title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: The 15 August 1975 Mujib assassination marks the first direct military intervention in the then administration- centric Bangladesh politics. There are references on the condensation of the political misunderstanding among the “Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini” founded in 1972 by the patronization of Mujib, Mukti Bahini founded during the war time, and the military. It is reported that the military would receive 50-60% funding during the Pakistani period that the Muijb government reduced it to 13% that raised a tacit resentment among the military.


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: The Liberation war ended. The occupied forces surrendered and left the country. Now, Bangladesh had to face a second-level of faction among the people in the country that literature portrays. "The Good Muslim" by "Tahmima Anam" presents the ravages of war, the confrontation with religious fundamentalism and the socio-political disharmony interplaying in the war torn country. The cover page of the book reads:Set in Bangladesh at a time when Islamic fundamentalism is on the rise, "The Good Muslim" is an epic story about faith, family and the long shadow of war. Tahmima Anam, the prize-winning author of A Golden Age, offers a moving portrait of a sister and brother who struggle with the competing loyalties of love and belief as they cope with the lasting ravages of war and confront the deeply intimate roots of religious extremism. Echoing the intensity and humanity of Thrity Umrigar's The Space Between Us, Abraham Verghese's Cutting for Stone, and Kiran Desai's The Inheritance of Loss, Anam's "accomplished and gripping novel", in the words of author Pankaj Mishra, "describes not only the tumult of a great historical event, but also the small but heroic struggles of individuals living in the shadow of revolution and war".The period 1971-1975 experienced the changes of role among the veterans due to their new orientation on the socio-economic-political scenarios. Siraj Sikdar was one of them who was one of the front line freedom fighters; yet he had to change his political aesthetics around 1973 and indulged in militancy by the name of "Proletarian Party". Antony Mascarenhas has commented in the "" (1986) that Shamim Shikder, sister of Siraj Sikder, blames the government for the death of him in the police custody on 3 January 1975.


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Olivier Rubin in his book “"Democracy and Famine"” has remarked that one-party state is a reality if the famine engulfs the fragile democratic society. He pointed out the 1974 famine in Bangladesh as a case study. As a new independent country, Bangladesh had to experience economic crisis. The flood in July and August, 1974 triggered the crisis exponentially. Thus, food scarcity, improper distribution of leftover food reported to have 1 to 1.5 million of death in Bangladesh. This led the then Mujib government in question. And these critical atmospheres led to the assassination of the Father of the nation according to the case study of Olivier Rubin.


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: The assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was a historic paradigm shift in the course of Bangladesh. This killing was a deliberate choice not only for the national perpetrators, but also for the international players. Journalist Lawrence Lifschultz has shown an alternative picture of the international conspiracy. The book ‘"Bangladesh: The Unfinished Revolution"' reflects that Mostaq Ahmed and the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had direct involvement in the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. In his book, Journalist Lawrence Lifschultz remarked that "CIA station chief in Dhaka, Philip Cherry, was actively involved in the killing of the Father of the Nation—Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman"


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Apart from the news of electronic and print media; the novels, poetry, and performing arts draw the harrowing pictures of the assassination.


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Deyal (Walls) is a novel by Humayun Ahmed that narrates the assassination of the father of the nation. This is the only novel that takes the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as the background, though the novel raised some contradictions on the factual inconsistencies in some cases, and eventually the court declared ruling against the publication of the book without correction.


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Critics say that Colonel Farooq, the killer of Bangabandhu, has been shown in this novel as a little great. However, Dr. Syed Manzoorul Islam has a distinct opinion that Humayun Ahmed had allowed him to read the draft copy of the wall. The opinion tells,


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Deyal may be contradictory on the political ground; but it brings the legacy of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman that implicates the killing was a remarkable moment in the History of Bangladesh.


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: The first literary piece on the remembrance of Bangabandhu at his assassination was an elegy. It is reported and well documented that Moulovi Sheikh Abdul Hamid, the close friend of Bangabandhu, at Tungipara  was the first composer of the elegy in the memory of the death of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. He was the man who laid down the assassinated man in the grave and conducted all the funeral rites. He wrote in emotion:O great one—whose flesh, blood and bones are interred in this grave


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: I am dedicating myself to your grave, to you who is lying in this grave.Poetry exceeded in numbers in comparison to other literary media to highlight the aftereffect of the assassination on 15 August 1975 and afterwards linked to the assassination of the founder of the nation. Nirmalendu Goon, Syed Shamsul Haque, Shamsur Rahman, Mahadev Saha were remarkable poets whose pen raised concern for the death of the father of the nation. Nirmalendu Goon was outspoken in his poems to celebrate the legacy of Bangabandhu. He has three great poems on Bangabandhu that goes-


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: A Tale of That Night draws the crimson picture of the fateful night of the vile assassination. The stanza of the poem goes;Your legs didn't stagger even for once


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Every bullet costs more than a farmer's meal. (“A Tale of That Night”) The poet, "Nurul Huda," directly hinted to the loss of the country that Bangadesh had on the 15th August, 1975. His poem "Fifteen August" speaks;


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: The poets of the West Bengal were likely moved by this incidents and they had to write elegiac notes, and eulogy for Bangabandhu. The name of the Poet, Annada Shankar Roy comes first. The poet and essayist writes in his poem, "Bangabandhu" thatAs long as the rivers Padma, Jamuna,


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. (Bangabandhu) Shamsur Rahman had political and historical conscience and he could duly reflect them in his poetry. The being of Bangladesh and its struggle against tyranny is visible in the lines. Bangabandhu covered a great spaces in his writings related to the liberation war, political upheavals and even the assassination taken place in 1975. The poems referred highlight the loss, repentance, agony, and anger for the perpetrators who grasped the statue of freedom to vandalize it:


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: The writer did not stop here only with the drops of tears. He dreamed of the revenge for this. Here ""The Song of Electra" (Electrar Gaan)" in the poetry ""The Sky of Ikarus" (Ikraser Akash) (1982)" reveals the motif of vengeance with the allusion of the mythical story of Electra who had intension to avenge for the killing of her father "Agamemnon". She reveals "My heat burns as a Red Hibiscus with the fire of Vengeance" (64).


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: After the carnage happened on 15 August 1975; several coups de tat took place and 3 November 1975 killing of the four national leaders in the custody was second in importance. Yet, few grand literatures are written in these clamorous times of Bangladeshi history. However, August 1975, a film directed by Shamim Ahamed Roni and produced by Selim Khan is a memorable contribution in the case of performing art. This movie portrays the dusky situations prevailing after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.Thus, the film is an addition to the realm of literary history that could make the after-assassination visualize through the literary pieces


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: A song that creates an eternal appeal is "Jodi Raat Pohale Shona Jeto" (If the dawn spread the resurrection). If the dawn spread the resurrection


title: Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

text: That will peep out of the fake. is the song writer; Moloy Kumar Ganguly is the music composer and the singer for this song. In 1990, Matiur Rahman wrote this song and Moloy Kumar, the singer for the Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra composed the music. He expressed that it took 15 minutes for him to make it as a song. This song first recorded in the production company of Hasan Matiur Rahman in 1991 for the election campaign of Bangladesh Awami League. This song is made to sing by Sabina Yasmin in 1997 and Farid Ahmed arranged the music for this remake.


title: Trace McSorley

text: Richard Thomas "Trace" McSorley III (born August 23, 1995) is an American football quarterback for the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Penn State, and was drafted by the Baltimore Ravens in the sixth round of the 2019 NFL Draft.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley holds numerous Penn State school records, including most passing yards in a single season, most passing touchdowns in a single season, most career total yards of offense, and total touchdowns in a single season.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley attended Briar Woods High School in Ashburn, Virginia from 2010 to 2014. He played high school football and started as freshman. In his freshman year, he led the team to a 13–2 record and a state championship. Two seasons later in his junior year, he led the team to a 15–0 record and its third consecutive state title. He was named First-team All-State by the Virginia Coaches Association and Virginia Preps. As a junior, he was awarded All-Dulles District First Team; Dulles District Offensive Player of the Year; and Second-team All-Region quarterback.


title: Trace McSorley

text: During McSorley's redshirt freshman year, he appeared in a total of six games, five of them when the game was in hand and McSorley was only in for a few plays. In the 2016 TaxSlayer Bowl against the Georgia Bulldogs, after starter Christian Hackenberg went out with an injury, McSorley was brought in with Penn State down 24–3. He nearly led a comeback, finishing the game 14 for 27 with 142 yards and two touchdowns, but Penn State fell short 24–17.


title: Trace McSorley

text: With the early departure of quarterback Christian Hackenberg, who was drafted in the 2016 NFL Draft by the New York Jets, McSorley and redshirt freshman Tommy Stevens competed for the job. On McSorley's birthday, August 23, 2016, head coach James Franklin announced that McSorley would be the starter. In his first start on September 3, against the Kent State Golden Flashes, he went 16 of 31 for 209 yards and two touchdowns in a 33–13 win. In McSorley's second game, he threw for 332 yards and a score in a rivalry loss at Pitt. Later in the season when the Nittany Lions played Minnesota, McSorley put up career high yardage numbers when he threw for 335 yards in a 29–26 OT win.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On October 22, 2016, Penn State and McSorley played Big Ten rival Ohio State. McSorley struggled with accurately throwing the ball, completing 8 of 23 passes for 153 yards. However, he scored two touchdowns, one passing and one rushing, en route to a stunning upset of #2 Ohio State by unranked Penn State. The win gave PSU a #24 ranking in the AP Poll, PSU's first ranking in the top 25 since the 2011 season. The next week at Purdue, McSorley completed 12 of 23 passing for 228 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions. The Nittany Lions won in a 62–24 rout and cemented their place in the AP Top-25 with a #20 ranking.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On November 1, 2016, Penn State was named #12 in the first official College Football Playoff rankings of the season.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On November 26, against rival Michigan State, McSorley threw for a career-high 376 yards, four touchdowns and no interceptions. He went 17 of 23 with a completion percentage of 73%, and led Penn State to the 45–12 win, earning a berth to the Big Ten Championship game against Wisconsin. On November 30, 2016, McSorley was named Second Team All-Big Ten by the coaches and media. With a third quarter completion to DaeSean Hamilton, McSorley broke the Penn State single-season record for passing yards. The sophomore started the night fourth on the single-season list, but passed Christian Hackenberg, Daryll Clark and Matt McGloin’s to retain the top spot.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley finished the game with 384 yards, 22 of 31 passing, and four touchdowns in an MVP, Big Ten Championship winning performance.


title: Trace McSorley

text: "Trace has been dynamic all year long," head coach James Franklin said after the game. "I'm really proud of him, you know, his attitude, his demeanor, the type of teammate he is, the type of leader he is. Obviously he made plays tonight."


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley led the Nittany Lions back from a 28–7 deficit and broke the Big Ten Championship Game record for passing yards, set by Michigan State’s Connor Cook back in 2013, and touchdowns. His 364 total yards was also a championship game record.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On December 5, 2016, it was revealed that McSorley was on multiple Heisman ballots, some even as high as two, just behind Louisville quarterback Lamar Jackson. McSorley became the first Nittany Lion to be on a Heisman ballot in over ten years.


title: Trace McSorley

text: After the Big Ten Championship game, McSorley ranked third in FBS in passing yard on throws over 20 yards with 1,491.


title: Trace McSorley

text: In the 2017 Rose Bowl, McSorley went 18 for 29 with 254 yards and four touchdowns and three interceptions. He also rushed for 13 yards in a 49–52 loss to the USC Trojans.


title: Trace McSorley

text: After his Heisman campaign in 2016 McSorley and the Nittany Lions entered the 2017 season ranked sixth by the AP Poll. In the Nittany Lions’ season opener McSorley passed for 280 yards and two touchdowns in a 52–0 rout over Akron. He helped lead the team to a remarkable 7–0 start (with a 3–0 mark in conference play), outscoring opponents by a combined 213 points over that span. Through the first seven games McSorley had passed for 1,879 yards and thrown 14 touchdowns passes.


title: Trace McSorley

text: Bolstered by that strong start, the Lions were ranked #2 in the country coming into a rivalry match at #6 Ohio State. In the primetime matchup, McSorley threw for 192 yards, two touchdowns and zero interceptions. He also rushed for 49 yards and another touchdown. However, a 19-point fourth quarter by the Buckeyes propelled them to a 39–38 comeback win, ending a potential perfect season for the Nittany Lions.


title: Trace McSorley

text: The next week against the Michigan State Spartans, McSorley threw for a season-high 381 yards and three touchdowns. However, after a 3 and a half hour delay due to weather the Nittany Lions were upset by the Spartans on a game winning field goal 27–24. The Nittany Lions and McSorley responded to the two-game losing streak however. The team finished the regular season 3–0 and McSorley threw for 776 yards and seven touchdowns with no interceptions in his final three contests.


title: Trace McSorley

text: The 10–2 Nittany Lions faced the 10–2 Washington Huskies in the 2017 Fiesta Bowl. McSorley struggled early and threw two interceptions in the first quarter however he finished the game 342 yards and two touchdown passes and also rushed for 60 yards. McSorley was named offensive MVP for the Nittany Lions.


title: Trace McSorley

text: After the season, it was speculated whether McSorley would declare for the 2018 NFL Draft. After the bowl game, McSorley announced he was returning to Penn State for his senior season.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley helped lead the Nittany Lions to a 4–0 start. In that stretch was a game against Kent State, where he passed for two touchdowns and ran for three touchdowns. In the next game, a 27–26 loss to Ohio State, he had 286 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and 25 carries for 175 rushing yards. After a loss to Michigan State in the next game, he had 220 passing yards, 107 rushing yards, and two rushing touchdowns in a victory over Indiana. After a victory over Iowa and a loss to Michigan, he helped lead the Nittany Lions to three consecutive wins over Wisconsin, Rutgers, and Maryland to close out the regular season. The Nittany Lions qualified for the Citrus Bowl, where they lost 27–24 to Kentucky. McSorley finished his final season with 2,530 passing yards, 18 passing touchdowns, and seven interceptions to go with 798 rushing yards and 12 rushing touchdowns.


title: Trace McSorley

text: At the NFL Combine, McSorley posted a quarterback-best 4.57-second 40-yard dash, a vertical jump of 33 inches, as well as a 115-inch broad jump. NFL insider Adam Schefter reported that some teams asked McSorley to perform workouts with defensive backs, which he declined.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley was drafted by the Baltimore Ravens in the sixth round with the 197th overall pick in the 2019 NFL Draft.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley was the third-string quarterback behind Lamar Jackson and Robert Griffin III and did not make his debut until Week 17 of the 2019 season against the Pittsburgh Steelers. His sole snap was a quarterback draw which went for one yard. The Ravens won 28–10.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley remained the third-string quarterback heading into the 2020 season. He was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the team on November 20, 2020, and activated on December 1. On December 2, 2020, McSorley came in during the fourth quarter of a rare Wednesday afternoon game against the Pittsburgh Steelers after backup Griffin left the game with a hamstring injury. McSorley completed two out of six attempts for 77 yards and his first career touchdown, which was a 70 yard pass to Marquise Brown. He also carried the ball three times for 16 yards, including a seven-yard run for a fourth-down conversion. However, the Ravens lost 14–19. McSorley played two games later against the Cleveland Browns when starting quarterback Lamar Jackson suffered cramps and was pulled from the game in the third quarter. McSorley completed 1 of 4 passes for 13 yards, and rushed twice for 1 yard. However, he suffered a left knee sprain on a quarterback draw and had to be pulled from the game in favor of a recovered Jackson. The Ravens came back and won the game 47–42. McSorley was placed on injured reserve the following day, causing him to miss the remainder of the regular season.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On August 31, 2021, McSorley was waived by the Ravens; however, he was re-signed to the practice squad the next day.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On November 20, 2021, McSorley was activated to the Ravens' active roster, as Jackson was unable to play due to an illness, and backup quarterback Tyler Huntley had to act as the starter.


title: Trace McSorley

text: On August 30, 2022, McSorley was waived by the Cardinals and signed to the practice squad the next day. On September 7, 2022, he was promoted to the active roster.


title: Trace McSorley

text: In early October 2020, McSorley was the subject of a viral trend on the app TikTok. The original video, created by the user "@sorley_yt," has been reused in over 4,000 videos, including the official NFL account. The song featured in the video, "Trace McSorley" by Matty Fresh, was originally uploaded on August 9, 2018 and has amassed over 7.5 million views on YouTube.


title: Trace McSorley

text: Trace is the son of Rick and Andrea McSorley, and he has one younger sister, Micaela. His father played football at the University of Richmond and an uncle, Jeff McSorley, played football at Marshall University. He enjoys playing organized and pick-up sports and video games. McSorley graduated from Penn State in May 2018 with a degree in accounting and is working on a second degree in journalism.


title: Trace McSorley

text: McSorley is a Christian. McSorley has a tattoo on his left biceps consisting of a cross with the Bible verses Philippians 4:13 and Psalms 23:4. He has said that the message behind the tattoo is "always pulling me in the right direction" and keeps him grounded and true to his roots.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Old East Slavic (traditionally also Old Russian; ; ; ) was a language used during the 9th–15th centuries by East Slavs in Kievan Rus' and its successor states, from which the Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn, and Ukrainian languages later evolved.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The name of the language is known as "Old East Slavic", in reference to the modern family of East Slavic languages. Its original speakers were the Slavic tribes inhabiting territories of today's Belarus, the western edge of Russia, and western and central Ukraine. However, the term "Old East Slavic" is not universally applied. The language is traditionally also known as "Old Russian", (; ), however the term has been described as a misnomer, because the initial stages of the language which it denotes predate the dialectal divisions marking the nascent distinction between modern East Slavic languages (Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian). "Old East Slavic" is therefore the more appropriate term.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Some scholars have also called the language Rus'ian, Rusian, or Rus' language (), although these are less commonly used forms. In the last four decades, Kievan Rus' or Rus' have also replaced "Old Russia" (as well as "Kievan Russia" such as in George Vernadsky's books from 1943–69 ""History of Russia"") as the primary name for the lands in which Old East Slavic was spoken. According to historian Donald Ostrowski, this is not only more historically accurate, as "Rus'" was the name commonly used, it avoids giving priority to the Great Russian nationality, which projecting backwards would be highly anachronistic.


title: Old East Slavic

text: In the context of the history of Ukrainian, George Shevelov referred to historical phases of the language as Proto-Ukrainian and Old Ukrainian, using criteria based on the available sources: the PU period (up to the mid 11th century) having no sources written down by speakers in Ukraine, and the OU period (from the mid 11th to the 14th century) represented by texts chiefly compiled in Church Slavonic but preserving evidence of Old East Slavic in Ukraine. The periodization of the literary language represents great changes and breaks resulting from events in cultural and political history; in contrast, the spoken language of Ukraine "shows a surprising continuity in development from prehistoric times to our day."


title: Old East Slavic

text: The language was a descendant of the Proto-Slavic language and retained many of its features. It developed so-called pleophony (or "polnoglasie" 'full vocalisation'), which came to differentiate the newly evolving East Slavic from other Slavic dialects. For instance, Common Slavic "*gordъ" 'settlement, town' was reflected as OESl. "gorodъ", Common Slavic "*melko" 'milk' > OESl. "moloko", and Common Slavic "*korva" 'cow' > OESl "korova". Other Slavic dialects differed by resolving the closed-syllable clusters *eRC and *aRC as liquid metathesis (South Slavic and West Slavic), or by no change at all (see the article on "Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony" for a detailed account).


title: Old East Slavic

text: Since extant written records of the language are sparse, it is difficult to assess the level of its unity. In consideration of the number of tribes and clans that constituted Kievan Rus, it is probable that there were many dialects of Old East Slavonic. Therefore, today we may speak definitively only of the languages of surviving manuscripts, which, according to some interpretations, show regional divergence from the beginning of the historical records. By c. 1150 it had the weakest local variations among the four regional macrodialects of Common Slavic, c. 800–c. 1000, which had just begun to differentiate into its branches.


title: Old East Slavic

text: With time, it evolved into several more diversified forms, which were the predecessors of the modern Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn and Ukrainian languages. The regional languages were distinguishable starting in the 12th or 13th century. Thus different variations evolved of the Russian language in the regions of Novgorod, Moscow, South Russia and meanwhile the Ukrainian language was also formed. Each of these languages preserves much of the Old East Slavic grammar and vocabulary. The Russian language in particular borrows much of its vocabulary from Church Slavonic.


title: Old East Slavic

text: However, findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak suggests that, in the 11th century, the Novgorodian Russian language differed from the Kiev language as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries, meaning that there was no common Old East Slavic language of Kievan Rus' from which Ukrainian, Russian and Belorusian languages diverged, but that the Russian language developed as a convergence of the Novgorod language and other Russian dialects.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Also, Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects’ accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Another Russian linguist G. A. Khaburgaev as well as a number of Ukrainian linguists (Stepan Smal-Stotsky, Ivan Ohienko, George Shevelov, Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo) deny the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. According to them, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages.


title: Old East Slavic

text: When after the end of the 'Tatar yoke' the territory of former Kievan Rus was divided between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the medieval Rus' principality Grand Principality of Moscow, two separate literary traditions emerged in these states, Ruthenian in the west and medieval Russian in the east.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The political unification of the region into the state called Kievan Rus', from which modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine trace their origins, occurred approximately a century before the adoption of Christianity in 988 and the establishment of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic as the liturgical and literary language. Documentation of the Old East Slavic language of this period is scanty, making it difficult at best fully to determine the relationship between the literary language and its spoken dialects.


title: Old East Slavic

text: There are references in Arab and Byzantine sources to pre-Christian Slavs in European Russia using some form of writing. Despite some suggestive archaeological finds and a corroboration by the tenth-century monk Chernorizets Hrabar that ancient Slavs wrote in "strokes and incisions", the exact nature of this system is unknown.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Although the Glagolitic alphabet was briefly introduced, as witnessed by church inscriptions in Novgorod, it was soon entirely superseded by Cyrillic. The samples of birch-bark writing excavated in Novgorod have provided crucial information about the pure tenth-century vernacular in North-West Russia, almost entirely free of Church Slavonic influence. It is also known that borrowings and calques from Byzantine Greek began to enter the vernacular at this time, and that simultaneously the literary language in its turn began to be modified towards Eastern Slavic.


title: Old East Slavic

text: NOTE: The spelling of the original excerpt has been partly modernized. The translations are best attempts at being literal, not literary.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Early language; fall of the yers in progress or arguably complete (several words end with a consonant; кнѧжит "to rule" < кънѧжити, modern Uk , R , B ). South Slavic features include времѧньнъıх "bygone"; modern R , modern Ukr , modern B . Correct use of perfect and aorist: єсть пошла "is/has come" (modern R ), нача "began" (modern R as a development of the old perfect.) Note the style of punctuation.


title: Old East Slavic

text: It has been suggested that the phrase растекаться мыслью по древу (to run in thought upon/over wood), which has become proverbial in modern Russian with the meaning "to speak ornately, at length, excessively," is a misreading of an original мысію (akin to "mouse") from "run like a squirrel/mouse on a tree"; however, the reading мыслью is present in both the manuscript copy of 1790 and the first edition of 1800, and in all subsequent scholarly editions.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The Old East Slavic language developed a certain literature of its own, though much of it (in hand with those of the Slavic languages that were, after all, written down) was influenced as regards style and vocabulary by religious texts written in Church Slavonic. Surviving literary monuments include the legal code "Justice of the Rus" ("Руська правда" ), a corpus of hagiography and homily, the epic Song of Igor ("Слово о полку игореве" ) and the earliest surviving manuscript of the Primary Chronicle ("Повесть временных лет" ) – the Laurentian codex ("Лаврентьевский список" ) of 1377.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The earliest dated specimen of Old East Slavic (or, rather, of Church Slavonic with pronounced East Slavic interference) must be considered the written "Slovo o zakone i blagodati", by Hilarion, metropolitan of Kiev. In this work there is a panegyric on Prince Vladimir of Kiev, the hero of so much of East Slavic popular poetry. It is rivalled by another panegyric on Vladimir, written a decade later by Yakov the Monk.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Other eleventh-century writers are Theodosius, a monk of the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra, who wrote on the Latin faith and some "Pouchenia" or "Instructions", and Luka Zhidiata, bishop of Novgorod, who has left a curious "Discourse to the Brethren". From the writings of Theodosius we see that many pagan habits were still in vogue among the people. He finds fault with them for allowing these to continue, and also for their drunkenness; nor do the monks escape his censures. Zhidiata writes in a more vernacular style than many of his contemporaries; he eschews the declamatory tone of the Byzantine authors. And here may be mentioned the many lives of the saints and the Fathers to be found in early East Slavic literature, starting with the two Lives of Sts Boris and Gleb, written in the late eleventh century and attributed to Jacob the Monk and to Nestor the Chronicler.


title: Old East Slavic

text: With the so-called Primary Chronicle, also attributed to Nestor, begins the long series of the Russian annalists. There is a regular catena of these chronicles, extending with only two breaks to the seventeenth century. Besides the work attributed to Nestor the Chronicler, there are the chronicles of Novgorod, Kiev, Volhynia and many others. Every town of any importance could boast of its annalists, Pskov and Suzdal among others.


title: Old East Slavic

text: In the twelfth century we have the sermons of bishop Cyril of Turov, which are attempts to imitate in Old East Slavic the florid Byzantine style. In his sermon on Holy Week, Christianity is represented under the form of spring, Paganism and Judaism under that of winter, and evil thoughts are spoken of as boisterous winds.


title: Old East Slavic

text: There are also the works of early travellers, as the igumen Daniel, who visited the Holy Land at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century. A later traveller was Afanasiy Nikitin, a merchant of Tver, who visited India in 1470. He has left a record of his adventures, which has been translated into English and published for the Hakluyt Society.


title: Old East Slavic

text: A curious monument of old Slavonic times is the "Pouchenie" (Instruction), written by Vladimir Monomakh for the benefit of his sons. This composition is generally found inserted in the Chronicle of Nestor; it gives a fine picture of the daily life of a Slavonic prince. "The Paterik of the Kievan Caves Monastery" is a typical medieval collection of stories from the life of monks, featuring devils, angels, ghosts, and miraculous resurrections.


title: Old East Slavic

text: Lay of Igor's Campaign narrates the expedition of Igor Svyatoslavich, prince of Novhorod-Siverskyi against the Cumans. It is neither epic nor a poem but is written in rhythmic prose. An interesting aspect of the text is its mix of Christianity and ancient Slavic religion. Igor's wife Yaroslavna famously invokes natural forces from the walls of Putyvl. Christian motifs present along with depersonalised pagan gods in the form of artistic images. Another aspect, which sets the book apart from contemporary Western epics, are its numerous and vivid descriptions of nature, and the role which nature plays in human lives. Of the whole bulk of the Old East Slavic literature, the Lay is the only work familiar to every educated Russian or Ukrainian. Its brooding flow of images, murky metaphors, and ever changing rhythm have not been successfully rendered into English yet. Indeed, the meanings of many words found in it have not been satisfactorily explained by scholars.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The "Zadonshchina" is a sort of prose poem much in the style of the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", and the resemblance of the latter to this piece furnishes an additional proof of its genuineness. This account of the battle of Kulikovo, which was gained by Dmitri Donskoi over the Mongols in 1380, has come down in three important versions.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The early laws of Rus’ present many features of interest, such as the "Russkaya Pravda" of Yaroslav the Wise, which is preserved in the chronicle of Novgorod; the date is between 1018 and 1072.


title: Old East Slavic

text: The earliest attempts to compile a comprehensive lexicon of Old East Slavic were undertaken by Alexander Vostokov and Izmail Sreznevsky in the nineteenth century. Sreznevsky's "Materials for the Dictionary of the Old Russian Language on the Basis of Written Records" (1893–1903), though incomplete, remained a standard reference until the appearance of a 24-volume academic dictionary in 1975–99.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Hexavalent chromium (chromium(VI), Cr(VI), chromium 6) is chromium in any chemical compound that contains the element in the +6 oxidation state (thus hexavalent). Virtually all chromium ore is processed via hexavalent chromium, specifically the salt sodium dichromate. Hexavalent chromium is key to all materials made from chromium. Approximately of hexavalent chromium were produced in 1985.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Additional hexavalent chromium compounds include chromium trioxide and various salts of chromate and dichromate, among others. Hexavalent chromium is used in textile dyes, wood preservation, anti-corrosion products, chromate conversion coatings, and a variety of niche uses. Industrial uses of hexavalent chromium compounds include chromate pigments in dyes, paints, inks, and plastics; chromates added as anticorrosive agents to paints, primers, and other surface coatings; and chromic acid electroplated onto metal parts to provide a decorative or protective coating. Hexavalent chromium can be formed when performing "hot work" such as welding on stainless steel or melting chromium metal. In these situations the chromium is not originally hexavalent, but the high temperatures involved in the process result in oxidation that converts the chromium to a hexavalent state. Hexavalent chromium can also be found in drinking water and public water systems.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: All hexavalent chromium compounds are toxic (due to their oxidizing power) as well as carcinogenic (IARC Group 1), especially if airborne and inhaled where they cause lung cancer. Positive associations have also been observed between exposure to chromium (VI) compounds and cancer of the nose and nasal sinuses. Workers in many occupations are exposed to hexavalent chromium. Problematic exposure is known to occur among workers who handle chromate-containing products and those who grind and/ or weld stainless steel. Workers who are exposed to hexavalent chromium are at increased risk of developing lung cancer, asthma, or damage to the nasal epithelia and skin. Within the European Union, the use of hexavalent chromium in electronic equipment is largely prohibited by the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive and the European Union regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Hexavalent chromium compounds are genotoxic carcinogens. Due to its structural similarity to sulfate, chromate (a typical form of chromium(VI) at neutral pH) is transported into cells via sulfate channels. Inside the cell, hexavalent chromium(VI) is reduced first to pentavalent chromium(V) then to trivalent chromium(III) without the aid of any enzymes. The reduction occurs via direct electron transfer primarily from ascorbate and some nonprotein thiols. Vitamin C and other reducing agents combine with chromate to give chromium(III) products inside the cell. The resultant chromium(III) forms stable complexes with nucleic acids and proteins. This causes strand breaks and Cr–DNA adducts which are responsible for mutagenic damage. According to Shi et al., the DNA can also be damaged by hydroxyl radicals produced during reoxidation of pentavalent chromium by hydrogen peroxide molecules present in the cell, which can cause double-strand breakage.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Both insoluble salts of lead and barium chromates as well as soluble chromates were negative in the implantation model of lung carcinogenesis. Yet, soluble chromates are a confirmed carcinogen so it would be prudent to consider all chromates carcinogenic.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Chronic inhalation from occupational exposures increases the risk of respiratory cancers. The most common form of lung malignancies in chromate workers is squamous cell carcinoma. Ingestion of chromium(VI) through drinking water has been found to cause cancer in the oral cavity and small intestine. It can also cause irritation or ulcers in the stomach and intestines, and toxicity in the liver. Liver toxicity shows the body's apparent inability to detoxify chromium(VI) in the GI tract where it can then enter the circulatory system.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Of 2,345 unsafe products in 2015 listed by the EU Commission for Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality some 64% came from China, and 23% were clothing articles, including leather goods (and shoes) contaminated with hexavalent chromium. Chromate-dyed textiles or chromate-tanned leather shoes can cause skin sensitivity.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In the U.S., the OSHA PEL for airborne exposures to hexavalent chromium is . The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health proposed a REL of 0.2 µg/m for airborne exposures to hexavalent chromium.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Hexavalent chromium is present in drinking water and public water systems. Based on the findings of the National Toxicology Program (NTP)—which is headquartered in the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)—in 2014, California established a state-wide drinking water standard of 10 parts per billion (ppb)—micrograms per liter (MCL) of 10 ppb—"specifically for hexavalent chromium, not total chromium."


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: For drinking water, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does not have a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for hexavalent chromium.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: There are mainly three types of methods to remediate hexavalent chromium in ground water and drinking water:


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Reduction of toxicity of hexavalent chromium involves methods using chemicals, microbes and plants. Some removal technologies include transporting contaminated soil offsite to a landfill, using ion exchange resins to reduce chromium(VI) concentrations to less than detectable limit and granular activated carbon (GAC) filter. Containment technologies can be employed with the use of physical barriers such as grouts, slurries or sheet piling.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Attempts have been made to test the removal or reduction of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solutions and environment. For example, a research study conducted by the School of Industrial Technology, University Sains Malaysia in 2010 found that chitosan coated with poly 3-methyl thiophene can be effectively employed for removal of hexavalent chromium ions from aqueous solutions. Chitosan is a very cheap, economical, and environmentally friendly substrate for coating of this polymer. Adsorption of chromium(VI) is found to be effective in the lower pH range and at higher temperatures and subsequent desorption is readily achieved upon alkaline treatment of the adsorbent. Another study done by the American Industrial Hygiene Association indicates that the airborne hexavalent chromium in acidic mists of an electroplating tank collected on PVC filters was reduced over time after mist generation. A number of other emerging technologies for removing chromium from water are also currently under research, including the use of cationic metal-organic frameworks to selectively adsorb chromium oxyanions.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: "Thermus scotoductus", an extremophile living in hot water as well as inhabiting domestic water heaters (per study), are capable of reducing Cr(VI). Experiments with activated sludge have also shown its ability to reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III).


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Hexavalent chromium was released from the Newcastle Orica Koorgang Island ammonium nitrate plant on August 8, 2011. The incident occurred when the plant entered the 'start up' phase after the completion of a five-yearly maintenance overhaul. The "High Temperature Shift catalyst began the process of 'reduction'" where steam passes through the catalyst bed and out the SP8 vent stack. At this time lower temperatures in parts of the plant caused some of the steam to condense lower which caused chromium(VI) from the catalyst bed to dissolve into the liquid present. The amount of condensate overwhelmed the drainage arrangements resulting in the emission of condensate through the SP8 vent stack. The leak went undetected for 30-minutes releasing 200 kg of chromium(VI) into the atmosphere exposing up to 20 workers at the plant and 70 nearby homes in Stockton.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The town was not notified of the exposure until three days later on the Wednesday morning, and sparked a major public controversy, with Orica criticized for playing down the extent and possible risks of the leak. The office of Environment and Heritage in Stockton collected 71 samples. Low levels of chromium were detected in 11 of them. These 11 samples were taken within six residential blocks close to the Orica plant, two of which were from water samples collected immediately south of the six block area.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The Select Committee on the Kooragnang Island Orica Chemical Leak released their report on the incident in February 2012. They found Orica's approach to addressing the leak's impact was grossly inadequate. Orica failed to realize the potential impact that prevailing winds would have on an emission 60 meters high. Orica failed to inspect the area immediately downwind and notify the Office of Environment and Heritage until August 9, 2011. In Orica's initial report to the Office of Environment and Heritage they failed to disclose that the emissions had escaped off-site. In the initial report to WorkCover Orica did not disclose potential impacts on workers as well as that the substance emitted was chromium(VI). Orica's Emergency Response plan was not well understood by employees particularly about notification procedures. The original notification of residents in Stockton was only to households immediately downwind of the emission which failed to realize the potential for contamination of the surrounding area as well. The information presented at the original notification downplayed potential health risks and subsequently provided incomplete information and has led to a lack of trust between Stockton residents and Orica officials.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In 2014, Orica plead guilty to nine charges before the Land and Environment court and was fined $768,000. NSW Health findings ruled that it is very unlikely that anyone in Stockton would later develop cancer as a result of the incident.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Toxic poultry feed contaminated by chromium-based leather tanning waste products (as opposed to the non-toxic process of vegetable tanned leather) has been shown to have entered the food supply in Bangladesh through chicken meat, the most common source of protein in the country. Tanneries in Hazaribagh Thana, an industrial neighborhood of Dhaka, emit around of toxic waste each day, and generate as much as per day of scraps, trimmed raw hide, flesh and fat, which are processed into feed by neighborhood recycling plants and used in chicken and fish farms across the country. Chromium levels ranging from per kilogram were found in different organs of chickens which had been fed the tannery-scraps feed for two months, according to Abul Hossain, a chemistry professor at the University of Dhaka. The study estimated up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of chromium(VI).


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The chemistry of the groundwater in eastern Central Greece (central Euboea and the Asopos valley) revealed high concentrations of hexavalent chromium in groundwater systems sometimes exceeding the Greek and the EU drinking water maximum acceptable level for total chromium. Hexavalent chromium pollution in Greece is associated with industrial waste.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: By using the GFAAS for total chromium, diphenylcarbazide-Cr(VI) complex colorimetric method for hexavalent chromium, and flame-AAS and ICP-MS for other toxic elements, their concentrations were investigated in several groundwater samples. The contamination of water by hexavalent chromium in central Euboea is mainly linked to natural processes, but there are anthropogenic cases.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In the Thebes–Tanagra–Malakasa basin of Eastern Central Greece, an area that supports many industrial activities, concentrations of chromium (up to Cr(VI)) and Inofyta (up to Cr(VI) were found in the urban water supply of Oropos). Chromium(VI) concentrations ranging from Cr(VI) were found in groundwater that is used for Thiva's water supply. Arsenic concentrations up to along with chromium(VI) levels up to were detected in Schimatari's water supply.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In the Asopos River, total chromium values were up to , hexavalent chromium was less than , with other toxic elements relatively low.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In 2008, defense contractor KBR was alleged to have exposed 16 members of the Indiana National Guard, as well as its own workers, to hexavalent chromium at the Qarmat Ali water treatment facility in Iraq in 2003. Later, 433 members of the Oregon National Guard's 162nd Infantry Battalion were informed of possible exposure to hexavalent chromium while escorting KBR contractors.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: One of the National Guard soldiers, David Moore, died in February 2008. The cause was lung disease at age 42. His death was ruled service-related. His brother believes it was hexavalent chromium. On November 2, 2012, a Portland, Oregon jury found KBR negligent in knowingly exposing twelve National Guard soldiers to hexavalent chromium while working at the Qarmat Ali water treatment facility and awarded damages of $85 million to the plaintiffs.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Prior to 1970, the federal government had limited reach in monitoring and enforcing environmental regulations. Local governments were tasked with environmental monitoring and regulations, such as the monitoring of heavy metals in wastewater. Examples of this can be seen in larger municipalities, such as: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York. A specific example was in 1969, when the Chicago Metropolitan Sanitary District imposed regulations on factories that were identified as having large amounts of heavy metal discharge.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: On December 2, 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was formed. With the formation of the EPA, the federal government had the funds and the oversight to influence major environmental changes. Following the formation of the EPA, the United States saw groundbreaking legislations, such as the Clean Water Act (1972) and the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974).


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) of 1948 was amended in 1972 to what is more commonly known as the Clean Water Act (CWA). The subsequent amendments provided a basis for the federal government to begin regulating pollutants, implementing wastewater standards, and increasing funding for water treatment facilities among other things. Two years later in 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was passed by congress. The SDWA aimed to monitor and protect the United States' drinking water, and the water sources it is drawn from.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In 1991, as part of the SDWA, the EPA placed chromium under its list of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLG), to have a maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 100 ppb. In 1996, the SDWA was amended to include a provision known as the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR). Under this rule, the EPA issues a list of 30 or less contaminants that are not normally regulated under the SDWA. Chromium was monitored under the third UCMR, from January 2013 through December 2015. The EPA uses data from these reports to assist in making regulatory decisions.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The current EPA standard in measuring chromium is in reference to total chromium, both trivalent and hexavalent. Often, trivalent and hexavalent chromium are mentioned together, when in fact, each possess vastly different properties. At the risk of impacting public health, distinctions between the two chromiums must be clearly made in any publication containing information about chromium. These delineations are critical, as hexavalent chromium is carcinogenic, whereas trivalent chromium is not.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In 1991, the MCL for chromium exposure was set based on potential of "adverse dermatological effects" related to long-term chromium exposure. Chromium's MCL of 100 ppb has not changed since its 1991 recommendation. In 1998, the EPA released a toxicological review of hexavalent chromium. This report examined current literature, at the time, and came to the conclusion that chromium was associated with various health issues. , "no federal or state laws restrict the carcinogen's presence in drinking water," according to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC).


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In December 2013, the NRDC won a lawsuit against the California Department of Public Health, and the state was required to issue a standard on the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for chromium by "no later than June 15, 2014." The MCL was added to the California Code of Regulations but, in 2017, another court ruled that the standard must be eliminated because the California Department of Public Health had not proven that the standard was economically feasible.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Before the EPA can adjust the policy on chromium levels in drinking water, they have to release a final human health assessment. The EPA mentions two specific documents that are currently under review to determine whether or not to adjust the current drinking water standard for chromium. The first study the EPA mentioned that is under review is a 2008 study conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services National Toxicology Program. This study looks at chronic oral exposure of hexavalent chromium in rats, and its association with cancer. The other study mentioned is a human health assessment of chromium, titled "Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium". The final human health assessment is currently in the stage of draft development. This stage is the first of seven. The EPA gives no forecast to when the review will be finalized, and if a decision will be made.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Since World War II, the United States Army relied on hexavalent chromium compounds to protect its vehicles, equipment, aviation and missile systems from corrosion. The wash primer was sprayed as a pretreatment and protective layer on bare metal.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: From 2012 to 2015, Army Research Laboratory conducted research on a wash primer replacement, as a part of the DoD's effort to eliminate the use of toxic wash primers in the military. Studies indicated that the wash primers contained hazardous air pollutants, and high levels of volatile organic compounds.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The project resulted in the ARL qualifying three wash primer alternatives in 2015 for use on Army depots, installations, and repair facilities. The research led to the removal of chromate products from Army facilities in 2017.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: For their efforts on the wash primer replacement, the ARL researchers won the Secretary of the Army's "Award for Environmental Excellence in Weapon System Acquisition" for the 2016 fiscal year.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: The EPA currently limits total chromium in drinking water to 100 parts per billion, but there is no established limit specifically for chromium(VI). The Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) the California Environmental Protection Agency proposed a goal of 0.2 parts per billion in its technical support draft in 2009, despite a 2001 state law requiring a standard be set by 2005. A final Public Health Goal of 0.02 ppb was published in the technical support document in July 2011.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Monterey Bay Unified Air Pollution Control District monitored airborne levels of hexavalent chromium at an elementary school and fire department, as well as the point-source. They concluded that there were high levels of hexavalent chromium in the air, originating from a local cement plant, called Cemex. The levels of hexavalent chromium were 8 to 10 times higher than the air district's acceptable level at Pacific Elementary School and the Davenport Fire Department. The County of Santa Cruz sought help of the Health Services Agency (HSA) to investigate the findings of the Air District's report. Cemex voluntarily ceased operations due to the growing concern within the community, while additional air samples were analyzed. The HSA worked with Cemex to implement engineering controls, such as dust scavenging systems and other dust mitigation procedures. Cemex also made a change in the materials they used, trying to replace current materials with materials lower in chromium. The HSA also monitored the surrounding schools to determine if there were any health risks. Most schools came back with low levels, but in the case of higher levels a contractor was hired to clean up the chromium deposits. This case highlights the previously unrecognized possibility that hexavalent chromium can be released from cement-making.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In 2016, air quality officials began investigating elevated levels of hexavalent chromium in Paramount, California. The city of Paramount created an action project that included more code enforcement to aid AQMD inspectors and the launch of ParamountEnvironment.org to keep the public informed. Over time, efforts by SCAQMD and the city of Paramount have been effective lowering emissions to acceptable levels.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Hexavalent chromium was found in drinking water in the southern California town of Hinkley and was brought to popular attention by the involvement of Erin Brockovich and Attorney Edward Masry. The source of contamination was from the evaporating ponds of a PG&E (Pacific Gas and Electric) natural gas pipeline compressor station about 2 miles southeast of Hinkley. Between 1952 and 1966, chromium(VI) was used to prevent corrosion in the cooling stacks. The wastewater was dumped into the unlined evaporating ponds, and the chromium(VI) leaked into the groundwater. The 580 ppb chromium(VI) in the groundwater in Hinkley exceeded the 100-ppb total chromium maximum contaminant level (MCL) set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It also exceeded the California MCL of 50 ppb () for all types of chromium. California first established an MCL specifically for hexavalent chromium in 2014, set at 10 ppb; prior to that only total chromium standards applied.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: A later study found that from 1996 to 2008, 196 cancers were identified among residents of the census tract that included Hinkley—a slightly lower number than the 224 cancers that would have been expected given its demographic characteristics. This finding conflicted with the conclusions reached by the EPA and California's Department of Public Health that chromium(VI) does in fact cause cancer, as explained in a 2013 Center for Public Integrity article published in "Mother Jones", critically evaluating that and other studies by researcher John Morgan.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: When a PG&E background study of chromium(VI) was conducted, average chromium(VI) levels in Hinkley were recorded as 1.19 ppb with a peak of 3.09 ppb. PG&E's Topock compressor station averaged 7.8 ppb and peaked at 31.8 ppb. The California MCL standard was still 50 ppb at the completion of this background study. The Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) of the California EPA proposed in 2009 a health goal of 0.06 ppb of chromium(VI) in drinking water. In 2010, Brockovich returned to Hinkley in the midst of claims that the plume was spreading despite PG&E's cleanup activities. PG&E continues to provide bottled water for Hinkley residents, as well as offering to buy their homes. All other ongoing cleanup documentation is maintained at California EPA's page.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In Chicago's first ever testing for the toxic metal contaminant, results show that the city's local drinking water contains levels of hexavalent chromium more than 11 times higher than the health standard set in California in July 2011. The results of the test showed that the water which is sent to over 7 million residents had average levels of 0.23 ppb of the toxic metal. California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment designated the nation's new "public health goal" limit as 0.02 ppb. Echoing their counterparts in other cities where the metal has been detected, Chicago officials stress that local tap water is safe and suggest that if a national limit is adopted, it likely would be less stringent than California's goal. The Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (Illinois EPA) has developed a chromium(VI) strategic plan which outlines tasks in order to reduce the levels of chromium(VI) in Illinois' drinking water. One of which is to work with the U.S. EPA to provide significant technical assistance to the City of Chicago to ensure they quickly develop an effective chromium(VI) specific monitoring program that makes use of the U.S. EPA-approved methods.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: Cambridge Plating Company, now known as Purecoat North, was an electroplating business in Belmont, Massachusetts. A report was conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), to evaluate the association between environmental exposures from the Cambridge Plating Company and health effects on the surrounding community. The report indicated that residents of Belmont were exposed to chromium via air emissions, as well as groundwater and soil. However, six types of cancer were evaluated, and the incidence was actually found to be average, in most cases, across all types, if not a little bit lower than average. For example, in kidney cancer the number of observed cases was 7 versus an expected 16. While that was the case for most diseases, it was not for all. The incidence of leukemia among females was elevated in Belmont, MA during 1982–1999 (32 diagnoses observed vs. 23.2 expected). Elevations in females were due to four excess cases in each time period (11 diagnoses observed vs. 6.9 expected during 1988–1993; 13 diagnoses observed vs. 8.7 expected during 1994–1999) while elevations among males were based on one to three excess cases. ATSDR deemed Cambridge Plating as an Indeterminate Public Health Hazard in the past, but No Apparent Public Health Hazard in the present or future.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In 2009, a lawsuit was filed against Prime Tanning Corporation of St. Joseph, Missouri, over alleged hexavalent chromium contamination in Cameron, Missouri. A cluster of brain tumors had developed in the town that was above average for the population size of the town. The lawsuit alleges that the tumors were caused by waste hexavalent chromium that had been distributed to local farmers as free fertilizer. In 2010 a government study found hexavalent chromium within the soil but not at levels that were hazardous to human health. In 2012, the case ruled that $10 million would be distributed to over a dozen farmers affected in the northwest Missouri area. The Tanning Corporation still denies that their fertilizer caused any harm. Some residents claim that the tumors were a direct cause from the chromium exposure, but it is difficult to determine what other future impacts might arise from exposure in the specific Missouri counties.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: On December 20, 2019, a green substance leaking onto I-696, in Madison Heights, was identified as hexavalent chromium that had leaked from a basement of a local company, Electro-Plating Services.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: In July 2022, an employee at the automotive supply company Tribar Technologies overrode alarms, leading to the release of hexavalent chromium into the Wixom wastewater system. The state of Michigan issued a no-contact order with Huron River water near the spill, but this order was lifted after revised estimates concluded that less than 20 pounds of chromium had reached the river.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: On April 8, 2009, the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) collected ground water samples from a domestic well on West County Road 112 in Midland, Texas (U.S.), in response to a resident complaint of yellow water. The well was found to be contaminated with chromium(VI). The Midland groundwater reached higher levels of contamination than the EPA mandated maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 100 parts per billion. The current groundwater plume of chromium lies under approximately 260 acres of land at the West County Road 112 Groundwater Site. In response, the TCEQ installed filtration systems on water-well sites that showed contamination of chromium.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: , TCEQ had sampled water from 235 wells and has installed over 45 anion-exchange filtration systems from this site determined to be centered at 2601 West County Road 112, Midland, Texas. The TCEQ continues to sample wells surrounding the area to monitor the movement of the plume. In addition, they continue to monitor the effectiveness of the anion-exchange filtration systems by sampling on a year-quarterly and the filters are maintained at no cost to the residents.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: , the West County Road 112 Ground Water site was added to the National Priorities List (NPL) also known as the Superfund List by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). From 2011 to 2013, TCEQ installed groundwater monitors and conducted groundwater sampling. In 2013, TCEQ began sampling residential soil and confirmed that it was contaminated from use of the contaminated groundwater for garden and lawn care.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: According to the EPA, ongoing investigations have not concluded the source of the contamination and cleanup solutions are still being developed. Until such investigations are complete and remediation established, residents will continue to be at risk for health effects from exposure to the groundwater contamination.


title: Hexavalent chromium

text: On January 7, 2011 it was announced that Milwaukee, Wisconsin had tested its water and hexavalent chromium was found to be present. Officials stated that it was in such small quantities that it was nothing to worry about, although this contaminant is a carcinogen. In Wisconsin, Milwaukee's average chromium(VI) level is 0.194 parts per billion (the EPA recommended maximum contaminant level (MCL) is 100 ppb). All 13 water systems tested positive for chromium(VI). Four out of seven systems detected the chemical in Waukesha County, and both Racine and Kenosha Counties had the highest levels averaging more than 0.2 parts per billion. Further testing was being conducted . There was no further information available .


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Marlene Weinstock, (January 29, 1943 – August 31, 1997) commonly known by her stage name Lotus Weinstock, was an American stand-up comedian, author, musician and actress.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Weinstock was born in 1943 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her parents were Robert and Lucille Weinstock. She was a natural performer throughout her childhood and into high school she was known to improvise bits with friends and play the role of the mascot on her cheerleading team. Though she considered to be a great performer, she often felt like an outcast growing up. After high school, Lotus went to Emerson College but dropped out to move to New York and try acting and dance, succeeding in acquiring a few Off-Broadway roles. Approximately, in 1963 she became a hostess at the oldest rock and roll club in NYC, Greenwich Village's Bitter End.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus was a stand-up comedian, author to a book, a play, and was a musician. Her book, "The Lotus Position", is filled with some of her famous anecdotes like, "I married Mr. Right. Mr. "Always" Right." Some of these anecdotes also made it onto greeting cards. "The Lotus Position" sold about 63,000 copies. Lotus also wrote the play, "Molly and Maze" that she put on with her daughter, Lili Haydn a few times. More than just the play, Lotus and Lili also performed music together. By herself, however, Lotus performed in a musical comedy duo, "The Turtles" with Jimmy Gavin. Together, they toured the folk scene circuit. Early in her career, she changed her name to Maurey Haydn. Under this name, one of her songs was recorded by Richie Havens.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus was known in the comedy world for making jokes that never punched down at someone. In other words, Lotus’ humor was ethical and not at anyone’s expense. Lotus saw the power in laughter. She believed that "when a whole roomful of people are laughing, suddenly you have dissolved the pain and shame of separateness. At that moment, there is no judgment—it is a true release." Lotus showed this through her interviews where she would always take an opportunity to make people laugh. It was not just her spoken word jokes that made Lotus so endearing in the comedy world. She had a stage presence that worked in her favor, at times even wearing a bathrobe during her sets. As most of Lotus’ jokes and moments have, there is always a story behind them, and it often involves her sense of spirituality. For this robe story, Lotus had been too sick to get dressed for a show but still wanted to perform. So, she decided to wear her robe on stage. She ended up recovering quickly and attributed this to the robe and thus its presence in her future shows.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus performed on "The Merv Griffin Show," "The Tonight Show," "The Mike Douglas Show, Politically Incorrect, Make Me Laugh, and The Comedy Store "Pilot."" That being said, she didn't perform much on television because she could rarely stay within the performance time constraints; she preferred to do her own thing. She is well known by other comedians and even is cited in books about comedy and specific jokes. However, much like all comedians, she was also critiqued for her comedy and performances throughout her careers. She's been referred to as a "stilted actress" as well as too personal and lecture-like. That being said, Lotus remained and has remained an influential name in the comedy world, especially for other comedians. She's known to be a large influence in Sandra Bernhard’s comedy career.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: A good amount of Lotus’ humor had to do with being a woman. She joked about her marriage and dating and was also aware of the difference between how women comedians could act versus men. Lotus also dealt with sexual harassment throughout her time as a comedian. She was always a feminist, however, and was optimistic about what that meant for the comedy world. She's quoted saying, "Ten years ago, a woman would not laugh before her date did, so if you did something from a woman’s point of view, the woman wouldn’t want to laugh and expose herself. Now, women will lead the crowd." Lotus' optimistic stance on the power that women have in comedy influenced other women comedians.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus was a massive part of the Belly Room, a performance area in the Comedy Store that Mitzi Shore, the owner, opened as a place for only women to perform. Lotus was thirty-six when the Belly Room opened in 1978. She was considered a "den mother" there, being an older, but very excited participant. She and some other women performing in The Belly Room felt it was a place where there was less need for competition and women could perform in a giving environment. The Comedy Store is also where Lotus and a few other women comedians at the time participated in the USC College of Continuing Education Workshop, "Women and Comedy" in March 1985. In this space they spoke to other participants about the trials and tribulations of being a woman in comedy. This included how to succeed, what to use on stage, what not to use, where to perform, and more. Throughout this workshop the major point that the women made was to be the most confident version of oneself when they performed. At one point Lotus said, "Confidence speaks louder than gender."


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus was asaid to be a major influence on many comedians. She was particularly influential on Sandra Bernhard and other women comedians, especially those that performed in the Belly Room. Lotus was written up in the book of "Great Jewish Mothers" by Paula Ethel Wolfson. Her jokes, that were never at anyone else's expense, have been influential on the comedy world, helping to show early on that comedians do not need to put others down to be funny.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lenny Bruce was a massive influence, not just in Lotus’ life, but in her career as a comedian. His commitment to telling the truth through comedy was something Lotus appreciated, and it shows up in her bits as well. Lotus' close comedic friends in the eighties were Larry Miller, Lucy Webb, Sandra Bernhard, Diane Nichols, Robert Weide, Jay Leno, Jerry Seinfeld, Paul Reiser, Kevin Pollak, Sam Kinison, Paul Mooney, Richard Pryor, Robin Williams, Hennen Chambers, Carrie Snow, Joanne Dearing, Ron Zimmerman, Bill Maher, Argus Hamilton, Taylor Negron, and Phyllis Diller. Lotus was also influenced by motherhood, feminism, and Judaism; three parts of her life that she held very dear.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Towards the end of Lotus' career, Joan Rivers accepted the invitation to write the foreword to Lotus’ book, "The Lotus Position" and then declined it shortly after. A fan of Lotus’ found this out by going through her mail and it' is assumed that they sent Rivers a death threat. An investigator was hired and reported that Lotus was behind this (though many of her friends emphasized how impossible that would be considering the type of person Lotus was and her outlook on life). Rivers proceeded to send the findings to many influential people in the comedy scene making it hard for Lotus to be hired.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus did not only owe Rivers for her career coming to slow close; she was not known to be the smartest businesswoman. She had trouble giving up smaller shows for bigger ones, once she had already booked them, even though the bigger venues got her more attention. Some said she did not have the TV presence that was necessary for her success, either. Despite these critiques, many thought, and still think, highly of Lotus’ comedy and character.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: Lotus met Lenny Bruce in 1965, when she was 22 and he was 40 years old. They developed an instant connection and were engaged up until his death in August 1966. Lotus was shocked and devastated about Bruce's death. She became quite spiritual; poetry and song ended up helping her heal after this loss. This is when she took on the name Lotus. Later, Lotus found herself in Toronto where she met David Jove. They got married about two weeks after meeting one another. Almost immediately, Lotus got pregnant with her daughter, Lili. Lotus and Jove never raised Lili together and were divorced in the late eighties. In the nineties, Lotus was in a relationship with the British actor and director, Steven Berkoff. Lili and Lotus were quite close all the way until Lotus passed away. Lili was Lotus’ pride and joy, and she would talk about her every chance she got. For the first 5 years of Lili's life, Lotus performed much less, focusing on being a mother. Lili was an amazing violinist and Lotus was extremely proud of her ability to play. She missed plenty of comedy opportunities to focus on being a mother, her first priority. Lili went on to attend Brown University. Before Lili went to Brown, she and Lotus performed a show together called "Molly and Maze." It showed at the Beverly Hills’ Eagle Theatre prior to Lili's leaving for college and then an amended version was performed in San Diego at the Gaslamp Quarter Theatre Company's Hahn Cosmopolitan after she graduated.


title: Lotus Weinstock

text: In Thanksgiving of 1996 Lotus found out she had an untreatable brain tumor. The night before she and Lili were headed to a clinic in La Jolla that specialized in alternative medicine, she had a seizure that resulted in a herniated brainstem. This left her paralyzed and limited her motor skills as well as her ability to talk. On August 31, 1997, Lotus died at Kaiser Permanente Hospital in Hollywood at the age of 54. She was surrounded by her daughter and closest friends.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Anthony Colin Bruce Chapman (19 May 1928 – 16 December 1982) was an English design engineer, inventor, and builder in the automotive industry, and founder of Lotus Cars.


title: Colin Chapman

text: In 1952 he founded the sports car company Lotus Cars. Chapman initially ran Lotus in his spare time, assisted by a group of enthusiasts. His knowledge of the latest aeronautical engineering techniques would prove vital towards achieving the major automotive technical advances for which he is remembered. His design philosophy focused on cars with light weight and fine handling instead of bulking up on horsepower and spring rates, which he famously summarised as "Adding power makes you faster on the straights. Subtracting weight makes you faster everywhere."


title: Colin Chapman

text: Under his direction, Team Lotus won seven Formula One Constructors' titles, six Drivers' Championships, and the Indianapolis 500 in the United States, between 1962 and 1978. The production side of Lotus Cars has built tens of thousands of relatively affordable, cutting edge sports cars. Lotus is one of but a handful of English performance car builders still in business after the industrial decline of the 1970s.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Colin Chapman was born on 19 May 1928 and brought up at 44 Beech Drive, on the border of Muswell Hill, London N2. His father ran The Railway Hotel on Tottenham Lane next to Hornsey Railway Station. Chapman attended the Stationers' Company's School in Mayfield Road.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman studied structural engineering at University College London, joined the University of London Air Squadron and learned to fly. Chapman left UCL without a degree in 1948, resitting his final Mathematics paper in 1949 and obtaining his degree a year late.


title: Colin Chapman

text: He briefly joined the Royal Air Force in 1948, being offered a permanent commission but turning this down in favour of a swift return to civilian life. After a couple of false starts Chapman joined the British Aluminium company, using his civil engineering skills to attempt to sell aluminium as a viable structural material for buildings.


title: Colin Chapman

text: In 1948, Chapman designed the Mk1, a modified Austin 7, which he entered privately into local racing events. He named the car "Lotus"; he never confirmed the reason, but one of several theories is that it was after his then-girlfriend (later wife) Hazel, whom he nicknamed "Lotus blossom". With the prize money, he developed the Lotus Mk2. Around this time, Chapman began to show his ability to think of ways to become more competitive while remaining within the rules. One early car had a 6 port head with 4 exhaust and two inlet ports. Chapman realised that better flow characteristics (and therefore more power) could be achieved with an 8 port head, but lacking the resources to have one made, he reversed the port functions and de-siamesed the old inlet ports. With appropriate manifolds and a new camshaft, his engine outclassed the opposition until the rules were changed to outlaw the specific changes he had made. With continuing success on through the Lotus 6, he began to sell kits of these cars. Over 100 were sold through 1956. It was with the Lotus 7 in 1957 that things really took off, and indeed Caterham Cars still manufacture a version of that car today – the Caterham 7; there have been over 90 different Lotus 7 clones, replicas and derivatives offered to the public by a variety of makers.


title: Colin Chapman

text: In the 1950s, Chapman progressed through the motor racing formulae, designing and building a series of racing cars, sometimes to the point of maintaining limited production as they were so successful and highly sought after, until he arrived in Formula One. Besides his engineering work, he also piloted a Vanwall F1-car in 1956 but crashed into his teammate Mike Hawthorn during practice for the French Grand Prix at Reims, ending his career as a race driver and focusing him on the technical side. Along with John Cooper, he revolutionised the premier motor sport. Their small, lightweight mid-engined vehicles gave away much in terms of power, but superior handling meant their competing cars often beat the all-conquering front engined Ferraris and Maseratis. Eventually, with driver Jim Clark at the wheel of his race cars, Team Lotus appeared as though they could win whenever they pleased. With Clark driving the Lotus 25, Team Lotus won its first F1 World Championship in 1963. It was Clark, driving a Lotus 38 at the Indianapolis 500 in 1965, who drove the first-ever mid-engined car to victory at the "Brickyard". Clark and Chapman became particularly close and Clark's death in 1968 devastated Chapman, who publicly stated that he had lost his best friend.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Among a number of automotive figures who have been Lotus employees over the years were Mike Costin and Keith Duckworth, founders of Cosworth. Graham Hill worked at Lotus as a mechanic as a means of earning drives.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman, whose father was a successful publican, was also a businessman who introduced major advertising sponsorship into auto racing; beginning the process which transformed Formula One from a pastime of rich gentlemen to a multi-million pound high technology enterprise. It was Chapman who in 1966 persuaded the Ford Motor Company to sponsor Cosworth's development of what would become the DFV race engine.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Many of Chapman's ideas can still be seen in Formula One and other top-level motor sport (such as IndyCars) today.


title: Colin Chapman

text: He pioneered the use of struts as a rear suspension device. Even today, struts used in the rear of a vehicle are known as Chapman struts, while virtually identical suspension struts for the front are known as MacPherson struts that were invented 10 years earlier in 1949.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman's next major innovation was popularising monocoque chassis construction within automobile racing, with the revolutionary 1962 Lotus 25 Formula One car. The technique resulted in a body that was both lighter and stronger, and also provided better driver protection in the event of a crash. Although a previously little-used concept in the world of motorsport, the first vehicle to feature such a chassis was the road-going 1922 Lancia Lambda. Lotus had been an early adopter of this technology with the 1958 Lotus Elite. The modified monocoque body of the car was made of fibreglass, making it also one of the first production cars made of composite materials.


title: Colin Chapman

text: When American Formula One driver Dan Gurney first saw the Lotus 25 at the Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort, he was so struck by the advanced design that he invited Chapman to the 1962 Indianapolis 500, where Gurney made his Indy début at the wheel of a space-frame rear engined car designed by John Crosthwaite (who had previously worked for Chapman) and built by American hot-rodder Mickey Thompson. Following the race, Chapman prepared a proposal to Ford Motor Company for an aluminium monocoque Indianapolis car using a 4.2-litre aluminium V-8 Ford passenger car engine. Ford accepted the proposal. The Lotus 29 debuted at Indianapolis in 1963, with Jim Clark finishing second. This design concept fairly quickly replaced what had been for many decades the standard design formula in racing-cars, the tube-frame chassis. Although the material has changed from sheet aluminium to carbon fibre, this remains today the standard technique for building top-level racing cars.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Inspired by Jim Hall, Chapman was among those who helped introduce aerodynamics into Formula One car design. Lotus used the concept of positive aerodynamic downforce, through the addition of wings, at a Tasman Formula race in early 1968, although Ferrari and Brabham were the first to use them in a Formula One race at the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix. Early versions, in 1968 and 1969, were mounted or so above the car, to operate in 'clean air' (air that would not otherwise be disturbed by the passage of the car). The underdesigned wings and struts failed regularly, however, compelling the FIA to require the wing mounting hardware to be attached directly to the sprung chassis. Chapman also originated the movement of radiators away from the front of the car to the sides, to decrease frontal area (lowering aerodynamic drag) and centralising weight distribution. These concepts remain features of virtually all high performance racing cars today.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman was also an innovator in the business end of racing. He was among the first entrants in Formula One to turn their cars into rolling billboards for non-automotive products, initially with the cigarette brands Gold Leaf and, most famously, John Player Special.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman, working with Tony Rudd and Peter Wright, pioneered the first Formula One use of "ground effect", where a low pressure was created under the car by use of venturis, generating suction (downforce) which held it securely to the road whilst cornering. Early designs utilized sliding "skirts" which made contact with the ground to keep the area of low pressure isolated.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman next planned a car that generated all of its downforce through ground effect, eliminating the need for wings and the resulting drag that reduces a car's speed. The culmination of his efforts, the Lotus 79, dominated the championship. However, skirts were eventually banned because they were susceptible to damage, for example from driving over a kerb, whereafter downforce would be lost and the car could then become unstable. The FIA made moves to eliminate ground effect in Formula One by raising the minimum ride height of the cars from and requiring flat bottom cars from . Car designers have managed to claw back much of that downforce through other means, aided by extensive wind tunnel testing.


title: Colin Chapman

text: One of his last major technical innovations was a dual-chassis Formula One car, the Lotus 88 in . For ground effect of that era to function most efficiently, the aerodynamic surfaces needed to be precisely located and this led to the chassis being very stiffly sprung. However, this was very punishing to the driver, resulting in driver fatigue. To get around this, Chapman introduced a car with two chassis. One chassis (where the driver would sit) was softly sprung. The other chassis (where the skirts and such were located) was stiffly sprung. Although the car passed scrutineering at a couple of races, other teams protested, and it was never allowed to race. The car was never developed further.


title: Colin Chapman

text: From 1978 until his death, Chapman was involved with the American tycoon John DeLorean, in his development of a stainless steel sports car, to be built in a factory in Northern Ireland which was majority-funded by the UK government. The original concept design was for a mid-engine sports car, however difficulty in securing the original Wankel engine rights and design complications led to the rear-engine mount design.


title: Colin Chapman

text: On 19 October 1982, John DeLorean was charged with trafficking cocaine by the US Government, following a videotaped sting operation at a hotel in Los Angeles, in which he was recorded by undercover FBI agents agreeing to bankroll a cocaine smuggling operation. DeLorean Motor Cars subsequently collapsed, during which administrators discovered that £10,000,000 of British taxpayers' money (approximately equivalent to £ million in ) had gone missing.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Lotus Group's 1981 accounts were overdue before Chapman's death, but released after his death disclosed that Lotus had been paid for engineering work by DeLorean via a Swiss-based Panamanian company run by a DeLorean distributor, despite Chapman's previous protestations that neither he nor the company had been paid via Panama. Chapman died before the full deceit unravelled, but at the subsequent trial of Lotus Group accountant Fred Bushell who had funnelled £5m to himself in the fraud, the trial judge opined, that had Chapman himself been in the dock, he would have received a sentence "of at least 10 years". The car's engineering concept was later sold by the UK Government appointed Administrators to Toyota, who used it to develop the AW11 MR2. The Liquidators also recovered around £20m from Swiss Bank accounts controlled by Chapman and John DeLorean.


title: Colin Chapman

text: The night before he died, Chapman watched a performance by his long-time friend and Lotus customer Chris Barber, the noted jazz trombonist, and his band. On 16 December 1982, Team Lotus tested the first Formula One car with active suspension, which eventually made its début with the Lotus 99T in . Chapman suffered a fatal heart attack on the same day at his home in Norwich, and died at the age of 54.


title: Colin Chapman

text: Chapman was married to Hazel (1927–2021). He had two daughters and one son, Clive Chapman, who currently runs Classic Team Lotus, offering restoration, maintenance and operation of historic Team Lotus Formula One cars.


title: Robert Liston

text: Robert Liston (28 October 1794 – 7 December 1847) was a British surgeon. Liston was noted for his speed and skill in an era prior to anaesthetics, when speed made a difference in terms of pain and survival. He was the first Professor of Clinical Surgery at University College Hospital in London and performed the first public operation utilizing modern anaesthesia in Europe.


title: Robert Liston

text: He was born in the manse of Ecclesmachan, the son of Margaret Ireland from Culross and her husband Rev Henry Liston a clergyman and an inventor, from Ecclesmachan in West Lothian west of Edinburgh. His grandfather – also Robert Liston – was the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.


title: Robert Liston

text: After a local education both from his father and in Abercorn village school, Liston studied at Edinburgh Medical School from 1808, and in 1810 became assistant to his tutor Dr John Barclay. In 1816, he went to London for a year to train under William Blizard. He returned to Edinburgh to teach anatomy alongside James Syme. He was then living at 95 Princes Street – a fine house facing Edinburgh Castle. In 1820, he married the daughter of Adam Crawford, a Leith wine merchant. In 1818, he had become house surgeon in The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh under Dr George Bell. However, he was dismissed in 1822 due to disagreements with Bell and not reinstated until 1827. In 1828, he was promoted to operating surgeon.


title: Robert Liston

text: He became first 'The Northern Anatomist' of "Blackwell's Magazine". In 1832/1833, he is listed as living at 99 George Street in the centre of Edinburgh's New Town. In 1833, he applied for Edinburgh's Professorship of Anatomy but was beaten by James Syme (5 years his junior) who had a much better aptitude for teaching. Liston then left Edinburgh and relocated to London.


title: Robert Liston

text: For the last seven years of his life he lived at 5 Clifford Street, off Bond Street in Mayfair, in a building and area now of historical significance, hence Richard Gordon's specific mention of this address in his section on Robert Liston.


title: Robert Liston

text: He died of an aneurysm on 7 December 1847 at his Mayfair home and his funeral took place at St Michael's Church, Highgate six days later. The funeral procession from his home consisted of five mourning coaches, and fifteen private carriages. In the former were relatives and his fellow medical professors of University College, and in the latter were friends of eminence in the higher ranks of society. Near the cemetery, the cortege was met by four hundred of his former pupils, and by about two hundred medical practitioners and others. He was buried on the western side of Highgate Cemetery in the Terrace Catacombs.


title: Robert Liston

text: Liston's legacy comprises both that which has made its way into the popular culture, and that found primarily within the medical fraternity and related disciplines.


title: Robert Liston

text: In 1837, he published "Practical Surgery", arguing the importance of quick surgeries; "these operations must be set about with determination and completed rapidly."


title: Robert Liston

text: Liston's image has been preserved in both bust and portrait form. Following Liston's death, a meeting was held of his friends and admirers, who "unanimously resolved to establish some public and lasting Testimonial to the memory of this distinguished surgeon". A committee of some 78 people was formed, which resolved that the testimonial should consist of a marble statue to be placed in some designated public spot, and the inauguration of a gold medal, to be called the "Liston Medal", "and awarded annually, as the Council of University College, may decide".


title: Robert Liston

text: Richard Gordon describes Liston as "the fastest knife in the West End. He could amputate a leg in 2 minutes". Indeed, he is reputed to have been able to complete operations in a matter of seconds, at a time when speed was essential to reduce pain and improve the odds of survival of a patient.


title: Robert Liston

text: In Florence Nightingale's "Notes on Nursing", she states "there are many physical operations where "ceteris paribus" (all else being equal) the danger is in a direct ratio to the time the operation lasts; and "ceteris paribus" the operator's success will be in direct ratio to his quickness".


title: Robert Liston

text: He was six foot two, and operated in a bottle-green coat with wellington boots. He sprung across the blood-stained boards upon his swooning, sweating, strapped-down patient like a duelist, calling, 'Time me gentlemen, time me!' to students craning with pocket watches from the iron-railinged galleries. Everyone swore that the first flash of his knife was followed so swiftly by the rasp of saw on bone that sight and sound seemed simultaneous. To free both hands, he would clasp the bloody knife between his teeth.


title: Robert Liston

text: Gordon's prose is more than just caricature. He describes how the link between surgical hygiene and iatrogenic infection was poorly understood at that time. At an address by Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes to the Boston Society for Medical Improvement on 13 February 1843, his suggestions for hygiene improvement to reduce obstetric infections and mortality from puerperal fever "outraged obstetricians, particularly in Philadelphia". In those days, "surgeons operated in blood-stiffened frock coats – the stiffer the coat, the prouder the busy surgeon", "pus was as inseparable from surgery as blood", and "Cleanliness was next to prudishness". He quotes Sir Frederick Treves on that era: "There was no object in being clean...Indeed, cleanliness was out of place. It was considered to be finicking and affected. An executioner might as well manicure his nails before chopping off a head". Indeed, the connection between surgical hygiene, infection, and maternal mortality rates at Vienna General Hospital was only made in 1847 by Vienna physician Dr Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis from Hungary, after a close colleague of his died. He instituted the hygiene practices exhorted by Holmes, and the mortality rate fell.


title: Robert Liston

text: Such was the era in which Liston lived. Gordon states that Liston was "an abrupt, abrasive, argumentative man, unfailingly charitable to the poor and tender to the sick (who) was vilely unpopular to his fellow surgeons at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. He relished operating successfully in the reeking tenements of the Grassmarket and Lawnmarket on patients they had discharged as hopelessly incurable. They conspired to bar him from the wards, banished him south, where he became professor of surgery at University College Hospital and made a fortune".


title: Robert Liston

text: In writings on Liston, he is portrayed as a man of strong character and ethics, which was the source of some of his confrontational style. In one case, he confronted a medical colleague (Dr Robert Knox) over the treatment of a young woman (Mary Paterson) who it later transpired was murdered (see Burke and Hare murders), with Knox thought complicit in the murder. She was in Knox's dissecting rooms within four hours of her death, and kept in whisky for three months before dissection, during which time she was essentially on voyeuristic display. Liston's response is documented in a letter from him:According to Liston, he saw Mary Paterson's body in Knox's rooms and immediately suspected foul play. He knocked Knox down after an altercation in front of his students – Liston assumed some students had slept with her when she was alive, and that they should dissect her body offended his sense of decency. He removed her body for burial.


title: Robert Liston

text: While Liston's pioneering contributions are paid tribute within popular culture such as Richard Gordon, they are best known within the medical fraternity and related disciplines.


title: Robert Liston

text: Although Richard Gordon's 1983 book pays tribute to other aspects of Liston's character and legacy as noted elsewhere in this article, it is his description of some of Liston's most famous cases which has primarily made its way into what is known of Liston in popular culture. Gordon describes what he calls Liston's most famous case in his book, as quoted verbatim below.


title: Robert Liston

text: This episode has since been dubbed as the only known surgery in history with a 300 percent mortality rate. The situation that Gordon labels "Liston's most famous case" has been described as apocryphal. No primary sources confirm that this surgery ever took place.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: In computing, a word is the natural unit of data used by a particular processor design. A word is a fixed-sized datum handled as a unit by the instruction set or the hardware of the processor. The number of bits or digits in a word (the "word size", "word width", or "word length") is an important characteristic of any specific processor design or computer architecture.


title: Word (computer architecture)

text: The size of a word is reflected in many aspects of a computer's structure and operation; the majority of the registers in a processor are usually word-sized and the largest datum that can be transferred to and from the working memory in a single operation is a word in many (not all) architectures. The largest possible address size, used to designate a location in memory, is typically a hardware word (here, "hardware word" means the full-sized natural word of the processor, as opposed to any other definition used).