title: Generic programming

text: For example, given "N" sequence data structures, e.g. singly linked list, vector etc., and "M" algorithms to operate on them, e.g. codice_1, codice_2 etc., a direct approach would implement each algorithm specifically for each data structure, giving combinations to implement. However, in the generic programming approach, each data structure returns a model of an iterator concept (a simple value type that can be dereferenced to retrieve the current value, or changed to point to another value in the sequence) and each algorithm is instead written generically with arguments of such iterators, e.g. a pair of iterators pointing to the beginning and end of the subsequence or "range" to process. Thus, only data structure-algorithm combinations need be implemented. Several iterator concepts are specified in the STL, each a refinement of more restrictive concepts e.g. forward iterators only provide movement to the next value in a sequence (e.g. suitable for a singly linked list or a stream of input data), whereas a random-access iterator also provides direct constant-time access to any element of the sequence (e.g. suitable for a vector). An important point is that a data structure will return a model of the most general concept that can be implemented efficiently—computational complexity requirements are explicitly part of the concept definition. This limits the data structures a given algorithm can be applied to and such complexity requirements are a major determinant of data structure choice. Generic programming similarly has been applied in other domains, e.g. graph algorithms.


title: Generic programming

text: Note that although this approach often utilizes language features of compile-time genericity/templates, it is in fact independent of particular language-technical details. Generic programming pioneer Alexander Stepanov wrote,


title: Generic programming

text: Other programming paradigms that have been described as generic programming include "Datatype generic programming" as described in "Generic Programming – an Introduction". The approach is a lightweight generic programming approach for Haskell.


title: Generic programming

text: In this article we distinguish the high-level programming paradigms of "generic programming", above, from the lower-level programming language "genericity mechanisms" used to implement them (see Programming language support for genericity). For further discussion and comparison of generic programming paradigms, see.


title: Generic programming

text: Genericity facilities have existed in high-level languages since at least the 1970s in languages such as ML, CLU and Ada, and were subsequently adopted by many object-based and object-oriented languages, including BETA, C++, D, Eiffel, Java, and DEC's now defunct Trellis-Owl language.


title: Generic programming

text: Genericity is implemented and supported differently in various programming languages; the term "generic" has also been used differently in various programming contexts. For example, in Forth the compiler can execute code while compiling and one can create new "compiler keywords" and new implementations for those words on the fly. It has few "words" that expose the compiler behaviour and therefore naturally offers "genericity" capacities that, however, are not referred to as such in most Forth texts. Similarly, dynamically typed languages, especially interpreted ones, usually offer "genericity" by default as both passing values to functions and value assignment are type-indifferent and such behavior is often utilized for abstraction or code terseness, however this is not typically labeled "genericity" as it's a direct consequence of the dynamic typing system employed by the language. The term has been used in functional programming, specifically in Haskell-like languages, which use a structural type system where types are always parametric and the actual code on those types is generic. These usages still serve a similar purpose of code-saving and the rendering of an abstraction.


title: Generic programming

text: Arrays and structs can be viewed as predefined generic types. Every usage of an array or struct type instantiates a new concrete type, or reuses a previous instantiated type. Array element types and struct element types are parameterized types, which are used to instantiate the corresponding generic type. All this is usually built-in in the compiler and the syntax differs from other generic constructs. Some extensible programming languages try to unify built-in and user defined generic types.


title: Generic programming

text: A broad survey of genericity mechanisms in programming languages follows. For a specific survey comparing suitability of mechanisms for generic programming, see.


title: Generic programming

text: When creating container classes in statically typed languages, it is inconvenient to write specific implementations for each datatype contained, especially if the code for each datatype is virtually identical. For example, in C++, this duplication of code can be circumvented by defining a class template:


title: Generic programming

text: Above, codice_3 is a placeholder for whatever type is specified when the list is created. These "containers-of-type-T", commonly called templates, allow a class to be reused with different datatypes as long as certain contracts such as subtypes and signature are kept. This genericity mechanism should not be confused with "inclusion polymorphism", which is the algorithmic usage of exchangeable sub-classes: for instance, a list of objects of type codice_4 containing objects of type codice_5 and codice_6. Templates can also be used for type-independent functions as in the codice_7 example below:


title: Generic programming

text: The C++ codice_8 construct used above is widely cited as the genericity construct that popularized the notion among programmers and language designers and supports many generic programming idioms. The D programming language also offers fully generic-capable templates based on the C++ precedent but with a simplified syntax. The Java programming language has provided genericity facilities syntactically based on C++'s since the introduction of J2SE 5.0.


title: Generic programming

text: C# 2.0, Oxygene 1.5 (also known as Chrome) and Visual Basic .NET 2005 have constructs that take advantage of the support for generics present in the Microsoft .NET Framework since version 2.0.


title: Generic programming

text: Ada has had generics since it was first designed in 1977–1980. The standard library uses generics to provide many services. Ada 2005 adds a comprehensive generic container library to the standard library, which was inspired by C++'s standard template library.


title: Generic programming

text: A "generic formal parameter" is a value, a variable, a constant, a type, a subprogram, or even an instance of another, designated, generic unit. For generic formal types, the syntax distinguishes between discrete, floating-point, fixed-point, access (pointer) types, etc. Some formal parameters can have default values.


title: Generic programming

text: To "instantiate" a generic unit, the programmer passes "actual" parameters for each formal. The generic instance then behaves just like any other unit. It is possible to instantiate generic units at run-time, for example inside a loop.


title: Generic programming

text: The language syntax allows precise specification of constraints on generic formal parameters. For example, it is possible to specify that a generic formal type will only accept a modular type as the actual. It is also possible to express constraints "between" generic formal parameters; for example:


title: Generic programming

text: In this example, Array_Type is constrained by both Index_Type and Element_Type. When instantiating the unit, the programmer must pass an actual array type that satisfies these constraints.


title: Generic programming

text: The disadvantage of this fine-grained control is a complicated syntax, but, because all generic formal parameters are completely defined in the specification, the compiler can instantiate generics without looking at the body of the generic.


title: Generic programming

text: Unlike C++, Ada does not allow specialised generic instances, and requires that all generics be instantiated explicitly. These rules have several consequences:


title: Generic programming

text: C++ uses templates to enable generic programming techniques. The C++ Standard Library includes the Standard Template Library or STL that provides a framework of templates for common data structures and algorithms. Templates in C++ may also be used for template metaprogramming, which is a way of pre-evaluating some of the code at compile-time rather than run-time. Using template specialization, C++ Templates are considered Turing complete.


title: Generic programming

text: There are many kinds of templates, the most common being function templates and class templates. A "function template" is a pattern for creating ordinary functions based upon the parameterizing types supplied when instantiated. For example, the C++ Standard Template Library contains the function template codice_9 that creates functions that return either "x" or "y," whichever is larger. codice_10 could be defined like this:


title: Generic programming

text: "Specializations" of this function template, instantiations with specific types, can be called just like an ordinary function:


title: Generic programming

text: The compiler examines the arguments used to call codice_11 and determines that this is a call to codice_12. It then instantiates a version of the function where the parameterizing type codice_3 is codice_14, making the equivalent of the following function:


title: Generic programming

text: This works whether the arguments codice_15 and codice_16 are integers, strings, or any other type for which the expression codice_17 is sensible, or more specifically, for any type for which codice_18 is defined. Common inheritance is not needed for the set of types that can be used, and so it is very similar to duck typing. A program defining a custom data type can use operator overloading to define the meaning of codice_19 for that type, thus allowing its use with the codice_10 function template. While this may seem a minor benefit in this isolated example, in the context of a comprehensive library like the STL it allows the programmer to get extensive functionality for a new data type, just by defining a few operators for it. Merely defining codice_19 allows a type to be used with the standard codice_22, codice_23, and codice_24 algorithms or to be put inside data structures such as codice_25s, heaps, and associative arrays.


title: Generic programming

text: C++ templates are completely type safe at compile time. As a demonstration, the standard type codice_26 does not define the codice_19 operator, because there is no strict order on complex numbers. Therefore, codice_9 will fail with a compile error, if "x" and "y" are codice_26 values. Likewise, other templates that rely on codice_19 cannot be applied to codice_26 data unless a comparison (in the form of a functor or function) is provided. E.g.: A codice_26 cannot be used as key for a codice_33 unless a comparison is provided. Unfortunately, compilers historically generate somewhat esoteric, long, and unhelpful error messages for this sort of error. Ensuring that a certain object adheres to a method protocol can alleviate this issue. Languages which use codice_34 instead of codice_19 can also use codice_26 values as keys.


title: Generic programming

text: Another kind of template, a "class template," extends the same concept to classes. A class template specialization is a class. Class templates are often used to make generic containers. For example, the STL has a linked list container. To make a linked list of integers, one writes codice_37. A list of strings is denoted codice_38. A codice_39 has a set of standard functions associated with it, that work for any compatible parameterizing types.


title: Generic programming

text: A powerful feature of C++'s templates is "template specialization". This allows alternative implementations to be provided based on certain characteristics of the parameterized type that is being instantiated. Template specialization has two purposes: to allow certain forms of optimization, and to reduce code bloat.


title: Generic programming

text: For example, consider a codice_22 template function. One of the primary activities that such a function does is to swap or exchange the values in two of the container's positions. If the values are large (in terms of the number of bytes it takes to store each of them), then it is often quicker to first build a separate list of pointers to the objects, sort those pointers, and then build the final sorted sequence. If the values are quite small however it is usually fastest to just swap the values in-place as needed. Furthermore, if the parameterized type is already of some pointer-type, then there is no need to build a separate pointer array. Template specialization allows the template creator to write different implementations and to specify the characteristics that the parameterized type(s) must have for each implementation to be used.


title: Generic programming

text: Unlike function templates, class templates can be partially specialized. That means that an alternate version of the class template code can be provided when some of the template parameters are known, while leaving other template parameters generic. This can be used, for example, to create a default implementation (the "primary specialization") that assumes that copying a parameterizing type is expensive and then create partial specializations for types that are cheap to copy, thus increasing overall efficiency. Clients of such a class template just use specializations of it without needing to know whether the compiler used the primary specialization or some partial specialization in each case. Class templates can also be "fully specialized," which means that an alternate implementation can be provided when all of the parameterizing types are known.


title: Generic programming

text: Some uses of templates, such as the codice_10 function, were previously filled by function-like preprocessor macros (a legacy of the C programming language). For example, here is a possible implementation of such macro:


title: Generic programming

text: Macros are expanded (copy pasted) by preprocessor, before compilation proper; templates are actual real functions. Macros are always expanded inline; templates can also be inline functions when the compiler deems it appropriate.


title: Generic programming

text: However, templates are generally considered an improvement over macros for these purposes. Templates are type-safe. Templates avoid some of the common errors found in code that makes heavy use of function-like macros, such as evaluating parameters with side effects twice. Perhaps most importantly, templates were designed to be applicable to much larger problems than macros.


title: Generic programming

text: There are four primary drawbacks to the use of templates: supported features, compiler support, poor error messages (usually with pre C++20 SFINAE), and code bloat:


title: Generic programming

text: The extra instantiations generated by templates can also cause some debuggers to have difficulty working gracefully with templates. For example, setting a debug breakpoint within a template from a source file may either miss setting the breakpoint in the actual instantiation desired or may set a breakpoint in every place the template is instantiated.


title: Generic programming

text: Also, the implementation source code for the template must be completely available (e.g. included in a header) to the translation unit (source file) using it. Templates, including much of the Standard Library, if not included in header files, cannot be compiled. (This is in contrast to non-templated code, which may be compiled to binary, providing only a declarations header file for code using it.) This may be a disadvantage by exposing the implementing code, which removes some abstractions, and could restrict its use in closed-source projects.


title: Generic programming

text: Most C++ template idioms will carry over to D without alteration, but D adds some additional functionality:


title: Generic programming

text: Templates in D use a different syntax than in C++: whereas in C++ template parameters are wrapped in angular brackets (codice_47),


title: Generic programming

text: Conventionally, D combines the above features to provide compile-time polymorphism using trait-based generic programming.


title: Generic programming

text: For example, an input range is defined as any type that satisfies the checks performed by codice_49, which is defined as follows:


title: Generic programming

text: In addition to template metaprogramming, D also provides several features to enable compile-time code generation:


title: Generic programming

text: For example, D serialization frameworks can enumerate a type's members and generate specialized functions for each serialized type


title: Generic programming

text: The codice_50 expression and compile-time function execution also allow efficiently implementing domain-specific languages.


title: Generic programming

text: For example, given a function that takes a string containing an HTML template and returns equivalent D source code, it is possible to use it in the following way:


title: Generic programming

text: Generic classes have been a part of Eiffel since the original method and language design. The foundation publications of Eiffel, use the term "genericity" to describe the creation and use of generic classes.


title: Generic programming

text: Generic classes are declared with their class name and a list of one or more "formal generic parameters". In the following code, class codice_52 has one formal generic parameter codice_53


title: Generic programming

text: The formal generic parameters are placeholders for arbitrary class names that will be supplied when a declaration of the generic class is made, as shown in the two "generic derivations" below, where codice_54 and codice_55 are other class names. codice_54 and codice_55 are considered "actual generic parameters" as they provide real class names to substitute for codice_53 in actual use.


title: Generic programming

text: Within the Eiffel type system, although class codice_59 is considered a class, it is not considered a type. However, a generic derivation of codice_59 such as codice_61 is considered a type.


title: Generic programming

text: For the list class shown above, an actual generic parameter substituting for codice_53 can be any other available class. To constrain the set of classes from which valid actual generic parameters can be chosen, a "generic constraint" can be specified. In the declaration of class codice_63 below, the generic constraint dictates that any valid actual generic parameter will be a class that inherits from class codice_64. The generic constraint ensures that elements of a codice_63 can in fact be sorted.


title: Generic programming

text: Support for the "generics", or "containers-of-type-T" was added to the Java programming language in 2004 as part of J2SE 5.0. In Java, generics are only checked at compile time for type correctness. The generic type information is then removed via a process called type erasure, to maintain compatibility with old JVM implementations, making it unavailable at runtime. For example, a codice_66 is converted to the raw type codice_67. The compiler inserts type casts to convert the elements to the codice_68 type when they are retrieved from the list, reducing performance compared to other implementations such as C++ templates.


title: Generic programming

text: Generics were added as part of .NET Framework 2.0 in November 2005, based on a research prototype from Microsoft Research started in 1999. Although similar to generics in Java, .NET generics do not apply type erasure, but implement generics as a first class mechanism in the runtime using reification. This design choice provides additional functionality, such as allowing reflection with preservation of generic types, as well as alleviating some of the limitations of erasure (such as being unable to create generic arrays). This also means that there is no performance hit from runtime casts and normally expensive boxing conversions. When primitive and value types are used as generic arguments, they get specialized implementations, allowing for efficient generic collections and methods. As in C++ and Java, nested generic types such as Dictionary<string, List<int» are valid types, however are advised against for member signatures in code analysis design rules.


title: Generic programming

text: .NET allows six varieties of generic type constraints using the codice_69 keyword including restricting generic types to be value types, to be classes, to have constructors, and to implement interfaces. Below is an example with an interface constraint:


title: Generic programming

text: The codice_70 method allows operation on arrays, with elements of generic type codice_3. The method's type constraint indicates that the method is applicable to any type codice_3 that implements the generic codice_73 interface. This ensures a compile time error, if the method is called if the type does not support comparison. The interface provides the generic method codice_74.


title: Generic programming

text: The above method could also be written without generic types, simply using the non-generic codice_75 type. However, since arrays are contravariant, the casting would not be type safe, and the compiler would be unable to find certain possible errors that would otherwise be caught when using generic types. In addition, the method would need to access the array items as codice_76s instead, and would require casting to compare two elements. (For value types like types such as codice_14 this requires a boxing conversion, although this can be worked around using the codice_78 class, as is done in the standard collection classes.)


title: Generic programming

text: A notable behavior of static members in a generic .NET class is static member instantiation per run-time type (see example below).


title: Generic programming

text: Delphi's Object Pascal dialect acquired generics in the Delphi 2007 release, initially only with the (now discontinued) .NET compiler before being added to the native code in the Delphi 2009 release. The semantics and capabilities of Delphi generics are largely modelled on those had by generics in .NET 2.0, though the implementation is by necessity quite different. Here's a more or less direct translation of the first C# example shown above:


title: Generic programming

text: As with C#, methods as well as whole types can have one or more type parameters. In the example, TArray is a generic type (defined by the language) and MakeAtLeast a generic method. The available constraints are very similar to the available constraints in C#: any value type, any class, a specific class or interface, and a class with a parameterless constructor. Multiple constraints act as an additive union.


title: Generic programming

text: Free Pascal implemented generics before Delphi, and with different syntax and semantics. However, since FPC version 2.6.0, the Delphi-style syntax is available when using the {$mode Delphi} language mode. Thus, Free Pascal programmers are able to use generics in whichever style they prefer.


title: Generic programming

text: Six of the predefined type classes in Haskell (including codice_79, the types that can be compared for equality, and codice_80, the types whose values can be rendered as strings) have the special property of supporting "derived instances." This means that a programmer defining a new type can state that this type is to be an instance of one of these special type classes, without providing implementations of the class methods as is usually necessary when declaring class instances. All the necessary methods will be "derived" – that is, constructed automatically – based on the structure of the type.


title: Generic programming

text: For instance, the following declaration of a type of binary trees states that it is to be an instance of the classes codice_79 and codice_80:


title: Generic programming

text: This results in an equality function (codice_83) and a string representation function (codice_84) being automatically defined for any type of the form codice_85 provided that codice_3 itself supports those operations.


title: Generic programming

text: The support for derived instances of codice_79 and codice_80 makes their methods codice_83 and codice_84 generic in a qualitatively different way from parametrically polymorphic functions: these "functions" (more accurately, type-indexed families of functions) can be applied to values of various types, and although they behave differently for every argument type, little work is needed to add support for a new type. Ralf Hinze (2004) has shown that a similar effect can be achieved for user-defined type classes by certain programming techniques. Other researchers have proposed approaches to this and other kinds of genericity in the context of Haskell and extensions to Haskell (discussed below).


title: Generic programming

text: PolyP was the first generic programming language extension to Haskell. In PolyP, generic functions are called "polytypic". The language introduces a special construct in which such polytypic functions can be defined via structural induction over the structure of the pattern functor of a regular datatype. Regular datatypes in PolyP are a subset of Haskell datatypes. A regular datatype t must be of kind "* → *", and if "a" is the formal type argument in the definition, then all recursive calls to "t" must have the form "t a". These restrictions rule out higher-kinded datatypes as well as nested datatypes, where the recursive calls are of a different form.


title: Generic programming

text: Generic Haskell is another extension to Haskell, developed at Utrecht University in the Netherlands. The extensions it provides are:


title: Generic programming

text: Clean offers generic programming based and the as supported by the GHC ≥ 6.0. It parametrizes by kind as those but offers overloading.


title: Generic programming

text: Languages in the ML family support generic programming through parametric polymorphism and generic modules called "functors." Both Standard ML and OCaml provide functors, which are similar to class templates and to Ada's generic packages. Scheme syntactic abstractions also have a connection to genericity – these are in fact a superset of C++ templates.


title: Generic programming

text: A Verilog module may take one or more parameters, to which their actual values are assigned upon the instantiation of the module. One example is a generic register array where the array width is given via a parameter. Such an array, combined with a generic wire vector, can make a generic buffer or memory module with an arbitrary bit width out of a single module implementation.


title: Pune Airport

text: Pune Airport is a customs airport located approximately northeast of the historic centre of Pune in the state of Maharashtra, India. The airport is a civil enclave operated by the Airports Authority of India at the western side of Lohagaon Air Force Station of the Indian Air Force. The airport serves both domestic and international flights. In financial year 2020, the airport handled 8.09 million passengers. The airport is awarded as 'Best Airport by Hygiene Measures' in Asia-Pacific in 2020 by Airports Council International.


title: Pune Airport

text: Pune Airport has a 2,540 m long runway oriented 10/28. A former secondary runway is now used as a taxiway by the IAF. A 2200m x 23m parallel taxiway was constructed by AAI to facilitate civil operation on the southern side of runway 10/28. The airfield is equipped with night landing facilities as well as navigational facilities like DVOR/DME and an NDB. As Pune's Air Traffic Control is operated by the IAF, there is often friction between the AAI and the IAF over flight schedules and night landings. There is currently a basic working relationship between the two parties; they have agreed to allow night landings of civilian flights for the time being, though this is not a long-term solution.


title: Pune Airport

text: The airfield was established in 1939 as RAF Poona to provide air security to the city of Bombay (now Mumbai). The base was home to World War II squadrons of de Havilland Mosquito and Vickers Wellington bombers and Supermarine Spitfire fighter aircraft. In May 1947, the Royal Indian Air Force took charge of the airfield. The airport was declared as a customs airport in January 1997 for the export of specified goods. With effect from 12 December 2005, the airport was certified as a customs airport for the clearance of passengers and baggage. International flights to Dubai and Singapore commenced by Indian (Previously Indian Airlines) in 2005. These flights however were not cancelled later. In 2004–05, the airport handled about 165 passengers a day or around 60,000 passengers. It increased to 250 passengers a day in 2005–06. There was a sharp rise in 2006–07 when the number reached 4,309 passengers a day (1,500,000 a year) and more than 2.8 million passengers a year in 2010– 2011 (about 8,000 passengers a day). The airport was ranked third best in the category of 5-15 million passengers by Airport Service Quality.


title: Pune Airport

text: A 100 crore airport modernisation plan was launched in preparation for the Commonwealth Youth Games hosted by Pune. In August 2008, AAI completed construction of two new terminal extensions for international passenger departures and arrivals, measuring nearly on either side of the old main terminal building, which was inadequate for the increase in passengers and flight operations. The terminal extensions have helped ease peak-time pressure of air passengers. Facilities developed on the air side include a new parallel taxi track and an apron expanded to accommodate eight Airbus A320 or Boeing 737 aircraft. Two aerobridges were also commissioned in 2011. New conveyor belts and passenger facilities including a modern spa were also commissioned.


title: Pune Airport

text: The Airports Authority of India has invested 40 crore in 2018 for a brand new second terminal, which will be integrated into the existing one in order to ease air traffic. Construction began in late 2018 and will be completed by January 2023.


title: Pune Airport

text: All the offices of the AAI and the Central Industrial Security Force will move to the new administrative block, creating more space in the terminal building. The building will also house a VIP lounge with independent access to the airport terminal building. The airport power sub-station near the entrance gate will also be shifted to the new building this freeing up more space for developing passenger amenities.


title: Pune Airport

text: An Instrument Landing System (ILS) has been proposed to ensure smooth takeoffs and landings even in deteriorated weather conditions.


title: Pune Airport

text: There is a proposal of creating an international cargo facility from this airport. This project will enable foreign cargo operators to operate in the airport. The airport was declared as customs airport on 17 January 1997, primarily for exporting perishable agricultural products. This project will also help to attract of foreign airlines to operate to the airport. The 600 sq.m. terminal will be located adjacent to the new adjacent second terminal.


title: Pune Airport

text: A second terminal is under construction on the eastern side of the current airport terminal. It will be twice the size of the current terminal. It will have 5 aerobridges and advanced technologies with duty-free shops and food courts. It was estimated to be completed by the end of 2020, but due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which caused lockdowns and curfews, it resulted in lack of labour and caused several delays in work. In September 2021, construction work resumed. As of November 2022, the new terminal is 75% completed, and is expected to be completed by May 2023.


title: Pune Airport

text: Due to the limited expansion options available, the airport will not be able to cope with the growing demand for air traffic into Pune. Hence, a greenfield airport for the Pune metropolitan region has been proposed. The Government of Maharashtra has entrusted the responsibility to Maharashtra Airport Development Company (MADC) for executing the Pune International Airport project. Probable sites for this project had earlier included areas around Talegaon Dabhade and Saswad near Pune. An area between Chakan and Rajgurunagar, around the villages of Chandus and Shiroli was under consideration.


title: Pune Airport

text: However, due to land acquisition issues, a new site has been proposed. The greenfield airport will be located near the villages of Ambodi, Sonori, Kumbharvalan, Ekhatpur-Munjawadi, Khanwadi, Pargaon Memane, Rajewadi, Aamble, Tekwadi, Vanpuri, Udachiwadi, and Singapur near Saswad and Jejuri in Purandar taluka of Pune District in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The proposed airport in Purandar will be spread over 2,400 hectares. This airport will also boost trade from Pune and neighbouring districts as it will have its own dedicated cargo terminal. MADC requested proposals from consultants to conduct techno-economic feasibility studies, assist in obtaining the required statutory approvals and provide project management services.


title: Pune Airport

text: In August 2020, deputy chief minister Ajit Pawar told the Pune district administration to check the feasibility of developing the new Pune International Airport at an alternative site proposed by Purandar MLA Sanjay Jagtap. The MLA had proposed land acquisition at Pandeshwar, Rise, and Pise villages, instead of the seven villages in Purandar taluka which have opposed land acquisition since the project was announced in October 2016. Total land acquisition cost is expected to be ₹ 4000 crore for the existing site. If the new site gets approved, land acquisition cost is likely to reduce.


title: Pune Airport

text: Senior officials of the Maharashtra Airport Development Company Limited (MADC) have said that shifting the site of the Purandar Airport will lead to delay of more than two years in getting fresh approvals, and carrying out surveys of the new site.


title: Pune Airport

text: Pre-paid taxicab and auto rickshaw services to and from airport are available. Coach services to various key locations in Pune and private car rental services are also available. PMPML also operates airport shuttle to and fro from the city.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: The Campaign for North Africa, subtitled "The Desert War, 1940–43", and generally referred to as CNA by wargamers, is an exceptionally detailed strategic "monster" board wargame published by Simulations Publications, Inc. (SPI) in 1978 that simulates the entire North African Campaign of World War II.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: "The Campaign for North Africa" has been called the longest board game ever produced, with estimates that a full game would take 1,500 hours to complete. Reviewer Luke Winkie pointed out that "If you and your group meets for three hours at a time, twice a month, you’d wrap up the campaign in about 20 years." It has also been called the most complex wargame ever designed, with the commonly cited example (noted in SPI's advertising) that Italian troops require additional water supplies to prepare pasta. The map board alone is 9.5 ft (3 m) long.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: Although nominally a two-player game, the rules recommend ten players divided into two teams of five people, each team composed of a Commander-In-Chief, Logistics Commander, Rear Area Commander, Air Commander, and Front-line Commander.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: The Wargamer Academy rates the complexity of "CNA", on a scale of 1–10, as 10+. The complete campaign game takes 100 turns, each turn representing one week of game time. A number of shorter scenarios are included that are still long in comparison to other wargames. As reviewers noted, the game is less about combat, and more about managing logistics and supply lines.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: To give an idea of the game's complexity, reviewer Nicholas Palmer outlined the actions for one side's single turn. As a first step, before playing, the player or team must make unit organization charts for every one of the hundreds of counters on their side. Then each turn:


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In 1976, a team of developers started to create "CNA", with Richard Berg responsible for the gigantic map. After six months, all of the other developers had left the project, and Berg was asked to complete the game on his own, which he took two years to complete. Redmond A. Simonsen provided cartography and graphic design. The game was so massive that playtesting was not completed before the game was published by SPI in 1979, retailing for $44.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: Following the demise of SPI, Decision Games acquired the rights to "CNA", and started the process of streamlining and simplifying the rules, with an advertised publication date of 2022 for the retitled "North African Campaign".


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: "The Campaign for North Africa" was featured in an eleventh season episode of "The Big Bang Theory" called "The Neonatal Nomenclature". Despite Sheldon's enthusiasm towards the intricate details of the game, his friends show little interest.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In his 1980 book "The Best of Board Wargaming", Nicholas Palmer noted that despite the game's obvious complexity, "the rules are clear and entertainingly written, there are copious notes, and the basic system does seem to have been properly playtested." Nevertheless he called the game "a mind-bogglingly slow job; no doubt the first ten years are the hardest." He concluded by giving "CNA" a very poor "excitement" grade of only 15% but a "realism" grade of 100%.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In Issue 49 of "Moves", Thomas G. Pratuch called the game so big that "it defies immediate analysis of the tactical and strategic planning necessary to win the game." However, he called the game's scenarios the most complex designed to date. He also believed that players could use the game rules as a framework for designing new scenarios.


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In Issue 24 of "Phoenix", Bob Campbell called "CNA" "certainly the best simulation of the desert war yet", despite its length. He found a mismatch between the "simple but laborious" logistics system and the very complex combat system. He especially found the air game to be overly complex, pointing out that designer Richard Berg admitted this in the Designer's Notes. Campbell concluded that the game was "a success, if only a partial success. It does not contain the ultimate truth about North Africa, but there's enough there to get on with."


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In the 1980 book "The Complete Book of Wargames", game designer Jon Freeman noted the complete game would take at least 1500 hours to complete, and responded, "Balance? Who cares? To survive is to win." He further commented that this "was not a game, and to consider it as such is a big mistake. It's a history lesson—a pure simulation. On that level, it is quite an achievement; for people looking for a good 'game,' it is totally worthless." He gave the game an Overall Evaluation of "Very Good for historians, Very Poor for anyone else", concluding, "the game is overly complex and overlong—pure overkill."


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In a 2012 review, game designer Andrea Angiolino called "CNA" "the most complicated board game ever released."


title: The Campaign for North Africa

text: In a retrospective review almost 40 years after "CNA"s publication, Luke Winkie called the arcane complexity of the game "transparently absurd", pointing out the example that each turn, every unit loses 3% of its fuel due to evaporation, except for British units, which lose 7% because historically they used 50-gallon drums instead of jerry cans. But he admitted that due to its complexity, ""The Campaign for North Africa" will seduce new players for the rest of time."


title: Pork roll

text: Though since then food labeling regulations require Taylor and all other manufacturers to label it "pork roll", people in northern New Jersey still call it "Taylor ham".


title: Pork roll

text: The "Is it pork roll or Taylor ham?" question is a notable element of New Jersey culture, and the division over what name one uses divides the state along roughly north–south geographic lines.


title: Pork roll

text: While a similar item, packed minced ham, may have been produced in the later 1700s, John Taylor is credited with creating his secret recipe for the product in 1856.


title: Pork roll

text: George Washington Case, a farmer and butcher from nearby Belle Mead, created his own recipe for hickory-smoked pork roll in 1870.


title: Pork roll

text: Taylor originally called his product "Taylor's Prepared Ham", but was forced to change the name after it failed to meet the new legal definition of "ham" established by the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906.


title: Pork roll

text: Marketed as both "Taylor's Pork Roll" and "Trenton Pork Roll", it saw competition from products with similar names like "Rolled Pork" and "Trenton style Pork Roll". Adolph Gobel, the "Sausage King" of Brooklyn, was sued by Taylor in 1910 for calling his competing product "Roll of Pork", but the court ruled that the words "Pork Roll" and "Roll of Pork" could not be trademarked.


title: Pork roll

text: Although it says "John Taylor's Pork Roll" on the wrapper of the product of the Taylor Provisions Company, a century later, many in North Jersey (and parts of Central Jersey) continue to use the term "Taylor ham".


title: Pork roll

text: The debate over the name, which splits New Jersey along a line between the north and the south, is a perennial one in the state.


title: Pork roll

text: It has become a shibboleth for identity within the state, and is an argument that New Jersey people, whose lives are influenced by out of state factors, can consider their own.


title: Pork roll

text: In the words of Lew Bryson and Mark Haynie, magazine editor and magazine writer, "The north calls it 'Taylor ham' and eats it with mustard; the south calls it 'pork roll' and eats it with ketchup." going on to observe for their home state that "[o]ver here in Philadelphia […] it's pork roll; hey, Trenton's right across the river and that's what it says on the wrap!".


title: Pork roll

text: On May 15, 2016, President Barack Obama gave a commencement speech at Rutgers University's 250th graduation ceremony in which he referenced the "Taylor Ham vs. pork roll debate", saying, "I come here for a simple reason – to finally settle this pork roll vs. Taylor Ham question...I'm just kidding...There's not much I'm afraid to take on in my final year of office, but I know better than to get in the middle of that debate."


title: Pork roll

text: A 2014 survey of restaurant menus by documentary filmmaker Steve Chernoski found that the north-south dividing line was not quite as characterized, with restaurants in Monmouth County using the name "Taylor ham", which Chernoski hypothesized was the result of either northerners moving to beachfront properties, or restaurants catering to their tourist markets; a "Down the Shore Taylor Ham" product being sold south of Driscoll Bridge; and the main split being further south than Chernoski expected it to be, in Somerset and Middlesex Counties around the Raritan River.


title: Pork roll

text: Further confounding the debate is the fact that things sold in restaurants as "Taylor ham" are not necessarily the Taylor product, because it has suffered from a degree of genericization, and even in North New Jersey are likely to be in fact a pork roll product of Case or another company.


title: Pork roll

text: Any pork roll sandwich bought in any Wawa store, for example, is made from pork roll manufactured by Alderfer.


title: Pork roll

text: Being both a regional specialty and a processed meat with a unique taste, pork roll has resisted accurate description and is sometimes referred to as a mystery meat.


title: Pork roll

text: Both the "cylindrical cotton sack" and vacuum-sealed sliced forms are widely available in the region.


title: Pork roll

text: Loeffler's Gourmet sold a "Pork Roll Links" product under its Mercer Meats brand, which was in essence a hot dog made of pork roll.


title: Pork roll

text: For some time, Taylor also made "Taystrips", which was the same kind of meat, but shaped into rectangular strips, similar to bacon or sizzlean.


title: Pork roll

text: Larry Olmsted of "USA Today" has described the taste of the meat as "a cross between Canadian bacon and bacon, less hammy and smoky than Canadian, fattier and saltier than bacon, with a unique texture, both crispy and slightly mushy."


title: Pork roll

text: Bryson and Haynie wrote "Think Spam, but pork roll is leaner, has a hint of smoke, subtly different spices — and it doesn't have the goo or come in a can."


title: Pork roll

text: The main producers of pork roll in New Jersey are Taylor Provisions (USDA EST 256) a company founded in 1939 and branded as Taylor and Trenton, and Case Pork Roll (USDA EST 184) originally the Case Pork Pack Company, then the Case Pork Company, branded as Case's.


title: Pork roll

text: Other smaller producers include Spolem Provisions (USDA EST 5421) branded as Loeffler's Gourmet and Mercer Meats, Clemens Food Group (USDA EST 791) as Hatfield, Leidys (USDA EST 9520) as Leidy's and Alderfer, and Rob-Dave Distributors (USDA EST 2159) as Johnston.


title: Pork roll

text: Loeffler Gourmet is a small business that got into selling pork roll in 2003, after its manager Robert Trofimowicz, a Polish immigrant, and his parents had been running a Polish delicatessen named Henry's Deli in Hamilton.


title: Pork roll

text: Originally one of the delicatessen's suppliers, Trofimowicz bought the business and started marketing its pork roll.


title: Pork roll

text: Both Hatfield's and Alderfelder's products are named specifically a "Pork Roll Sausage", adding the word "sausage", because of food labelling laws.


title: Pork roll

text: Johnston House Brand Pork Roll is produced from a family butcher's shop in Allentown, and is named for the road in Hamilton where the owners, the Battisti family, moved from Trenton.


title: Pork roll

text: There is an industry of delivering pork roll by mail order from New Jersey to the rest of the United States, as it is little known and otherwise not readily obtainable outwith New Jersey and neighbouring Pennsylvania, with companies ranging from "The Taylor Ham Man" through "Jersey Pork Roll" to "Case's Pork Roll Store".


title: Pork roll

text: Conflating the names, the Jersey Pork Roll company sells a product named "Original Taylor Ham Pork Roll".


title: Pork roll

text: Pork roll is prepared by slicing it, if it is not already sliced, and then frying, searing, or griddling the slices.


title: Pork roll

text: To make the slices lay flat, a single radial cut (Pac-Man style) or four inward cuts (fireman's badge style) are commonly made, leading to distinctive shapes once cooked.


title: Pork roll

text: A popular breakfast sandwich in the region is the "Taylor ham, egg and cheese" a.k.a. "pork roll, egg and cheese" in which fried pork roll is joined with a fried (or scrambled) egg and American cheese and served on a hard roll, bagel, or English muffin.


title: Pork roll

text: Salt, pepper, and ketchup are so commonly ordered, as accompanying condiments, that "SPK" has become a slang abbreviation used when ordering.


title: Pork roll

text: It is also eaten in many other ways, such as Taylor ham burgers (pork roll with beef on a burger bun), Taylor ham pancakes, and local items such as the "Shamewich" sold by a retailer in Montclair which is a pork roll, egg, and cheese sandwich with the bread replaced by buttermilk pancakes.


title: Pork roll

text: Other recipes that it is incorporated into include the "Jersey Burger", a Pork Roll Monte Cristo, or a variation on deviled eggs.


title: Pork roll

text: It rivals their feelings about pizza, but unlike pizza, pork roll is a food that is highly specific to the state.


title: Pork roll

text: When food writer Peter Genovese wrote an article entitled the "10 Most Overrated Things about New Jersey" and put pork roll on the list, saying merely that it was overrated, he received a large amount of negative feedback from readers.


title: Pork roll

text: At the festival, held at Trenton Social bar and restaurant, hundreds of pounds of pork roll were served to over 4,000 visitors and a Miss Pork Roll Queen was crowned.


title: Pork roll

text: Pre-ordered supplies for sandwich making ran out partway through the event, and Tom Dolan the president of Case Pork Roll personally delivered a further 20 cases of pork roll to keep vendors supplied.


title: Pork roll

text: The organizers had spent a total of on advertising, the publicity being mainly through Facebook posts and word of mouth.


title: Pork roll

text: The following year, the organizers split up, over a disagreement as to where the festival was to be held and whether Trenton Social was large enough to accommodate the expected visitor numbers, and held competing festivals.


title: Pork roll

text: The renamed Trenton Pork Roll Festival remained at Trenton Social, whilst the originally named Pork Roll Festival was held in Mill Hill Park.


title: Pork roll

text: The 7th annual Pork Roll festival was scheduled for 2020, but was delayed and ultimately cancelled due to the COVID pandemic.


title: Pork roll

text: A Vegan Pork Roll Festival was held in 2015, on the same day as the other two, in Gandhi Garden on Trenton's East Hanover Street.


title: Pork roll

text: Unofficially, many residents of New Jersey regard the "Taylor ham/pork roll, egg, and cheese" as the state sandwich.


title: Pork roll

text: On April 14, 2016, Assemblyman Tim Eustace introduced two bills in the New Jersey State Legislature seeking to make this official, designating it the New Jersey State Sandwich. One bill was for pork roll and one for Taylor Ham. Neither bill made it out of committee.


title: Pork roll

text: The Trenton Thunder minor league baseball team hosted their inaugural "Trenton Thunder World Famous Case's Pork Roll Eating Championship" on September 26, 2015. Joey Chestnut won the contest by eating 32 pork roll sandwiches in 10 minutes. On Fridays in 2018, the team rebranded itself as "Thunder Pork Roll" with pork roll themed uniforms and merchandise.


title: Pork roll

text: The Jersey Shore BlueClaws minor league baseball team holds a Pork Roll, Egg, and Cheese Race at the end of the fourth inning of every home game.


title: Pork roll

text: Several songs by the band Ween contain references to pork roll, including "Frank" and "Pork Roll Egg and Cheese" from their 1991 album "The Pod". The band is from nearby New Hope, Pennsylvania.


title: Pork roll

text: Episode 9 from Season 7 of the television program "Bizarre Foods Delicious Destinations" featured pork roll as a Jersey Shore specialty.


title: Pork roll

text: On October 28, 2020, Montana gubernatorial candidate Mike Cooney released a video of former New Jersey governor Chris Christie on the app Cameo. Christie, who had been tricked into recording the video by a Cooney aide, invoked "Taylor ham" in an attempt to lure Cooney's opponent, Greg Gianforte, back to New Jersey.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: Friends is a 2001 Indian Tamil-language drama film, directed by Siddique in his Tamil debut and produced by Appachan. It is the Tamil remake of Siddique's own 1999 Malayalam film of the same name. The film stars Vijay, Suriya and Ramesh Khanna as the friends, while Devayani, Vijayalakshmi, Abhinayashree, Sriman, Vadivelu, Charle, and Radha Ravi play supporting roles. The music was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, while Anandakuttan handled cinematography.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: "Friends" released on 14 January 2001. It received positive reviews and became a commercial success. This film also marks the second collaboration of Vijay and Suriya after "Nerrukku Ner" (1997).


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: Aravindan, Chandru and Krishnamoorthy have been best friends since childhood. They value friendship above everything else, including family. Thus, Chandru resists the romantic overtures of Aravindan's younger sister Amudha. Chandru, an orphan, stays with Aravindan and is considered by Aravindan's parents as a second son. Some brushes with the law force Aravindan and Chandru to lie low in Chennai for a couple of days, where they and Krishnamoorthy take up jobs as painters in a mansion under contractor Nesamani, who is Krishnamoorthy's paternal uncle. Aravindan falls in love with Padmini, who lives in the mansion, though Padmini only considers him as a friend; nevertheless, she is grateful to him when he saves her from an accidental electrocution.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: However, Padmini's cousin Abhirami has a crush on Aravindan and is enraged when she realizes that he is in love with Padmini. Abhirami sends false letters to him in Padmini's name and makes him believe that his love is reciprocated. When Padmini suddenly gets engaged to another man, Chandru stands up for Aravindan’s love and insults Padmini in front of her entire family, causing her engagement to get cancelled. This makes Padmini decide to marry Aravindan, but with the intention to take revenge on Chandru by breaking his and Aravindan's friendship. But during their marriage, Aravindan and Padmini realise that Abhirami is behind all the mishaps which had taken place, and that Chandru is innocent. Padmini reconciles with Chandru, and Chandru's and Amutha's wedding is fixed.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: Gowtham is Aravindan's cousin who lusts for Amutha. He plans to separate Aravindan and Chandru so that he can marry Amutha. He first sets Amutha's sari on fire while she is cooking in the kitchen. Chandru blames Padmini for the mishap as she was in the kitchen with Amutha at the time, even though Padmini is innocent, but no one, including Aravindan, believes Chandru. Gowtham then turns his eye on the annual bullock race in which Chandru is taking part, by loosening the wheels on Chandru's cart with the intention to cause a serious accident and frame Padmini as the culprit, thus creating a wedge between Chandru and Aravindan. Unfortunately for Gowtham, Aravindan decides to take part in the race in Chandru's place since Chandru is to be married, and manages to win despite using the broken bullock cart.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: Chandru accuses Padmini of trying to kill him. Padmini threatens to leave the house if Aravindan remains friends with Chandru and does not throw him out of the house. Aravindan then reveals to her that he had accidentally killed Chandru's deaf-and-dumb younger brother Chinna when they were children, which traumatized him so much that he never told anyone about it. Since then, he has been looking out for Chandru out of the guilt that he had no one else in his life anymore. Gowtham overhears their conversation and makes this known by Chandru. Chandru fights with Aravindan, breaks their friendship and leaves the house. Aravindan tries to convince Chandru to return and marry Amutha, even if he cannot repair their friendship. However, in the process, Aravindan falls from a cliff.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: Five years later, Chandru is a Major in the Indian Army and has never returned to Aravindan's home since his disappearance. He receives a letter from Krishnamoorthy stating that Aravindan is not dead, but in a vegetative state, not responding to anyone and only sitting in a corner. Chandru immediately leaves for Aravindan's house, where he also learns that Aravindan and Padmini have a young son whose name is Chandru, in tribute to their friendship. Meanwhile, Gowtham, who has been torturing Padmini and Amutha since Aravindan went into the vegetative state, finds that Chandru has returned and beats him up. On hearing Chandru's cries, Aravindan wakes up and subdues Gowtham and his goons. Ultimately, Aravindan, Chandru and Krishnamoorthy, as well as Padmini and Amutha, are reunited.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: After appearing together in "Nerukku Ner" (1997), Vijay and Suriya came together again in this film, a remake of the 1999 Malayalam film "Friends". Ramesh Khanna was selected to play the role which was enacted by Sreenivasan in original. First Meena was approached to play the female lead as she did the original Malayalam version. Due to dates problem, she could not be part of it. Later Jyothika was signed along with Suvalakshmi to play the lead actresses in the film but soon backed out due to date problems and were replaced by Devayani and new girl Vijayalakshmi from Mysore. Shooting was held in a fast pace on Tamil Nadu locations (Ooty, Pollachi, Pazhani, Coimbatore, Udumalaipettai and Chennai). The song 'Thendral Varum Vazhiye' was shot in New Zealand.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: The music was composed by Ilaiyaraaja who composed for the original Malayalam version. Lyrics of the songs were penned by Palani Bharathi.


title: Friends (2001 film)

text: "Friends" was released on 14 January 2001, Pongal day. Malathi Rangarajan of "The Hindu" stated, "With friendship as the theme, Siddique presents a decent entertainer, which of course could have been crisper." Shilpa Kannan from Zee TV noted "at last, we have one thoroughly enjoyable picture this year" and "except for the end, which is a bit melodramatic, "Friends" is an excellent movie for debutant director Siddique." "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 42 out of 100.Despite facing competition with Ajith Kumar's "Dheena", "Friends" emerged a commercial success, running for more than 175 days in theatres and became a hit for both Vijay and Suriya.


title: Red king crab

text: The red king crab ("Paralithodes camtschaticus"), also called Kamchatka crab or Alaskan king crab, is a species of king crab native to the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. It was introduced to the Barents Sea. It grows to a leg span of , and is heavily targeted by fisheries.


title: Red king crab

text: The red king crab is the largest species of king crab. Red king crabs can reach a carapace width up to , a leg span of , and a weight of . Males grow larger than females. Today, red king crabs infrequently surpass in carapace width and the average male landed in the Bering Sea weighs . It was named after the color it turns when it is cooked rather than the color of a living animal, which tends to be more burgundy.


title: Red king crab

text: The red king crab is native to the Bering Sea, North Pacific Ocean, around the Kamchatka Peninsula and neighboring Alaskan waters. It was introduced artificially by the Soviet Union into the Murmansk Fjord, Barents Sea, during the 1960s to provide a new, and valuable, catch in Europe. Red king crabs have been seen in water temperatures that range from , with typical being . Immatures prefer temperatures below . The depth at which it can live has much to do with what stage of its lifecycle it is in; newly hatched crab (zoea larvae) stay in the shallower waters where food and protection are plentiful. Usually, after the age of two, the crabs move down to depths of and take part in what is known as podding; hundreds of crabs come together in tight, highly concentrated groups. Adult crabs are found usually more than down on the sand and muddy areas in the substrate. They migrate in the winter or early spring to shallower depths for mating, but most of their lives are spent in the deep waters where they feed.


title: Red king crab

text: "P. camtschaticus" faces many predators in its native range including Pacific cod, walleye pollock, rock sole, flathead sole, rex sole, Dover sole ("Microstomus pacificus"), arrowtooth flounder, Elasmobranchs, halibut, sculpin, Greenland turbot, Pacific salmon, Pacific herring, otters ("Enhydra lutris") and seals.


title: Red king crab

text: The red king crab is the most coveted of the commercially sold king crab species, and it is the most expensive per unit weight. It is most commonly caught in the Bering Sea and Norton Sound, Alaska, and is particularly difficult to catch, but is nonetheless one of the most preferred crabs for consumption.


title: Red king crab

text: Red king crabs are experiencing a steady decline in numbers in their native far east coastal waters for unclear reasons, though several theories for the precipitous drop in the crab population have been proposed, including overfishing, warmer waters, and increased fish predation. Fishing controls set by the United States in the 1980s and 2000s have failed to stem the decline.


title: Red king crab

text: In the 1960s, the Soviet Union transported red king crabs from the North Pacific Ocean to the Murmansk Fjord. They did not survive transport overland, so a batch was flown in, which survived, was released, and bred and spread in the wild.


title: Red king crab

text: It was first found in Norway in 1977. In the Barents Sea, it is an invasive species and its population is increasing tremendously. This is causing great concern to local environmentalists and local fishermen, as the crab eats everything it comes across and is spreading very rapidly, eating most seabed life and "creating a desert". Since its introduction in the 1960s, it has spread west along the Norwegian coast and also has reached Svalbard. The species keeps on advancing southwards along the coast of Norway and some scientists think they are advancing around a year. In Norway they are sometimes called "Stalin's crabs", since they were introduced by the Soviet Union.


title: Red king crab

text: By the mid 1990s, the king crabs reached North Cape. The Norwegian Institute of Marine Research found in 2010–2013 that they have reached Sørøya and are breeding there. A few have been caught as far south as Tromsø. There is fear of the result if they reach the cod breeding grounds off Lofoten.


title: Red king crab

text: A report on 8 June 2009 said that a red king crab had been caught off Skogsvåg at Sotra south of Bergen in south Norway. An important natural predator of the red king crab, the giant Pacific octopus ("Enteroctopus dofleini", formerly called "Octopus apollyon"), does not occur in European waters. A fisherman in Honningsvåg (a town near the North Cape) complained that king crabs' claws were ruining fishing nets and deep lines. Despite these concerns, the species is protected by diplomatic accords between Norway and Russia as part of a fisheries agreement between Norway and Russia about the Barents Sea, and a bilateral fishing commission decides how to manage the stocks and imposes fishing quotas. West of the North Cape on Norway's northern tip, Norway manages its crab population itself. As of May 2006, only 259 Norwegian fishermen were allowed to catch it east of the North Cape.


title: Red king crab

text: In the Norwegian Sea, some evidence indicates that the red king crabs eat the egg masses of the capelin, which is an important prey for the cod. The report (as at 24 May 2006) said that in Norwegian Sea, in the Barents Sea (east of the North Cape), catching red king crab is allowed with license only due to a fisheries agreement between Norway and Russia, but elsewhere in Norwegian seas, the catching of king crab is much freer, but nonetheless, if someone catches one, it is illegal to throw it back in the sea.


title: Red king crab

text: On average, crab processing waste can account for 69% of the catch mass. The mass fraction of carapace from these wastes is approximately 60%; the rest comprises the entrails (including the digestive organ, the hepatopancreas). In red king crab, the hepatopancreas makes up about 90% of the intestines of the carapace and 5–10% of the total weight of the animal. The hepatopancreas of the digestive system of commercial crabs is a valuable source of a complex of enzymes with various activities: collagenase, protease, hyaluronidase, lipase, nuclease, etc. The complex of proteolytic enzymes of the red king crab hepatopancreas is of interest in various industries.


title: Red king crab

text: Mature female red king crabs must stay in warmer water (near 4 °C) to ensure the eggs will be ready for hatching, while the male red king crabs stay in relatively cold water (near 1.5 °C) to conserve energy. In spring (May), female red king crabs move to shallow coastal areas to molt and spawn, and males join the females in the shallow water before molting. In the summer (mid-June through mid-November), these crabs spend their time in fairly deep water, below the established summer thermocline. When the thermocline breaks down, the red king crabs migrate back to intermediate depths, where they stay until the female red king crabs release the eggs fertilized in the previous spawning.


title: Red king crab

text: The red king crab has a wide range of tolerance to temperature, but it affects their growth. The organism's growth and molting is slow when outside temperature falls below 8 °C; around 12 °C, they molt rather quickly.


title: Red king crab

text: Overall, red king crabs have a high adaptation capacity in changes of salinity level because the crabs retain their vital functions and their feeding activities. A difference is seen, though, in the salinity tolerance between juvenile and adult red king crabs. Juveniles are slightly more tolerant to low salinity because their volume regulation is significantly better. Juveniles are consistently hyposmotic to the seawater because they have lower sodium concentration in their hemolymph. As the juveniles are smaller, their exoskeleton is more rigid. The adult red king crabs are hyperosmotic in high salinity and becomes hyposmotic in lower salinity. The hyperosmoticity is due to the higher sodium and potassium concentrations in the hemolymph compared to the surrounding water they live in.


title: Red king crab

text: A slight fluctuation on the pH level of the water (i.e. making the water more acidic) would have great effect on the red king crab. They grow slower in acidified water (pH 7.8 instead of 8.0) and eventually die after longer exposure times because of the imbalance of the organisms' acid-base equilibrium.


title: Red king crab

text: The red king crab has five sets of gills used for respiration, which are in the bronchial chamber within the carapace. The carapace is a covering of sheets of exoskeleton that overhang the thorax vertically to fit over the base of the thoracic legs. The carapace encloses two branchial chambers that enclose the gills. The gill surfaces are covered in chitinous cuticle, which is permeable to gases, allowing gas exchange. Internal gills, like other specialized gills, need metabolic energy to pull water over the respiratory surface. To induce a current into the branchial chamber the crab uses back and forth movements of an appendage called the scaphognathite. The water is drawn in from behind the walking legs then expelled from the branchial chambers through the tubes called prebronchial apertures, which are located beside the mouth. To filter the water before entering the branchial chamber, crabs have branchiostegal hairs that can collect debris. Due to the environment to which it is exposed, the posterior gills of the crab can also be cleared of parasites and sediment by increasing the movement of its fifth set of primitive legs.


title: Red king crab

text: Each gill has a main axis with many lateral filaments or lamellae that are vascularized. The afferent channel transports blood from the gill axis into each filament through a fine afferent canal to the gill top. Blood returns by a minute efferent canal to the gill tip to the efferent channel and passes to the pericardial chamber, which contains the heart. Gases are exchanged in the numerous filaments, and oxygen absorption is especially facilitated by hemocyanin. Red king crabs exhibit unidirectional ventilation. This can be described as the flow of water in a U-shaped course; water passes posteriorly from the incurrent opening, an opening in the carapace near the base of the chelipeds, dorsally over the gills, and anteriorly to exit beside the head.


title: Red king crab

text: Due to their respiratory system's limited ability to deliver by diffusion, respiratory gases must be transported around the body."Paralithodes camtschaticus" has an open circulatory system with a dorsal, ostiate heart. An open circulatory system has circulating fluid that passes somewhat freely among the tissues before being collected and recirculated. The heart is in a pericardial chamber, and blood passes through this chamber into the lumen of the heart through two pairs of ostia. Seven arteries conduct blood from the heart to various regions of the body. Each artery branches extensively, and smaller arteries ultimately end in the hemocoel. Venous blood drains into the sternal sinus, where it is conveyed by channels to the gills for aeration and returned again to the pericardial sinus.


title: Red king crab

text: They have a neurogenic heart, which has rhythmic depolarization that is responsible for initiating heartbeats. Heartbeats originate in nervous tissue; innervated muscle cells cause the heart to contract when stimulated by nerve impulses. The cardiac ganglion, which consists of nine neurons, attaches to the dorsal wall of the heart. The anterior neurons innervate the heart, whereas the other posterior neurons make synaptic contact with those anterior neurons. The posterior neuron acts as the pacemaker but also functions as the cellular oscillator and the central pattern generator. This posterior neuron produces a train of impulses, which excites the other posterior neurons. The heart contracts when the posterior neurons activate the five anterior neurons, which send impulses to the muscle cells. This is how the Frank–Starling mechanism works within crustaceans. The Frank-Starling mechanism refers to the vitally important intrinsic control of the heart; mainly, the stretching of the cardiac muscle tends to increase the force of its contraction by an effect at the cellular level. This mechanism is important as it allows the organism to match its output of blood with its input of blood. Because of the stretching between beats, the Frank-Starling mechanism allows the heart to then naturally contract more forcefully, allowing greater flow of blood, which results in the matched heart output to the increased blood received. The Frank-Starling mechanism is a little different in crustaceans, as it involves the cardiac ganglion as described previously. The stretching of the heart induces the ganglion to fire more regularly and powerfully.


title: Red king crab

text: Red king crab blood contains leukocytes and the second-most common respiratory pigment called hemocyanin. Arthropod hemocyanin is a distinct variation specific to arthropods and is a metalloprotein that uses copper atoms that are bound to its structure. Two copper atoms are needed to bind one O molecule. Because it is a large protein molecule, it is found in the blood plasma, but not in body tissues or muscles. Hemocyanins are named appropriately because when oxygenated, their color changes from colorless to blue.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins was born and grew up in Bristol and was educated at The Castle School in Thornbury, South Gloucestershire and at St Anne's College, Oxford, where he read English, having reapplied to Oxford after an initial unsuccessful application the previous year.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: After graduating from Oxford, Robins returned to Bristol, where in 2006, he shared a flat with fellow comedians Jon Richardson, Russell Howard and Mark Olver.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins began performing comedy in 2005, and soon reached the semi-finals of the "So You Think You're Funny" competition at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. In 2007, he participated in the "Comedy Zone" showcase at the festival.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins appeared both as guest and as co-presenter on both "The Russell Howard Show" and "The Jon Richardson Show" on BBC 6 Music (2007–2010).


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: In 2011, Robins performed stand-up on "Russell Howard's Good News". On television he has also appeared on "" (twice, plus the unaired pilot), "Live at the Apollo", "Mock the Week", "Live from the BBC", "Celebrity Deal or No Deal" with Sarah Millican and on the 2013 Christmas mash-up of "8 Out of 10 Cats" and "Deal or No Deal".


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins also appeared on several radio programmes, including Matt Forde's "Talksport" show, BBC Radio 4's "Word of Mouth" and BBC Radio Wales's "What's the Story?"


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: In February 2014, he started hosting the "Elis James and John Robins" show on XFM (now Radio X) with fellow comedian Elis James. In August 2014, the show moved to Saturdays, and was broadcast weekly 1-4pm. It is also a popular podcast with over 12 million downloads as of July 2017.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins performed in New Zealand for the first time in May 2014 during the NZ International Comedy Festival, with the show "Where Is My Mind?"


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins won Best Compère at the 2015 Chortle Awards. In the second half of 2016, Robins embarked on a tour show with co-host Elis James called "The Elis James and John Robins Experience".


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins has performed a solo show at the Edinburgh Festival every year between 2009 and 2015, starting with "Skinny Love". His subsequent shows were "Nomadic Revery" (2010), "Lift Your Skinny Fists Like Antennas to Heaven" (2011), "Incredible Scenes" (2012), "Where Is My Mind?" (2013), "This Tornado Loves You" (2014) and "Speakeasy" (2015). All shows were also toured around the UK. He has also performed at the Machynlleth Comedy Festival and the Leicester Comedy Festival.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: In August 2017, Robins won (jointly with Hannah Gadsby) the Edinburgh Comedy Award for his show that year, "The Darkness of Robins", which focused on the breakdown of his relationship with comedian Sara Pascoe and his personal life after the break-up. It was the first time he had been nominated for the award. The show was later filmed by the BBC and eventually made available to watch on Netflix. Robins returned to Edinburgh in 2019 with the show "Hot Shame".


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: In June 2018, it was announced that Robins would host a new upcoming game show for Dave entitled "Beat the Internet". The show ran for 20 episodes and was not renewed for a second series. Also that year the duo published a book "The Holy Vible".


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: In February 2019 Robins launched a YouTube channel Bad Golf with friend and fellow comedian Alex Horne. As of November 2021, they have more than 50,000 subscribers. Following the popularity of the channel, Robins received a kit sponsorship, with Puma’s golf brand Cobra providing him with new clubs, bag and clothing.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: After five years broadcasting on Radio X (previously XFM), the "Elis James and John Robins" show aired its final episode on the station on Saturday 30 March 2019. On 2 April 2019, Robins announced that he and Elis James would be hosting a new show on BBC Radio 5 Live. The BBC show has been broadcast since 31 May 2019, and all episodes are downloadable as podcasts.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins has described himself as "broadly vegan". He has also described himself as left-wing, and admires socialist Labour Party politicians Tony Benn and Dennis Skinner, though he has since clarified that he does not support far-left politics. He opposes Brexit.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins is a fan of the rock band Queen and supported them at their 2014–15 New Year's Eve appearance. He is also a fan of Frank Zappa and Bonnie "Prince" Billy and runs the Bonnie Prince Billy Quotes Twitter account. He has often named his Edinburgh shows after his favourite music, e.g. "Lift Your Skinny Fists Like Antennas to Heaven" is a Godspeed You! Black Emperor album, and "This Tornado Loves You" is a song by American singer-songwriter Neko Case.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins was for several years in a relationship with fellow comedian Sara Pascoe. They split in 2016, with both using their experience of the break-up and its consequences to create successful Edinburgh Fringe shows, Robins's winning the 2017 Edinburgh Comedy Award.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Starting in 2018, he was in a relationship with fashion designer Coco Fennell, sister of actress Emerald Fennell and daughter of jewellery designer Theo Fennell. Robins and Fennell became engaged in 2019. Robins confirmed on his Radio 5 Live show in December 2021 that the couple had split.


title: John Robins (comedian)

text: Robins is a keen golfer and posts regularly on YouTube under the "bad golf" channel. Robins is an experienced board game player, and once finished 11th in the British national "Catan" championships.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: A Witches' Sabbath is a purported gathering of those believed to practice witchcraft and other rituals. The phrase became popular in the 20th century.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In 1668, Johannes Praetorius published his literary work "Blockes-Berges Verrichtung", which has the subtitle "Oder Ausführlicher Geographischer Bericht/ von den hohen trefflich alt- und berühmten Blockes-Berge: ingleichen von der Hexenfahrt/ und Zauber-Sabbathe/ so auff solchen Berge die Unholden aus gantz Teutschland/ Jährlich den 1. Maij in Sanct-Walpurgis Nachte anstellen sollen". As indicated by the subtitle, Praetorius attempted to give a "Detailed Geographical Account of the highly admirable ancient and famous Blockula, also about the witches' journey and magic sabbaths".


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Prior to the late 19th century, it is difficult to locate any English use of the term "sabbath" to denote a gathering of witches. The phrase is used by Henry Charles Lea in his "History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages" (1888). Writing in 1900, German historian Joseph Hansen who was a correspondent and a German translator of Lea's work, frequently uses the shorthand phrase "hexensabbat" to interpret medieval trial records, though any consistently recurring term is noticeably rare in the copious Latin sources Hansen also provides (see more on various Latin synonyms, below). Lea and Hansen's influence may have led to a broader use of the shorthand phrase, including in English.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Prior to Hansen, German use of the term also seems to have been rare and the compilation of German folklore by Jakob Grimm in the 1800s ("Kinder und HausMärchen, Deutsche Mythologie") seems to contain no mention of "hexensabbat" or any other form of the term "sabbat" relative to fairies or magical acts. The contemporary of Grimm and early historian of witchcraft, WG Soldan also doesn't seem to use the term in his history (1843).


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In contrast to German and English counterparts, French writers (including Francophone authors writing in Latin) occasionally did use the term and there would seem to be roots to inquisitorial persecution of the Waldensians. In 1124, the term "inzabbatos" is used to describe the Waldensians in Northern Spain. In 1438 and 1460, seemingly related terms "synagogam" and "synagogue of Sathan" are used to describe Waldensians by inquisitors in France. These terms could be a reference to Revelation 2:9. ("I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan.") Writing in Latin in 1458, Francophone author Nicolas Jacquier applies "synagogam fasciniorum" to what he considers a gathering of witches.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: About 150 years later, near the peak of the witch-phobia and the persecutions which led to the execution of an estimated 40,000-100,000 persons, with roughly 80% being women, the Francophone writers still seem to be the only ones using these related terms, although still infrequently and sporadically in most cases. Lambert Daneau uses "sabbatha" one time (1581) as "Synagogas quas Satanica sabbatha". Nicholas Remi uses the term occasionally as well as "synagoga" (1588). Jean Bodin uses the term three times (1580) and, across the channel, the Englishman Reginald Scot (1585) writing a book in opposition to witch-phobia, uses the term but only once in quoting Bodin (The Puritan Richard Baxter writing much later (1691) also uses the term only once in the exact same way–quoting Bodin. Other witch-phobic English Puritans who were Baxter's contemporaries, like Increase and Cotton Mather (1684, 1689, 1692), did not use the term, perhaps because they were Sabbatarians.)


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In 1611, Jacques Fontaine uses "sabat" five times writing in French and in a way that would seem to correspond with modern usage. Finally, writing a witch-phobic work in French the following year (1612), Pierre de Lancre seems to use the term more frequently than anyone before.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Following more than two hundred years after Pierre de Lancre, another French writer Lamothe-Langon (whose character and scholarship was questioned in the 1970s) uses the term in (presumably) translating into French a handful of documents from the inquisition in Southern France. Joseph Hansen cited Lamothe-Langon as one of many sources.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Despite the infrequency of the use of the word "sabbath" to denote any such gatherings in the historical record, it became increasingly popular during the 20th century.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In a 2003 translation of Friedrich Spee's "Cautio Criminalis" (1631) the word "sabbaths" is listed in the index with a large number of entries. However, unlike some of Spee's contemporaries in France (mentioned above), who occasionally, if rarely, use the term "sabbatha", Friedrich Spee does not ever use words derived from "sabbatha" or "synagoga". Spee was German-speaking, and like his contemporaries, wrote in Latin. "Conventibus" is the word Spee uses most frequently to denote a gathering of witches, whether supposed or real, physical or spectral, as seen in the first paragraph of question one of his book. This is the same word from which English words "convention", "convent", and "coven" are derived. "Cautio Criminalis" (1631) was written as a passionate innocence project. As a Jesuit, Spee was often in a position of witnessing the torture of those accused of witchcraft.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In a 2009 translation of Dominican inquisitor Heinrich Kramer's "Malleus Maleficarum" (1486), the word "sabbath" does not occur. A line describing a supposed gathering and using "concionem" is accurately translated as an "assembly". But in the accompanying footnote, the translator seems to apologize for the lack of both the term "sabbath" and a general scarcity of other gatherings that would seem to fit the bill for what he refers to as a "black sabbath".


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Modern researchers have been unable to find any corroboration with the notion that physical gatherings of practitioners of witchcraft occurred. In his study "The Pursuit of Witches and the Sexual Discourse of the Sabbat", the historian Scott E. Hendrix presents a two-fold explanation for why these stories were so commonly told in spite of the fact that sabbats likely never actually occurred. First, belief in the real power of witchcraft grew during the late medieval and early-modern Europe as a doctrinal view in opposition to the canon Episcopi gained ground in certain communities. This fueled a paranoia among certain religious authorities that there was a vast underground conspiracy of witches determined to overthrow Christianity. Women beyond child-bearing years provided an easy target and were scapegoated and blamed for famines, plague, warfare, and other problems. Having prurient and orgiastic elements helped ensure that these stories would be relayed to others.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Bristol University's Ronald Hutton has encapsulated the witches' sabbath as an essentially modern construction, saying:


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: The book "Compendium Maleficarum" (1608) by Francesco Maria Guazzo illustrates a typical witch-phobic view of gathering of witches as "the attendants riding flying goats, trampling the cross, and being re-baptised in the name of the Devil while giving their clothes to him, kissing his behind, and dancing back to back forming a round."


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In effect, the sabbat acted as an effective 'advertising' gimmick, causing knowledge of what these authorities believed to be the very real threat of witchcraft to be spread more rapidly across the continent. That also meant that stories of the sabbat promoted the hunting, prosecution, and execution of supposed witches.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: The descriptions of Sabbats were made or published by priests, jurists and judges who never took part in these gatherings, or were transcribed during the process of the witchcraft trials. That these testimonies reflect actual events is for most of the accounts considered doubtful. Norman Cohn argued that they were determined largely by the expectations of the interrogators and free association on the part of the accused, and reflect only popular imagination of the times, influenced by ignorance, fear, and religious intolerance towards minority groups.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Some of the existing accounts of the Sabbat were given when the person recounting them was being tortured, and so motivated to agree with suggestions put to them.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Christopher F. Black claimed that the Roman Inquisition's sparse employment of torture allowed accused witches to not feel pressured into mass accusation. This in turn means there were fewer alleged groups of witches in Italy and places under inquisitorial influence. Because the Sabbath is a gathering of collective witch groups, the lack of mass accusation means Italian popular culture was less inclined to believe in the existence of Black Sabbath. The Inquisition itself also held a skeptical view toward the legitimacy of Sabbath Assemblies.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Many of the diabolical elements of the Witches' Sabbath stereotype, such as the eating of babies, poisoning of wells, desecration of hosts or kissing of the devil's anus, were also made about heretical Christian sects, lepers, Muslims, and Jews. The term is the same as the normal English word "Sabbath" (itself a transliteration of Hebrew "Shabbat", the seventh day, on which the Creator rested after creation of the world), referring to the witches' equivalent to the Christian day of rest; a more common term was "synagogue" or "synagogue of Satan" possibly reflecting anti-Jewish sentiment, although the acts attributed to witches bear little resemblance to the Sabbath in Christianity or Jewish Shabbat customs. The "Errores Gazariorum" ("Errors of the Cathars"), which mentions the Sabbat, while not discussing the actual behavior of the Cathars, is named after them, in an attempt to link these stories to an heretical Christian group.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: More recently, scholars such as Emma Wilby have argued that although the more diabolical elements of the witches' sabbath stereotype were invented by inquisitors, the witchcraft suspects themselves may have encouraged these ideas to circulate by drawing on popular beliefs and experiences around liturgical misrule, cursing rites, magical conjuration and confraternal gatherings to flesh-out their descriptions of the sabbath during interrogations.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Christian missionaries' attitude to African cults was not much different in principle to their attitude to the Witches' Sabbath in Europe; some accounts viewed them as a kind of Witches' Sabbath, but they are not. Some African communities believe in witchcraft, but as in the European witch trials, people they believe to be "witches" are condemned rather than embraced.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Other historians, including Carlo Ginzburg, Éva Pócs, Bengt Ankarloo and Gustav Henningsen hold that these testimonies can give insights into the belief systems of the accused. Ginzburg famously discovered records of a group of individuals in northern Italy, calling themselves "benandanti", who believed that they went out of their bodies in spirit and fought amongst the clouds against evil spirits to secure prosperity for their villages, or congregated at large feasts presided over by a goddess, where she taught them magic and performed divinations. Ginzburg links these beliefs with similar testimonies recorded across Europe, from the "armiers" of the Pyrenees, from the followers of Signora Oriente in fourteenth century Milan and the followers of Richella and 'the wise Sibillia' in fifteenth century northern Italy, and much further afield, from Livonian werewolves, Dalmatian "kresniki", Hungarian "táltos", Romanian "căluşari" and Ossetian "burkudzauta". In many testimonies these meetings were described as out-of-body, rather than physical, occurrences.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: Carlo Ginzburg's researches have highlighted shamanic elements in European witchcraft compatible with (although not invariably inclusive of) drug-induced altered states of consciousness. In this context, a persistent theme in European witchcraft, stretching back to the time of classical authors such as Apuleius,


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: is the use of unguents conferring the power of "flight" and "shape-shifting." Recipes for such "flying ointments" have survived from early modern times, permitting not only an assessment of their likely pharmacological effects – based on their various plant (and to a lesser extent animal) ingredients – but also the actual recreation of and experimentation with such fat or oil-based preparations. Ginzburg makes brief reference to the use of entheogens in European witchcraft at the end of his analysis of the Witches Sabbath, mentioning only the fungi Claviceps purpurea and Amanita muscaria by name, and stating about the "flying ointment" on page 303 of 'Ecstasies...' :


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: In the Sabbath the judges more and more frequently saw the accounts of real, physical events. For a long time the only dissenting voices were those of the people who, referring back to the "Canon episcopi", saw witches and sorcerers as the victims of demonic illusion. In the sixteenth century scientists like Cardano or Della Porta formulated a different opinion : animal metamorphoses, flights, apparitions of the devil were the effect of malnutrition or the use of hallucinogenic substances contained in vegetable concoctions or ointments...But no form of privation, no substance, no "" can, by itself, cause the recurrence of such complex experiences...the deliberate use of psychotropic or hallucinogenic substances, while not explaining the ecstasies of the followers of the nocturnal goddess, the werewolf, and so on, would place them in a not exclusively mythical dimension.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: – in short, a substrate of shamanic myth could, when catalysed by a drug experience (or simple starvation), give rise to a 'journey to the Sabbath', not of the body, but of the mind. Ergot and the Fly Agaric mushroom, while hallucinogenic, were not among the ingredients listed in recipes for the flying ointment. The active ingredients in such unguents were primarily, not fungi, but plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae, most commonly Atropa belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) and Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane), belonging to the tropane alkaloid-rich tribe Hyoscyameae. Other tropane-containing, nightshade ingredients included the Mandrake Mandragora officinarum, Scopolia carniolica and Datura stramonium, the Thornapple.


title: Witches' Sabbath

text: The alkaloids Atropine, Hyoscyamine and Scopolamine present in these Solanaceous plants are not only potent and highly toxic hallucinogens, but are also fat-soluble and capable of being absorbed through unbroken human skin.


title: Lord Guildford Dudley

text: Lord Guildford Dudley (also spelt Guilford) ( 1535 – 12 February 1554) was an English nobleman who was married to Lady Jane Grey. King Edward VI had declared her his heir, and she occupied the English throne from 10 July until 19 July 1553. Guildford Dudley had a humanist education and was married to Jane in a magnificent celebration about six weeks before the King's death. After Guildford's father, the Duke of Northumberland, had engineered Jane's accession, Jane and Guildford spent her brief rule residing in the Tower of London. They were still in the Tower when their regime collapsed and they remained there, in different quarters, as prisoners. They were condemned to death for high treason in November 1553. Queen Mary I was inclined to spare their lives, but Thomas Wyatt's rebellion against Mary's plans to marry Philip of Spain led to the young couple's execution, a measure that was widely seen as unduly harsh.


title: Lord Guildford Dudley

text: Lord Guildford Dudley was the second youngest surviving son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and his wife, Jane Guildford. The Dudley lineage goes back to a family called Sutton. In the early 14th century they became the lords of Dudley Castle, from whom Guildford descended through his paternal grandfather. This was Edmund Dudley, a councillor of Henry VII, who in 1510, after the accession of Henry VIII, was executed. Through his father's mother, Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle, Guildford descended from the Hundred Years War heroes, Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury.


title: Lord Guildford Dudley

text: The thirteen Dudley children grew up in a Protestant household and received a humanist education. Under the young King Edward VI, Guildford's father became Lord President of the Council and "de facto" ruled England from 1550–1553. The chronicler Richard Grafton, who knew him, described Guildford as "a comely, virtuous and goodly gentleman". In 1552 Northumberland unsuccessfully tried to arrange a marriage between Guildford and Margaret Clifford. Instead, in the spring of 1553, Guildford was engaged to the sixteen-year-old Jane Grey. Jane Grey and Margaret Clifford were both great-granddaughters of King Henry VII, but Jane figured higher in the line of succession. On 25 May 1553, three weddings were celebrated at Durham Place, the Duke of Northumberland's town mansion. Guildford married Jane; his sister Katherine married Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir; and Jane's sister Katherine married Lord Herbert, the heir of the Earl of Pembroke. It was a magnificent festival, with jousts, games, and masques. For the latter, two different companies had been booked, one male, one female. The Venetian and French ambassadors were guests, and there were "large numbers of the common people ... and of the most principal of the realm". Guildford and some others suffered an attack of food poisoning, because of "a mistake made by a cook, who plucked one leaf for another".


title: Lord Guildford Dudley

text: King Edward, in his "Devise of the Succession", settled the Crown on his cousin once removed, Jane Grey, bypassing his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. After Edward's death on 6 July 1553 the Duke of Northumberland undertook the enforcement of the King's will. The envoys of the Holy Roman Empire and France were sure of the plan's success. Jane was reluctant to accept the Crown: she gave in after remonstrances by an assembly of nobles, including her parents and in-laws while Guildford chimed in with a lovelier approach, with "prayers and caresses". On 10 July Jane and Guildford made their ceremonial entry into the Tower of London. Residing in there, Guildford wanted to be made king; according to her own later account, Jane had a long discussion about this with Guildford, who "assented that if he were to be made king, he would be so by me, by Act of Parliament". However, Jane would agree only to make him Duke of Clarence; Guildford replied that he did not want to be a duke, but king. When the Duchess of Northumberland heard of the argument she became furious and forbade Guildford to sleep any longer with his wife. She also commanded him to leave the Tower and go home, but Jane insisted that he remain at court at her side.


title: Lord Guildford Dudley

text: According to later remarks by the Imperial ambassadors, the daily Council meetings were presided over by Guildford, who allegedly also dined in state alone and had himself addressed in regal style. Antoine de Noailles, the French ambassador, described Guildford as "the new King". The Imperial court in Brussels also believed in the existence of King Guildford.


title: Lord Guildford Dudley

text: On 10 July, the same day as Jane's proclamation, a letter from Mary Tudor arrived in London, saying that she was now queen and demanding the obedience of the Council. Mary was assembling her supporters in East Anglia; it was decided to take the field against her after some discussion over who should go, in which Jane made sure that her father should not. The Duke of Northumberland marched to Cambridge with his troops and passed a week that saw no action, until he heard on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary. Northumberland now proclaimed Mary Tudor himself at the market-place and was arrested the next morning. On 19 July, a few hours before Queen Mary I's proclamation in London, the baptism of one of the Gentlemen Pensioners' children took place. Jane had agreed to be the godmother and wished the child's name to be Guildford. The Bishop of Winchester, Stephen Gardiner, who had been imprisoned in the Tower for five years, took great offence at this fact as he heard of it.