and his Fifth Infantry established Cantonment on Tongue River (later renamed Fort Keogh) from which he operated throughout the winter of 1876–77 against any hostiles he could find. In January 1877, he fought Crazy Horse and many other bands at the Battle of Wolf Mountain. In the months that followed, his troops fought the Lakota at Clear Creek, Spring Creek and Ash Creek. Miles' continuous campaigning pushed a number of the Northern Cheyenne and Lakota to either surrender or slip across the border into Canada. Miles later commanded the US Army during the Spanish–American War.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The Agreement of 1877 (, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: While military leaders began planning a spring campaign against the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne who had refused to come in, a number of diplomatic efforts were underway in an effort to end the war.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: After the defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve" rider () to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876) which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: As the winter wore on, rumors reached Camp Robinson that the northern bands were interested in surrendering. The commanding officer sent out a peace delegation. About 30 young men, mostly Oglala and Northern Cheyenne, departed from the Red Cloud Agency on January 16, 1877, to make the dangerous journey north. Among the most prominent members of this delegation was a young Oglala named Enemy Bait (better known later as George Sword). He was the son of the prominent headman Brave Bear. The delegation found Crazy Horse on the Powder River, but found no indication that he was prepared to surrender. Other Oglala camps nearby, however, were more willing to hear the message and seriously consider surrendering at the agencies. In late February, part of the delegation continued on to find the Northern Cheyenne, where they delivered the same message.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The influential Brulé headman Spotted Tail also agreed to lead a peace delegation out to meet with the "hostiles". Departing his agency on February 12, 1877, with perhaps 200 people, Spotted Tail moved north along the eastern edge of the Black Hills. They soon found a large village of Miniconjou under Touch the Clouds, near Short Pine Hills on the Little Missouri River. After several days of councils, they agreed to go in and surrender at the Spotted Tail Agency.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Spotted Tail's delegation continued on to the Little Powder River, where they met with Miniconjou, Sans Arc, Oglala and a few Northern Cheyenne, including leaders such as Black Shield, Fast Bull, Lame Deer, and Roman Nose. Most of these bands also agreed to go in to the Spotted Tail Agency to surrender. Crazy Horse was not in the camp, but his father gave a horse to a member of the delegation, as evidence that the Oglala war leader was ready to surrender.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Not to be outdone by General Crook's diplomatic efforts, Colonel Miles sent out a peace initiative from his Tongue River Cantonment. Scout Johnny Brughier, aided by two captive Cheyenne women, found the Northern Cheyenne village on the Little Bighorn. They met in councils for several days. His effort would lead to a large contingent of Northern Cheyenne eventually surrendering at the Tongue River Cantonment.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: On April 13, a second delegation departed the Red Cloud Agency, led by the noted Oglala leader Red Cloud, with nearly 70 other members of various bands. This delegation met Crazy Horse's people "en route" to the agency to surrender and accompanied them most of the way in.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The continuous military campaigns and the intensive diplomatic efforts finally began to yield results in the early spring of 1877 as large numbers of northern bands began to surrender. In April 1877, an aide of General Crook's wrote to a friend: "I am now fully satisfied that the great Sioux War is now ended and that we will have once more a chance to have peace." A large number of Northern Cheyenne, led by Dull Knife and Standing Elk, surrendered at the Red Cloud Agency on April 21, 1877. They were shipped to Indian Territory the following month. Touch the Clouds and Roman Nose arrived with bands at the Spotted Tail Agency. Crazy Horse surrendered with his band at Red Cloud on May 5.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The respected Oglala leader Crazy Horse spent several months with his band at the Red Cloud Agency amidst an environment of intense politics. Fearing he was about to break away, the Army moved to surround his village and arrest the leader on September 4, 1877. Crazy Horse slipped away to the Spotted Tail Agency. The following day, Crazy Horse was brought back to Camp Robinson with the promise that he could meet with the post commander. Instead, he was taken to the guard house under arrest. During his struggle to escape, he was fatally bayoneted by a soldier.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: While many of the Lakota surrendered at the various agencies along the Missouri River or in northwestern Nebraska, Sitting Bull led a large contingent across the international border into Canada. General Terry was part of a delegation sent to negotiate with the bands, hoping to persuade them to surrender and return to the US, but they refused.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: Not until the buffalo were seriously depleted, and troubles began to surface with other native tribes in Canada, did they finally return. In 1880–81, most of the Lakota from Canada surrendered at Fort Keogh and Fort Buford. US forces transferred them by steamboat to the Standing Rock Agency 1881.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The Great Sioux War of 1876–77 contrasted sharply with Red Cloud's War fought a decade earlier. During the 1860s, Lakota leaders enjoyed wide support from their bands for the fighting. By contrast, in 1876–77, nearly two-thirds of all Lakota had settled at Indian agencies to accept rations and gain subsistence. Such bands did not support or participate in the fighting.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: The deep political divisions within the Lakota continued well into the early reservation period, affecting native politics for several decades. In 1889–90, the rise of the Ghost Dance movement found a large majority of its followers among the non-agency bands who had fought in the Great Sioux War.


title: Great Sioux War of 1876

text: While much more numerous in total population, the bands of the Lakota generally were independent and made separate decisions about warfare. Many bands did ally with the Cheyenne, and there was intermarriage between the tribes. An alternative view is that the Plains Indians considered the war of 1876–77 to be "The Great Cheyenne War".


title: Al-Kindi

text: Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ; ; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician and music theorist. Al-Kindi was the first of the Islamic peripatetic philosophers, and is hailed as the "father of Arab philosophy".


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was born in Kufa and educated in Baghdad. He became a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom, and a number of Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language. This contact with "the philosophy of the ancients" (as Hellenistic philosophy was often referred to by Muslim scholars) had a profound effect on him, as he synthesized, adapted and promoted Hellenistic and Peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world. He subsequently wrote hundreds of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to medicine, pharmacology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology and optics, and further afield to more practical topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In the field of mathematics, al-Kindi played an important role in introducing Indian numerals to the Islamic world, and their further development into Arabic numerals along with Al-Khwarizmi which eventually was adopted by the rest of the world. Al-Kindi was also one of the fathers of cryptography. Building on the work of Al-Khalil (717–786), Al-Kindi's book entitled "Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages" gave rise to the birth of cryptanalysis, was the earliest known use of statistical inference, and introduced several new methods of breaking ciphers, notably frequency analysis. Using his mathematical and medical expertise, he was able to develop a scale that would allow doctors to quantify the potency of their medication.


title: Al-Kindi

text: The central theme underpinning al-Kindi's philosophical writings is the compatibility between philosophy and other "orthodox" Islamic sciences, particularly theology, and many of his works deal with subjects that theology had an immediate interest in. These include the nature of God, the soul and prophetic knowledge.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was born in Kufa to an aristocratic family of the Kinda tribe, descended from the chieftain al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, a contemporary of Prophet Muhammad. The family belonged to the most prominent families of the tribal nobility of Kufa in the early Islamic period, until it lost much of its power following the revolt of Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath. His father Ishaq was the governor of Basrah, and al-Kindi received his preliminary education there. He later went to complete his studies in Baghdad, where he was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs al-Ma'mun () and al-Mu'tasim (). On account of his learning and aptitude for study, al-Ma'mun appointed him to the House of Wisdom, a recently established centre for the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific texts, in Baghdad. He was also well known for his beautiful calligraphy, and at one point was employed as a calligrapher by Caliph al-Mutawakkil ().


title: Al-Kindi

text: When al-Ma'mun died, his brother, al-Mu'tasim became caliph. Al-Kindi's position would be enhanced under al-Mu'tasim, who appointed him as a tutor to his son. But on the accession of al-Wathiq (), and especially of al-Mutawakkil, al-Kindi's star waned. There are various theories concerning this: some attribute al-Kindi's downfall to scholarly rivalries at the House of Wisdom; others refer to al-Mutawakkil's often violent persecution of unorthodox Muslims (as well as of non-Muslims); at one point al-Kindi was beaten and his library temporarily confiscated. Henry Corbin, an authority on Islamic studies, says that in 873, al-Kindi died "a lonely man", in Baghdad during the reign of al-Mu'tamid ().


title: Al-Kindi

text: After his death, al-Kindi's philosophical works quickly fell into obscurity and many of them were lost even to later Islamic scholars and historians. Felix Klein-Franke suggests a number of reasons for this: aside from the militant orthodoxy of al-Mutawakkil, the Mongols also destroyed countless libraries during their invasion. However, he says the most probable cause of this was that his writings never found popularity amongst subsequent influential philosophers such as al-Farabi and Avicenna, who ultimately overshadowed him. His philosophical career peaked under al-Mu'tasim, to whom al-Kindi dedicated his most famous work, "On First Philosophy", and whose son Ahmad was tutored by al-Kindi.


title: Al-Kindi

text: According to Arab bibligrapher Ibn al-Nadim, al-Kindi wrote at least two hundred and sixty books, contributing heavily to geometry (thirty-two books), medicine and philosophy (twenty-two books each), logic (nine books), and physics (twelve books). Although most of his books have been lost over the centuries, a few have survived in the form of Latin translations by Gerard of Cremona, and others have been rediscovered in Arabic manuscripts; most importantly, twenty-four of his lost works were located in the mid-twentieth century in a Turkish library.


title: Al-Kindi

text: His greatest contribution to the development of Islamic philosophy was his efforts to make Greek thought both accessible and acceptable to a Muslim audience. Al-Kindi carried out this mission from the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), an institute of translation and learning patronized by the Abbasid Caliphs, in Baghdad. As well as translating many important texts, much of what was to become standard Arabic philosophical vocabulary originated with al-Kindi; indeed, if it had not been for him, the work of philosophers like Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and al-Ghazali might not have been possible.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In his writings, one of al-Kindi's central concerns was to demonstrate the compatibility between philosophy and natural theology on the one hand, and revealed or speculative theology on the other (though in fact he rejected speculative theology). Despite this, he did make clear that he believed revelation was a superior source of knowledge to reason because it guaranteed matters of faith that reason could not uncover. And while his philosophical approach was not always original, and was even considered clumsy by later thinkers (mainly because he was the first philosopher writing in the Arabic language), he successfully incorporated Aristotelian and (especially) neo-Platonist thought into an Islamic philosophical framework. This was an important factor in the introduction and popularization of Greek philosophy in the Muslim intellectual world.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi took his view of the solar system from Ptolemy, who placed the Earth at the centre of a series of concentric spheres, in which the known heavenly bodies (the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and the stars) are embedded. In one of his treatises on the subject, he says that these bodies are rational entities, whose circular motion is in obedience to and worship of God. Their role, al-Kindi believes, is to act as instruments for divine providence. He furnishes empirical evidence as proof for this assertion; different seasons are marked by particular arrangements of the planets and stars (most notably the sun); the appearance and manner of people varies according to the arrangement of heavenly bodies situated above their homeland.


title: Al-Kindi

text: However, he is ambiguous when it comes to the actual process by which the heavenly bodies affect the material world. One theory he posits in his works is from Aristotle, who conceived that the movement of these bodies causes friction in the sub-lunar region, which stirs up the primary elements of earth, fire, air and water, and these combine to produce everything in the material world. An alternative view found in his treatise "On Rays" is that the planets exercise their influence in straight lines. In each of these, he presents two fundamentally different views of physical interaction; action by contact and action at a distance. This dichotomy is duplicated in his writings on optics.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was the first major writer on optics since antiquity. Roger Bacon placed him in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on the topic. In a work known in the west as "De radiis stellarum", al-Kindi developed a theory "that everything in the world ... emits rays in every direction, which fill the whole world." This theory of the active power of rays had an influence on later scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham, Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Two major theories of optics appear in the writings of al-Kindi; Aristotelian and Euclidean. Aristotle had believed that in order for the eye to perceive an object, both the eye and the object must be in contact with a transparent medium (such as air) that is filled with light. When these criteria are met, the "sensible form" of the object is transmitted through the medium to the eye. On the other hand, Euclid proposed that vision occurred in straight lines when "rays" from the eye reached an illuminated object and were reflected back. As with his theories on Astrology, the dichotomy of contact and distance is present in al-Kindi's writings on this subject as well.


title: Al-Kindi

text: The factor which al-Kindi relied upon to determine which of these theories was most correct was how adequately each one explained the experience of seeing. For example, Aristotle's theory was unable to account for why the angle at which an individual sees an object affects his perception of it. For example, why a circle viewed from the side will appear as a line. According to Aristotle, the "complete" sensible form of a circle should be transmitted to the eye and it should appear as a circle. On the other hand, Euclidean optics provided a geometric model that was able to account for this, as well as the length of shadows and reflections in mirrors, because Euclid believed that the visual "rays" could only travel in straight lines (something which is commonly accepted in modern science). For this reason, al-Kindi considered the latter preponderant.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi's primary optical treatise "De aspectibus" was later translated into Latin. This work, along with Alhazen's Optics and the Arabic translations of Ptolemy and Euclid's Optics, were the main Arabic texts to affect the development of optical investigations in Europe, most notably those of Robert Grosseteste, Vitello and Roger Bacon.


title: Al-Kindi

text: There are more than thirty treatises attributed to al-Kindi in the field of medicine, in which he was chiefly influenced by the ideas of Galen. His most important work in this field is probably "De Gradibus", in which he demonstrates the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. For example, he developed a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drug and a system, based the phases of the moon, that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness. According to Plinio Prioreschi, this was the first attempt at serious quantification in medicine.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi denied the possibility of transmuting base metals into precious metals such as gold and silver, a position that was later attacked by the Persian chemist and physician Abu Bakr al-Razi (c. 865–925).


title: Al-Kindi

text: One work attributed to al-Kindi, variously known as the "Kitāb al-Taraffuq fī l-ʿiṭr" ("The Book of Gentleness on Perfume") or the "Kitāb Kīmiyāʾ al-ʿiṭr wa-l-taṣʿīdāt" ("The Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations"), contains one of the earliest known references to the distillation of wine. The work also describes the distillation process for extracting rose oils, and provides recipes for 107 different kinds of perfumes.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi authored works on a number of important mathematical subjects, including arithmetic, geometry, the Indian numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation. He also wrote four volumes, "On the Use of the Indian Numerals" ( "Kitāb fī Isti`māl al-'A`dād al-Hindīyyah") which contributed greatly to diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle-East and the West. In geometry, among other works, he wrote on the theory of parallels. Also related to geometry were two works on optics. One of the ways in which he made use of mathematics as a philosopher was to attempt to disprove the eternity of the world by demonstrating that actual infinity is a mathematical and logical absurdity.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi is credited with developing a method whereby variations in the frequency of the occurrence of letters could be analyzed and exploited to break ciphers (i.e. cryptanalysis by frequency analysis). His book on this topic is "Risāla fī Istikhrāj al-Kutub al-Mu'ammāh" (رسالة في استخراج الكتب المعماة; literally: "On Extracting Obscured Correspondence", more contemporarily: "On Decrypting Encrypted Correspondence"). In his treatise on cryptanalysis, he wrote:One way to solve an encrypted message, if we know its language, is to find a different plaintext of the same language long enough to fill one sheet or so, and then we count the occurrences of each letter. We call the most frequently occurring letter the "first", the next most occurring letter the "second", the following most occurring letter the "third", and so on, until we account for all the different letters in the plaintext sample. Then we look at the cipher text we want to solve and we also classify its symbols. We find the most occurring symbol and change it to the form of the "first" letter of the plaintext sample, the next most common symbol is changed to the form of the "second" letter, and the following most common symbol is changed to the form of the "third" letter, and so on, until we account for all symbols of the cryptogram we want to solve.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was influenced by the work of Al-Khalil (717–786), who wrote the "Book of Cryptographic Messages", which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In a treatise entitled as "Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa l-Fazr" ("Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and Ebb"), Al-Kindi presents a theory on tides which "depends on the changes which take place in bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature." In order to support his argument, he gave a description of a scientific experiment as follows:


title: Al-Kindi

text: One can also observe by the senses... how in consequence of extreme cold air changes into water. To do this, one takes a glass bottle, fills it completely with snow, and closes its end carefully. Then one determines its weight by weighing. One places it in a container... which has previously been weighed. On the surface of the bottle the air changes into water, and appears upon it like the drops on large porous pitchers, so that a considerable amount of water gradually collects inside the container. One then weighs the bottle, the water and the container, and finds their weight greater than previously, which proves the change. [...] Some foolish persons are of opinion that the snow exudes through the glass. This is impossible. There is no process by which water or snow can be made to pass through glass.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In explaining the natural cause of the wind, and the difference for its directions based on time and location, he wrote:


title: Al-Kindi

text: When the sun is in its northern declination northerly places will heat up and it will be cold towards the south. Then the northern air will expand in a southerly direction because of the heat due to the contraction of the southern air. Therefore most of the summer winds are merits and most of the winter winds are not.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was the first great theoretician of music in the Arab-Islamic world. He is known to have written fifteen treatises on music theory, but only five have survived. He added a fifth string to the 'ud. His works included discussions on the therapeutic value of music and what he regarded as "cosmological connections" of music.


title: Al-Kindi

text: While Muslim intellectuals were already acquainted with Greek philosophy (especially logic), al-Kindi is credited with being the first real Muslim "philosopher". His own thought was largely influenced by the Neo-Platonic philosophy of Proclus, Plotinus and John Philoponus, amongst others, although he does appear to have borrowed ideas from other Hellenistic schools as well. He makes many references to Aristotle in his writings, but these are often unwittingly re-interpreted in a Neo-Platonic framework. This trend is most obvious in areas such as metaphysics and the nature of God as a causal entity. Experts have suggested that he was influenced by the Mutazilite school of theology, because of the mutual concern both he and they demonstrated for maintaining the singularity (tawhid) of God. A minority view however holds that such agreements are considered incidental.


title: Al-Kindi

text: According to al-Kindi, the goal of metaphysics is knowledge of God. For this reason, he does not make a clear distinction between philosophy and theology, because he believes they are both concerned with the same subject. Later philosophers, particularly al-Farabi and Avicenna, would strongly disagree with him on this issue, by saying that metaphysics is actually concerned with being qua being, and as such, the nature of God is purely incidental.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Central to al-Kindi's understanding of metaphysics is God's absolute oneness, which he considers an attribute uniquely associated with God (and therefore not shared with anything else). By this he means that while we may think of any existent thing as being "one", it is in fact both "one" and many". For example, he says that while a body is one, it is also composed of many different parts. A person might say "I see an elephant", by which he means "I see "one" elephant", but the term 'elephant' refers to a species of animal that contains many. Therefore, only God is absolutely one, both in being and in concept, lacking any multiplicity whatsoever. Some feel this understanding entails a very rigorous negative theology because it implies that any description which can be predicated to anything else, cannot be said about God.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In addition to absolute oneness, al-Kindi also described God as the Creator. This means that He acts as both a final and efficient cause. Unlike later Muslim Neo-Platonic philosophers (who asserted that the universe existed as a result of God's existence "overflowing", which is a passive act), al-Kindi conceived of God as an active agent. In fact, of God as "the" agent, because all other intermediary agencies are contingent upon Him. The key idea here is that God "acts" through created intermediaries, which in turn "act" on one another – through a chain of cause and effect – to produce the desired result. In reality, these intermediary agents do not "act" at all, they are merely a conduit for God's own action. This is especially significant in the development of Islamic philosophy, as it portrayed the "first cause" and "unmoved mover" of Aristotelian philosophy as compatible with the concept of God according to Islamic revelation.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi theorized that there was a separate, incorporeal and universal intellect (known as the "First Intellect"). It was the first of God's creation and the intermediary through which all other things came into creation. Aside from its obvious metaphysical importance, it was also crucial to al-Kindi's epistemology, which was influenced by Platonic realism.


title: Al-Kindi

text: According to Plato, everything that exists in the material world corresponds to certain universal forms in the heavenly realm. These forms are really abstract concepts such as a species, quality or relation, which apply to all physical objects and beings. For example, a red apple has the quality of "redness" derived from the appropriate universal. However, al-Kindi says that human intellects are only "potentially" able to comprehend these. This potential is actualized by the First Intellect, which is perpetually thinking about all of the universals. He argues that the external agency of this intellect is necessary by saying that human beings cannot arrive at a universal concept merely through perception. In other words, an intellect cannot understand the species of a thing simply by examining one or more of its instances. According to him, this will only yield an inferior "sensible form", and not the universal form which we desire. The universal form can only be attained through contemplation and actualization by the First Intellect.


title: Al-Kindi

text: The analogy he provides to explain his theory is that of wood and fire. Wood, he argues, is potentially hot (just as a human is potentially thinking about a universal), and therefore requires something else which is already hot (such as fire) to actualize this. This means that for the human intellect to think about something, the First Intellect must already be thinking about it. Therefore, he says that the First Intellect must always be thinking about everything. Once the human intellect comprehends a universal by this process, it becomes part of the individual's "acquired intellect" and can be thought about whenever he or she wishes.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi says that the soul is a simple, immaterial substance, which is related to the material world only because of its faculties which operate through the physical body. To explain the nature of our worldly existence, he (borrowing from Epictetus) compares it to a ship which has, during the course of its ocean voyage, temporarily anchored itself at an island and allowed its passengers to disembark. The implicit warning is that those passengers who linger too long on the island may be left behind when the ship sets sail again. Here, al-Kindi displays a stoic concept, that we must not become attached to material things (represented by the island), as they will invariably be taken away from us (when the ship sets sail again). He then connects this with a Neo-Platonist idea, by saying that our soul can be directed towards the pursuit of desire or the pursuit of intellect; the former will tie it to the body, so that when the body dies, it will also die, but the latter will free it from the body and allow it to survive "in the light of the Creator" in a realm of pure intelligence.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In the view of al-Kindi, prophecy and philosophy were two different routes to arrive at the truth. He contrasts the two positions in four ways. Firstly, while a person must undergo a long period of training and study to become a philosopher, prophecy is bestowed upon someone by God. Secondly, the philosopher must arrive at the truth by his own devices (and with great difficulty), whereas the prophet has the truth revealed to him by God. Thirdly, the understanding of the prophet – being divinely revealed – is clearer and more comprehensive than that of the philosopher. Fourthly, the way in which the prophet is able to express this understanding to the ordinary people is superior. Therefore, al-Kindi says the prophet is superior in two fields: the ease and certainty with which he receives the truth, and the way in which he presents it. However, the crucial implication is that the "content" of the prophet's and the philosopher's knowledge is the "same". This, says Adamson, demonstrates how limited the superiority al-Kindi afforded to prophecy was.


title: Al-Kindi

text: In addition to this, al-Kindi adopted a naturalistic view of prophetic visions. He argued that, through the faculty of "imagination" as conceived of in Aristotelian philosophy, certain "pure" and well-prepared souls, were able to receive information about future events. Significantly, he does not attribute such visions or dreams to revelation from God, but instead explains that imagination enables human beings to receive the "form" of something without needing to perceive the physical entity to which it refers. Therefore, it would seem to imply that anyone who has purified themselves would be able to receive such visions. It is precisely this idea, amongst other naturalistic explanations of prophetic miracles that al-Ghazali attacks in his "Incoherence of the Philosophers".


title: Al-Kindi

text: While al-Kindi appreciated the usefulness of philosophy in answering questions of a religious nature, there would be many Islamic thinkers who were not as enthusiastic about its potential. But it would be incorrect to assume that they opposed philosophy simply because it was a "foreign science". Oliver Leaman, an expert on Islamic philosophy, points out that the objections of notable theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions the philosophers arrived at. Even al-Ghazali, who is famous for his critique of the philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and logic. And his criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. The three most serious of these, in his view, were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things (not all philosophers subscribed to these same views).


title: Al-Kindi

text: During his life, al-Kindi was fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of the <nowiki>pro-</nowiki>Mutazilite Caliphs al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim, which meant he could carry out his philosophical speculations with relative ease. In his own time, al-Kindi would be criticized for extolling the "intellect" as being the most immanent creation in proximity to God, which was commonly held to be the position of the angels. He also engaged in disputations with certain Mutazilites, whom he attacked for their belief in atoms, as not all Mutazilites accepted the belief of atomism. But the real role of al-Kindi in the conflict between philosophers and theologians would be to prepare the ground for debate. His works, says Deborah Black, contained all the seeds of future controversy that would be fully realized in al-Ghazali's "Incoherence of the Philosophers".


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was a master of many different areas of thought and was held to be one of the greatest philosophers. His influence in the fields of physics, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and music were far-reaching and lasted for several centuries. Ibn al-Nadim in his al-Fihrist praised Al-Kindi and his work stating:


title: Al-Kindi

text: The best man of his time, unique in his knowledge of all the ancient sciences. He is called the Philosopher of the Arabs. His books deal with different sciences, such as logic, philosophy, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy etc. We have connected him with the natural philosophers because of his prominence in Science.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi's major contribution was his establishment of philosophy in the Islamic world and his efforts in trying to harmonize the philosophical investigation along with the Islamic theology and creed. The philosophical texts which were translated under his supervision would become the standard texts in the Islamic world for centuries to come, even after his influence has been eclipsed by later Philosophers.


title: Al-Kindi

text: Al-Kindi was also an important figure in medieval Europe. Several of his books got translated into Latin influencing western authors like Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. The Italian Renaissance scholar Geralomo Cardano (1501–1575) considered him one of the twelve greatest minds.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Just the Way You Are" is the debut solo single by American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars. It is the lead single from his debut studio album, "Doo-Wops & Hooligans" (2010). The song was written by Mars, Philip Lawrence, Ari Levine, Khalil Walton and Needlz and produced by the former three, under their alias, the Smeezingtons along with Needlz. It was released in the United States to contemporary hit radio on August 10, 2010. The track was released in the United Kingdom on September 19, 2010, as "Just the Way You Are (Amazing)". The song's lyrics compliment a woman's beauty.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The debut single received mixed reviews from music critics, who praised the Smeezingtons' production but dubbed its lyrics as sappy and corny. It won Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. The song peaked at number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and in the United Kingdom charts and peaked in the top five in other countries. It was certified thirteen times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), seven times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and diamond by Music Canada (MC). "Just the Way You Are" was the best-selling digital single of 2011, selling more than 12.5 million copies, thus joining an elite group of best-selling singles worldwide.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The music video, directed by Ethan Lader, was released on September 8, 2010, and features Peruvian born Australian actress Nathalie Kelley. Mars performed "Just The Way You Are" at "Saturday Night Live" and at "The Ellen DeGeneres Show". He has sung "Just the Way You Are" on all his tours since 2010, sometimes as an encore, and included it during his performance at the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show. The song has been covered by various recording artists and it inspired Meghan Trainor's debut single "All About That Bass" (2014).


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: Bruno Mars said of the song, "It took me months to come up with 'Just the Way You Are'... I wasn't thinking of anything deep or poetic. I was telling a story. Get ready to fall in love!" It was inspired by Eric Clapton's "Wonderful Tonight" (1977) and Sinéad O'Connor's "Nothing Compares 2 U" (1990). Mars explained, "I'm a big fan of songs like Joe Cocker's 'You Are So Beautiful' and Clapton's 'Wonderful Tonight' – songs that go straight to the point. You know, there's no mind-boggling lyrics or twists in the story – they just come directly from the heart. And to me 'Just The Way You Are' is one of those songs. There's nothing mind-blowing about it. I'm just telling a woman she looks beautiful the way she IS – and, let's be honest, what woman doesn't wanna hear those lyrics?!"


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: Mars's A&R, Aaron Bay-Schuck, was responsible for finding the original idea from American record producers and songwriters Khalil Walton and Needlz. Mars originally sang the hook that Khalil and Needlz wrote for a feature on a Lupe Fiasco record. Needlz allowed Mars to use the idea for his album. This was all facilitated by Bay-Shuck, who told HitQuarters that as soon as "Just the Way You Are" was finished they knew they had the first single, saying:


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "It had a massive chorus, an instantly memorable melody and lyric, and was a natural transition from the B.o.B and Travie McCoy songs ... [Also] it didn't sound like anything else on the radio. It had everything we could want in a first single for Bruno."


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: Ari Levine explained: "Needlz had a track with a melody idea by Khalil Walton that was presented to us by one of the A&R guys. Bruno and Phil came up with the chorus, and then Needlz sent us the files and we replaced a bunch of sounds with our sounds and I programmed drums in the MPC, and we wrote the rest of the song. I never met Needlz or Walton".


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Just the Way You Are" was written by Mars, Philip Lawrence, Levine, Walton, and Needlz, while production was handled by the Smeezingtons along with Needlz. Levine and Mars played all the instruments on the track, with the former engineering the song at Levcon Studios in California. The track was mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in Los Angeles by Manny Marroquin, while Christian Plata and Erik Madrid served as mixing assistants. It was mastered by Stephen Marcussen at Marcussen Mastering in Hollywood, California.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Just The Way You Are" was released as the lead single from "Doo-Wops & Hooligans". Elektra Records serviced the song to download in the United States on July 20, 2010. It was released in the United States to contemporary hit radio on August 10, 2010 ,by Elektra and Atlantic Records. On September 27, 2010, the song was released for digital download, under the name, Just the Way You Are (Amazing). On November 2, seven remixes were released as a purchasable download in US. It was released as a CD single in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, on November 12. It contains the album version of the song and the remix by Skrillex Batboi. The track was released on September 27, 2010, in the United Kingdom via digital download. On November 2, 2010, an EP that includes several remixes was released in various countries. Skrillex, Martin Danielle and the Manufactured Superstars were among the names to remix the original version into electronic dance music versions. A deluxe edition which includes the official remix with rapper Lupe Fiasco and the music video was released on November 25, 2010. The official remix was also released on the deluxe edition of "Doo-Wops & Hooligans" (2010).


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Just The Way You Are" is a pop, R&B and soft rock ballad. Its instrumentation features piano and a "hip-hop breakbeat". Tim Byron of The Vine said "the steeply rising melody at the start of the chorus introduces a little tension before defusing it with the catchy tag of the chorus, which is simple and effective as a hook". "Billboard" said that Mars "takes his dreamy soprano to the next level" on the track. The song is in the key of F major and has a sequence of F–Dm–B–F. Mars's vocal range spans from F to C.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Billboard" called "Just The Way You Are" "a feel-good jam". Leah Greenblatt of "Entertainment Weekly" labeled the song "sweetly smitten ballad". Brad Wete, writing for the same publication, described the track as "an endearing mid-tempo". Wete also said its "vibe" resembles the "collaboration with B.o.B–just not as groovy". Nick Levine from "Digital Spy" describe it as a "huge-hearted urbany piano ballad", comparing its sound to "Empire State of Mind" (2009)." The song has been compared to a "U2 production" by Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" and by Andy Gill adding that he felt a "groove through R&B territory". Tim Sendra of AllMusic called the debut single "lushly romantic". Scott Kara for the "New Zealand Herald" dubbed the song as a "ballad boogie".


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: Lyrically, the song is about Mars professing "his love for a beautiful girl who occupies his dreams", on the verses "When you smile, the whole world stops and stares for a while/ 'Cause girl you're amazing, just the way you are". "Billboard" concludes, "Mars pens lyrics that aim to make female listeners feel nothing short of perfect in their own skin". Byron said the lyrics are "effective – the repeated lines at the start of the verses are catchy". "Consequence of Sound"s Alex Young described the song "Mars sticks to the song's name and insists that he wouldn't want to change anything about his particular gal. You believe him, too. With an undeniably catchy chorus". Lester said the lyrics are "about a girl Mars could 'kiss all day'."


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The song received mixed reviews from music critics. "Digital Spy"s Nick Levine gave it four out of five stars and described it as a "huge-hearted urbany piano ballad [...] with a similar, if not quite as undeniable, instant classic feel to 'Empire State of Mind' by Jay-Z featuring Alicia Keys". "Billboard" wrote: "With its steady, danceable pulse and singalong chorus, Mars has created a feel-good jam that should establish him as a solo contender in his own right." Alex Young from "Consequence of Sound" praised the track's chorus for being "undeniably catchy" and didn't find surprising for the single to be a "radio staple". AllMusic's Tim Sendra gave the single a mixed review saying, "it's not very deep and it's not poetry, but sweetly played and sung". He believes it, "will melt hearts from tweens to old folk". Tony Clayton-Lea of "The Irish Times" dubbed the single "a slice of wide-eyed pop that automatically coaxes a smile."


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: On the other hand, Tim Byron of The Vine compared "Just the Way You Are" to Billy Joel's 1977 hit single of the same name, saying the latter "is a little more ambiguous...more aware of the ups and downs that characterize relationships". Jamie Milton of "musicOMH" explained that "Just the Way You Are" can be mistaken for a pop song due to its tempo. However, it is one of the most "sappiest ballads" to be heard in some time. Nima Baniamer from Contactmusic.com felt the single didn't make Mars stand out from other R&B artists. Baniamer added, "The song never builds to any climax and it simply falls a bit flat, coming across quite corny and cheesy." "The Guardian" Paul Lester dubbed Mars's vocals as breezy on the track as a "breezy falsetto as characterless as you'd imagine."


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The song was nominated for the 2010 The Record of the Year ceremony. In 2011, the song won the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. The single was nominated for several awards at 2011 Billboard Music Awards such as Top Hot 100 Song and Top Pop Song, but it ended up by winning only the category Top Radio Song. It was nominated for Choice Music: Love Song at the 2011 Teen Choice Awards. In the same year, the single was one of the winners of Most Performed Songs at ASCAP Pop Music Awards. In 2012, at the same award ceremony, it won, again, Most Performed Songs and also Song of the Year. At the RTHK International Pop Poll Awards the song won "Top 10 Gold International Gold Songs".


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The song reached the top of the US "Billboard" Hot 100 on the chart dated October 2, 2010, ending the two-week reign of Katy Perry's "Teenage Dream" (2010). The song spent a total of 48 weeks on the "Billboard" Hot 100, debuting on August 7, 2010 and leaving the chart on July 2, 2011. As of October 2015, the song had sold 6.7 million downloads domestically. The song was certified thirteen times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It holds the record of the longest-reigning debut format on the Adult Contemporary, having spent 20 weeks atop. It first featured on the Greatest of All Time Hot 100 at number 79. The song peaked at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified diamond by Music Canada (MC).


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: On September 26, 2010, it became the singer's second number-one single in the United Kingdom, where it hit the number-one spot again on October 24, 2010 from sales of 116,000 copies becoming the first song ever to have left the top three before rebounding to the top spot. It sold 766,000 copies during 2010, becoming the third biggest seller of the year. On April 9, 2013 it was revealed that the song is the ninth most downloaded song of all time in the United Kingdom. On August 2, 2011 "Just The Way You Are" became the 108th million-selling single in the UK, having taken 43 weeks to reach that figure. As of September 2017, in the United Kingdom, the single had reached a total of 1,57 million combined sales (1.33 million purchases and 244,72 streaming equivalent sales), becoming the 75th biggest selling single of all-time in UK. "Just the Way You Are" is the seventeenth best-selling single based on paid-for sales of the 21st century in the United Kingdom. It was certified four times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). On October 12, 2010, Bruno Mars got his third number one single in the Dutch Top 40, after "Nothin' On You" (2009) and "Billionaire" (2010), having spent 11 weeks at number one in Netherlands. The song also reached number one in Australia and certified seven times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The single debuted at number 31 in New Zealand on August 2, 2010. The song was number 1 for two weeks. The single was on the chart for 32 weeks.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Just the Way You Are" was less successful on the French Singles Chart, where it peaked at number 33 and stayed on the chart for 28 weeks. "Just The Way You Are" also peaked at number three in Switzerland, at number one in the Republic of Ireland, at number four in Belgium (Flanders), and at number 2 in Germany and Sweden. It reached number six at Denmark. "Just the Way You Are" was the best selling digital single of 2011, selling more than 12.5 million copies globally throughout that year, thus becoming one of the best-selling singles of all time. The song is also one of the UK's biggest selling singles of all-time placed at number 74 with sales around 1.17 million.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The corresponding music video was directed by Ethan Lander, shot in September 2010 in the downtown of Los Angeles and released on September 8, 2010. Cameron Duddy was able to shoot the behind-the-scenes footage in exchange for his jean jacket, which Mars used during the music video. The video features Peruvian-Australian actress Nathalie Kelley. Lander considers Bruno Mars a star. He adds "The charisma that he has, you can't teach." Finishing with "singer even manages to be suave in his mugshot, which is no small feat!" He sees the video as a collaboration, the video director came up with the vision and Mars added his vision and so on. The video is a mixture of live-action and stopped animation and through the animation, Bruno shows his girlfriend how beautiful she is. He takes a cassette tape and starts creating images out of the tape and they start to get a life of their own.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: The video begins with Kelley listening to "Just the Way You Are" on her Walkman as Mars walks in. Mars stops the tape player, removes the cassette tape, and begins singing his song. As the instrumental portion of the song begins, Mars pulls the media out of the cassette tape and arranges the media into letters forming his name followed by the song title. As the song continues, he forms a picture of a drum, again on the table, using the tape media. Additional images of similar construction follow throughout the video including a portrait of Mars as well as one of Kelley blinking her eyes and smiling as Mars continues singing. Most of the images shown are animated, including a bell which Mars rings with his fingers in synchronization with the chimes near the end of the song. Lastly, Mars finishes the song while singing and playing an upright piano while Kelley watches and smiles. The video was inspired by the artwork of Erika Iris Simmons.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: At the 2011 MTV Video Music Aid Japan the music video won Best Male Video. In the same year, the video won Favorite International Video at the Myx Music Awards and received three nominations at the MuchMusic Video Awards, International Video of the Year – Artist, Most Watched Video of the Year and . It received the award for Popular International Music Video at the Channel [V] Thailand Music Video Awards. As of March 2021, the music video has received over 1.5 billion views on YouTube.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: Bruno Mars performed the song at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City on August 25, 2010, with him and his four-piece band dressed in blue tuxedos and black skinny ties. John Macdonald for "Spin" said "Despite a couple pitch problems here and there, Mars proved to be nearly as good a performer as he is a songwriter". Mars performed the song on "Saturday Night Live" on October 9, 2010. The song was performed at "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", on October 14, 2010. A soulful arrangement of the song was sung for a "Billboard" Tastemakers video session, on October 22, 2010. An acoustic version of the song was performed at "Grammy Nominations" concert in 2010 for the 53rd Grammy Awards. Mars also played the song live at the BBC Radio 1Xtra Live Lounge and at the "NBA All-Star Tip Off Pre-Show" in January and February 2011, respectively. The song was also performed on "NBC's Today Show" on June 24, 2011. A live performance was also done on the French "X Factor" during the finale of the second season. Carolina Frost for the Huffington Post said that Mars at the 2012 Brit Awards "took his poptastic song Just the Way You Are, and gave it a fresh jazzy arrangement." Others praised Mars's vocality and confidence with his soulful rendition.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: It was the twelfth song of his debut world tour, The Doo-Wops & Hooligans Tour (2010–12), and was often sung as an encore on the Hooligans in Wondaland Tour (2011). It was part of the setlist of his second world tour, The Moonshine Jungle Tour (2013–14) and was also sang on his debut concert residency, Bruno Mars at The Chelsea, Las Vegas (2013–15). "Just the Way You Are" was performed as the last song in his set list for his performance at Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show as a Tribute to the United States Armed Forces. In 2017, the singer participated in the "Somos Una Voz" relief initiative concert by singing a Spanish version of "Just the Way You Are". On his third tour, the 24K Magic World Tour (2017–18), the track was the fourteenth or fifteenth track of the setlist.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: "Just the Way You Are" has been covered several times. It was first covered by Nathan Sykes from The Wanted, The Saturdays at BBC Radio 1's "Live Lounge" on October 29, 2010. San Diego band Pierce the Veil covered the track for the compilation album "Punk Goes Pop 4", which was released on November 21, 2011. It was performed by Cory Monteith on "Furt", an episode of the American TV show "Glee" which aired on November 23, 2010. The show's cover version achieved moderate success by peaking at number 24 in Canada. It reached number 40 in the United States, 47 in Australia and number 48 in Ireland.


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: Daniel Evans, a finalist on The X Factor (UK), included his version of the song on his album "Wicked Game", released on December 2, 2013. The album contains covers from various artists. Matt Cardle, the winner of the seventh series of British TV talent contest "The X Factor", performed "Just the Way You Are" in week 2 of the live shows and later recorded his own version of the song, which was included in the CD single release of his debut single "When We Collide" (2010).


title: Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)

text: In 2012, Dominican musician Karlos Rosé covered the song in bachata as his debut single which peaked at number 31 on the "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart. The music video for his cover was filmed in New York City and directed by Robert Kruz. The original version is featured in the movie "Pitch Perfect" (2012). American singer Johnny Mathis covered the song in his album, "Johnny Mathis Sings the Great New American Songbook" (2017). In 2017, Mars participated in the "Somos Una Voz" relief initiative, created by Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony, in order to help survivors of Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico and Mexico's 7.1 earthquake. To do so, he performed "Just the Way You Are" in Spanish for the first time. Dana International performed the song during the interval of the first semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2019 in Tel Aviv. In 2020, British singer Jamie Miller covered "Just the Way You Are" as part of the tenth anniversary of Mars's debut album.


title: T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding

text: t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) is a statistical method for visualizing high-dimensional data by giving each datapoint a location in a two or three-dimensional map. It is based on Stochastic Neighbor Embedding originally developed by Sam Roweis and Geoffrey Hinton, where Laurens van der Maaten proposed the "t"-distributed variant. It is a nonlinear dimensionality reduction technique well-suited for embedding high-dimensional data for visualization in a low-dimensional space of two or three dimensions. Specifically, it models each high-dimensional object by a two- or three-dimensional point in such a way that similar objects are modeled by nearby points and dissimilar objects are modeled by distant points with high probability.


text: The t-SNE algorithm comprises two main stages. First, t-SNE constructs a probability distribution over pairs of high-dimensional objects in such a way that similar objects are assigned a higher probability while dissimilar points are assigned a lower probability. Second, t-SNE defines a similar probability distribution over the points in the low-dimensional map, and it minimizes the Kullback–Leibler divergence (KL divergence) between the two distributions with respect to the locations of the points in the map. While the original algorithm uses the Euclidean distance between objects as the base of its similarity metric, this can be changed as appropriate.


text: t-SNE has been used for visualization in a wide range of applications, including genomics, computer security research, natural language processing, music analysis, cancer research, bioinformatics, geological domain interpretation, and biomedical signal processing.


text: While t-SNE plots often seem to display clusters, the visual clusters can be influenced strongly by the chosen parameterization and therefore a good understanding of the parameters for t-SNE is necessary. Such "clusters" can be shown to even appear in non-clustered data, and thus may be false findings. Interactive exploration may thus be necessary to choose parameters and validate results. It has been demonstrated that t-SNE is often able to recover well-separated clusters, and with special parameter choices, approximates a simple form of spectral clustering.


text: Given a set of formula_1 high-dimensional objects formula_2, t-SNE first computes probabilities formula_3 that are proportional to the similarity of objects formula_4 and formula_5, as follows.


text: As Van der Maaten and Hinton explained: "The similarity of datapoint formula_11 to datapoint formula_12 is the conditional probability, formula_13, that formula_12 would pick formula_11 as its neighbor if neighbors were picked in proportion to their probability density under a Gaussian centered at formula_12."


text: This is motivated because formula_18 and formula_18 from the N samples are estimated as 1/N, so conditional probability can be written as formula_20 and formula_21 . Since formula_22, you can obtain previous formula.


text: The bandwidth of the Gaussian kernels formula_25 is set in such a way that the entropy of the conditional distribution equals a predefined entropy using the bisection method. As a result, the bandwidth is adapted to the density of the data: smaller values of formula_25 are used in denser parts of the data space.


text: Since the Gaussian kernel uses the Euclidean distance formula_27, it is affected by the curse of dimensionality, and in high dimensional data when distances lose the ability to discriminate, the formula_3 become too similar (asymptotically, they would converge to a constant). It has been proposed to adjust the distances with a power transform, based on the intrinsic dimension of each point, to alleviate this.


text: t-SNE aims to learn a formula_29-dimensional map formula_30 (with formula_31 and formula_29 typically chosen as 2 or 3) that reflects the similarities formula_3 as well as possible. To this end, it measures similarities formula_34 between two points in the map formula_35 and formula_36, using a very similar approach.


text: Herein a heavy-tailed Student t-distribution (with one-degree of freedom, which is the same as a Cauchy distribution) is used to measure similarities between low-dimensional points in order to allow dissimilar objects to be modeled far apart in the map.


text: The locations of the points formula_35 in the map are determined by minimizing the (non-symmetric) Kullback–Leibler divergence of the distribution formula_42 from the distribution formula_43, that is:


text: The minimization of the Kullback–Leibler divergence with respect to the points formula_35 is performed using gradient descent.


text: The result of this optimization is a map that reflects the similarities between the high-dimensional inputs.


title: Greywater

text: Greywater (or grey water, sullage, also spelled gray water in the United States) refers to domestic wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e., all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include sinks, showers, baths, washing machines or dishwashers. As greywater contains fewer pathogens than blackwater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-potable uses. Greywater may still have some pathogen content from laundering soiled clothing or cleaning the anal area in the shower or bath.


title: Greywater

text: The application of greywater reuse in urban water systems provides substantial benefits for both the water supply subsystem, by reducing the demand for fresh clean water, and the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of conveyed and treated wastewater. Treated greywater has many uses, such as toilet flushing or irrigation.


title: Greywater

text: Greywater usually contains some traces of human waste and is therefore not free of pathogens. The excreta come from washing the anal area in the bath and shower or from the laundry (washing underwear and diapers). The quality of greywater can deteriorate rapidly during storage because it is often warm and contains some nutrients and organic matter (e.g. dead skin cells), as well as pathogens. Stored greywater also leads to odour nuisances for the same reason.


title: Greywater

text: In households with conventional flush toilets, greywater makes up about 65% of the total wastewater produced by that household. It may be a good source of water for reuse because there is a close relationship between the production of greywater and the potential demand for toilet flushing water.


title: Greywater

text: The small traces of feces that enter the greywater stream via effluent from the shower, sink, or washing machine do not pose practical hazards under normal conditions, as long as the greywater is used correctly (for example, percolated from a dry well or used correctly in farming irrigation).


title: Greywater

text: The separate treatment of greywater falls under the concept of source separation, which is one principle commonly applied in ecological sanitation approaches. The main advantage of keeping greywater separate from toilet wastewater is that the pathogen load is greatly reduced, and the greywater is therefore easier to treat and reuse.


title: Greywater

text: When greywater is mixed with toilet wastewater, it is called sewage or blackwater and should be treated in sewage treatment plants or an onsite sewage facility, which is often a septic system.


title: Greywater

text: Greywater from kitchen sinks contains fats, oils and grease, and high loads of organic matter. It should undergo preliminary treatment to remove these substances before discharge into a greywater tank. If this is difficult to apply, it could be directed to the sewage system or to an existing sewer.


title: Greywater

text: Most greywater is easier to treat and recycle than sewage because of lower levels of contaminants. If collected using a separate plumbing system from blackwater, domestic greywater can be recycled directly within the home, garden or company and used either immediately or processed and stored. If stored, it must be used within a very short time or it will begin to putrefy due to the organic solids in the water. Recycled greywater of this kind is never safe to drink, but a number of treatment steps can be used to provide water for washing or flushing toilets.


title: Greywater

text: The treatment processes that can be used are in principle the same as those used for sewage treatment, except that they are usually installed on a smaller scale (decentralized level), often at household or building level:


title: Greywater

text: In constructed wetlands, the plants use contaminants of greywater, such as food particles, as nutrients in their growth. Salt and soap residues can be toxic to microbial and plant life alike, but can be absorbed and degraded through constructed wetlands and aquatic plants such as sedges, rushes, and grasses.