title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" rated the series 4 out of 5 stars and wrote, "The Vortex sets a benchmark that will take some doing to emulate". Logesh Balachandran of "The Times Of India" rated the series 4 out of 5 stars and wrote, "Suzhal is an intense investigative thriller that has a lot of surprises in store, making it a perfect bingewatch for the weekend". Divya Nair of "Rediff" rated the series 4 out of 5 stars and wrote "Even though each episode is about an hour long, you won't even blink". Srivatsan S of "The Hindu" wrote, "A terrific star cast makes this layered series all the more effective", further adding that, "this is a rare series where the sum and parts are equally great". Nandini Ramnath writing for "Scroll.in" called the series "a nail-biting thriller about secrets & deceptions".


title: Suzhal: The Vortex

text: The series received criticism from Manoj Kumar B of "Indian Express", who though praised the series for seemingly "being like a huge jump by the standards of Tamil soap operas", also criticised it for not being good enough to match the global standards & stated that the "show's creators have barely scratched the surface with this format of storytelling". Janani K of "India Today" rated the series 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "Aishwarya Rajesh, Kathir's series sucks you right in but fizzles", though she praised the climax by writing that, "Pushkar and Gayatri’s Suzhal imparts a much-needed message in the climax, which is relevant to society".


title: Guy Clark

text: Guy Charles Clark (November 6, 1941 – May 17, 2016) was an American folk and country singer-songwriter and luthier. He released more than 20 albums, and his songs have been recorded by other artists, including Jerry Jeff Walker, Jimmy Buffett, Kathy Mattea, Lyle Lovett, Ricky Skaggs, Steve Wariner, Emmylou Harris, Rodney Crowell, Steve Earle, Johnny Cash, Willie Nelson and Chris Stapleton. He won the 2014 Grammy Award for Best Folk Album: "My Favorite Picture of You".


title: Guy Clark

text: Clark was born in Monahans, Texas. His family moved to Rockport, Texas in 1954. After he graduated from high school in 1960, Guy spent almost a decade living in Houston as part of the folk music revival in that city. His wife Susanna Talley Clark and he eventually settled in Nashville, where he helped create the Americana (music) genre. His songs "L.A. Freeway" and "Desperados Waiting for a Train" helped launch his career and were covered by numerous performers, including Steve Earle and Brian Joens. On his passing, the "New York Times" described him as "a king of the Texas troubadours", declaring his body of work "as indelible as that of anyone working in the Americana idiom in the last decades of the 20th century".


title: Guy Clark

text: Clark had been a mentor to such other singers as Noel McKay, Steve Earle and Rodney Crowell. He organized Earle's first job as a writer in Nashville. In the 1970s, the Clarks' home in Nashville was an open house for songwriters and musicians, and it features in the film "Heartworn Highways", an evocation of the songwriter scene in Nashville at that time.


title: Guy Clark

text: Numerous artists have charted with Clark-penned tunes. "The Last Gunfighter Ballad" was the title song of Johnny Cash's 1977 studio album. In 1982, Bobby Bare made it to the Country Top 20 with Clark's "New Cut Road". That same year, bluegrass leader Ricky Skaggs hit number one with Clark's "Heartbroke", a song that permanently established his reputation as an ingenious songwriter. Among the many others who have covered Clark's songs are Vince Gill, who took "Oklahoma Borderline" to the Top 10 in 1985; The Highwaymen, who introduced "Desperados Waiting for a Train" to a new generation that same year; John Conlee, whose interpretation of "The Carpenter" rode into the Top 10 in 1987; and John Denver, who recorded Clark's "Homegrown Tomatoes" in 1988. Clark is frequently referred to as the Fifth Highwayman.


title: Guy Clark

text: Steve Wariner took his cover of Clark's "Baby I'm Yours" to number one in 1988; Asleep at the Wheel charted with Clark's "Blowin' Like a Bandit" the same year. Crowell was Clark's co-writer on "She's Crazy for Leavin'", which in 1989 became the third of five straight number-one hits for Crowell. Brad Paisley and Alan Jackson covered Clark's "Out in the Parkin' Lot", co-written with Darrell Scott, on Paisley's "Time Well Wasted" CD. Jimmy Buffett, obviously influenced by Jerry Jeff Walker's earlier quality cover of "Boats to Build" on 1997's "Cowboy Boots & Bathin Suits", then covered Clark's "Boats to Build" and "Cinco de Mayo in Memphis". Clark credits Townes Van Zandt as being a major influence on his songwriting. One of the most famous photos in country music history was taken on Clark's porch in 1972 of Clark, wife Susanna, Van Zandt, and Daniel Antopolsky by photographer Al Clayton. Clark and Van Zandt were best friends for many years until Van Zandt's death in 1997, and Clark has included a Van Zandt composition on most of his albums. In 1995, he recorded a live album with Van Zandt and Steve Earle, "Together at the Bluebird Cafe", which was released in October 2001. Other live material can be found on his album "Keepers". Earle released the tribute album "Guy" in 2019.


title: Guy Clark

text: In 2006, Clark released "Workbench Songs". The album was nominated for Best Contemporary Folk/Americana Album at the Grammy Awards. He also toured with Lyle Lovett, Joe Ely, and John Hiatt in 2004, 2005, and 2007. In May 2008, Clark canceled four concerts after breaking his leg. After two months on crutches, he began to perform again on July 4 at the Smithsonian Folklife Festival in Washington, DC, where he appeared with Verlon Thompson. On June 20, 2009, Clark announced a new album titled "Somedays the Song Writes You", which was released on September 22, 2009. It features originals along with a Townes Van Zandt song titled "If I Needed You".


title: Guy Clark

text: In December 2011, "This One's for Him: A Tribute to Guy Clark" (a two-CD set) was released by Icehouse Music and produced by longtime fan Tamara Saviano. The CD won Americana Album of the Year at the 2012 Americana Music Honors & Awards. Clark won the Grammy Award for Best Folk Album in 2014 for "My Favorite Picture of You".


title: Guy Clark

text: The final song that Clark completed was co-written with Angaleena Presley and titled "Cheer Up Little Darling". It appeared on Presley's 2017 album "Wrangled".


title: Guy Clark

text: Texas country singer/songwriter Aaron Watson paid tribute to Clark in his song entitled "Ghost of Guy Clark", released in June 2019. In the song, Clark's ghost asks the protagonist to perform a song and is unimpressed; he then encourages the performer to write songs with greater passion.


title: Guy Clark

text: Clark was married to songwriter and artist Susanna Clark from 1972 until her death from cancer on June 27, 2012. He had one son, Travis Carroll Clark (December 18, 1966 - October 12, 2017 aortic aneurysm), from his first marriage to folksinger Susan Spaw. On May 17, 2016, Clark died in Nashville following a lengthy battle with lymphoma at the age of 74.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Sir Ian Kershaw (born 29 April 1943) is an English historian whose work has chiefly focused on the social history of 20th-century Germany. He is regarded by many as one of the world's leading experts on Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, and is particularly noted for his biographies of Hitler.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: He was the leading disciple of the German historian Martin Broszat, and until his retirement, he was a professor at the University of Sheffield. Kershaw has called Broszat an "inspirational mentor" who did much to shape his understanding of Nazi Germany. Kershaw served as historical adviser on numerous BBC documentaries, notably "" and "War of the Century". He taught a module titled "Germans against Hitler".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw was born on 29 April 1943 in Oldham, Lancashire, England, to Joseph Kershaw and Alice Robinson. He was educated at Counthill Grammar School, St Bede's College, Manchester, the University of Liverpool (BA), and Merton College, Oxford (DPhil). He was originally trained as a medievalist but turned to the study of modern German social history in the 1970s. At first, he was mainly concerned with the economic history of Bolton Abbey. As a lecturer in medieval history at Manchester, Kershaw learned German to study the German peasantry in the Middle Ages. In 1972, he visited Bavaria and was shocked to hear the views of an old man he met in a Munich café who told him: "You English were so foolish. If only you had sided with us. Together we could have defeated Bolshevism and ruled the earth!"—adding in for good measure that "The Jew is a louse!" As a result of this incident, Kershaw became keen to learn how and why ordinary people in Germany could support Nazism.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: His wife, Dame Betty Kershaw, is a former professor of nursing and dean of the School of Nursing Studies at the University of Sheffield.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In 1975, Kershaw joined Martin Broszat's "Bavaria Project". During his work, Broszat encouraged Kershaw to examine how ordinary people viewed Hitler. As a result of his work in the 1970s on Broszat's "Bavaria Project", Kershaw wrote his first book on Nazi Germany, "", which was first published in German in 1980 as "Der Hitler-Mythos: Volksmeinung und Propaganda im Dritten Reich". This book examined the "Hitler cult" in Germany, how it was developed by Joseph Goebbels, what social groups the Hitler Myth appealed to and how it rose and fell.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Also arising from the "Bavaria Project" and Kershaw's work in the field of "Alltagsgeschichte" ('everyday history') was "Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich". In this 1983 book, Kershaw examined the experience of the Nazi era at the grass-roots in Bavaria. Kershaw showed how ordinary people reacted to the Nazi dictatorship, looking at how people conformed to the regime and to the extent and limits of dissent. Kershaw described his subject as ordinary Bavarians: the muddled majority, neither full-hearted Nazis nor outright opponents, whose attitudes at one and the same time betray signs of Nazi ideological penetration and yet show the clear limits of propaganda manipulation. Kershaw went on to write in his preface:I should like to think that had I been around at the time I would have been a convinced anti-Nazi engaged in the underground resistance fight. However, I know really that I would have been as confused and felt as helpless as most of the people I am writing about.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw argued that Goebbels failed to create the "Volksgemeinschaft" (people's community) of Nazi propaganda, and that most Bavarians were far more interested in their day-to-day lives than in politics during the Third Reich. Kershaw concluded that the majority of Bavarians were either antisemitic or more commonly simply did not care about what was happening to the Jews. Kershaw also concluded that there was a fundamental difference between the antisemitism of the majority of ordinary people, who disliked Jews and were much coloured by traditional Catholic prejudices, and the ideological and far more radical "völkische" antisemitism of the Nazi Party, who hated Jews.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw found that the majority of Bavarians disapproved of the violence of the "Kristallnacht" pogrom, and that despite the efforts of the Nazis, continued to maintain social relations with members of the Bavarian Jewish community. Kershaw documented numerous campaigns on the part of the Nazi Party to increase antisemitic hatred, and noted that the overwhelming majority of antisemitic activities in Bavaria were the work of a small number of committed Nazi Party members. Overall, Kershaw noted that the popular mood towards Jews was indifference to their fate. Kershaw argued that during World War II, most Bavarians were vaguely aware of the Holocaust, but were vastly more concerned about and interested in the war than about the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw made the notable claim that "the road to Auschwitz was built by hate, but paved with indifference." By this, Kershaw meant the progress leading up to Auschwitz was motivated by antisemitism of the most vicious kind held by the Nazi elite, but it took place in a context where the majority of German public opinion was completely indifferent to what was happening.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw's assessment that most Bavarians, and by implication Germans, were "indifferent" to the "Shoah" faced criticism from the Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka and the Canadian historian Michael Kater. Kater contended that Kershaw downplayed the extent of popular antisemitism, and that though admitting that most of the "spontaneous" antisemitic actions of Nazi Germany were staged, argued that because these actions involved substantial numbers of Germans, it is wrong to see the extreme antisemitism of the Nazis as coming solely from above.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kulka argued that most Germans were more antisemitic than Kershaw portrayed them in "Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich", and that rather than "indifference" "passive complicity" would be a better term to describe the reaction of the German people to the "Shoah".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In 1985, Kershaw published a book on the historiography of Nazi Germany, "The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation", in which he reflected on the problems in historiography of the Nazi era. Kershaw noted the huge disparity of often incompatible views about the Nazi era such as the debate between:


title: Ian Kershaw

text: As Kershaw noted, these divergent interpretations such as the differences between the functionalist view of the Holocaust as caused by a process and the intentionalist view of the Holocaust as caused by a plan are not easily reconciled, and that there was in his opinion the need for a guide to explain the complex historiography surrounding these issues.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Likewise, if one accepts the Marxist view of Nazism as the culmination of capitalism, then the Nazi phenomenon is universal, and fascism can come to power in any society where capitalism is the dominant economic system, whereas the view of Nazism as the culmination of "Deutschtum" means that the Nazi phenomenon is local and particular only to Germany. For Kershaw, any historian writing about the period had to take account of the "historical-philosophical", "political-ideological" and moral problems associated with the period, which thus poses special challenges for the historian. In "The Nazi Dictatorship", Kershaw surveyed the historical literature and offered his own assessment of the pros and cons of the various approaches.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In a 2008 interview, Kershaw lists as his major intellectual influences Martin Broszat, Hans Mommsen, Alan Milward, Timothy Mason, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, William Carr, and Jeremy Noakes. In the same interview, Kershaw expressed strong approval of Mason's "Primacy of Politics" concept, in which it was German Big Business that served the Nazi regime rather than the other way around, against the orthodox Marxist "Primacy of Economics" concept. Despite his praise and admiration for Mason, in the 2000 edition of "The Nazi Dictatorship", Kershaw was highly skeptical of Mason's "Flight into War" theory of an economic crisis in 1939 forcing the Nazi regime into war.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In the "Historikerstreit" (Historians' Dispute) of 1986–89, Kershaw followed Broszat in criticising the work and views of Ernst Nolte, Andreas Hillgruber, Michael Stürmer, Joachim Fest and Klaus Hildebrand, all of whom Kershaw saw as attempting to white-wash the German past in various ways. In the 1989 edition of "The Nazi Dictatorship", Kershaw devoted an entire chapter towards rebutting the views of Nolte, Hillgruber, Fest, Hildebrand, and Stürmer. In regard to the debate between those who regard Nazism as a type of totalitarianism (and thus having more in common with the Soviet Union) versus those who regard Nazism as a type of fascism (and thus having more in common with Fascist Italy), Kershaw, though feeling that the totalitarianism approach is not without value, has argued that in essence, Nazism should be viewed as a type of fascism, albeit fascism of a very radical type. Writing of the "Sonderweg" debate, Kershaw finds the moderate "Sonderweg" approach of Jürgen Kocka the most satisfactory historical explanation for why the Nazi era occurred. In the 2000 edition of "The Nazi Dictatorship", Kershaw wrote a scathing criticism of Gerhard Ritter's claim that one "madman" (i.e. Hitler) "single-handedly" caused the Second World War in Europe, and added that he found the historical approach of Ritter's arch-enemy Fritz Fischer to be a far better way of understanding and recoiling German history. Along the same lines, Kershaw criticised the 1946 statement by the German historian Friedrich Meinecke that Nazism was just a particularly unfortunate "Betriebsunfall" (industrial accident) of history.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw was later in a 2003 essay to criticise both Ritter and Meinecke, stating that by their promotion of the "Betriebsunfall" theory or by blaming everything upon Hitler, they were seeking to white-wash the German past. Writing of the work of the German historian Rainer Zitelmann, Kershaw has argued that Zitelmann has elevated what were merely secondary considerations in Hitler's remarks to the primary level, and that Zitelmann has not offered a clear definition of what he means by "modernization".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: With regard to the Nazi foreign policy debate between "globalists" such as Klaus Hildebrand, Andreas Hillgruber, Jochen Thies, Gunter Moltman and Gerhard Weinberg, who argue that Germany aimed at world conquest, and the "continentalists" such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, Eberhard Jäckel and Axel Kuhn, who argue that Germany aimed only at the conquest of Europe, Kershaw tends towards the "continental" position. Kershaw agrees with the thesis that Hitler did formulate a programme for foreign policy centering on an alliance with Britain to achieve the destruction of the Soviet Union, but has argued that a British lack of interest doomed the project, thus leading to the situation in 1939, where Hitler went to war with Britain, the country he wanted as an ally, not as an enemy, and the country he wanted as an enemy, the Soviet Union, as his ally. At the same time, Kershaw sees considerable merit in the work of such historians as Timothy Mason, Hans Mommsen, Martin Broszat and Wolfgang Schieder, who argue that Hitler had no "programme" in foreign policy, and instead contend that his foreign policy was simply a kneejerk reaction to domestic pressures in the economy and his need to maintain his popularity.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Regarding the historical debates about "Widerstand" (resistance) in German society, Kershaw has argued that there are two approaches to the question, one of which he calls the "fundamentalist" (dealing with those committed to overthrowing the Nazi regime) and the other the "societal" (dealing with forms of dissent in "everyday life"). In Kershaw's view, Broszat's "Resistenz" (immunity) concept works well in an "Alltagsgeschichte" approach, but works less well in the field of high politics, and moreover by focusing only on the "effect" of one's actions, fails to consider the crucial element of the "intention" behind one's actions. Kershaw has argued that the term "Widerstand" should be used only for those working for the total overthrow of the Nazi system, and those engaging in behaviour that was counter to the regime's wishes without seeking to overthrow the regime should be included under the terms opposition and dissent, depending upon their motives and actions. In Kershaw's opinion, there were three bands ranging from dissent to opposition to resistance. Kershaw has used the Edelweiss Pirates as an example of a group whose behavior initially fell under dissent, and who advanced from there to opposition and finally to resistance.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In Kershaw's view, there was much dissent and opposition within German society, but outside of the working class, very little resistance. Although Kershaw has argued that the "Resistenz" (immunity [against indoctrination]) concept has much merit, he concluded that the Nazi regime had a broad basis of support and it is correct to speak of "resistance without the people".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Regarding the debate in the late 1980s between Martin Broszat and Saul Friedländer over Broszat's call for the "historicization" of Nazism, Kershaw wrote that he agreed with Friedländer that the Nazi period could not be treated as a "normal" period of history, but he felt that historians should approach the Nazi period as they would any other period of history. In support of Broszat, Kershaw wrote that an "Alltagsgeschichte" approach to German history, provided that it did not lose sight of Nazi crimes, had much to offer as a way of understanding how those crimes occurred.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: During the "Goldhagen Controversy" of 1996, Kershaw took the view that his friend, Hans Mommsen, had "destroyed" Daniel Goldhagen's arguments about a culture of "eliminationist antisemitism" in Germany during their frequent debates on German TV. Kershaw wrote that he agreed with Eberhard Jäckel's assessment that "Hitler's Willing Executioners" was "simply a bad book". Though Kershaw had little positive to say about Goldhagen, he wrote that he felt that Norman Finkelstein's attack on Goldhagen had been over-the-top and did little to help historical understanding. However, Kershaw later went on to recommend Norman Finkelstein and Ruth Bettina Birn's extremely critical assessment of Goldhagen's book, ""; stating that "Finkelstein and Birn provide a devastating critique of Daniel Goldhagen's simplistic and misleading interpretation of the Holocaust. Their contribution to the debate is, in my view, indispensable."


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Like Broszat, Kershaw sees the structures of the Nazi state as far more important than the personality of Hitler (or any other individual for that matter) as an explanation for the way Nazi Germany developed. In particular, Kershaw subscribes to the view argued by Broszat and the German historian Hans Mommsen that Nazi Germany was a chaotic collection of rival bureaucracies in perpetual power struggles with each other. In Kershaw's view, the Nazi dictatorship was not a totalitarian monolith, but rather an unstable coalition of several blocs in a "power cartel" comprising the NSDAP, big business, the German state bureaucracy, the Army and SS/police agencies (and moreover, each of the "power blocs" in turn were divided into several factions). In Kershaw's opinion, the more "radical" blocs such as the SS/police and the Nazi Party gained increasing ascendancy over the other blocs after the 1936 economic crisis, and from then onwards increased their power at the expense of the other blocs.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: For Kershaw, the real significance of Hitler lies not in the dictator himself, but rather in the German people's perception of him. In his biography of Hitler, Kershaw presented him as the ultimate "unperson"; a boring, pedestrian man devoid of even the "negative greatness" attributed to him by Joachim Fest. Kershaw rejects the great man theory of history and has criticised those who seek to explain everything that happened in Nazi Germany as the result of Hitler's will and intentions. Kershaw has argued that it is absurd to seek to explain German history in the Nazi era solely through Hitler, as Germany had sixty-eight million people during the Nazi era, and to seek to explain the fate of sixty-eight million people solely through the prism of one man is in Kershaw's opinion a flawed position.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw wrote about the problems of an excessive focus on Hitler that "even the best biographies have seemed at times in danger of elevating Hitler's personal power to a level where the history of Germany between 1933 and 1945 becomes reduced to little more than an expression of the dictator's will". Kershaw has a low opinion of those who seek to provide "personalized" theories about the Holocaust and/or World War II as due to some defect, medical or otherwise, in Hitler. In his 2000 edition of "The Nazi Dictatorship", Kershaw quoted with approval the dismissive remarks made by the German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler in 1980 about such theories. Wehler wrote:Does our understanding of National Socialist policies really depend on whether Hitler had only one testicle? ... Perhaps the Führer had three, which made things difficult for him, who knows? ... Even if Hitler could be regarded irrefutably as a sadomasochist, which scientific interest does that further? ... Does the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" thus become more easily understandable or the "twisted road to Auschwitz" become the one-way street of a psychopath in power? Kershaw shares Wehler's opinion, that, besides the problem that such theories about Hitler's medical condition were extremely difficult to prove, they had the effect of personalising the phenomena of Nazi Germany by more or less attributing everything that happened in Nazi Germany to one flawed individual.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw's biography of Hitler is an examination of Hitler's power; how he obtained it and how he maintained it. Following up on ideas that he had first introduced in a 1991 book about Hitler, Kershaw has argued that Hitler's leadership is a model example of Max Weber's theory of charismatic leadership. Kershaw's 1991 book "Hitler: A Profile in Power" marked a change for him from writing about how people viewed Hitler to writing about Hitler himself. In his two-volume biography of Hitler published in 1998 and 2000, Kershaw stated, "What I tried to do was to embed Hitler into the social and political context that I had already studied." Kershaw finds the picture of Hitler as a "mountebank" (opportunistic adventurer) in Alan Bullock's biography unsatisfactory, and Joachim Fest's quest to determine how "great" Hitler was senseless. In a wider sense, Kershaw sees the Nazi regime as part of a broader crisis that afflicted European society from 1914 to 1945. Though in disagreement with many of their claims (especially Nolte's), Kershaw's concept of a "Second Thirty Years' War" reflects many similarities with Ernst Nolte, A. J. P. Taylor and Arno J. Mayer who have also advanced the concept of a "Thirty Years' Crisis" to explain European history between 1914 and 1945.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In the functionalism versus intentionalism debate, Kershaw has argued for a synthesis of the two schools, though leaning towards the functionalist school. Despite some disagreements, Kershaw has called Mommsen a "good personal friend" and an "important further vital stimulus to my own work on Nazism". Kershaw has argued in his two-volume biography of Hitler that Hitler did play a decisive role in the development of policies of genocide, but also argued that many of the measures that led to the Holocaust were undertaken by many lower-ranking officials without direct orders from Hitler in the expectation that such steps would win them favour. Though Kershaw does not deny the radical antisemitism of the Nazis, he favours Mommsen's view of the Holocaust being caused by the "cumulative radicalization" of Nazi Germany caused by the endless bureaucratic power struggles and a turn towards increasingly radical antisemitism within the Nazi elite.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Despite his background in the functionalist historiography, Kershaw admits that his account of Hitler in World War II owes much to intentionalist historians like Gerhard Weinberg, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Lucy Dawidowicz and Eberhard Jäckel. Kershaw accepts the picture of Hitler drawn by intentionalist historians as a fanatical ideologue who was obsessed with social Darwinism, "völkisch" antisemitism (in which the Jewish people were viewed as a "race" biologically different from the rest of humanity rather than a religion), militarism and the perceived need for "Lebensraum".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: However, in a 1992 essay, "Improvised genocide?", in which Kershaw traces how the ethnic cleansing campaign of "Gauleiter" Arthur Greiser in the Warthegau region annexed to Germany from Poland in 1939 led to a campaign of genocide by 1941, Kershaw argued that the process was indeed "improvised genocide" rather than the fulfilment of a master plan. Kershaw views the Holocaust not as a plan, as argued by the intentionalists, but rather a process caused by the "cumulative radicalization" of the Nazi state as articulated by the functionalists. Citing the work of the American historian Christopher Browning in his biography of Hitler, Kershaw argues that in the period 1939–41 the phrase "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" was a "territorial solution", that such plans as the Nisko Plan and Madagascar Plan were serious and only in the latter half of 1941 did the phrase "Final Solution" come to refer to genocide. This view of the Holocaust as a process rather than a plan is the antithesis of the extreme intentionalist approach as advocated by Lucy Dawidowicz, who argues that Hitler had decided upon genocide as early as November 1918, and that everything he did from that time onwards was directed towards that goal.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw disagrees with Mommsen's "Weak Dictator" thesis: the idea that Hitler was a relatively unimportant player in Nazi Germany. However, he has agreed with his idea that Hitler did not play much of a role in the day-to-day administration of the government of Nazi Germany. Kershaw's way of explaining this paradox is his theory of "Working Towards the Führer", the phrase being taken from a 1934 speech by the Prussian civil servant Werner Willikens:


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Everyone who has the opportunity to observe it knows that the Fuhrer can hardly dictate from above everything which he intends to realize sooner or later. On the contrary, up till now, everyone with a post in the new Germany has worked best when he has, so to speak, worked towards the Fuhrer. Very often and in many spheres, it has been the case—in previous years as well—that individuals have simply waited for orders and instructions. Unfortunately, the same will be true in the future; but in fact, it is the duty of everybody to try to work towards the Fuhrer along the lines he would wish. Anyone who makes mistakes will notice it soon enough. But anyone who really works towards the Fuhrer along his lines and towards his goal will certainly both now and in the future, one day have the finest reward in the form of the sudden legal confirmation of his work.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw has argued that in Nazi Germany officials of both the German state and Party bureaucracy usually took the initiative in initiating policy to meet Hitler's perceived wishes, or alternatively attempted to turn into policy Hitler's often loosely and indistinctly phrased wishes. Though Kershaw does agree that Hitler possessed the powers that the "Master of the Third Reich" thesis championed by Norman Rich and Karl Dietrich Bracher would suggest, he has argued that Hitler was a "lazy dictator", an indifferent dictator who was really not interested in involving himself much in the daily running of Nazi Germany. The only exceptions were the areas of foreign policy and military decisions, both areas that Hitler increasingly involved himself in from the late 1930s.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In a 1993 essay "Working Towards the Führer", Kershaw argued that the German and Soviet dictatorships had more differences than similarities. Kershaw argued that Hitler was a very unbureaucratic leader who was highly averse to paperwork, in marked contrast to Joseph Stalin. Likewise, Kershaw argued that Stalin was highly involved in the running of the Soviet Union, in contrast to Hitler whose involvement in day-to-day decision making was limited, infrequent and capricious. Kershaw argued that the Soviet regime, despite all of its extreme brutality and utter ruthlessness, was basically rational in its goal of seeking to modernise a backward country and had no equivalent of the "cumulative radicalization" towards increasingly irrational goals that Kershaw sees as characteristic of Nazi Germany. In Kershaw's opinion, Stalin's power corresponded to Weber's category of bureaucratic authority, whereas Hitler's power corresponded to Weber's category of charismatic authority.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: In Kershaw's view, what happened in Germany after 1933 was the imposition of Hitler's charismatic authority on top of the "legal-rational" authority system that had existed prior to 1933, leading to a gradual breakdown of any system of ordered authority in Germany. Kershaw argues that by 1938 the German state had been reduced to a hopeless, polycratic shambles of rival agencies all competing with each other to win Hitler's favour, which by that time had become the only source of political legitimacy. Kershaw sees this rivalry as causing the "cumulative radicalization" of Germany, and argues that though Hitler always favoured the most radical solution to any problem, it was German officials themselves who for the most part, in attempting to win the Führer's approval, carried out on their own initiative increasingly "radical" solutions to perceived problems like the "Jewish Question", as opposed to being ordered to do so by Hitler. In this, Kershaw largely agrees with Mommsen's portrait of Hitler as a distant and remote leader standing in many ways above his own system, whose charisma and ideas served to set the general tone of politics.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: As an example of how Hitler's power functioned in practice, Kershaw used Hitler's directive to the "Gauleiters" Albert Forster and Arthur Greiser to "Germanize" the part of north-western Poland annexed to Germany in 1939 within the next 10 years with his promise that "no questions would be asked" about how this would be done. As Kershaw notes, the completely different ways Forster and Greiser sought to "Germanize" their "Gaue" – with Forster simply having the local Polish population in his "Gau" signing forms saying they had "German blood", and Greiser carrying out a program of brutal ethnic cleansing of Poles in his "Gau" – showed both how Hitler set events in motion, and how his "Gauleiters" could carry out totally different policies in pursuit of what they believed to be Hitler's wishes. In Kershaw's opinion, Hitler's vision of a racially cleansed "Volksgemeinschaft" provided the impetus for German officials to carry out increasingly extreme measures to win his approval, which ended with the Holocaust.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: The Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka has praised the concept of "working towards the Führer" as the best way of understanding how the Holocaust occurred, combining the best features and avoiding the weaknesses of both the "functionalist" and "intentionalist" methods.


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Thus, for Kershaw, Hitler held absolute power in Nazi Germany due to the "erosion of collective government in Germany", but his power over domestic politics became more challenging to exercise due to his preoccupation with military affairs, and the rival fiefdoms of the Nazi state fought each other and attempted to carry out Hitler's vaguely worded wishes and dimly defined orders by "Working Towards the Führer".


title: Ian Kershaw

text: Kershaw retired from full-time teaching in 2008. In the 2010s, he wrote two books on the wider history of Europe for "The Penguin History of Europe" series: "To Hell and Back: Europe, 1914–1949" and "The Global Age: Europe, 1950–2017".


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: Storm Elvin Thorgerson (28 February 1944 – 18 April 2013) was an English graphic designer and music video director. He is best known for closely working with the group Pink Floyd through most of their career, and also created album or other art for Led Zeppelin, Phish, Black Sabbath, UFO, Peter Gabriel, the Alan Parsons Project, Genesis, Yes, Kansas, Dream Theater, Muse, Audioslave, the Mars Volta, The Cranberries, Helloween, Ween and Catherine Wheel.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: Thogerson, who was of Norwegian descent, was born in Potters Bar, Middlesex (now part of Hertfordshire). He attended Summerhill School, Brunswick Primary School in Cambridge, and the Cambridgeshire High School for Boys with Pink Floyd founders Syd Barrett, who was in the year below him, and Roger Waters, who was in the year above him. Thorgerson and Waters played rugby together at school, while Thorgerson's mother Vanji and Waters' mother Mary were close friends. He studied English and Philosophy at the University of Leicester, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, before studying Film and Television at the Royal College of Art, where he graduated with a Master of Arts degree.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: He was a teenage friend of Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and best man at Gilmour's wedding to Polly Samson in 1994.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: In 1968, along with Aubrey Powell, he founded the graphic art group Hipgnosis, and between them they designed many famous single and album covers, with Peter Christopherson joining them for their later commissions. In 1983, following the dissolution of Hipgnosis, Thorgerson and Powell formed Greenback Films, producing music videos.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: In the early nineties, Thorgerson inaugurated StormStudios along with Peter Curzon—a loose group of freelancers. The line up included Rupert Truman (photographer), Finlay Cowan (designer and illustrator), Daniel Abbott (designer and artist), Lee Baker (creative retoucher and designer), and Jerry Sweet (designer) along with Thorgerson's personal assistants, Laura Truman (prints), and Charlotte Barnes.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: Perhaps Thorgerson's most famous designs are those for Pink Floyd. His design for "The Dark Side of the Moon" has been called one of the greatest album covers of all time. Designed by Thorgerson and Hipgnosis, the artwork for the cover itself was drawn by George Hardie, a designer at NTA Studios. Many of Thorgerson's designs are notable for their surreal elements. He often places objects out of their traditional contexts, especially with vast spaces around them, to give them an awkward appearance while highlighting their beauty. To quote Thorgerson, "I like photography because it is a reality medium, unlike drawing which is unreal. I like to mess with reality ... to bend reality. Some of my works beg the question of is it real or not?"


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: Over the years, Thorgerson and his team designed and released several books about their work. The first, published in 1989, was titled "Classic Album Covers of 60s". "The Gathering Storm – A Quartet in Several Parts" was the final book Thorgerson worked on with his team and it was completed just before his death in April 2013. The book was released in September 2013 and includes album covers artwork, photographs, and anecdotes, spanning five decades from his early work with Hipgnosis through to StormStudios.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: In 2013, "Prog Magazine" renamed its Grand Design Award after Thorgerson. It is now known as the Storm Thorgerson Grand Design Award and will be given to the designer of the year's best-packaged product. Thorgerson had won the 2012 award for his continued work with Pink Floyd.


title: Storm Thorgerson

text: In 2003, Thorgerson suffered a stroke, from which he was partially paralysed. He was later diagnosed with an undisclosed form of cancer which eventually led to his death in London on 18 April 2013, at the age of 69. After Thorgerson's death, David Gilmour released a statement describing him as "a constant force in my life, both at work and in private, a shoulder to cry on, and a great friend". A post on the official Pink Floyd website called him a "graphic genius". Pink Floyd drummer Nick Mason said that he was a "tireless worker right up to the end". He is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery.


title: Caprisongs

text: Caprisongs (stylised in all caps) is the debut mixtape by English singer-songwriter FKA Twigs. It was released on 14 January 2022 through Young and Atlantic Records. The mixtape features guest appearances from Pa Salieu, the Weeknd, Shygirl, Dystopia, Rema, Daniel Caesar, Jorja Smith, and Unknown T. The production is handled by El Guincho, who co-executive produced the mixtape alongside Twigs, as well as Arca, Cirkut, and Mike Dean, among others. The mixtape was supported by one single, "Tears in the Club", which features the Weeknd, and one promotional single, "Jealousy", which features Rema.


title: Caprisongs

text: In October 2020, FKA Twigs took part in a virtual chat on the Grammy Museum's Programs at Home series. During the chat, she revealed that she was "just finishing" a new album that she made largely in collaboration with El Guincho, and with other collaborators, many of whom she met for the first time via FaceTime calls. Later in November 2020, British singer Dua Lipa hosted a livestream concert, titled Studio 2054, in which Twigs was invited to play as a guest. The two teased an upcoming collaboration, titled "Why Don't You Love Me", during Twigs' performance.


title: Caprisongs

text: On 25 January 2021, Twigs took part in a podcast episode with Louis Theroux and discussed her previous known relationships and an upcoming album, stating "It was all via the internet...I have more collaborations and features on this album than I ever had before." In February, she described the album as a "going out" record, and revealed it would feature collaborations with Nigerian Afrobeats star Rema, British hip-hop up-and-comer Pa Salieu. A few days later, Twigs, interviewed by British actress and screenwriter Michaela Coel, revealed that she had changed the undisclosed, original title of the upcoming record due to a well-known artist titling a non-musical project the same thing. In an interview with "Vogue" in May, Twigs revealed the album does not have a set release date, but wanted to release it in the northern summer of 2021.


title: Caprisongs

text: Twigs joined the official FKA Twigs Discord server in September 2021, and shared details about the upcoming record. Twigs confirmed the project to be a mixtape, and listed El Guincho, Koreless, and Arca, as well as new collaborators, such as Cirkut, Mike Dean, as producers for the project. She additionally teased a collaboration with Swedish rapper Yung Lean on Instagram.


title: Caprisongs

text: The lead single of the mixtape, "Tears in the Club", which features Canadian singer-songwriter The Weeknd, was released with a music video on 16 December 2021. The sole promotional single, "Jealousy", which features Nigerian singer Rema, was released on 13 January 2022, only one day prior to the release of the project. The mixtape marked her first release under Atlantic Records. The mixtape was officially announced on 7 January 2022, a week before the scheduled release date. Coinciding with the release of the mixtape on 14 January 2022, Twigs released a music video for "Ride the Dragon", which was a guerrilla dance video shot in Hackney, London.


title: Caprisongs

text: "Caprisongs" is seen as a departure from Twigs' previous work and a shift towards less experimental and more mainstream sound. It is described as a work of "visceral" art pop and "unbridled" avant-pop music. Its lyrics are influenced by R&B and hip hop, while its beats are influenced by trap, drum'n'bass, and dancehall. "Darjeeling" features "a skittering harp" which "becomes the basis for a banging grime beat". "Pamplemousse" is a hyperpop song that recalls Charli XCX and Sophie, while "Jealousy" contains elements of Afrobeats. The album features spoken word interludes from Twigs' friends and collaborators, and one featuring a fan ask about her unreleased Dua Lipa duet, "Why Don't You Love Me?"


title: Caprisongs

text: "Caprisongs" was met with critical acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 80, based on 17 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.7 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Caprisongs

text: Helen Brown for "The Independent" called the mixtape "an often exquisitely crafted sequence of grooves" that's "elegantly laced together by [T]wigs's sad angel voice". Julyssa Lopez of "Rolling Stone" wrote, "The rawness of her previous work is part of what makes the unbridled avant pop on her new mixtape, "Caprisongs," such an epic thrill. [...] Throughout her career, Twigs has morphed R&B wisps and electronic abstractions into highly visual concept art, and although the music on "Caprisongs" is her most buoyant, she doesn't sacrifice her creative nonconformity or intimacy." David Smyth of "Evening Standard" stated that "the tone on "Caprisongs" is predominantly bright and relaxed" and eventually concluded that, even though "she's closer to the mainstream pop world than ever before here", "it doesn't sound like a compromise. There's still plenty of sonic weirdness in the corners, and she's surely earned some time in the sun." Cat Zhang of "Pitchfork" thought the mixtape is a "playful and adventurous flex", writing that "Caprisongs" is the "sound of [T]wigs in the driver's seat as she traverses her own curiosities and instincts; [...] It is intrepid and light, the image of a woman attuned to planetary alignments but casting her own fate." Heather Phares from AllMusic claimed that, "Though "Caprisongs" nods to more mainstream sounds than her previous work, Barnett can still make any trend or genre her own."


title: Caprisongs

text: LaTesha Harris of NPR called the mixtape a "[t]riumphant and external [...] milestone of significant personal and professional transformation", but criticized the vocal manipulation as "too robotic", "specifically on 'Minds of Men' and 'Pamplemousse', [which sound] as if Amazon's Alexa downloaded poetry software and delivered the result on loop." Alex Rigotti of "Clash" highlighted the influence of Björk's 2001 album "Vespertine", "whose microbeats, plucky harps and music boxes are scattered over various tracks", concluding that, "[w]hilst it's nice to hear a change of pace for [T]wigs (and to, on occasion, genuinely hear her laugh), there's not as much focus on experimentation and expression, which could disappoint some exacting fans." Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" opined, "There's a lot that's laudable about "Caprisongs". [...] But equally, it's something that ultimately impedes your enjoyment of the album. As a soundtrack for the start of a night, it doesn't quite pan out as you might hope."


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Banjo-Kazooie is a platform video game developed by Rare and originally released for the Nintendo 64 console in 1998. It is the first game in the "Banjo-Kazooie" series and follows the story of a bear, Banjo, and a bird, Kazooie, as they try to stop the witch Gruntilda, who intends to steal the beauty of Banjo's younger sister, Tooty, for herself. The game features nine nonlinear worlds where the player must use Banjo and Kazooie's wide range of abilities to gather items and progress through the story. It features challenges such as solving puzzles, jumping over obstacles, collecting items, and defeating opponents.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Originally conceived as an adventure game named "Dream" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, "Banjo-Kazooie" was designed to appeal to players of all ages in a similar vein to Walt Disney Animation Studios films. The game was a critical and commercial success, selling nearly two million copies in the United States. It was praised for its detailed graphics, dynamic soundtrack, and intricate level design, with many reviews comparing it favorably to "Super Mario 64". In 1999, it received two awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences: Console Action Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics. "Banjo-Kazooie" was followed by a sequel, "Banjo-Tooie", in 2000. The game was remastered for the Xbox 360 in 2008 and included in the "Rare Replay" compilation for Xbox One in 2015. In January 2022, the game was re-released on the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack, marking the series' first re-release on a Nintendo console in over 20 years.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: "Banjo-Kazooie" is a single-player platform game where the player controls the protagonists Banjo and Kazooie from a third-person perspective. The game features nine three-dimensional worlds where the player must gather musical notes and jigsaw puzzle pieces, called Jiggies, to progress. The player travels from one world to another through Gruntilda's Lair, a region that acts as the game's central overworld. Jiggies allow the player to complete jigsaw puzzles which open doors to new worlds, while musical notes allow the player to access new sections of the overworld. Like "Super Mario 64", "Banjo-Kazooie" is very open and allows the player to collect Jiggies and musical notes in a nonlinear order. It is also possible to complete certain worlds out of order, assuming the player has enough Jiggies and musical notes to reach a world earlier than intended.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Each world is composed of a number of challenges that involve solving puzzles, jumping over obstacles, gathering objects, and defeating opponents. The game features action-adventure elements, and the player must often interact with non-player characters and help them. It is also possible to increase Banjo and Kazooie's health bar by collecting empty honeycomb pieces throughout the game. Banjo and Kazooie can perform many abilities, such as jumping, climbing, swimming, flying, and rolling into enemies. These are gradually learned by finding their friend, Bottles the mole, throughout the game. Some abilities require specific items to be performed. For instance, red feathers allow Banjo and Kazooie to fly, while gold feathers protect them from damage. Some items allow the pair to gain temporary abilities. For instance, the Turbo Trainer shoes provide a speed burst used to reach a destination on time. Additionally, found in each world are five small creatures called Jinjos that, upon collection of the entire world's population, grant the duo a Jiggy.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Banjo and Kazooie are occasionally aided by their friend Mumbo Jumbo, a shaman who can use magical powers to transform them into several creatures. These include a termite, an alligator, a walrus, a pumpkin, and a honey bee. Creatures have their own abilities and allow the player to access otherwise inaccessible challenges. Before a transformation process is allowed, the player must find a required number of "Mumbo Tokens" in the worlds. By finding a spell book called Cheato in the game's overworld, the player may also unlock secret codes that increase the capacity of Banjo and Kazooie's item inventory.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: In a region called Spiral Mountain, a foul-tempered witch named Gruntilda learns from her cauldron, Dingpot, that Tooty, a brown honey bear living nearby, is more beautiful than her. Jealous, Gruntilda creates a machine to transfer an entity's beauty to another, which she intends to use with Tooty. Gruntilda kidnaps Tooty while her older brother, Banjo, is sleeping. Banjo's friend Kazooie, a female red-crested "Breegull," wakes him up and the two resolve to rescue Tooty. While Banjo and Kazooie collect musical notes and Jiggies to traverse through Gruntilda's Lair, they are aided by Bottles, a mole and Tooty's friend, and Mumbo Jumbo, a shaman who used to be Gruntilda's teacher; they also rescue Jinjos, small creatures that Gruntilda imprisoned in each world.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Having gathered most of the musical notes and Jiggies, Banjo and Kazooie participate in a trivia game show hosted by Gruntilda, where they answer questions and complete challenges related to certain aspects of the game. Once they win the game, Banjo and Kazooie retrieve Tooty and celebrate with their friends and a barbecue. Shortly after the barbecue begins, however, Tooty, unsatisfied with her kidnapper's passive defeat, command the heroes to pursue the escaped Gruntilda. Banjo and Kazooie enter the top of the lair, where they confront the witch. A fierce battle ensues, but with the help of the Jinjos they rescued, the duo send Gruntilda falling towards Spiral Mountain, where she is trapped beneath a falling boulder. Banjo and Kazooie go on vacation at a beach with their friends and celebrate their victory. Gruntilda swears revenge against Banjo and Kazooie, calling for her henchman, Klungo, to move the boulder.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: The origins of "Banjo-Kazooie" can be traced back to "Project Dream", a cancelled video game developed by Rare's "" team for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Inspired by Japanese role-playing games and LucasArts adventure games, "Dream" was developed for 16 months and starred a boy who got into trouble with a group of pirates. The game used Rare's Advanced Computer Modeling (ACM) graphics technology, first used in "Donkey Kong Country", to an advanced level. As development progressed, the character was replaced by a rabbit and later a bear, who eventually became Banjo. Because the introduction of the Nintendo 64 made the ACM technology obsolete, Rare decided to transition the development of the game to that console. The project proved to be too ambitious for the developers, who felt the game was not fun. After early versions of Rare's "Conker's Bad Fur Day" proved satisfactory, the company decided to retool "Dream" into a "Donkey Kong"-esque platformer. However, when Rare realized that "Super Mario 64" was going to set the standard for 3D games, making their project look outdated, the company ultimately scrapped all work on "Dream" to produce a new game featuring Banjo.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Actual work on "Banjo-Kazooie" started in March 1997 with a development team of 10 people. As development progressed, the team grew to a total of 15 members, which included seven engineers, five artists, two designers and one musician. The team comprised both experienced and inexperienced people; some had been working at Rare for 10 years while others had never previously worked on a video game. Gregg Mayles served as the head designer. The 3D world of "Super Mario 64" was a major inspiration for "Banjo-Kazooie", as Rare intended to combine it with the look of "Donkey Kong Country". The game was designed to appeal players of all ages in a similar vein to Walt Disney Animation Studios films. According to Rare, "We wanted the characters to primarily appeal to a younger audience but, at the same time, give them enough humour and attitude not to discourage older players." The music of the game, composed by Grant Kirkhope, was designed to gradually fade from one style to the next without pause, while the overall composition loops continuously.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Rare decided to make an action-based game that focused totally on Banjo and his abilities. Kazooie was later conceived during the planning of such abilities. According to Mayles, "We came up with the [...] idea that a pair of wings could appear from his backpack to help him perform a second jump. We also wanted Banjo to be able to run very fast when required [so] we added a pair of 'fast-running' legs that appeared from the bottom of the backpack. [And soon after] we came up with the logical conclusion that these could belong to another character, one that actually lived in Banjo's backpack." The character was named after a kazoo, which was considered an annoying instrument, "much like the personality of the bird," Mayles explained. Instead of actual dialogue, all the characters in the game feature "mumbling" voices. This choice was made to convey their personalities without them actually speaking, as Rare felt the actual speech "could ruin the player's perception of the characters." The witch Gruntilda was inspired by Grotbags from the "Grotbags" British television series.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: "Banjo-Kazooie" employs an advanced technique to render its graphics. The in-game characters were created with minimal amounts of texturing so they could have a sharp and clean look, while the backgrounds use very large textures split into 64×64 pieces, which was the largest texture size the Nintendo 64 could render. Because this technique caused significant memory fragmentation issues, the developers created a proprietary system that could "reshuffle" memory as players played through the game. According to lead programmer Chris Sutherland, "I'd doubt many [Nintendo 64] games of the time did anything like that". The fact that the player could be transformed into small creatures was implemented to give some of the worlds a different sense of scale.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Rare originally planned to include a multiplayer mode and more worlds in the game, but these features were not implemented due to time constraints; some of these were later included in the sequel "Banjo-Tooie" instead. In addition, a feature called "Stop 'N' Swop," which would have allowed data to be transferred from "Banjo-Kazooie" to "Donkey Kong 64" and "Banjo-Tooie", remains incomplete in the game. The feature was never fully implemented due to technical difficulties in the Nintendo 64 hardware. The development of the game took overall 17 months to complete after Rare discarded "Project Dream", the first two of these being spent experimenting with "Dream"s graphic technology. In June 1997, a working version of the game was shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo, where it was officially announced that "Dream" had become "Banjo-Kazooie". The game was initially scheduled for a release in November 1997, but was delayed to give developers more time to polish the game. "Banjo-Kazooie" was released on 29 June 1998 in North America, 17 July 1998 in Europe, and 6 December 1998 in Japan. It had a marketing budget of $10 million.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: "Banjo-Kazooie" received critical acclaim from video game journalists, who often compared it to "Super Mario 64" due to its similar gameplay. Writing for "IGN", editor Peer Schneider felt that "Banjo-Kazooie" was "the best 3D platformer [he has] ever played, and a more than worthy successor to "Super Mario 64"". Similarly, "Electronic Gaming Monthly" reviewer Shawn Smith called it the best 3D action-adventure game at the time, praising its graphics, sound effects, and the amount of gameplay each level offers. "GamePro" described "Banjo-Kazooie" as a "more complex, more fluid, and more attractive game" than "Super Mario 64", while "N64 Magazine" highlighted the game's length, noting that the game can take 40 or 50 hours to fully complete.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: The graphics were seen as one of the strongest aspects of the game. Jeff Gerstmann of "GameSpot" explained that "Banjo-Kazooie" "maintains the look and feel of "Mario 64", but instead of flat, shaded polygons, [the game] uses a lot of textures". The game's long draw distance, solid frame rate, special lighting, transparency effects, and animations were highlighted very positively. Critics also praised the game's dynamic soundtrack. "IGN" remarked that it "lets players know where they are going. This happens all the time and in every level. It's all very Disney-esque." The sound effects received similar praise, with some critics crediting the characters' unique and diverse speech patterns.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: "GameSpot" remarked that, although the gameplay is relatively formulaic, it "makes the logical progressions you would expect Nintendo to make." "Game Informer" observed that, while "Banjo-Kazooie" is very similar to "Super Mario 64", it has less emphasis on the platforming and more on exploration. "Next Generation" highlighted the game's depth and detail, stating that "Super Mario 64" "looks naked and aged in comparison." Colin Williamson of "AllGame" stated similar pros, crediting the level design as "simply delightful, loaded with creativity, secrets, and memorable characters." "Nintendo Power" remarked that the game's puzzles were fresh and that the characters "have more of a loud-mouthed attitude than Mario and crew." One habitually-criticized aspect of the game was its flawed camera system. "GameRevolution" remarked that it can occasionally be in a bad angle to gauge a jump properly, while "Edge" said that its fixed position in underwater sections can be frustrating while retrieving collectables.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: In 1999, "Banjo-Kazooie" received two awards during the 2nd Annual AIAS Interactive Achievement Awards: Console Action Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics. It was also nominated for Game of the Year and Console Adventure Game of the Year. "IGN" awarded the game Overall Best Graphics of 1998, Best Texture Design of 1998, and Best Music of 1998.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: Upon release, "Banjo-Kazooie" performed very well in both the UK and US. Virgin Megastore reported that the game was topping the UK charts as of 21 September 1998. In Japan, "Banjo-Kazooie" entered "Famitsu"s Top 10 sales charts for the week ending 13 December 1998, selling 74,000 copies for a total of 117,399. At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, the game took home a "Gold" prize for revenues above €26 million in the European Union during 1998. As of March 2003, the game had sold more than 405,000 units in Japan. As of December 2007, it had sold more than 1.8 million copies in the US.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: A sequel, "Banjo-Tooie", was released for the Nintendo 64 in 2000 and largely adopts the gameplay mechanics of its predecessor. The "Banjo-Kazooie" series continued to be developed with the release of "" and "Banjo-Pilot" for the Game Boy Advance in 2003 and 2005, respectively. The characters Banjo and Kazooie proved to be popular and were once seen as a potential mascot for the Xbox 360 console. A third main game, "", was released for the Xbox 360 in 2008. "Nuts & Bolts" is a departure from its predecessors and involves the player building vehicles of all shapes and sizes to complete challenges.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: An Xbox Live Arcade version of "Banjo-Kazooie", developed by 4J Studios, was released for the Xbox 360 on 26 November 2008. This version runs in a full widescreen mode, includes achievements, and supports the "Stop 'N' Swop" connectivity that was incomplete in the Nintendo 64 game, used now to unlock features in both "Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts" and the then-upcoming Xbox Live Arcade version of "Banjo-Tooie". The Xbox Live Arcade version was generally well received by critics, featuring an aggregate score of 77 out of 100 at Metacritic. While some publications such as Eurogamer considered the relatively unchanged game to be outdated, several agreed that the Xbox Live Arcade version was a solid revival of a classic. In 2009, IGN ranked it seventh on its list of Top 10 Xbox Live Arcade Games, with editor Cam Shea stating that, while the game is "not perfect, it was a landmark title for a reason". In 2015, the Xbox Live Arcade version became one of the first backwards compatible titles for Xbox One, and was re-released as part of the "Rare Replay" video game compilation. In 2019, this version was enhanced to run at native 4K resolution on Xbox One.


title: Banjo-Kazooie (video game)

text: "Banjo-Kazooie" is occasionally included in "best games" lists by video game publications. In 2000, the game was ranked number seven on IGN's list of The Top 25 N64 Games of All Time. In 2009, "Game Informer" ranked the game 71st in their list of the Top 100 Games Of All Time. The same year, "Official Nintendo Magazine" ranked the game 36th in a list of greatest Nintendo games. A spiritual successor to "Banjo-Kazooie", "Yooka-Laylee", was released in 2017. Elements, largely coming from "Banjo-Kazooie", were released as downloadable content for the crossover fighting game "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" on 4 September 2019, including Banjo and Kazooie as a tag team of playable fighters and a stage based on Spiral Mountain, a location in the game. "Banjo-Kazooie" was added to the Nintendo Switch Online library of Nintendo 64 games on 20 January 2022, marking its first re-release on a Nintendo console. Reviewing this release, "Nintendo Life" gave the game a rating of 10 out of 10, stating that "Banjo-Kazooie" "is one of the [Nintendo 64]'s very best releases, and one of Rare's undisputed crown jewels."


title: Beam (structure)

text: A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis (an element designed to carry primarily axial load would be a strut or column). Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beams, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and their material.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, where the beams are horizontal and carry vertical loads. However, any structure may contain beams, for instance automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems. In these structures, any structural element, in any orientation, that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the element's axis would be a beam element.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of wood and metal such as a flitch beam. Beams primarily carry vertical gravitational forces. They are also used to carry horizontal loads (e.g., loads due to an earthquake or wind or in tension to resist rafter thrust as a tie beam or (usually) compression as a collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members and eventually to the ground. In light frame construction, joists may rest on beams.


title: Beam (structure)

text: In the beam equation I is used to represent the second moment of area. It is commonly known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the neutral axis, of dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis, and dA is a small patch of area. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much area the beam section has overall, but how far each bit of area is from the axis, squared. The greater I is, the stiffer the beam in bending, for a given material.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. Modes of deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression, as under a vertical load, are known as sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for example over a support, is known as hogging. The same original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on highway bridges.


title: Beam (structure)

text: The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation. This equation accurately describes the elastic behaviour of slender beams where the cross sectional dimensions are small compared to the length of the beam. For beams that are not slender a different theory needs to be adopted to account for the deformation due to shear forces and, in dynamic cases, the rotary inertia. The beam formulation adopted here is that of Timoshenko and comparative examples can be found in NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7. Other mathematical methods for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work" and the "slope deflection method". Engineers are interested in determining deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass. Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity and/or one of higher second moment of area) creates less deflection.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a more efficient cross section for a beam is an or H section which is typically seen in steel construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.


title: Beam (structure)

text: An -beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at the profile as an . If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as an where it is less efficient. The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell); the most efficient shape for bending in any direction, however, is a cylindrical shell or tube. For unidirectional bending, the or wide flange beam is superior.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area (volume of beam per length) subjected to the same loading conditions, the beam deflects less.


title: Beam (structure)

text: Other shapes, like (angles), (channels), -beam and double- or tubes, are also used in construction when there are special requirements.


title: Beam (structure)

text: A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure). The cross section of "thin walled beams" is made up from thin panels connected among themselves to create closed or open cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections include round, square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled beams exist because their bending stiffness per unit cross sectional area is much higher than that for solid cross sections such a rod or bar. In this way, stiff beams can be achieved with minimum weight. Thin walled beams are particularly useful when the material is a composite laminate. Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled beams was done by Librescu.


title: Beam (structure)

text: The torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its cross sectional shape. For open sections, such as I sections, warping deflections occur which, if restrained, greatly increase the torsional stiffness.


title: Swissair

text: Swissair AG/S.A. ( Schweizerische Luftverkehr-AG; : S.A. Suisse pour la Navigation Aérienne) was the national airline of Switzerland between its founding in 1931 and bankruptcy in 2002.


title: Swissair

text: It was formed from a merger between Balair and Ad Astra Aero ("To the Stars"). For most of its 71 years, Swissair was one of the major international airlines and known as the "Flying Bank" due to its financial stability, causing it to be regarded as a Swiss national symbol and icon. It was headquartered at Zürich Airport, Kloten.


title: Swissair

text: In 1997 the Swissair Group was renamed SAirGroup (although it was again renamed Swissair Group in 2001), with four subdivisions: SAirlines (to which Swissair, regional subsidiaries Crossair and Belair, and leasing subsidiary FlightLease belonged), SAirServices, SAirLogistics, and SAirRelations.


title: Swissair

text: By the late 1990s, Swissair was burdened by over-expansion as a result of the controversial "Hunter Strategy". The crash of Swissair Flight 111 in 1998, which killed all 229 people on board, generated a costly lawsuit and negative publicity for the airline. After the economic downturn following the September 11 attacks, Swissair's assets dramatically lost value, grounding the already-troubled airline in October 2001. The airline was later revived and kept alive until 31 March 2002 by the Swiss Federal government. The final Swissair flight landed in Zürich on 1 April 2002.


title: Swissair

text: On 1 April 2002 former regional subsidiary Crossair renamed itself Swiss International Air Lines and took over most of Swissair's routes, planes and staff. Swissair Group still exists and is in the process of being liquidated. Swiss International Air Lines was taken over by the German airline Lufthansa in 2005.


title: Swissair

text: On March 26, 1931, Swissair – Schweizerische Luftverkehr AG (English: "Swissair – Swiss Air Transport") was founded through the fusion of the airlines Ad Astra Aero (founded in 1919) and Balair (1925). The founding fathers were Balz Zimmermann and the Swiss aviation pioneer Walter Mittelholzer. In contrast to other airlines, it did not receive support from the government. The name "Swissair" was the proposal of Dr. Alphonse Ehinger, president of the directorial board of the Balair, although "Swissair" was first deemed "un-Swiss". In the first operational year, 64 people were employed including ten pilots, seven radio operators, and eight mechanics. In total, their planes offered 85 seats and operation was maintained only from March to October. The route network had a length of .


title: Swissair

text: On April 17, 1932, Swissair bought two Lockheed Orions, making them the second European airline to use American planes, after the Czechoslovak operator CSA purchased a Ford Trimotor in 1930. The Orion was the fastest commercial airplane of its time and was put to use on the "Express line", Zurich-Munich-Vienna. This led Lufthansa to ask Heinkel for a model that could top Orion's speed, leading to the Heinkel He 70. The first trans-Alpine route was introduced in 1933: Zurich-Milan.


title: Swissair

text: For the first time in Europe, flight attendants were employed aboard the Curtiss Condor beginning in 1934. Nelly Diener, the first flight attendant of Europe, became world-famous. She was killed after just 79 flights in a crash near Wurmlingen, Germany, on July 27, 1934. The cause of the crash was material fatigue.


title: Swissair

text: In 1936, Douglas DC-2s were acquired and London was added to the route network. In 1937, the bigger Douglas DC-3 was bought. In the same year, both founding fathers died: Walter Mittelholzer during mountaineering in the Steiermark, Austria, and Balz Zimmermann succumbed to an infectious disease.


title: Swissair

text: On August 27, 1939, days before World War II broke out, the airspace over Germany and France was closed. Swissair was forced to suspend service to Amsterdam, Paris, and London. Two days later, Swissair service was closed completely. Of 180 employees, 131 had to serve in the army. In spite of the war, some routes were re-introduced, such as Munich, Berlin, Rome and Barcelona. In 1940, an invasion of Switzerland was feared, and Swissair moved their operations to the Magadino plains in Ticino. Operations were suspended in August 1944, when a Swissair DC-2 was destroyed in Stuttgart during an American bombing raid.


title: Swissair

text: In 1947 the rise of shareholder capital to 20 million Swiss francs enabled long haul flights to New York, South Africa, and South America with Douglas DC-4s. The modern Convair 240, the first Swissair plane with a pressurized cabin, was used for short- and medium-range flights from late 1948. The first Swissair DC-4 flight to New York was routed via Shannon, Ireland, and Stephenville, Newfoundland, on May 2, 1947, although it actually ended in Washington, D.C., due to fog at New York's LaGuardia Airport. The total elapsed time was 20 hours and 55 minutes.


title: Swissair

text: The public, including the federal government, the states of Switzerland (Cantons), municipalities, the Swiss Federal Railways, and the Swiss postal services took over 30.6% of the shares and enabled Swissair to get a credit of 15 million Swiss Francs to purchase the airline's first two Douglas DC-6B airliners for delivery in 1951. By that act, Swissair became the national flag carrier of Switzerland. The new pressurized aircraft were to replace the DC-4 on transatlantic routes.


title: Swissair

text: In 1948, the airport in Dübendorf, which served as the base of Swissair, was relocated to Zurich-Kloten. Military aviation continued in Dübendorf. The next year Swissair plunged into a financial crisis due to a sudden devaluation of the British pound because fares, except traffic to the United States, were calculated in British currency. At that time, the traffic to England made up 40 percent of Swissair's revenue.


title: Swissair

text: In June 1950, Walter Berchtold, manager of Swiss Federal Railways, was elected to the directorial board of Swissair and served as the director. Until 1971, he created the corporate culture of Swissair. He grasped the importance of corporate image and corporate identity, and after the example of BOAC's "Speedbird", he introduced the arrow-shaped Swissair logo. Giving flight personnel a distinct uniform was also an important move. At the time, flight attendants' uniforms resembled the gray-blue ones of the Swiss Women's Army Corps, so Berchtold introduced ones in a modish marine blue, and Swissair initiated a veritable fashion competition among European airlines.


title: Swissair

text: In 1952, the cabin layout on northern trans-Atlantic routes was changed to one with a first and a tourist class. First class had comfortable chairs in which one could sleep, given the name "Slumberettes". Those sleeping chairs were soon succeeded by beds, modelled after the U.S. Pullman railway cars. Two adjacent seats were moved toward each other and formed a lower berth. The wall panel could be folded downward, forming the upper berth in which the other person could sleep. A year later, tourist class was introduced on European flights.


title: Swissair

text: In 1953 Swissair, with the city of Basel, founded a charter company called Balair, reusing the name of one of its predecessors, a company which initially used older Swissair aircraft to fly to holiday destinations.


title: Swissair

text: As the first European customer, Swissair bought the Douglas DC-7C which enabled the company to provide non-stop flights to the United States. For shorter-range routes, the Convair Metropolitan was used.


title: Swissair

text: In 1957, the Far East was added to the route network. Direct flights to Tokyo had intermediate stops in Athens, Karachi, Bombay, Bangkok and Manila. In that same year, Swissair helped Aristotle Onassis form the new Greek airline, Olympic Airways.


title: Swissair

text: While competitors first looked at turboprop airplanes to replace their piston-engined craft, Swissair introduced jet airplanes. Together with SAS, Swissair bought Douglas DC-8s, which were delivered beginning in 1960. For medium- and short-range routes the Sud Aviation Caravelle was purchased. The aircraft were maintained in concert with SAS, and manuals for operation and maintenance were co-written.


title: Swissair

text: Swissair was one of the few companies to buy Convair 990 "Coronado" aircraft -in 1962- for its medium- and long-range routes. Although the aircraft did not initially fulfill contractual specifications, they were liked by employees and customers. They operated on the airline's routes to South America, West Africa, and the Middle and Far East.


title: Swissair

text: 1966 saw the introduction of the Douglas DC-9. That aircraft became the backbone of the short- and medium-range routes, and, after convincing Douglas, on behalf of Swissair the Douglas Corporation offered a stretched variant: the DC-9-32. For the first time, Swissair was the launch customer of an aircraft type.


title: Swissair

text: In 1971, Armin Baltensweiler took over as the president of the directorial board and ran the enterprise for over two decades. In the same year, the first Boeing 747-200 jumbo jet was acquired, and in the next year, the first McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 followed. Both types shaped the long-haul fleet until the 1990s. Again, the specifications of both aircraft were developed in collaboration with SAS. Also in 1972, Switzerland introduced a prohibition of night flights, which led to the cessation of cheaper night fares.


title: Swissair

text: In 1973, the company struggled with severe turbulence: currency crisis, collective chaos, an air traffic controllers' strike, the October War and the first oil crisis were weathered without too much damage. In that same year, the regional representative of Swissair in Buenos Aires was kidnapped by a revolutionary group. After 38 days in captivity, he was released after the payment of a CHF 12.4 million ransom. The airline also phased out the CV-990s during that time.


title: Swissair

text: Swissair was the second European airline to offer a service to the People's Republic of China, introducing service to Beijing and Shanghai in 1975. In the same year, Swissair was the launch customer for the DC-9-51. In 1977, Swissair was the launch customer for the third DC-9 type, the DC-9-81 variant, now called the MD-80. Armin Baltensweiler had traveled to a meeting of McDonnell-Douglas' directorial board in St. Louis to convince them to further stretch the fuselage of the DC-9-51. Baltensweiler was called the “Father of the MD-80". In 1979, Swissair was the first company to order the Airbus A310-200, and the jumbo jet variant with a stretched upper deck, the Boeing 747-300. Also, the Fokker 100 short-range aircraft and the three-engined MD-11 were aircraft for which Swissair was the launch customer. 1983 saw the replacement of the older DC-9s by MD-83s.


title: Swissair

text: Since the 1960s, Swissair had been a world leader in the development of cargo reservation systems (CRS). PARS and CARIDO were examples for booking passenger seats and freight space.


title: Swissair

text: After the 1960s, air traffic increased quickly and allowed many airlines – many of which were quasi-monopolists on their routes – to yield high revenues. Especially Swissair profited from its excellent reputation as a quality airline and from the fact that the political neutrality of Switzerland allowed the company to fly to exotic, but lucrative destinations in Africa and the Middle East. In geographic terms, the central position of Switzerland in Europe helped it to generate revenue from transfer passengers. By the early 1970s, Swissair was thus called "The flying bank", appealing to the large hidden assets and the huge liquidity Swissair had. Secondary, the "flying bank" was the designation for a corporate group which cared more about financial management than about flying airplanes.


title: Swissair

text: With the beginning of deregulation and liberalization, airlines felt growing financial pressure. In 1978, Moritz Suter founded a regional airline named Crossair, which put Swissair under additional stress. To counter these changes, Swissair invested their large financial reserves into takeovers and into flight-related trades like baggage handling, catering, aircraft maintenance, and duty-free stores. This strategy diversified economic risks at the expense of the core business of Swissair – commercial aviation.


title: Swissair

text: Regarding the furthering liberalization of Europe's airline market, Swissair focused more on commercial aviation and extended its partnerships. As the first European airline, Swissair signed in 1989 a cooperation treaty with Delta Air Lines and Singapore Airlines to form the alliance "Global Excellence". In 1990, together with SAS, Austrian Airlines and Finnair, the "European Quality Alliance" was founded. The latter alliance was later renamed to "Qualiflyer".


title: Swissair

text: Because of the weak economy, the Gulf War and its aftermath, and rising operational costs, many airlines lost money in 1990 and 1991. Additionally, on-going liberalization of the industry strengthened the competition. Consequently, Swissair lost 99 million Swiss Francs in the first half-year and was unable to pay dividends to its shareholders. In the years 1991 and 1992 Swissair had to dissolve financial reserves to cushion the losses from the commercial aviation sector.


title: Swissair

text: On January 1, 1991, commercial aviation in Europe was completely liberalized and the existing capacities led to aggressive competition among the airlines. In a national referendum on December 6, 1992, Swiss citizens rejected taking part in the European Economic Area, EEA. This referendum was a significant disservice to Swissair, an airline with a minute domestic market: Its planes were not allowed to take up passengers during intermediate landings in EEA countries (e.g., Zurich – "Frankfurt" – New York), and Swissair was not allowed to offer tickets for sections that fully lie in EEA member countries (e.g., Zurich – "Frankfurt – Paris").


title: Swissair

text: Like other airlines of smaller countries, Swissair now was under significant pressure. More and more national airlines affiliated themselves with airline alliances to maintain a worldwide market presence. But to be interesting for American alliance partners, an airline must have a critical size in terms of passenger numbers. To meet that goal, in 1993 an alliance between Swissair, KLM, SAS, and Austrian Airlines was proposed. This project bore the name "Alcazar" to create a single Central European airline. But in various countries, this project was criticized. In Switzerland itself, it was thought that the huge financial assets were too precious to merge Swissair with the other airlines.


title: Swissair

text: In the late 1980s, as well as throughout the early 1990s, Swissair tried to merge with Air France, Lufthansa, and British Airways to get access to a wider European market. Finally, after deregulation, Swissair tried to expand beyond its home Swiss market; after the Alcazar project was cancelled, Swissair hoped to be a major force in European aviation.


title: Swissair

text: In the 1990s Swissair initiated the disastrous “Hunter Strategy”, a major expansion programme devised by the consulting firm McKinsey & Co. Using this strategy, Swissair aimed to grow its market share through the acquisition of small airlines rather than entering into alliance agreements. Swissair decided to acquire 49.5 percent of the very successful Italian charter airline Air Europe, the unprofitable Belgian flag carrier, Sabena, and significant stakes in the carriers Air Liberté, AOM, Air Littoral, Volare, LOT, Turkish Airlines, South African Airways, Portugália and LTU, and planned to acquire stakes in Aer Lingus, Finnair, Malév, as well as Brazilian carriers TAM and Transbrasil. By mid-2000, it was predicted that Swissair would lose between CHF 3.25 billion and 4.45 billion over the next three fiscal years. The management however maintained in classical restructuring, the Board approved the reorganization of LTU for approximately CHF 500 million. Also, there were plans to take over Alitalia.


title: Swissair

text: In summer 2000, the CEO Philippe Bruggisser came under public pressure, as the press published the financial situation of the group. Swissair and Sabena were each losing one million francs per day, and another million were lost every day at LTU and the French investments. The Board for the first time began to consider scenarios for phasing out the existing participations in other airlines, as Swissair looked to withdraw from their foreign investments. In January 2001 Bruggisser was summarily dismissed. Moritz Suter, the founder of Crossair, was nominated as the new CEO of SAirLines and thus all Group airlines including Swissair. After only 44 days, Suter resigned.


title: Swissair

text: In March 2001, two studies by consultants were presented to the Board, which showed the financial difficulties of SAirGroup. At this point, the Directors resigned, with only Mario Corti, former CFO of Nestlé, staying behind. The buying spree created a major cash flow crisis for parent company SAirGroup, and was exacerbated by the environment caused by the September 11 attacks. Unable to make payments to creditors on its large debt, and with the refusal of UBS AG to extend its line of credit, on 2 October 2001 the entire Swissair fleet was abruptly grounded. Many blamed UBS for the fiasco, causing demonstrators to take to the streets with signs referring to UBS chairman, Marcel Ospel as ""Bin Ospel"", in reference to al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, and redefining the bank's acronym, "UBS" as the "United Bandits of Switzerland".


title: Swissair

text: Two large bridge loans from the Swiss government were required to finance the continuation of flight operations. This notwithstanding, with the resumption of flight service, it was necessary for flight crews to carry large sums of cash to purchase fuel at foreign airports.


title: Swissair

text: On 1 October 2001, the public was informed, via a press conference, of project "Phoenix" and announced that parts of the group sought a payment delay. However, the continuation of service was secured by the Swiss federal authorities, as they were willing to pay half of the loan.


title: Swissair

text: 2 October 2001 saw an increased necessity for strong liquidity, as all suppliers insisted on cash payments of outstanding invoices following the request of payment delay announced the day before. Cash reserves of Swissair filed on this day were barely sufficient to carry out the first morning flights. During the morning, fuel suppliers refused to fuel the waiting aircraft. Other accounts were consolidated on the one hand because of the prior termination of the cash pooling facility from the UBS, on the other hand, due to the threat of favoritism regarding debts. The banks refused a credit increase before the sales proceeded, and insisted on a formal referral validity of the sale agreement.


title: Swissair

text: At 15:45, CEO Mario Corti announced a cessation of flight operations due to the security risks caused by the crossing of the Flight Duty Regulations. This led to the cancellation of over 230 flights, and thousands of passengers, as well as flight crews, being stranded around the world. Flight crew corporate credit cards were blocked by the banks, with some hotels expelling the crews, and having them return home at their own expense. Also, all tickets sold were voided.


title: Swissair

text: Crossair shares were only reissued on the evening of 2 October due to the rewriting of Crossair shares, with their purchase price not arriving until the following day – the setting of flight operations – into the SAirLines account.


title: Swissair

text: 4 October 2001 saw demonstrations by former Swissair employees before the UBS presentation held in Glattbrugg, and the following day saw demonstrations in Bern's Federal Square.


title: Swissair

text: At around the same time, SAirGroup's stake in Crossair was sold to the Swiss banks UBS and Credit Suisse. Furthermore, Crossair took over various assets of former Swissair, including its employees, aircraft and most European routes. Swissair and the SAirGroup were handed over to the liquidation firm of Jürg Hoss Liquidators and ceased operations on 31 March 2002. Crossair was renamed Swiss International Air Lines, or Swiss for short, and took over Swissair's intercontinental routes on 1 April 2002, officially ending 71 years of Swissair Service.


title: Swissair

text: On 5 October, commercial flights on most routes were gradually resumed thanks to a federal emergency loan of over CHF 450 million. This occurred, in part, to ensure Switzerland's continued accessibility as a business location, and to establish a basis for the creation of Swiss. Through preventing the complete collapse of Swissair, the other airline-related businesses of the group were spared collapse.


title: Swissair

text: Following another federal repayable funding commitment of one billion francs, each of the 26 long-haul aircraft (MD-11s and A330s) and 26 medium-haul aircraft (A321s, A320s and A319s) were able to be transferred to Crossair / Swiss at the end of the winter schedule of 2001/02. On Easter Monday, 1 April 2002, the last flight of Swissair, flight SR145 from São Paulo, landed in Zurich. A 71-year-long chapter of Swiss aviation history thus came to an end. Between 1931 and 2002, Swissair had transported more than 260 million passengers. The SwissairGroup (the name change from SAirGroup to SwissairGroup was announced in 2001 but never officially implemented) still existed as 'SAirGroup in Nachlassstundung' (German: "Swissair in Administration") for several years until all assets were liquidated, including a large auction where many of the remaining Swissair assets, such as historic items, were auctioned. Today, Gategourmet continues as a subsidiary under the parent firm Gate Group.


title: Swissair

text: Like other airlines that flew to the United States, Swissair's operations and profitability were disrupted in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks. As several politicians were amongst those included on Swissair's directors, commentators have pointed to potential conflicts of interest as fundamental to the demise of Swissair. Media have also suggested that the directorial board failed to oversee the actions of Philippe Bruggisser (Chief Operating Officer since 1996) and Eric Honegger (board member since 1993 and later board president), and that they left behind a convoluted corporate structure and financial commitments – among others a further purchase of 35.5 percent of Sabena's stocks – which would only come to light when Mario Corti was trying to save the airline.


title: Swissair

text: The judiciary is continuing to examine why Swissair acquired counselling that supported the Hunter Strategy, and why Swissair continued to make certain payments despite nearing insolvency. Questions have also been raised about federal aid given to Swissair and the politicians involved. The highly competitive nature of the market during the business's final years also precipitated its demise: like subsidiary Sabena, Swissair fell victim to the competition of budget airlines such as Ryanair and EasyJet.


title: Swissair

text: A "BBC" correspondent said regarding the collapse "Something did die in Switzerland that day: not just an airline but an image the Swiss had of themselves and, more importantly, of their business leaders" and "The Swiss financial community's reputation for good business sense was already seriously damaged by the Swissair disaster."


title: Swissair

text: Due to continued civil proceedings, parts of the causes of the collapse of SAirGroup are subject of legal proceedings and have therefore not been legally clarified. The following causes are widely recognized as crucial factors:


title: Swissair

text: In 2002 the successor Swiss International Air Lines commenced operations. First called Swiss Air Lines, this company was based on the former Crossair, and was a merger of Crossair and former Swissair employees, routes and aircraft. The company Swissair continued to exist (in liquidation) but had no further assets. Due to legal problems with Swissair, the name had to be changed to Swiss International Air Lines.


title: Swissair

text: Swiss took over 26 long-haul and 26 medium-haul aircraft from the defunct Swissair fleet and refurbished the liveries and interiors to turn it into the new Swiss fleet, together with the former Crossair Fleet consisting of Embraer 145, Saab 2000, MD-80 Series and Avro RJ. The remainder of the Swissair aircraft that were grounded and were not taken by Swiss were returned to their lessors.


title: Swissair

text: After problems with the former Crossair pilot unions, who refused to accept different conditions than the former Swissair pilots within the same airline, a subsidiary called Swiss European Air Lines was founded which belongs 100% to Swiss International Air Lines.


title: Swissair

text: In 2004, it appeared that Swiss was going to become a member of the Oneworld alliance. It had codeshares with Oneworld carriers British Airways, American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, Aer Lingus and Finnair, and held a strategic partnership and joint operation for all service to North America and AA-operated flights beyond U.S. gateways using American Airlines. Swiss started to terminate these codeshare agreements but did not terminate the AA alliance. A theory emerged that Swiss was planning to use its partnerships, the AA alliance, and its partnership with British Airways, a strong supportive member of Oneworld, to join Oneworld itself.