title: Robert Ley

text: Hitler and Ley were aware that the suppression of the trade unions and the prevention of wage increases by the Trustees of Labour system, when coupled with their relentless demands for increased productivity to hasten German rearmament, created a real risk of working-class discontent. In November 1933, as a means of preventing labour disaffection, the DAF established Strength Through Joy ("Kraft durch Freude", KdF), to provide a range of benefits and amenities to the German working class and their families. These included subsidised holidays both at resorts across Germany and in "safe" countries abroad (particularly Italy). Two of the world's first purpose-built cruise-liners, the "Wilhelm Gustloff" and the "Robert Ley", were built to take KdF members on Mediterranean cruises.


title: Robert Ley

text: Other KdF programs included concerts, opera and other forms of entertainment in factories and other workplaces, free physical education and gymnastics training and coaching in sports such as football, tennis and sailing. All this was paid for by the DAF, at a cost of a year by 1937, and ultimately by the workers themselves through their dues, although the employers also contributed. KdF was one of the Nazi regime's most popular programs, and played a large part in reconciling the working class to the regime, at least before 1939.


title: Robert Ley

text: The DAF and KdF's most ambitious program was the "people's car," the Volkswagen, originally a project undertaken at Hitler's request by the car-maker Ferdinand Porsche. When the German car industry was unable to meet Hitler's demand that the Volkswagen be sold at or less, the project was taken over by the DAF. This brought Ley's old socialist tendencies back into prominence. The party, he said, had taken over where private industry had failed, because of the "short-sightedness, malevolence, profiteering and stupidity" of the business class. Now working for the DAF, Porsche built a new Volkswagen factory at Fallersleben, at a huge cost which was partly met by raiding the DAF's accumulated assets and misappropriating the dues paid by DAF members. The Volkswagen was sold to German workers on an installment plan, and the first models appeared in February 1939. The outbreak of war, however, meant that none of the 340,000 workers who paid for a car ever received one.


title: Robert Ley

text: Ley said in a speech in 1939: "We National Socialists have monopolized all resources and all our energies during the past seven years so as to be able to be equipped for the supreme effort of battle." (→ German rearmament) After the beginning of World War II in September 1939, Ley's importance declined. The militarisation of the workforce and the diversion of resources to the war greatly reduced the role of the DAF, and the KdF was largely curtailed. Ley's drunkenness and erratic behaviour were less tolerated in wartime, and he was supplanted by Armaments Minister Fritz Todt and his successor Albert Speer as the czar of the German workforce (the head of the "Organisation Todt" (OT)). As German workers were increasingly conscripted, foreign workers, first "guest workers" from France and later slave labourers from Poland, Ukraine and other eastern countries, were brought in to replace them. Ley played some role in this program, but was overshadowed by Fritz Sauckel, General Plenipotentiary for the Distribution of Labour ("Generalbevollmächtigter für den Arbeitseinsatz") since March 1942.


title: Robert Ley

text: Nevertheless, Ley was deeply implicated in the mistreatment of foreign slave workers. In October 1942 he attended a meeting in Essen with Paul Plieger (head of the giant Hermann Göring Works industrial combine) and leaders of the German coal industry. A verbatim account of the meeting was kept by one of the managers. A recent historian writes:


title: Robert Ley

text: Despite his failings, Ley retained Hitler's favour; until the last months of the war he was part of Hitler's inner circle along with Martin Bormann and Joseph Goebbels. In November 1940 he was given a new role, as Reich Commissioner for Social Housing Construction ("Reichskommissar für den sozialen Wohnungsbau"), later shortened to Reich Housing Commissioner ("Reichswohnungskommissar"). Here his job was to prepare for the effects on German housing of the expected Allied air attacks on German cities, which began to increase in intensity from 1941 onwards. In this role he became a key ally of Armaments Minister Albert Speer, who recognised that German workers must be adequately housed if productivity was to be maintained. As the air war against Germany increased from 1943, "dehousing" German workers became an objective of the Allied area bombing campaign, and Ley's organisation was increasingly unable to cope with the resulting housing crisis.


title: Robert Ley

text: He was aware in general terms of the Nazi regime's programme of extermination of the Jews of Europe. Ley encouraged it through the virulent anti-Semitism of his publications and speeches. In February 1941 he was present at a meeting along with Speer, Bormann and Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel at which Hitler had set out his views on the "Jewish question" at some length, making it clear that he intended the "disappearance" of the Jews one way or another. According to American historian Jeffrey Herf, Ley issued some of the most overt propaganda accusing Jews of plotting the extermination of Germans and threatening to do the reverse. In December 1939, he said that in the event of a British victory:


title: Robert Ley

text: In April 1945, Ley became enamored with the idea of creating a "death ray" after receiving a letter from an unnamed inventor: "I've studied the documentation; there's no doubt about it. This will be the decisive weapon!" Once Ley gave Speer a list of materials, including a particular model circuit breaker, Speer found that the circuit breaker had not been manufactured in 40 years.


title: Robert Ley

text: As Nazi Germany collapsed in early 1945, Ley was among the government figures who remained fanatically loyal to Hitler. He last saw Hitler on 20 April 1945, Hitler's birthday, in the "Führerbunker" in central Berlin. The next day he left for southern Bavaria, in the expectation that Hitler would make his last stand in the "National Redoubt" in the alpine areas. When Hitler refused to leave Berlin, Ley was effectively unemployed.


title: Robert Ley

text: On 16 May he was captured by American paratroopers of the 101st Airborne Division in a shoemaker's house in the village of Schleching. Ley told them he was "Dr Ernst Distelmeyer," but he was identified by Franz Xaver Schwarz, the treasurer of the Nazi Party and a long-time enemy. After his arrest, he declared "You can torture or beat me or impale me on a stake. But I will never doubt the greater deeds of Hitler."


title: Robert Ley

text: At the Nuremberg Trials, Ley was indicted under Count One ("The Common Plan or Conspiracy to wage an aggressive war in violation of international law or treaties"), Count Three (War Crimes, including among other things "mistreatment of prisoners of war or civilian populations") and Count Four ("Crimes Against Humanity – murder, extermination, enslavement of civilian populations; persecution on the basis of racial, religious or political grounds"). Ley was apparently indignant at being regarded as a war criminal, telling the American psychiatrist Douglas Kelley and psychologist Gustave Gilbert who had seen and tested him in prison: "Stand us against a wall and shoot us, well and good, you are victors. But why should I be brought before a Tribunal like a c-c-c- ... I can't even get the word out!".


title: Robert Ley

text: On 24 October, three days after receiving the indictment, Ley strangled himself to death in his prison cell using a noose made by tearing a towel into strips, fastened to the toilet pipe in his cell.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup is an international association football tournament, organized by FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association), for national teams of women under the age of 20. The tournament is held in even-numbered years. It was first held in 2002 as the FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship with an upper age limit of 19. In 2006, the age limit was raised to the current 20. The event was renamed as a World Cup since the 2008 competition, making its name consistent with FIFA's other worldwide competitions for national teams.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: Starting with the 2010 edition, tournaments held in years immediately preceding the FIFA Women's World Cup are awarded as part of the bidding process for the Women's World Cup. In those years, the U-20 Women's World Cup serves as a test event for the host nation of the Women's World Cup, a role similar to that of the former FIFA Confederations Cup in the men's game.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: Each continental governing body has its own qualifying tournament, but Africa does not determine a champion.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The first women's world championship at the youth level, held as the 2002 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship, with an age limit of 19, was hosted by Canada. The final, held at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton, drew a surprisingly large crowd of 47,000 to watch the hosts play the United States. The US defeated Canada 1–0 on a golden goal by Lindsay Tarpley. Canada's Christine Sinclair was the adidas Golden Ball recipient, as tournament MVP, and the Golden Shoe (10 goals) winner.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2004 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship was held in Thailand. For the second time in a row, the current holders of the adult World Cup, Germany, won the youth competition. The Golden Ball went to Brazilian star, Marta, while for the second time the Golden Boot went to a Canadian, Brittany Timko.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: FIFA raised the women's youth championship age limit to 20 to match the men's, beginning with the 2006 FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship, held in Russia from 17 August through 3 September.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The competition was held in four Moscow stadiums (Dinamo, Lokomotiv, Podmoskovie Stadium and Torpedo Stadion) and one in St. Petersburg (Petrovskiy Stadion).


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2008 FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship was held in Chile, from 20 November to 7 December 2008.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: Six years after winning their first championship at the youth level in 2002, the United States reclaimed the trophy with a 2–1 win over defending champions Korea DPR. The Golden Ball and the Golden Shoe went to Sydney Leroux of the United States.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2010 edition of the tournament was held in Germany from 13 July to 1 August 2010. The host nation defeated Nigeria in the final to claim its second championship. It was the first time that an African nation had advanced as far as the semifinals. It was also the first tournament in which four different confederations were represented in the semifinals. The Golden Ball and Golden Shoe awards both went to Alexandra Popp of Germany.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2012 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup was played in Japan from 19 August to 8 September, after initially having a hosting bid from Vietnam withdrawn and a bid from Uzbekistan rejected. The Golden Ball award went to Dzsenifer Marozsán of Germany and Golden Shoe award went to Kim Un-hwa of North Korea.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2014 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup was held in Canada from 5–25 August 2014, who reprised its role as host after a Zimbabwean bid withdrew leaving the Canadian bid unopposed. The Golden Ball and Golden Shoe awards both went to Asisat Oshoala of Nigeria.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2016 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup was expected to be held in South Africa, but due to the country's withdrawal, a new host was chosen on 19 March 2015, and it was Papua New Guinea.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2018 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup was held in France from 5–24 August 2018; a year later France would host the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup. The Golden Ball and Golden Shoe awards both went to Patricia Guijarro of Spain.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: The 2020 edition was initially to be hosted jointly by Costa Rica and Panama in August 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic it has been postponed to January 2021, to be solely hosted by Costa Rica. Due to having the highest COVID-19 cases and deaths in the region, Panama withdrew from hosting this event along with the 2022 Central American and Caribbean Games. The tournament was initially postponed to 2021, subject to further monitoring. On 17 November 2020, FIFA announced that the 2020 edition of the tournament would be cancelled.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: Following the cancellation of the 2020 edition, Costa Rica were appointed as hosts of the next edition of the tournament in 2022.


title: FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup

text: For each tournament, the flag of the host country and the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.


title: Thetan

text: In Scientology, the concept of the thetan () is similar to the concept of self, or the spirit or soul as found in several belief systems. The term is derived from the Greek letter Θ, theta, which in Scientology beliefs represents "the source of life, or life itself." In Scientology it is believed that it is the thetan, not the central nervous system, which commands the body through .


title: Thetan

text: According to Scientology, the concept for the thetan was first discovered in the early 1950s by the science fiction author L. Ron Hubbard, drawing on reports by Dianetics practitioners, who in session, found clients came up with descriptions of past-life experiences. Although the term is comparable to a soul, a thetan can be incarnated many times over lifetimes. An important goal in Scientology is to develop a greater awareness and higher levels of ability to operate in the physical universe as an Operating Thetan.


title: Thetan

text: The term and concept were defined by Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard, who adopted the Greek letter theta (Θ) to represent "the source of life and life itself". Hubbard first introduced his ideas of "theta-beings" in a lecture series of March 1952. He attributed the coining of the word to his wife Mary Sue. As an essential point of Scientology doctrine, a person's sense of identity and self-awareness stem entirely from the "thetan". It is redundant to refer to "a person's thetan", because the person does not exist independently.


title: Thetan

text: Hubbard once defined a thetan as: "... having no mass, no wave-length, no energy, no measurable qualities and no time or location in space except by consideration or postulate. The spirit is not a thing. It is the creator of things." In a lecture series later published as a book ("The Phoenix Lectures"), he jokingly pointed to a study that implied that a "thetan" manifests a small but measurable amount of mass:From some experiments conducted about fifteen or twenty years ago—a thetan weighed about 1.5 ounces ! Who made these experiments? Well, a doctor made these experiments. He weighed people before and after death, retaining any mass. He weighed the person, bed and all, and he found that the weight dropped at the moment of death about 1.5 ounces and some of them 2 ounces [60 grams]. (Those were super thetans!)Although Hubbard did not name the doctor concerned, there was indeed such an attempt, by Duncan MacDougall, to measure the weight of dying patients to determine the weight of the soul, although MacDougall's experiments took place about fifty years before Hubbard's lectures, not fifteen or twenty, and are generally not regarded as having any scientific validity.


title: Thetan

text: According to Hubbard's son Ronald DeWolf (born L. Ron Hubbard Jr.), his father stated that thetans are immortal and perpetual, having willed themselves into existence at some point several trillion years ago. After they originated, thetans generated "points to view" or "dimension points", causing space to come into existence. They agreed that other thetans' dimension points existed, thus bringing into existence the entire universe.


title: Thetan

text: In the primordial past, according to Scientologist teachings, thetans brought the material universe into being largely for their own pleasure." The universe is thought to have no independent reality, but to derive its apparent reality from the fact that most thetans agree it exists. Scientologists believe that thetans fell from grace when they began to identify with their creation, rather than their original state of spiritual purity. Eventually, they lost their memory of their true nature, along with the associated spiritual and creative powers. As a result, thetans came to think of themselves as nothing but embodied beings.


title: Thetan

text: Thetans are believed to be reborn time and time again in new bodies through a process called "assumption" which is analogous to reincarnation. Dell deChant and Danny Jorgensen liken Scientology to Hinduism, in that both ascribe a causal relationship between the experiences of earlier incarnations and one's present life. With each rebirth, the effects of the "MEST" universe (MEST here stands for matter, energy, space, and time) on the thetan are believed to become stronger. Scientologists believe that the thetan has been "embodied on many occasions", but they generally avoid the term "reincarnation". They also reject the idea of transmigration, "i.e. the belief that the thetan would incarnate into any animal less than human." Scientology's first phase has to do with removing "encumbrances acquired in this life and in past existences," J. Gordon Melton writes. According to Melton, these encumbrances are called "engrams" and are "described as aberrations attached to the self that produce dysfunctional behavior patterns."


title: Thetan

text: Jon Atack, whose book "A Piece of Blue Sky" details how he reached Operating Thetan level V before leaving Scientology, describes Hubbard's doctrines about thetans: "Thetans are all-knowing beings, and became bored because there were no surprises. Hubbard asserted that the single most important desire in all beings is to have a 'game'. To have a 'game' it was necessary to 'not know' certain things, so certain perceptions were negated ('not-is-ed')." Since thetans knew everything, this required them to abandon or suppress perceptions and knowledge. Over time, the loss of perception accumulated and certain thetans began to cause harm to others. MEST (physical) beings also sought to "trap" thetans in order to control them. Thetans came to learn contrition, punishing themselves for their own "harmful" acts.


title: Thetan

text: According to Hubbard, an essential part of the thetans' game was the "conquest" of matter, energy, space, and time by the life force, theta. This has produced multiple universes which have ended and begun in succession, each new one being more solid and entrapping than the last. The thetans have by now become so enmeshed in the physical universe that many have identified themselves totally with it, forgetting their quadrillions of years of existence and their original godly powers.


title: Thetan

text: According to Scientology, thetan powers are said to remain potent and restorable. One of the Church of Scientology's stated goals is "the rehabilitation of the human spirit", by which it means the restoration of the thetan's original abilities. Hubbard claims that thetans are able to change reality through "postulates"—decisions made by the individual about the nature of the reality around them. Some thetans are said to have (mis)used this ability to "implant" others with hypnotic suggestions, forcing other thetans to "cluster" around bodies (hence body thetans). This sort of directed control is referred to as "other-determinism". Scientology seeks to undo it and return the thetan to "self-determinism", where he can control himself and his environment. The eventual goal is to achieve "pan-determinism", where he acts for the good of all.


title: Thetan

text: The Scientological notion of the thetan differs from other religions, such as Judaism and Christianity, in three significant ways. While other belief systems "fuse the concept of the body and soul", the thetan is "separate and independent". Also unlike the Judeo-Christian tradition, Scientologists believe that the thetan has "lived through many, perhaps thousands of lifetimes." Third, different from the Christian notion of original sin, Scientology believes that the thetan is basically good, but "has lost touch with its true nature."


title: Thetan

text: Religious scholar Richard Holloway writes that thetans were not created, but they created themselves, adopting and creating the human body as a vehicle or existence.


title: Thetan

text: Non-Scientologists Joel Sappell and Robert Welkos described in a 1990 article in the "LA Times" how Scientologists believe that when a person dies—or, in Scientology terms, when a thetan abandons its physical body—they go to a "landing station" on the planet Venus, where the thetan is re-implanted and told lies about its past life and its next life. The Venusians take the thetan, "capsule" it, and send it back to Earth to be thrown into the ocean off the coast of California. They quote Hubbard as saying, "If you can get out of that, and through that, and wander around through the cities and find some girl who looks like she is going to get married or have a baby or something like that, you're all set. And if you can find the maternity ward to a hospital or something, you're OK. And you just eventually just pick up a baby."


title: Thetan

text: While Hubbard's concept of the thetan led to the development of an elaborate cosmology, the doctrinal structure he created is based on the following propositions: "Man is an immortal spiritual being. His experience extends well beyond a single lifetime. His capabilities are unlimited, even if not presently realized."


title: Thetan

text: According to Scientology doctrine, a thetan exists whether operating a human body or not. Scientology advertises itself as being able to "rehabilitate" the thetan of a practitioner to a state where the individual can operate with or without a "flesh body". The term "operating thetan" would then apply as it does when an individual is operating a body. The Operating Thetan (OT) levels are the upper-level courses in Scientology.


title: Thetan

text: The Church defines "Operating Thetan" as "knowing and willing cause over life, thought, and matter, energy, space and time (MEST)."


title: Thetan

text: The Church of Scientology states as a point of doctrine that an individual exists with or without a body.


title: Thetan

text: Even beyond the Operating Thetan levels comes the "Cleared Theta Clear", a godlike state which Hubbard describes this way:


title: Thetan

text: A thetan who is completely rehabilitated and can do everything a thetan should do, such as move MEST and control others from a distance, or create his own universe; a person who is able to create his own universe or, living in the MEST universe is able to create illusions perceivable by others at will, to handle MEST universe objects without mechanical means and to have and feel no need of bodies or even the MEST universe to keep himself and his friends interested in existence.


title: Thetan

text: A body thetan is a disincarnate thetan who is "stuck" in, on or near a human body, and all human bodies are said to be infested by these disembodied thetans, or clusters of them. This information is not revealed until a Scientologist reaches Section III of the Operating Thetan levels (commonly referred to as "OT III"). Body thetans were said by Hubbard to be a result of a prehistoric "Incident" involving Xenu.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: "You" was the official choice for "Time"s Person of the Year in 2006. The magazine set out to recognize the millions of people who anonymously contribute user-generated content to websites such as YouTube, MySpace, Facebook, Wikipedia and other wikis, and the multitudes of other websites featuring user contribution.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: While the status had been given before to inanimate objects, with the personal computer being the "Machine of the Year" for 1982, as well as collections of people or an abstract representative of a movement, the choice of "You" attracted criticism from commentators in publications such as "The Atlantic" for being too much of a pop culture gimmick. A 2014 "New York Daily News" article named the 2006 award as one of the ten most controversial "Person of the Year" moments in the history of "Time". The news magazine experienced generally successful sales.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: While most earlier choices for "Person of the Year" have been historically important individuals, many of them infamous rather than internationally popular (Adolf Hitler was 1938's "Man of the Year", but Franklin D. Roosevelt won in 1941, and Ayatollah Khomeini won in 1979), a few were inanimate. The personal computer was the "Machine of the Year" for 1982, while the "Endangered Earth" was the "Planet of the Year" for 1988. Collections of people as well as a symbolic representative of multiple individuals had also won the award before; for example, "U.S. Scientists" were named "Men of the Year" in 1960.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: Similar media awards had already recognized the growing significance of online community and user-generated content: "You!" was the first ranking choice in "Business 2.0" list of "50 people who matter now" in July 2006; while ABC News had listed bloggers as "People of the Year" for 2006.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: In accordance with "Time" annual process, different bureaus suggested different candidates. "You", or "the YouTube guys", was floated in November as a possible winner. Readers' opinions were canvassed online. The final decision was made by managing editor Richard Stengel.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: The decision was announced in "Time" December 25, 2006 issue. The cover of the magazine featured an iMac computer with a reflective mylar pane appearing as the window of a YouTube-like video player, intended to reflect as online content the face of whoever picks up the magazine.


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: The time remaining indicator in the image indicates a total duration of "20:06," a visual pun connecting this ubiquitous bit of interface design to the year in which it gained ascendancy in "Time" view. Stories on the new user-driven media dynamic were provided by NBC editor Brian Williams and "Time" editors Lev Grossman and Richard Stengel. As Grossman describes, "It's about the many wrestling power from the few and helping one another for nothing and how that will not only change the world, but also change the way the world changes."


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: The choice of "You" as Person of the Year was criticized for not mentioning important people that influenced the events of 2006. Paul Kedrosky called it an "incredible cop-out", and he also speculated that the selection marked "some sort of near-term market top for user-generated content". Commentator Kevin Friedl noted that the award and cover design recalled the mirror viewed by the protagonist, the Dude, of "The Big Lebowski", via which the viewer's reflection was framed as "Time" "Man of the Year".


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: In December 2012, journalist David A. Graham wrote for "The Atlantic" that he thought "Time" had shown "a pattern of lackluster choices" and the overall promotional nature of the process shouldn't be treated as news, rather simply viewed as marketing. He remarked, "Is anyone out there sick of people ironically listing 'Time Person of the Year, 2006' in Twitter bios, a reference to the gimmicky selection of 'You' that year?"


title: You (Time Person of the Year)

text: Additionally, the decision raised some criticism as it was described as ideological and even hypocritically political. Some weeks before the announcement, "Time" decided to ask the users in a poll, "Who Should Be Person of the Year?" After several weeks, the poll winner by a wide margin was Hugo Chávez, the president of Venezuela, with 35% of the votes. The president of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, came in second. "Time" did not mention these results in the announcement of their "Person of the Year" and its critics claimed that "Time" discounted input from its digital democracy among its readers. "Time" supporters argue that an online poll is not representative as it has no scientific value. The hyperlink to the online poll results has been removed. A 2014 "New York Daily News" article, which named the "You" naming as one of the ten most controversial "Person of the Year" moments in the history of "Time", also remarked that "2006 had its fair share of newsmakers" while highlighting both "Venezuela President Hugo Chavez and Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad".


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: The Rolling Stones No. 2 is the second studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released in 1965 following the success of their 1964 debut album "The Rolling Stones". It followed its predecessor's tendency to largely feature American R&B and rock and roll covers. However, it does contain three compositions from the still-developing Mick Jagger/Keith Richards songwriting team.


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: On Dutch and German pressings of the album, the title is listed as "The Rolling Stones Vol. 2" on the front cover, although the back of the album cover lists the title as "The Rolling Stones No. 2".


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: Using the cover shot for "12 X 5", the second US-released album in October 1964, "The Rolling Stones No. 2"s track listing would largely be emulated on the upcoming US release of "The Rolling Stones, Now!". While Eric Easton was co-credited as producer alongside Andrew Loog Oldham on The Rolling Stones' debut album, Oldham takes full production duties for "The Rolling Stones No. 2", which was recorded sporadically in the UK and US during 1964.


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: A huge hit in the UK upon release, "The Rolling Stones No. 2" spent 10 weeks at No. 1 in early 1965, becoming one of the year's biggest sellers in the UK.


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: According to Bill Wyman in his book "Stone Alone: The Story of a Rock 'n' Roll Band", John Lennon said of "The Rolling Stones No. 2": "The album's great, but I don't like five-minute numbers."


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: Due to ABKCO's preference towards the American albums, they overlooked both "The Rolling Stones" and "The Rolling Stones No. 2" for CD release in 1986 and during its remastering series in 2002. Consequently, the album was out of print for many years and was thus widely bootlegged by collectors.


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: The Muddy Waters cover "I Can't Be Satisfied" was not included on any of the band's original American albums, and was not officially released in the US until 1972 on the compilation "More Hot Rocks (Big Hits & Fazed Cookies)".


title: The Rolling Stones No. 2

text: "The Rolling Stones No. 2" was again made available to the public as part of a limited edition vinyl box set, titled "The Rolling Stones 1964–1969", in November 2010 and (by itself) digitally at the same time. The original title was also re-instated as part of "The Rolling Stones in Mono" box set, released on 30 September 2016.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: The tensor fasciae latae (or tensor fasciæ latæ or, formerly, tensor vaginae femoris) is a muscle of the thigh. Together with the gluteus maximus, it acts on the iliotibial band and is continuous with the iliotibial tract, which attaches to the tibia. The muscle assists in keeping the balance of the pelvis while standing, walking, or running.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: It arises from the anterior part of the outer lip of the iliac crest; from the outer surface of the anterior superior iliac spine, and part of the outer border of the notch below it, between the gluteus medius and sartorius; and from the deep surface of the fascia lata.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: It is inserted between the two layers of the iliotibial tract of the fascia lata about the junction of the middle and upper thirds of the thigh. The tensor fasciae latae tautens the iliotibial tract and braces the knee, especially when the opposite foot is lifted. The terminal insertion point lies on the lateral condyle of the tibia.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: Tensor fasciae latae is innervated by the superior gluteal nerve, L5 and S1. At its origins of the anterior rami of L4, L5, and S1 nerves, the superior gluteal nerve exits the pelvis via greater sciatic foramen superior to the piriformis. The nerve also courses between the gluteus medius and minimus. The superior gluteal artery also supplies the tensor fasciae latae. The superior gluteal nerve arises from the sacral plexus and only has muscular innervation associated with it. There is no cutaneous innervation for sensation that stems from the superior gluteal nerve.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: The tensor fasciae latae is a tensor of the fascia lata; continuing its action, the oblique direction of its fibers enables it to stabilize the hip in extension (assists gluteus maximus during hip extension). The fascia lata is a fibrous sheath that encircles the thigh like a subcutaneous stocking and tightly binds its muscles. On the lateral surface, it combines with the tendons of the gluteus maximus and tensor fasciae latae to form the iliotibial tract, which extends from the iliac crest to the lateral condyle of the tibia.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: In the erect posture, acting from below, it will serve to steady the pelvis upon the head of the femur; and by means of the iliotibial tract it steadies the condyles of the femur on the articular surfaces of the tibia, and assists the gluteus maximus in supporting the knee in a position of extension.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: The basic functional movement of tensor fasciae latae is walking. The tensor fasciae latae is heavily utilized in horse riding, hurdling and water skiing. Some problems that arise when this muscle is tight or shortened are pelvic imbalances that lead to pain in hips, as well as pain in the lower back and lateral area of knees.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: Because of its insertion point on the lateral condyle of the tibia, it also aids in the lateral rotation of the tibia. This lateral rotation may be initiated in conjunction with hip abduction and medial rotation of the femur while kicking a soccer ball. The tensor fasciae latae works in synergy with the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles to abduct and medially rotate the femur.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: The TFL is a hip abductor muscle. To stretch the tensor fasciae latae, the knee may be brought medially across the body (adducted). If one leans against a wall with crossed legs (externally/laterally rotated hips) and pushes the pelvis away from the wall (leaning the upper body towards it) sidebending the lumbar spine (i.e.: curving the spine to the side) should be avoided as it stretches the lumbar region rather than the tensor fasciae latae and other muscles which cross the hip rather than the spine.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: Because it is used for so many movements and is in a shortened position when seated, the TFL becomes tight easily. TFL stretches lengthen this important muscle.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: A small case notes that “it seems possible that a sloped or banked surface could predispose an individual to a TFL strain.” In such a case, “treatment usually consists of rest, heat, and flexibility exercises”, such as lliotibial band stretching.


title: Tensor fasciae latae muscle

text: "Tensor fasciae latae" translates from Latin to English as "stretcher of the side band". "Tensor" is an agent noun that comes from the past participle stem "tens-" of the Latin verb "tendere", meaning "to stretch". "Fasciae" is the Latin term for "of the band" and is in the singular genitive case. "Latae" is the respective singular, genitive, feminine form of the Latin adjective "latus" meaning "side".


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Jeanine Marie Mason (born January 14, 1991) is an American actress and dancer. Her acting career began after winning the fifth season of the Fox television show "So You Think You Can Dance". She is best known for her role as Liz Ortecho in the CW's drama series "Roswell, New Mexico".


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Mason had a recurring role as Dr. Sam Bello on "Grey's Anatomy". She has also appeared in "Bunheads", "Of Kings and Prophets", "You’re the Worst", "Awkward", "Major Crimes", "", "" and "Big Time Rush".


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Mason became the first Cuban-American to win "So You Think You Can Dance". Her film credits include the thriller "Default" opposite David Oyelowo and "The Archer" opposite Bailey Noble.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: On stage, she was last seen in Center Theatre Group's 2017 revival of Zoot Suit directed by playwright Luis Valdez opposite Demián Bichir.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Mason was born in Miami, Florida, and grew up in a dance-oriented family in Pinecrest. Both of her parents are of Cuban descent. Mason began her dance training at the age of three in ballet and flamenco, and went on to study jazz, acrobatics, hip-hop, modern, and contemporary dance. Mason began her study of theatre at age 11 with community and middle school productions. Upon moving to Los Angeles, California, Mason continues to study theater while also keeping a focus on film and television at the Michael Woolson Studio. Mason earned a Bachelor of Arts in World Arts and Cultures, graduating "cum laude," from the University of California, Los Angeles in the spring of 2014.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: At the age of 18, Mason competed on the fifth season of the show "So You Think You Can Dance", becoming the youngest winner in the history of the competition over fellow contestants Brandon Bryant, Kayla Radomski, and Evan Kasprzak. For the first five weeks of the competition (Top 20 to Top 12), Mason was partnered with Phillip Chbeeb. During the show's sixth week (Top 10), Mason danced a contemporary number choreographed by Travis Wall and was partnered with Jason Glover. Later, Mason was also partnered with Brandon Bryant, Ade Obayomi, Evan Kasprzak, and Kayla Radomski. Mason was consistently praised for her strong and versatile performances.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: During the fall of 2009, Mason toured the United States with the top twelve dancers of the "So You Think You Can Dance" competition.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Shortly after completing "So You Think You Can Dance", Mason turned her full attention to channeling her performing skills into her other lifelong love, the craft of acting. Her on-screen career began when Mason starred in the Halloween episode of Nickelodeon's hit show, "Big Time Rush". From there, she appeared in "The Bling Ring", "", "The Fresh Beat Band" and "Hollywood Heights" before landing the recurring role of Cozzette on ABC Family's "Bunheads" and leading roles in "Hot Mess" and "Delirium". She has also booked roles on "Major Crimes" and "Secret Life of the American Teenager" as well as several smaller, independent projects. Mason had a recurring role on ABC's hit medical drama "Grey's Anatomy" as Dr. Sam Bello.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: In February 2018, it was announced that she joined the pilot of "Roswell, New Mexico" as Liz Ortecho. The CW ordered the show to series on May 11, 2018.


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Mason performed on November 29, 2009 at the Dizzy Feet Gala in Los Angeles, California at the Kodak Theatre. She and Jason Glover performed their popular contemporary piece, "If It Kills Me", choreographed by Travis Wall, and originally performed Top 10 week on SYTYCD. Glover has described Mason as "Unique. You just don’t find dancers like her. She has beautiful lines, is funky and charismatic, and has so much life onstage. Not only does it show in her movement but also on her face. Jeanine is a brilliant performer and one of my favorite people to watch—not just in our group, but out of any dancer I've seen, from Gregory Hines to Gene Kelly."


title: Jeanine Mason

text: On November 9, 2010, Mason performed a contemporary-ballroom dance with Mark Ballas to John Legend's "Ordinary People" on the television show, "Dancing With the Stars".


title: Jeanine Mason

text: Her sister, Alexis, also auditioned for the eighth season of "So You Think You Can Dance", and made it to the final solo performances before Top 20 in Vegas.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The Costa del Sol (literally "Coast of the Sun" or "Sun Coast") is a region in the south of Spain in the autonomous community of Andalusia, comprising the coastal towns and communities along the coastline of the Province of Málaga and the eastern part of Campo de Gibraltar in Cádiz. Formerly made up only of a series of small fishing settlements, today the region is a world-renowned tourist destination. The Costa del Sol is situated between two lesser known coastal regions, the Costa de la Luz and the Costa Tropical.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The region has no official limit, but it is generally accepted that the Costa del Sol stretches from the municipality of La Línea de la Concepción in the west to Nerja in the east, spanning around 150 kilometers of coastline. The term Costa del Sol was coined at the beginning of the 20th century by Rodolfo Lussnigg to promote the Almería coastline. Until the late 1960s, it was used in reference to the entire Mediterranean coast of Eastern Andalusia. The name refers to the sunny climate, present in the region most days of the year. The Costa del Sol is one of the most important tourist areas in Spain; around 35% of Andalusia's tourism is concentrated in the region; in 2009 it had 17 million overnight stays.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The region was a relatively prosperous commercial and industrial center for much of the 19th century. The tourist boom in the area began in the 1920s with the opening of the in Málaga and a golf course in Torremolinos. It became an international tourist destination in the 1950s and is today particularly popular among British, German, Scandinavian and French tourists. The most populated city on the Costa del Sol is the city of Málaga, with a metropolitan population of close to one million. Málaga is home to the Málaga-Costa del Sol Airport, which is the third busiest airport in mainland Spain, behind Barajas (Madrid) and El Prat (Barcelona).


title: Costa del Sol

text: The A-7 highway runs through the region, as does the old national highway generally known as N-340. High-speed trains serve the coastal region and inland areas, the AVE service reaches the Málaga-María Zambrano railway station in 2 hours and 46 minutes from Madrid. The Costa del Sol has a population of 1,412,541 inhabitants. The Costa del Sol has spas in Málaga, Tolox, Estepona, Benahavís, Benalmádena, Mijas, Torremolinos and Marbella, the largest concentration of golf courses on the European continent, fifteen marinas, nine theme parks (including amusement parks, aquariums and zoos), as well as an information and communication technology business park (PTA), a Google cybersecurity center and a Vodafone research and development center.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The Costa del Sol includes the city of Málaga and also the towns of Torremolinos, Benalmádena, Fuengirola, Mijas, Marbella, San Pedro de Alcántara, Estepona, Manilva, Casares, Rincón de la Victoria, Vélez-Málaga, Nerja, Frigiliana and Torrox.


title: Costa del Sol

text: This shoreline region extends from the cliffs at Maro in the East to Punta Chullera in the west. It occupies a narrow coastal strip delimited by some ranges of the Penibaetic System, including the Sierra de Mijas, Sierra Alpujata, Sierra Blanca, Sierra Bermeja, Sierra Crestallina and Montes de Málaga to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The coast shows a diversity of landscapes: beaches, cliffs, estuaries, bays and dunes. The rivers are short and seasonal, while the agriculture is hampered by the lee effect caused by the Baetic System.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The settlement history of this coast spans about 2,800 years. The first inhabitants to settle here may have been the Bastuli, an ancient Celtiberian tribe. The Phoenicians founded their colony of "Malaka" here about 770 BC, and from the 6th century BC it was under the hegemony of ancient Carthage in north Africa. From 218 BC the region was ruled by the Roman Republic and then at the end of the 1st century it was federated with the Roman Empire.Under the rule of the Roman Republic, the "Municipium Malacitanum" became a transit point on the "Via Herculea", which revitalised the city both economically and culturally by connecting it with other developed enclaves in the interior of Hispania and with other ports of the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The decline of the Roman imperial power in the 5th century led to invasions of Hispania Baetica by Germanic peoples and by the Byzantine Empire. The southern Mediterranean coast was part of Visigothic Spain from the fifth century until the Muslim Arab conquest of Hispania (711–718) The city, then known as Mālaqa (مالقة), was encircled by defensive walls. In 1026 it became the capital of the Taifa of Málaga, an independent Muslim kingdom ruled by the Hammudid dynasty in the Caliphate of Córdoba, which was conquered by the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The siege of Mālaqa by the Catholic Monarchs in 1487 was one of the longest of the Reconquista. In the 16th century, the area entered a period of slow decline, exacerbated by epidemics of disease, several successive poor food crops, floods, and earthquakes.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Trade, dominated by foreign merchants, was the main source of wealth in Málaga province of the 18th century, with wine and raisins as the principal commodity exports. Public works done on the Málaga city port as well as those on the Antequera and Velez roadways provided the necessary infrastructure for distribution of the renowned Málaga wines.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Málaga, as headquarters of the "Capitanía General de Granada" (Captaincy General of the Kingdom of Granada) on the coast, played an essential role in the foreign policy of the Bourbon kings of Spain. The regional military and the defence of the Mediterranean were administered in the city. The loss of Gibraltar to the British in the Battle of Málaga of 1704 made the city the key to military defence of the Strait.


title: Costa del Sol

text: During the second half of the 18th century Málaga solved its chronic water supply problems with the completion of one of the largest infrastructure projects carried out in Spain at the time: the building of the Aqueduct of San Telmo. The peasantry and the working classes still made up the vast majority of the population, but the emergence of a business-oriented middle-class lay the foundations for the 19th-century economic boom.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Having been a relatively prosperous commercial and industrial centre for most of the 19th century, Málaga province experienced a severe economic contraction in the 1880s and 1890s. It led to the end of the iron industry in 1893, and weakened the trade and textile industry. The agricultural sector suffered a deep depression that affected the raising of livestock and all the major crops, especially cultivation of Vitis vinifera, a grape used for the wine industry, which was devastated by a Phylloxera epidemic.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The social disruption caused by the crisis and its aftermath of job loss, business collapse and general decline in economic activity, led many residents to consider other means of livelihood. Even at this early date some of them envisaged tourism as an alternative source of income, but years passed before initiatives were put forward to develop Málaga as a tourist resort. The "Sociedad Propagandística del Clima y Embellecimiento de Málaga" (Propagation Society for the Climate and Beautification of Málaga) was founded in 1897 by a pioneering group of influential Málaga businessmen who saw the potential of tourism as a generator of wealth, and tried to organise a rational planned development of this sector of the economy. Their promotional campaigns extolled the mild climate of Málaga, attracting enough tourists and winter visitors to help relieve the economic slump somewhat.


title: Costa del Sol

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, the Baños del Carmen beach was developed and opened in the east of Málaga. The Torremolinos golf course followed in 1928. According to local historian Fernando Alcala, on 15 October 1933, the "Hotel Miramar" was inaugurated in Marbella. The owners, Jose Laguno Canas and Maria Zuzuarregui (daughter of Agustina Zuzuarregui y Sutton Clonard) promoted this hotel and the city of Marbella in English and in French, using the expressions "Sunny Coast" and "Côte du Soleil "in all its stationery and lampoons. According to Estefania Rodriguez Camacho, quoting Fernando Alcala's book, ["Marbella. Years of Tourism. Volume I. The beginning of a long march."] these are the real inventors of the expression "Costa del Sol".


title: Costa del Sol

text: However, development of the tourist sector was interrupted by the Spanish Civil War and World War II.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Following the uprising of Francoist forces in July 1936, control of Andalusia was divided between the Republican forces and the Nationalists, with the Costa del Sol remaining in the Republican zone and Málaga serving as a naval base for the Spanish Republican Navy. The Battle of Málaga was the culmination of an offensive in February 1937 by the combined Nationalist and Italian forces under the command of General Queipo de Llano to eliminate Republican control of the province of Málaga. The participation of Moroccan regulars and Italian tanks from the recently arrived Corpo Truppe Volontarie resulted in a complete rout of the Spanish Republican Army and the capitulation of Málaga in less than a week on 8 February. The occupation of Málaga led to an exodus of civilians and soldiers on the road to Almería, who were bombarded by Franco's air force, navy cruisers, tanks and artillery on 8 February, causing hundreds of deaths. This episode is known as the "Málaga-Almería road massacre". A local historian recounted that nationalist reprisals after the province was captured resulted in total deaths of over 7,000 people.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Until after World War II, Marbella was a small jasmine-lined village with only 900 inhabitants. Ricardo Soriano, Marquis of Ivanrey, moved to Marbella and popularised it among his rich and famous friends. In 1943 he had acquired a country estate located between Marbella and San Pedro called "El Rodeo", and later built a resort there called "Venta y Albergues El Rodeo", beginning the development of tourism in Marbella.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Soriano's nephew, Prince Alfonso of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, acquired another estate, "Finca Santa Margarita", which in 1954 would become the Marbella Club, an international resort of movie stars, business executives and the nobility. Both these resorts would be frequented by members of European aristocratic families, transforming Marbella into a destination for the international jet set.


title: Costa del Sol

text: In the 1950s Torremolinos began to become a popular holiday destination and was visited by international celebrities such as Grace Kelly, Ava Gardner, Marlon Brando, Orson Welles, Brigitte Bardot and Frank Sinatra. The Hotel la Roca had opened in 1942, with the Hotel Pez Espada opening in 1959.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The Costa del Sol experienced an explosive demographic and economic expansion with the boom in tourism between 1959 and 1974. The name "Costa del Sol" was a brand created specifically to market the Mediterranean coastline of Málaga province to foreign vacationers. Historically the provincial population had lived in the fishing villages, and in the "white" villages (pueblos blancos) a short distance inland in the mountains running down to the coast. The area was developed to meet the demands of international tourism in the 1950s and has since been a popular destination for foreign tourists not only for its beaches but also for its local culture.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The "Spanish miracle" fed itself on the rural exodus which created a new class of industrial workers. The economic boom led to an increase in rapid, largely unplanned building on the periphery of the cities of the Costa del Sol to accommodate the new workers arriving from the countryside. Some cities preserved their historic centres, but most were altered by often haphazard commercial and residential developments. The same fate befell long stretches of scenic coastline as mass tourism exploded.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Torremolinos' popularity as a tourist destination had a domino effect, and in the late 1960s and early 1970s, nearby municipalities such as Benalmadena, Fuengirola and Mijas, also saw a growth in the number of tourists. The 1960s brought a radical change in the appearance of the small fishing villages. Hotels were opened in Nerja and Málaga and promoted by Ricardo Soriano and his nephew Alfonso of Hohenlohe. Marbella became a fashionable destination for aristocrats and the rich. The author Juan Bonilla portrayed the swinging Sixties scene on the Costa del Sol in his non-fiction work of caustic cultural criticism, "La Costa del Sol en la hora pop" (2007), depicting real-life characters from elderly expatriate Nazis and jailbird criminal politicians to titled aristocratic playboys like Soriano and Hohenlohe.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The rebuilding of the Málaga Airport was the decisive improvement to infrastructure that facilitated mass tourism on the coast. Low cost charter flights and holiday packages made it a player on the international market. By the 1970s trips to Spain were the predominant business of the European tour operators, and the Costa del Sol continued to increase in popularity through the decade. This trend coincided with rapid industrial growth in Málaga and the decline of dependence on the agricultural sector, although growth in the general economy of Spain slowed almost to a standstill after 1973.


title: Costa del Sol

text: As rapid development proceeded on the Costa del Sol, and the influx of expatriate retirees from northern European countries, notably Great Britain, increased during the late 1970s and 1980s. It has since then sometimes been referred to in the press of the United Kingdom as the "Costa del Crime", because British criminals would escape justice at home by moving there to live their lives in luxury. The presence of the Italian Camorra in the Costa del Sol is also so strong that Camorra bosses refer to it as "Costa Nostra" ("Our Coast"), according to Italian journalist Roberto Saviano, a specialist on the Naples criminal underworld. With tense relations between the UK and Spain over Gibraltar, extradition arrangements were not at that time agreed. This phenomenon has been alluded to in films and television shows such as "Auf Wiedersehen, Pet", "Bad Girls", "The Cook Report", and "The Olsen Gang on the Track", as well as in the more recent films "Sexy Beast" and "The Business". Some of the more famous British criminals known to have fled to the Costa del Sol in the past were Charlie Wilson, Ronnie Knight, Freddie Foreman, Anthony Fraser (grandson of Mad Frankie Fraser), and more recently Andrew Moran. John Disley, nicknamed the "King of Marbella", (not to be confused with the international criminal Monzer al-Kassar whose nickname is the "Prince of Marbella"), masterminded a £700,000 bank fraud. Other European criminal entrepreneurs, many of Russian and Dutch origin, have also settled on this coast for the climate and functional advantages for their enterprises, as well as being active investors in the property sector.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The Costa del Sol welcomes millions of tourists annually. Visitors arriving by air can land at either Málaga Airport, Granada Airport or Gibraltar International Airport. and head to one of the many resorts located along this stretch of coastline from Manilva in the west to Nerja in the east.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Since 1998 the Port of Málaga has been undergoing renovation and expansion as part of the project called the "Plan Especial del Puerto de Málaga". There are major projects underway or planned which will radically change the image of the port and surrounding areas. The traffic of goods rose from 2,261,828 metric tonnes in 2010 and more than doubled to 5,448,260 tonnes in 2011.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Cruise shipping has become an essential industry at the port and a major driver of investment in Málaga. In 2012 there were 651,517 passengers visiting the city on board cruise ships calling at the port, including those who started or ended their cruise in Málaga. The development of the cruise industry is proceeding with a new passenger terminal, port museum, and environmental education centre planned for inclusion in the cruise ship facilities at Quay 2. A commercial marina will also operate from Quay 1, catering to 24 super-yachts of up to 30 metres, and the Eastern Quay passenger terminal will be remodeled to improve pedestrian access and double existing capacity to 560,000 passengers a year.


title: Costa del Sol

text: The four ports of Marbella are primarily recreational; although both Puerto Banús and the Puerto de la Bajadilla are permitted to dock cruise ships, neither operates regular service to other ports. The port of Bajadilla is also home to the fishermen's guild of Marbella and is used for the transport of goods.


title: Costa del Sol

text: AVE ("Alta Velocidad Española", AVE), a high-speed rail service operated by Renfe, the Spanish national railway company, inaugurated the Córdoba-Málaga high-speed rail line, a standard gauge railway line in length, on 24 December 2007. Designed for speeds of and compatibility with neighbouring countries' rail systems, it connects Málaga and Córdoba. The proposed Costa del Sol railway would link Málaga with Marbella and Estepona.


title: Costa del Sol

text: Native cuisine on the Costa del Sol, as in the rest of Andalusia, has been influenced historically by Spanish, Jewish and Arabic traditions, and emphasises seafood.


title: Costa del Sol

text: "Pescaíto frito", small fish breaded without egg and fried in olive oil, then served with fresh lemon, is a universally popular dish. Gazpacho is a famous refreshing cold soup made of raw tomatoes, cucumber, onions, green peppers, garlic, bread, oil and vinegar. "Tortillas", Spanish omelettes made with potatoes and served cold, are typical, and a plate of thin-sliced "jamón serrano", or dry-cured ham, with a glass of sherry or Málaga wine is a traditional combination. The "Ir de Tapas" (tapas tour), a Spanish expression meaning to make the rounds of bars drinking and eating snacks, is an important social activity for Spaniards. Some bars will serve a "tapa" for free when one orders a drink. "Churros", fried-dough pastries served hot and dipped in café con leche or hot chocolate are a typical breakfast food.


title: Costa del Sol

text: "Chiringuitos", small, open-air beachside restaurants, offer respite from the summer heat of the cities in the high holiday season.


title: Languages of Spain

text: Most languages spoken in Spain belong to the Romance language family, of which Spanish is the only language which has official status for the whole country. Various other languages have co-official or recognised status in specific territories, and a number of unofficial languages and dialects are spoken in certain localities.


title: Languages of Spain

text: In terms of the number of speakers and dominance, the most prominent of the languages of Spain is Spanish (Castilian), spoken by about 99% of Spaniards as a first or second language. According to a 2019 Pew Research survey, the most commonly spoken languages at home other than Spanish were Catalan in 8% of households, Valencian 4%, Galician 3% and Basque in 1% of homes.


title: Languages of Spain

text: Spanish is official throughout the country; the rest of these languages have legal and co-official status in their respective communities and (except Aranese) are widespread enough to have daily newspapers and significant book publishing and media presence. Catalan and Galician are the main languages used by the respective regional governments and local administrations. A number of citizens in these areas consider their regional language as their primary language and Spanish as secondary.


title: Languages of Spain

text: Spanish itself also has distinct dialects. For example, the Andalusian or Canarian dialects, each with their own subvarieties, some of them being partially closer to the Spanish of the Americas, which they heavily influenced to varying degrees, depending on the region or period and according to different and non-homogeneous migrating or colonisation processes. Despite being a dialect, some Andalusian speakers have attempted to promote Andalusian as a different language independent of Spanish.


title: Languages of Spain

text: Five very localised dialects are of difficult filiation: Fala (a variety mostly ascribed to the Galician-Portuguese group locally spoken in an area of the province of Cáceres sometimes called "Valley of Jálama/Xálima", which includes the towns of San Martín de Trevejo, Eljas and Valverde del Fresno); Cantabrian and Extremaduran, two Astur-Leonese dialects also regarded as Spanish dialects; Eonavian, a dialect between Asturian and Galician, closer to the latter according to several linguists; and Benasquese, a Ribagorçan dialect that was formerly classified as Catalan, later as Aragonese, and which is now often regarded as a transitional language of its own. Asturian and Leonese are closely related to the local Mirandese which is spoken on an adjacent territory but over the border into Portugal. Mirandese is recognised and has some local official status.


title: Languages of Spain

text: Portuguese has been traditionally spoken by the inhabitants of the following border areas: Cedillo and Herrera de Alcántara (province of Cáceres), La Alamedilla (province of Salamanca, primarily spoken in the place up until the mid-20th century), and Olivenza (province of Badajoz).


title: Languages of Spain

text: With the exception of Basque, which appears to be a language isolate, all of the languages present in mainland Spain are Indo-European languages, specifically Romance languages. Afro-Asiatic languages, such as Arabic (including Ceuta Darija) or Berber (mainly Riffian), are spoken by the Muslim population of Ceuta and Melilla and by recent immigrants (mainly from Morocco) elsewhere.


title: Languages of Spain

text: In addition to the languages which continue to be spoken in Spain to the present day, other languages which have been spoken within what are now the borders of Spain include:


title: WWE brand extension

text: The brand extension, also referred to as the brand split, is the separation of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE's roster of wrestlers (and, at various times, creative staff) into distinct divisions, or "brands". The promotion's wrestlers are assigned to a brand via the annual WWE Draft and exclusively perform on that brand's weekly television show, with some exceptions. Throughout its history, WWE has utilized the brand extension twice. The first brand split occurred from 2002 to 2011, while the ongoing second began in 2016.


title: WWE brand extension

text: WWE currently promotes three brands. The two main brands (referred to as the main roster) are Raw and SmackDown. Established in 2012, NXT serves as the promotion's developmental brand (though was briefly promoted as the third main brand from 2019 to 2021).


title: WWE brand extension

text: The first brand split began in March 2002, following the company's acquisition of talent from the former World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) promotions, and after the conclusion of The Invasion storyline. WWE's roster had doubled in size, and the company no longer had a major competitor in the professional wrestling industry. The brand extension was enacted to alleviate the issues of an overcrowded roster and to imitate competition the company no longer had from the former promotions. The first two brands established were Raw and SmackDown, named after the weekly shows, "Raw" and "SmackDown". ECW - a revival of the former promotion - served as the third brand 2006 to 2010. The first brand extension ended on August 29, 2011.


title: WWE brand extension

text: On May 25, 2016, WWE announced a relaunch of the brand extension as part of what was billed as "The New Era". The second brand extension went into effect on July 19, 2016. As before, Raw and SmackDown were the two primary brands. In addition, NXT served as the third main brand from September 2019 to September 2021 before being reestablished as a developmental territory. Other brands during the second brand extension included NXT UK, a United Kingdom-based subsidiary of NXT which was active from 2018-2022 (scheduled to be relaunched as NXT Europe in 2023), and 205 Live — a brand that specialized in cruiserweight wrestlers (205 pounds and under) and was active from 2016 to 2022 (first as a Raw subsidiary, then as a standalone brand, and finally as an NXT subsidiary).


title: WWE brand extension

text: In 2001, the Monday Night Wars, the rivalry between the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW), ended with the WWF emerging victorious. The WWF would acquire all assets of WCW, and later Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) (the third largest promotion in the United States at the time), through separate buyouts that included the employees (on and off-air talent) from both companies. The sales had left WWF as the only major professional wrestling promotion in the world with international television distribution (until the national expansion of Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) in 2004 and much later, All Elite Wrestling (AEW) in 2019 on a larger scale).


title: WWE brand extension

text: With the acquisition of new talent, the WWF's already large roster doubled in size. In order to allow equal opportunity to all wrestlers, the company endorsed a brand extension to have the WWF represented and promoted with two brands, Raw and SmackDown!, named after the promotion's two primary television programs, "Raw" and "SmackDown!", respectively.


title: WWE brand extension

text: In early 2002, the idea was put in motion to separate the WWF's two shows into distinct brands while both being under the WWF banner. One year prior, the original plan was to create a new WCW (which would be an independent entity in the storylines but would be under the WWF's auspices in reality), and for this new WCW to take over "Raw" and use the show to recreate its WCW counterpart, "WCW Monday Nitro". (The WWF was unable to find a television time slot for WCW due to its exclusivity deal with Viacom.) This experiment was first made on July 2, 2001, when the final twenty minutes of "Raw" was given to WCW programming, in which the "Raw" crew was largely replaced (with Scott Hudson and Arn Anderson doing commentary, as well as a major stage overhaul) to present a match between Buff Bagwell and Booker T for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, which Booker had won on the final "Nitro". The match was met with negative reactions from the fans and viewers at home, when the WWF wrestlers interfered at the end of the match. With WWF focused on splitting its roster, the Invasion storyline was used as a second resort.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Following the end of the angle at Survivor Series, the WWF executed their alternate plan, which was to separate the two shows themselves: previously, wrestlers appeared on both "Raw" and "SmackDown", but with this extension, wrestlers would be exclusive to only one show. Only the Undisputed WWF Champion and the WWF Women's Champion were exempt and could appear on both shows. This would change as both championships were later assigned to a brand.


title: WWE brand extension

text: The brand extension began on March 25, 2002, with a draft on "Raw" and went into effect one week later on April 1. On May 6, 2002, the WWF was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE, which became an orphaned initialism in 2011). On June 13, 2006, after an Extreme Championship Wrestling reunion pay-per-view and video releases, WWE announced an addition to its prime time programming with "ECW on Sci-Fi". The new ECW brand launched in May 2006 and served as a third brand, and a revival of the original ECW promotion. Both instances of the brand extensions required that representatives of each brand draft "superstars" (terminology used by the company to refer to its contracted personnel) onto each brand in a draft lottery.


title: WWE brand extension

text: After WWE bought all the assets of Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in 2003, the company began releasing DVDs promoting the original ECW. Soon afterwards, the company promoted two ECW reunion shows for ECW alumni, entitled ECW One Night Stand in 2005 and in 2006.


title: WWE brand extension

text: On May 25, 2006, WWE announced a launch of a new brand, ECW, a revival of the former 1990s promotion. The new brand debuted on Sci Fi on June 13, 2006, with its final episode on February 16, 2010, on the rebranded Syfy. The ECW brand was dissolved and its show was replaced the following week with the reality series, "WWE NXT".


title: WWE brand extension

text: On May 25, 2016, it was announced that beginning July 19, "SmackDown" would broadcast live on Tuesday nights, as opposed to being taped on Tuesdays and airing on Thursdays as it was previously, receiving a unique roster and set of writers compared to "Raw", thus restoring the brand extension. The draft took place on the live premiere episode of "SmackDown" to determine the rosters between both brands. On the July 11 episode of "Raw", Vince McMahon named Shane McMahon the (on-screen) commissioner for SmackDown and Stephanie McMahon the commissioner for Raw; both chose a General Manager for their respective shows. On the July 18 episode of "Raw", Stephanie McMahon chose Mick Foley as the Raw General Manager, and Shane McMahon chose Daniel Bryan as the SmackDown General Manager. Due to "Raw" being a three-hour show and "SmackDown" being a two-hour show, Raw received three picks each round and SmackDown received two. Six draft picks had to be made amongst the non-title holders from WWE's developmental brand, NXT. Seth Rollins was picked first by Raw, with WWE Champion Dean Ambrose being SmackDown's first pick.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Two other brands would also be established during the second split. After the second brand extension began, WWE revived the cruiserweight division. The cruiserweight wrestlers were originally exclusive to Raw but had a supplementary show called "205 Live" that premiered that November on the WWE Network. Following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, the 205 Live brand was split from Raw, with the promotion's cruiserweight wrestlers becoming exclusive to the new brand. Additionally, in December 2016, WWE announced that they would be establishing a United Kingdom-based brand that would be produced exclusively in the country. In June 2018, the brand was officially established as NXT UK, a sub-brand of the American-based NXT. In September 2019, NXT itself became promoted as WWE's third main brand, and then in October, 205 Live became a sub-brand of NXT. However, in September 2021, NXT was rebranded as NXT 2.0 and reverted to being WWE's developmental territory, and then in February 2022, the 205 Live brand was dissolved. In 2023, NXT UK will be relaunched as NXT Europe and feature wrestlers from all of Europe. According to Shawn Michaels, two additional NXT sub-brands will be launched that same year: NXT Mexico and NXT Japan which will also feature wrestlers from Mexico and Japan respectively.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Interbrand competition was initially kept to a minimum, with wrestlers from all brands competing together only at pay-per-view events. However, from 2003 to 2007, all pay-per-view events became brand exclusive, leaving the "big four" pay-per-views (WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Survivor Series, and Royal Rumble) as the only interbrand shows.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Starting in late 2006, in an attempt to add more star power to the shows, interbrand matches became more common. Most notably, MNM and The Hardy Boyz reformed, despite the teammates being on separate brands. Bobby Lashley was also notable for his interbrand action, as he was involved in a storyline with Donald Trump against WWE Chairman Vince McMahon, which carried over from Raw through WrestleMania 23 to ECW. The brief return of "Saturday Night's Main Event" to NBC also led to more interaction between the brands.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Interbrand competition returned with the reestablishment of the brand extension in 2016; the first interbrand match that occurred after the brand extension went into full effect was at SummerSlam on August 21, 2016, where Raw's Brock Lesnar defeated SmackDown's Randy Orton. The next large interbrand matches occurred at Survivor Series on November 20, 2016, featuring traditional Survivor Series elimination tag team matches between Raw and SmackDown, and beginning the following year, the event became about brand supremacy; in addition to the traditional Survivor Series matches, each champion of the Raw brand faces their counterpart of the SmackDown brand in non-title matches (e.g., the Universal Champion against the WWE Champion). Following the 2019 WWE Superstar Shake-up, a Wild Card Rule was introduced. Interbrand competition became much more frequent, with interbrand matches occurring weekly on "Raw" and "SmackDown Live", as well as at pay-per-views. With a second draft of 2019 occurring in October, the Wild Card Rule was abolished.


title: WWE brand extension

text: In May 2020, select and limited interbrand matches returned with the introduction of the Brand to Brand Invitational, though under stricter guidelines than the previous Wild Card Rule. This happened largely as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, in which several wrestlers have opted to not perform during the outbreak, thus resulting in fewer available talent on each show.


title: WWE brand extension

text: The separation of the WWE roster between two brands also intended to split the pay-per-view offerings, which began with Bad Blood in June 2003. The original idea had the "major" pay-per-view events at the time (Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, Survivor Series, and WrestleMania) would contain the only instances where wrestlers from different brands would interact with each other, and even among the four shows only the Royal Rumble and WrestleMania would have wrestlers from different brands competing against each other. Wrestlers, as a result, appeared only in two-thirds of the shows in a given year, and thus appeared in fewer shows compared to before the brand extension. With single-brand PPVs in place, WWE was able to add more pay-per-view events to their offerings, such as Taboo Tuesday/Cyber Sunday, New Year's Revolution, December to Dismember, and The Great American Bash. Eventually, WWE abandoned the practice of single-brand pay-per-view events following WrestleMania 23. December to Dismember and New Year's Revolution were cancelled following the announcement.


title: WWE brand extension

text: With the reintroduction of the brand extension in 2016, single-branded pay-per-view events returned, and seven more pay-per-view events were added in 2017 so that each brand could have their own pay-per-view each month, in addition to the four major pay-per-views, in which both brands were involved. The only exception to this were the two months leading up to WrestleMania 33 in order to build the feuds for that event, and the two months (including the month of WrestleMania) following WrestleMania to begin new feuds for each brand. For example, February 2017 only had a SmackDown pay-per-view while March only had one for Raw. WrestleMania 33 was on April 2 and Raw had its first post-WrestleMania pay-per-view on April 30, while only SmackDown had a pay-per-view in May. This also happened in 2018, however, for 2018, WWE announced that following WrestleMania 34, brand-exclusive PPVs would be discontinued, abandoning the single-brand practice for a second time. The 2018 Elimination Chamber and Fastlane events were the last two brand-exclusive pay-per-views for Raw and SmackDown, respectively.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Initially, the Undisputed WWE Championship and the original WWE Women's Championship were available to both brands. The other championships were exclusive to the brand the champion was a part of. When the brand extension began, Raw received the Intercontinental Championship and European Championship when their respective holders were drafted, while SmackDown! became the exclusive home for the Tag Team Championship and the original Cruiserweight Championship. With several specialty championships being exclusive to one brand, numerous wrestlers were left with no title to fight for except for the Hardcore Championship, which although a property of SmackDown! after the draft, it was contested under different rules than the other championships—the European and Hardcore championships were later unified with the Intercontinental Championship in July and August 2002, respectively, deactivating both championships.


title: WWE brand extension

text: The issue of specialty championships being exclusive to one brand was partially corrected in September 2002. When SmackDown! general manager Stephanie McMahon announced that Undisputed Champion Brock Lesnar signed a deal to exclusively appear on "SmackDown!", Raw general manager Eric Bischoff introduced the World Heavyweight Championship for Raw.<ref name="WWE/World"></ref> Shortly thereafter, Raw became the exclusive brand for the World Tag Team Championship, the Intercontinental Championship, and the Women's Championship. Meanwhile, SmackDown! created the WWE Tag Team Championship and revived the United States Championship. The result was each brand having four championships: World Heavyweight, Intercontinental, World Tag Team, and Women's titles for Raw; WWE, United States, Tag Team, and Cruiserweight titles for SmackDown!. When ECW was revived in 2006 as a third brand, the ECW World Heavyweight Championship was reactivated as the brand's only championship. Over the course of the first brand extension, these championships switched between brands, usually due to the result of the annual draft. The Cruiserweight title, however, was the only championship to never switch brands, staying on SmackDown! from 2002 until the championship's retirement on September 28, 2007.


title: WWE brand extension

text: In October 2007, SmackDown! and ECW began a talent exchange agreement, which meant that SmackDown! wrestlers could appear on ECW and vice versa. This allowed the United States Championship and WWE Tag Team Championship to be shared between the two brands. In July 2008, the WWE Divas Championship was created for SmackDown, allowing SmackDown's women wrestlers to compete for a title. A talent exchange between ECW and Raw then began in September 2008. After John Morrison and The Miz of ECW became World Tag Team Champions, they appeared more frequently on the Raw brand, moving to a feud with reigning WWE Tag Team Champions of SmackDown, brothers Carlito and Primo Colon. The teams fought several non-title and title bouts for their respective brands' tag team championships before the two fought in a winner-take-all title unification lumberjack match at WrestleMania 25. Carlito and Primo would go on to win the contest, forming the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship. The tag team championships remained separate titles, but were defended collectively as the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship until the then-anonymous general manager of Raw announced that the World Tag Team Championship would be retired in favor of continuing the WWE Tag Team Championship, which received a new, single set of belts. On February 16, 2010, the ECW Championship was deactivated along with the ECW brand. On September 19, 2010, at Night of Champions, the Women's Championship was unified with the Divas Championship, retiring the Women's Championship in the process; the Divas Championship was briefly referred to as the Unified WWE Divas Championship. The first brand extension would then end a year later and all champions could appear on both shows.


title: WWE brand extension

text: In 2012, NXT became a developmental brand for WWE and they introduced the NXT Championship that year, followed by the NXT Women's Championship and NXT Tag Team Championship in 2013. On December 15, 2013, at , the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship to become the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The title retained the lineage of the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship was retired. The name was reverted to WWE Championship on June 27, 2016. At WrestleMania 32 on April 3, 2016, the Divas Championship was retired and then replaced with a brand-new WWE Women's Championship.


title: WWE brand extension

text: After five years, a new brand extension was introduced on July 19, 2016. Raw drafted the WWE Women's Champion, the United States Champion, and the WWE Tag Team Champions, while SmackDown drafted the WWE Champion and the Intercontinental Champion; NXT champions were ineligible to be drafted. This distribution of championships remained unchanged at the Battleground pay-per-view, which took place the Sunday immediately following the draft. With the WWE Championship being defended exclusively on SmackDown, Raw commissioner Stephanie McMahon and general manager Mick Foley introduced the WWE Universal Championship to be Raw's world title. As SmackDown was lacking a tag team championship and a women's championship, SmackDown commissioner Shane McMahon and general manager Daniel Bryan introduced the SmackDown Tag Team Championship and SmackDown Women's Championship. Subsequently, the WWE Women's Championship and the WWE Tag Team Championship were renamed as the Raw Women's Championship and the Raw Tag Team Championship, respectively. With this, each brand had a world championship, a secondary championship, a tag team championship, and a women's championship.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Since Raw became the exclusive home of WWE's revived cruiserweight division, they also created a new WWE Cruiserweight Championship. Beginning November 29, 2016, in addition to "Raw", the Cruiserweight Championship was defended on the cruiserweight-exclusive show, "205 Live". 205 Live would become its own brand in 2018, making the title exclusive to the brand. The WWE United Kingdom Championship was unveiled in December 2016 with its inaugural holder determined in January 2017. The title later became the top championship for the United Kingdom-based NXT spinoff, NXT UK, which debuted in mid-2018 and also introduced the NXT UK Women's Championship and NXT UK Tag Team Championship; the WWE United Kingdom Championship was renamed to NXT United Kingdom Championship in January 2020. A secondary title of the NXT brand was also introduced in mid-2018, the NXT North American Championship.


title: WWE brand extension

text: In early 2019, the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship was established to be shared between Raw, SmackDown, and NXT. In May 2019, the WWE 24/7 Championship was established. Defended across all five of WWE's brands, it is open to anyone, regardless of gender or WWE employment status. In October 2019, after NXT's creative team took over 205 Live, the WWE Cruiserweight Championship was renamed to NXT Cruiserweight Championship, with the title now shared between 205 Live and NXT, and was later extended to NXT UK in January 2020. A secondary title was later introduced for NXT UK called the NXT UK Heritage Cup with its own special stipulations. Subsequently, the NXT Women's Tag Team Championship was created for NXT with the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship becoming only shared between Raw and SmackDown. In January 2022, the NXT Cruiserweight Championship was retired after it was unified with the NXT North American Championship.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Although mostly regarded as a WWE concept, brand extensions have also occurred in other professional wrestling promotions. In the 1990s, then-President of World Championship Wrestling (WCW) Eric Bischoff proposed a brand extension between WCW and the popular New World Order (nWo) stable, which would have seen the group expand in scope and the production of nWo-branded programming; this concept was scrapped due to budgetary concerns. However, in 1997, an nWo-exclusive pay-per-view, Souled Out, was held. A year later in 1998, WCW began co-branding all of its pay-per-view events under the "WCW/nWo" banner, a practice that continued into 1999.


title: WWE brand extension

text: In the mid-2000s, New Japan Pro-Wrestling introduced a brand extension which divided their roster into two sub-brands: Wrestle Land and Lock Up; around the same period fellow Japanese promotion Kaientai Dojo promoted two sub-brands for their roster, Get and Rave. In 2013, AAA launched a brand extension that split their roster into two sub-brands, "Evolución" and "Fusión".


title: WWE brand extension

text: A similar concept to WWE's brand extension is currently utilized by the Japanese promotions CyberFight, which promotes four distinct sub-brands, and Gleat, which promotes two sub-brands.


title: WWE brand extension

text: Following the acquisition of Ring of Honor by All Elite Wrestling co-founder Tony Khan in March 2022, ROH and AEW promotions are operating independently with separate rosters and championships under Khan's ownership.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: In computing, Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is an interface specification that enables web servers to execute an external program, typically to process user requests.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Such programs are often written in a scripting language and are commonly referred to as "CGI scripts", but they may include compiled programs.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: A typical use case occurs when a web user submits a web form on a web page that uses CGI. The form's data is sent to the web server within an HTTP request with a URL denoting a CGI script. The web server then launches the CGI script in a new computer process, passing the form data to it. The output of the CGI script, usually in the form of HTML, is returned by the script to the Web server, and the server relays it back to the browser as its response to the browser's request.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Developed in the early 1990s, CGI was the earliest common method available that allowed a web page to be interactive.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) team wrote the specification for calling command line executables on the www-talk mailing list. The other Web server developers adopted it, and it has been a standard for Web servers ever since. A work group chaired by Ken Coar started in November 1997 to get the NCSA definition of CGI more formally defined. This work resulted in RFC 3875, which specified CGI Version 1.1. Specifically mentioned in the RFC are the following contributors:


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Historically CGI programs were often written using the C programming language . RFC 3875 "The Common Gateway Interface (CGI)" partially defines CGI using C, in saying that environment variables "are accessed by the C library routine getenv() or variable environ".


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: The name CGI comes from the early days of the Web, where "webmasters" wanted to connect legacy information systems such as databases to their Web servers. The CGI program was executed by the server that provided a common "gateway" between the Web server and the legacy information system.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Each Web server runs HTTP server software, which responds to requests from web browsers. Generally, the HTTP server has a directory (folder), which is designated as a document collection – files that can be sent to Web browsers connected to this server. For example, if the Web server has the domain name codice_1, and its document collection is stored at codice_2 in the local file system, then the Web server will respond to a request for codice_3 by sending to the browser the (pre-written) file codice_4.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: For pages constructed on the fly, the server software may defer requests to separate programs and relay the results to the requesting client (usually, a Web browser that displays the page to the end user). In the early days of the Web, such programs were usually small and written in a scripting language; hence, they were known as "scripts".


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Such programs usually require some additional information to be specified with the request. For instance, if Wikipedia were implemented as a script, one thing the script would need to know is whether the user is logged in and, if logged in, under which name. The content at the top of a Wikipedia page depends on this information.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: HTTP provides ways for browsers to pass such information to the Web server, e.g. as part of the URL. The server software must then pass this information through to the script somehow.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Conversely, upon returning, the script must provide all the information required by HTTP for a response to the request: the HTTP status of the request, the document content (if available), the document type (e.g. HTML, PDF, or plain text), et cetera.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Initially, different server software would use different ways to exchange this information with scripts. As a result, it wasn't possible to write scripts that would work unmodified for different server software, even though the information being exchanged was the same. Therefore, it was decided to specify a way for exchanging this information: CGI (the "Common Gateway Interface", as it defines a common way for server software to interface with scripts).


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Webpage generating programs invoked by server software that operate according to the CGI specification are known as "CGI scripts".


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: This specification was quickly adopted and is still supported by all well-known server software, such as Apache, IIS, and (with an extension) node.js-based servers.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: An early use of CGI scripts was to process forms. In the beginning of HTML, HTML forms typically had an "action" attribute and a button designated as the "submit" button. When the submit button is pushed the URI specified in the "action" attribute would be sent to the server with the data from the form sent as a query string. If the "action" specifies a CGI script then the CGI script would be executed and it then produces an HTML page.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: This is usually done by marking a new directory within the document collection as containing CGI scripts – its name is often codice_5. For example, codice_6 could be designated as a CGI directory on the Web server. When a Web browser requests a URL that points to a file within the CGI directory (e.g., codice_7), then, instead of simply sending that file (codice_8) to the Web browser, the HTTP server runs the specified script and passes the output of the script to the Web browser. That is, anything that the script sends to standard output is passed to the Web client instead of being shown on-screen in a terminal window.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: As remarked above, the CGI specification defines how additional information passed with the request is passed to the script.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: For instance, if a slash and additional directory name(s) are appended to the URL immediately after the name of the script (in this example, codice_9), then that path is stored in the codice_10 environment variable before the script is called. If parameters are sent to the script via an HTTP GET request (a question mark appended to the URL, followed by param=value pairs; in the example, codice_11), then those parameters are stored in the codice_12 environment variable before the script is called. If parameters are sent to the script via an HTTP POST request, they are passed to the script's standard input. The script can then read these environment variables or data from standard input and adapt to the Web browser's request.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: If a Web browser issues a request for the environment variables at codice_13, a 64-bit Windows 7 Web server running cygwin returns the following information:


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Some, such as codice_10, codice_12, and the ones starting with codice_16, pass information along from the HTTP request.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: From the environment, it can be seen that the Web browser is Firefox running on a Windows 7 PC, the Web server is Apache running on a system that emulates Unix, and the CGI script is named codice_17.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: The program could then generate any content, write that to standard output, and the Web server will transmit it to the browser.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: The program returns the result to the Web server in the form of standard output, beginning with a header and a blank line.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: The header is encoded in the same way as an HTTP header and must include the MIME type of the document returned. The headers, supplemented by the Web server, are generally forwarded with the response back to the user.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: Here is a simple CGI program written in Python 3 along with the HTML that handles a simple addition problem.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: A Web server that supports CGI can be configured to interpret a URL that it serves as a reference to a CGI script. A common convention is to have a codice_44 directory at the base of the directory tree and treat all executable files within this directory (and no other, for security) as CGI scripts. Another popular convention is to use filename extensions; for instance, if CGI scripts are consistently given the extension codice_45, the Web server can be configured to interpret all such files as CGI scripts. While convenient, and required by many prepackaged scripts, it opens the server to attack if a remote user can upload executable code with the proper extension.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: In the case of HTTP PUT or POSTs, the user-submitted data are provided to the program via the standard input. The Web server creates a subset of the environment variables passed to it and adds details pertinent to the HTTP environment.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: CGI is often used to process input information from the user and produce the appropriate output. An example of a CGI program is one implementing a wiki. If the user agent requests the name of an entry, the Web server executes the CGI program. The CGI program retrieves the source of that entry's page (if one exists), transforms it into HTML, and prints the result. The Web server receives the output from the CGI program and transmits it to the user agent. Then if the user agent clicks the "Edit page" button, the CGI program populates an HTML codice_46 or other editing control with the page's contents. Finally if the user agent clicks the "Publish page" button, the CGI program transforms the updated HTML into the source of that entry's page and saves it.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: CGI programs run, by default, in the security context of the Web server. When first introduced a number of example scripts were provided with the reference distributions of the NCSA, Apache and CERN Web servers to show how shell scripts or C programs could be coded to make use of the new CGI. One such example script was a CGI program called PHF that implemented a simple phone book.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: In common with a number of other scripts at the time, this script made use of a function: codice_47. The function was supposed to sanitize its argument, which came from user input and then pass the input to the Unix shell, to be run in the security context of the Web server. The script did not correctly sanitize all input and allowed new lines to be passed to the shell, which effectively allowed multiple commands to be run. The results of these commands were then displayed on the Web server. If the security context of the Web server allowed it, malicious commands could be executed by attackers.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: This was the first widespread example of a new type of Web based attack, where unsanitized data from Web users could lead to execution of code on a Web server. Because the example code was installed by default, attacks were widespread and led to a number of security advisories in early 1996.


title: Common Gateway Interface

text: For each incoming HTTP request, a Web server creates a new CGI process for handling it and destroys the CGI process after the HTTP request has been handled. Creating and destroying a process can consume much more CPU and memory than the actual work of generating the output of the process, especially when the CGI program still needs to be interpreted by a virtual machine. For a high number of HTTP requests, the resulting workload can quickly overwhelm the Web server.