title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The sixth season began airing on ABC in the United States on May 10, 2019, and consisted of 13 episodes. On holding the season until mid-2019, Dungey explained, "By putting it on the summer we feel we can super-serve the show’s audience and possibly have it on the air longer," in part because ABC's "live-same-day ratings are less important" in the summer season. Since the season was set to air after the release of "Avengers: Endgame", Dungey noted in May 2018 that the decision to schedule it then was ABC's, and not in accordance with any of Marvel Studios' larger MCU plans. However, at one point between then and the season's release, ABC asked Marvel Television about moving the season's premiere several months earlier, and the studio asked them not to do this so that "Endgame" would not be released in the middle of the season's airing.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The season began streaming on Netflix in the United States on September 1, 2019, and was available until February 28, 2022. It became available on Disney+ in the United States on March 16, 2022, joining other territories where it was already available on the service.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: According to Nielsen Media Research, the season premiered to a 0.4/3 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 0.4 percent of all households, and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. This was a drop from the previous seasons's finale and average viewership. However, the total audience of 2.31 million people was the largest for the series since January 2018. The season went on to be the highest ranking program in its timeslot for the 2019 summer period, and best performing series for ABC in the timeslot since the 2016 summer period. The season averaged 2.25 million total viewers, including from DVR, ranking 158th among network series in the 2018–19 television season. It also had an average total 18-49 rating of 0.4, which was 165th.


title: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 6)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 93% approval rating, with an average score of 7.7/10, based on 15 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Six seasons in and "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." continues to deepen its exploration of space and the relationships between its heroes."


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: An eruption at the Cumbre Vieja volcanic ridge, comprising the southern half of the Spanish island of La Palma in the Canary Islands, lasted from 19 September to 13 December 2021. It was the first volcanic eruption on the island since the eruption of Teneguía in 1971. At 85 days, it is the longest known eruption of a volcano on La Palma.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The eruption has caused the evacuation of around 7,000 people, and the lava flow has covered over 1000 hectares. The lava flow is about 3.5 kilometre (2.3 mile) wide in its widest point, about 6.2 kilometre long (3.9 mile) and has reached the sea, destroying more than 3,000 buildings, cutting the coastal highway and forming a new peninsula. The town of Todoque, including its easternmost neighbourhood Los Campitos, was completely destroyed by lava, which has also reached La Laguna (a town within the municipality of Los Llanos de Aridane). One death has been linked to the volcano but the cause has yet to be determined.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: It is the most damaging volcanic eruption on La Palma since records began. The total damage caused by the volcano amounts up to 843 million euros as calculated by the government of the Canary Islands.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: Volcanic activity began decreasing in early December 2021 and stopped on 13 December. Noting weak seismicity and tremors, scientists said that a resumption of the eruption was highly improbable, giving locals hope that it had ended. On 25 December 2021, after 12 days with no activity from the volcano, the eruption was officially declared to have ended.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The Cabeza de Vaca area is northwest of the two 1949 eruptive centers, San Juan and Duraznero. During the 1949 eruption, fault displacements also had westward components with movement down the volcano's flanks.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The last subaerial eruption in Spain, also on La Palma, was the 1971 Teneguía eruption, which asphyxiated a nearby photographer with its fumes. The eruption also caused some property damage to roads, crops, and homes. The last eruption of any kind in the Canaries was the 2011–2012 eruption of El Hierro, a submarine volcano.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: An earthquake swarm started under Cumbre Vieja on 11 September 2021. It slowly migrated to the surface, with earthquakes of up to around mb magnitude 3.5, and more than 22,000 earthquakes were recorded in the space of a week. A yellow warning of potential volcanic activity was issued on 13 September, covering 35,000 people in the municipalities of Los Llanos de Aridane, Fuencaliente, El Paso and Villa de Mazo. At least 40 individuals and some livestock on La Palma were evacuated by authorities due to this warning, although no complete evacuation of the vicinity around the volcano had been declared.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The eruption began at 14:13 local time (14:13 UTC) on 19 September 2021 in a forested area called "Cabeza de Vaca", of Montaña Rajada, in the Las Manchas section of the municipality of El Paso.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: Around 300 people from the local area were evacuated shortly after the eruption, and then a further 700 people (including 500 tourists) were evacuated from the Los Llanos de Aridane coastal region in case the lava flowed to the sea and cut off the main access roads. The total number of evacuees is now estimated to be 5,000 to 10,000. The alert level was raised to its highest level—red—due to the eruption.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On the fourth day, according to the Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands, the volcano entered a more explosive phase, expelling less volcanic gas.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: For its first two months, the eruption was assigned a rating on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of VEI 2 (on a scale of 8). On 20 November 2021, the scientific committee of the Canary Islands Volcanic Emergency Plan (Pevolca) raised the rating from VEI 2 to VEI 3. Though in modern eruptions where it can be measured, eruption column height is often seen as a more accurate measure, in this case the change was based on the 10 million cubic metres of ejected material measure alone. The VEI rating was increased despite no change in the eruptive mechanism or explosiveness.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On the afternoon of 19 September, the Emergency Committee of the General Hospital of La Palma suspended all non-urgent surgeries, outpatient consultations and patient visits, with exceptions in the latter case, as a preventive measure to guarantee the hospital's capacity to attend in the event that it was required due to the eruption. The hospital resumed normal operations the following day.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On the morning of 20 September, the Canarian Ministry of Education ordered the suspension of all classes in the schools of the nearby municipalities of El Paso, Los Llanos de Aridane and Tazacorte. That same morning, direct flights to the island of La Gomera were suspended, but were restored a few hours later. The day before, the public company in charge of civil air navigation and civil airports in Spain, ENAIRE, together with Eurocontrol, activated the action procedure for volcanic ash, but assured the public that air traffic over the Canary Islands was not affected.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 20 September, around two hundred houses have been destroyed by the flow, according to local authorities. No casualties were reported and flights continued into the islands.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: In the early afternoon of 21 September, the lava reached the neighborhood of Todoque, in the municipality of Los Llanos de Aridane, with 1,200 inhabitants. At the end of that day, 185 buildings were destroyed, 400 hectares of arable land were burnt and 5,500 people were evacuated. Los Campitos public school in Los Llanos de Aridane is among those affected, which was destroyed on Monday 20 September.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 24 September, the eruptive activity intensified, with further ash and volcanic material falling greater distances, forcing firefighters to withdraw from the neighbourhood of Todoque. Two new vents had opened in the side of the main cone, outpouring lava. Authorities extended the exclusion zone and ordered the evacuation of the neighbourhoods of Tajuya, Tacande de Abajo and Tacande de Arriba in the afternoon. Several civilian airlines suspended flights to the island due to the ash cloud.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 25 September, Aena, the operator of the La Palma Airport, suspended all flights due to ash accumulation with cleaning tasks underway. On the same day, a part of the volcano's principal cone collapsed and a new emissive vent opened to the west of the principal cone (or possibly a previous one that had reopened). The new lava flow followed the previous path, although slightly widening in area.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 26 September, the previously stalled lava flows started again to advance towards the coast, destroying the Todoque neighbourhood church of Saint Pius X and advancing to the sea at a speed of 100 to 200 metres (330 to 660 feet) per hour, mostly on top of the older flow. Meanwhile, the volcano seemed to have entered a more stabilised period after the previous days of more explosive eruptions with a slight fall in seismic activity that took place at deeper depths than before, according to IGN.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 28 September, at around 23:02 local time (22:02 UTC), the lava flow reached the sea at the Beach of Los Guirres, also called New Beach, of the municipality of Tazacorte. The heating of the seawater to a high temperature might produce laze containing emissions of sulfuric, hydrochloric, and hydrofluoric acid into the air. Traces of sulphur dioxide emissions from the volcano had been detected in the upper stratosphere as far north as Scandinavia, but the actual impacts of the SO emissions on the weather and air quality were said to be globally negligible so far, mostly due to the emitted amounts and their altitude. Earlier on that day, Spain's government classified the island of La Palma as a disaster zone, due to the steadily increasing property and economic damage caused by the eruption, a move that will trigger emergency subsidies and other support measures.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The lava flow into the sea created a new lava delta, or "fajana". , this was in size and continuing to grow. It was by 2 October. The new land is claimed by the Spanish Government.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 1 October, a new vent opened, the third in addition to the main crater. This emitted two streams of lava that cut the important LP2 highway and threatened more of the populated area of Los Llanos de Aridane. The total amount of lava emitted since the eruption began was by now estimated to be at least 80 million cubic metres.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 7 October, at 12:17 local time, an earthquake of magnitude 4.3 mbLg was detected on the island at a depth of 35 km. This was the strongest earthquake since the start of the eruption. By the end of the day, the lava had covered 422 hectares of land and the lava delta had grown to cover an area of 38 hectares.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: By 8 October, according to the Copernicus Emergency Management Service, the lava flow had affected 497 hectares of land and more than 1100 buildings had been destroyed.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 9 October, part of the north face of the volcano collapsed, causing the lava within the crater to spill out. Three new lava streams were formed.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 10 October, large chunks of red-hot lava the size of three-storey buildings rolled down and one of the new lava streams reached Callejón de la Gata, an industrial area of Los Llanos de Aridane, and destroyed what was left of the town of Todoque.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 11 October, the northern side of the volcanic crater collapsed creating a new lava flow which threatened another urban district known as La Laguna.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: By 12 October, the lava flow had covered over 595 hectares. A fire at a cement factory and the risk of lava affecting more factories and warehouses in an industrial area led to the confinement of 3,500 people in El Paso and Los Llanos de Aridane, with the northern lava flow around 300 metres from the sea. A magnitude 4.1 earthquake also occurred at a depth of 11 kilometers.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 13 October, the strongest earthquake since the start of the earthquake storm was felt across the island, with magnitude 4.4 at a depth of 36 km.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The northern lava flow entered La Laguna on 14 October, destroying a football pitch and a supermarket, as well as other buildings. By 15 October, further evacuations of regions that might be affected by the lava flow meant that nearly 7,000 people had been displaced, and the lava flow covered over 670 hectares.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: A magnitude 4.6 earthquake occurred at 4.41am on 16 October, along with a 4.5 earthquake at 6.07am, both at a depth of 37 km below Mazo.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 17 October, the advance of the lava flows had slowed. There were plans to rescue five dogs who are trapped in a water tank between lava flows, although it was confirmed that one of them had died. The rescue would involve a specialist company, and the use of drones that usually transport cargo to ships in Gibraltar. By the evening, though, the lava flows reactivated, and it was expected that a second one of them will reach the sea shortly. Another earthquake of magnitude 4.6 occurred below Mazo. Meanwhile, 4,500 children went back to school again for the first time in 30 days, despite the volcanic eruption and COVID-19, with students from Los Campitos and Todoque relocated to a building in Los Llanos. The lava flows have also impacted industrial structures such as cement plants, which have also caused gas clouds and explosions, and have affected flights at Tenerife North–Ciudad de La Laguna Airport.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: By 19 October, one month after the start of the eruption, the lava had covered of land, almost 30% of which were banana plantations, 1086 land plots, 1692 buildings and of roads.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 24 October, a magnitude 4.9 earthquake occurred beneath Mazo at 4.34pm. The total extent of the lava flows had by now covered an area of at least seven square kilometres.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 25 October, the intensity of the earth tremors had increased and the lava flows to date had destroyed over 2,000 buildings.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 26 October, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake under Mazo was also felt in Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro. The upper main part of the volcano also had a partial collapse, with the resulting lava flow following the previous flows into the sea.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: , the lava that has flowed from the volcano (on 26 October estimated to be 215 million cubic metres) has destroyed or affected over 2,100 buildings, over of roads and covered an area of over , with volcanic ash fall covering over within the limits of the monitored area, according to estimates from visual and radar satellite data by the Copernicus EMS.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 27 October, the volcano emitted at least 50,000 tons of sulphur dioxide gas. This caused the authorities to advise the public to close the windows of their homes and remain indoors.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 29 October, the lava flows had covered a total of around 900 hectares and a total number of 7000 people had been evacuated from the surrounding area.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 30 October, a magnitude 5 earthquake occurred, again under Mazo. The area covered by lava flows had increased to around 963 hectares.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 31 October, a second magnitude 5 earthquake occurred and it was reported that more would be expected. The area covered by lava flows had increased to at least 1000 hectares. It was also reported that all hotels, hostels, guest-houses, etc. at La Palma were fully booked on account of the large number of tourists travelling there wanting to see the volcano.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 14 November, a 72-year-old man died from injuries sustained when the roof of his house collapsed while he was clearing ash off it. His death was the first associated with the eruption.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 15 November, a third lava flow reached the sea increasing the island area by a further 40 hectares. Volcanic activity had lessened although the local air quality was still serious.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 20 November, the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) was upgraded from VEI 2 to VEI 3, when the ejected pyroclastic material reached 10 million m³. It was expressly emphasized that the upgrade does not mean an increased risk, since the activity of the volcanic eruption had not increased.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 25 November, a new fissure opened to the south of the original cone, spewing lava which was less viscous and flowed faster.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 28 November, at 03:00 local time (02:00 UTC), a new fissure opened at the foot of the northeastern flank of the main cone, spewing lava and pyroclastic ash.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 12 December, the volcanic eruption broke the local record, when it reached 85 days of continuous activity. The eruption is considered to be the longest known eruption of a volcano on La Palma. Previously, the eruption of the Tajuya Volcano in 1585 was the longest at 84 days. No reliable data is available about previous volcanic eruptions.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 13 December, the volcano released large amounts of toxic sulphur dioxide gas. As a result, the authorities ordered 30,000 residents of three municipalities to remain indoors. On the same day, the volcanic eruption ceased.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: <mapframe width=650 height=470 zoom=13 latitude=28.616398 longitude=-17.894754 text= "Interactive map of the lava extent, mapped and updated by collaborators of OpenStreetMap" align=center>


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: Prime Minister of Spain Pedro Sánchez went to the archipelago shortly after the eruption to see the situation on La Palma first-hand, the coordination of the system and the protocols activated, postponing a trip to New York to attend the Seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: King Felipe VI called the President of the Canary Islands, Ángel Víctor Torres, on the afternoon of the eruption to inquire about the situation. The following day during the opening ceremony of the university year in Córdoba, the King sent a message of support to "those who are suffering the evacuation of their homes" and thanked the emergency services for their work. A few days later, he, accompanied by Queen Letizia, travelled to the island.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 19 September, the European Union, on request of Spanish General Directorate for Civil Protection and Emergencies (CENEM), activated the Copernicus Emergency Management Service – Mapping to monitor the eruption and the President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen announced via Twitter that "additional support, if necessary," would be made available to the Spanish government.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 20 September, the Minister of Industry, Trade and Tourism, Reyes Maroto, declared that the eruption on La Palma could be used as a tourist attraction to lure visitors. Her comments caused widespread criticism, because homes, public buildings and businesses began to be destroyed by the lava flows. Later, due to mounting criticism, including from opposition politicians, Reyes Maroto retracted her words.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The Bishop of Tenerife, Bernardo Álvarez Afonso, offered Mass on 22 September at the Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora de las Nieves in La Palma, together with the priests of the island, to pray for the end of the eruption. At the Angelus on Sunday 26 September, Pope Francis expressed his "closeness and solidarity with those affected by the eruption of the volcano on the island of La Palma, in the Canary Islands". The Todoque Church was subsequently destroyed by the lava flow on 26 September.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: On 24 September, Prime Minister, Pedro Sánchez announced that at the next meeting of the council of ministers, on 28 September, the island will be declared a disaster area, that the government is preparing a reconstruction plan and a set of immediate measures to provide housing for those families whose homes have been destroyed.


title: 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

text: The eruption source is a new vent of the Cumbre Vieja dorsal. , the new vent was still officially unnamed. Volcano vents on La Palma have traditionally been either given Guanche names or, more rarely and not in recent times, named after the Saint on whose feast day the eruption began. An early proposal for a Guanche name for the new vent was Jedey, after a nearby village, but this was not received favourably. A newer proposal is Tajogaite, after the Guanche name for Montaña Rajada ("Cracked Mountain"), the area directly downhill from the eruption site. This name has since gained wider support.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC -- commonly pronounced "JAY-rotsee") is a federal program sponsored by the United States Armed Forces in high schools and also in some middle schools across the United States and at US military bases across the world. The program was originally created as part of the National Defense Act of 1916 and later expanded under the 1964 ROTC Vitalization Act.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: According to Title 10, Section 2031 of the United States Code, the purpose of the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps is "to instill in students in [the United States] secondary educational institutions the values of citizenship, service to the United States, and personal responsibility and a sense of accomplishment." Additional objectives are established by the service departments of the Department of Defense. Under 542.4 of Title 32 (National Defense) of the Code of Federal Regulations, the Department of the Army has declared those objectives for each cadet to be:


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Section 524.5 of the CFR National Defense title states in part that JROTC should "provide meaningful leadership instruction of benefit to the student and of value to the Armed Forces. ...Students will acquire: (1) An understanding of the fundamental concept of leadership, military art and science, (2) An introduction to related professional knowledge, and (3) An appreciation of requirements for national security. The dual roles of citizen/soldier and soldier/citizen are studied. ... These programs will enable cadets to better serve their country as leaders, as citizens, and in military service should they enter it. ... The JROTC and NDCC are not, of themselves, officer-producing programs but should create favorable attitudes and impressions toward the Services and toward careers in the Armed Forces."


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The military has stated that JROTC will inform young Americans about the opportunities available in the military and "may help motivate young Americans toward military service." A 1999 Army policy memorandum stated that "While not designed to be a specific recruiting tool, there is nothing in existing law that precludes ... facilitating the recruitment of young men and women into the U.S. Army," directing instructors to "actively assist cadets who want to enlist in the military [and] emphasize service in the U.S. Army; facilitate recruiter access to cadets in JROTC program and to the entire student body ... [and] work closely with high school guidance counselors to sell the Army story."


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: In a February 2000 testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, the armed service chiefs of staff testified that 30%–50% of graduating JROTC cadets go on to join the military:


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: General Colin Powell said in his 1995 autobiography that "the armed forces might get a youngster more inclined to enlist as a result of Junior ROTC," but added that "Inner-city kids, many from broken homes, found stability and role models in Junior ROTC." U.S. Congress found in the "Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000" that JROTC and similar programs "provide significant benefits for the Armed Forces, including significant public relations benefits." Former United States Secretary of Defense William Cohen referred to JROTC as "one of the best recruitment programs we could have."


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Six of the eight branches of the Uniformed services of the United States maintain a Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, organized into units. There are a total of 3,275 units:


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Prior to 1967 the number of units was limited to 1,200. The cap was increased to 1,600 units in 1967 and again to 3,500 units in 1992; the statutory limitation on the number of units was struck from the law in 2001. Their goal was to reach 3,500 units by Feb. 2011 by encouraging program expansion into educationally and economically deprived areas.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Units are set up according to the layout of their parent service, often referred to as the "Chain of Command." Army JROTC units follow a company (usually the period the class is held in), battalion (all periods), and at larger events brigade (multiple battalions) structure. Marine Corps JROTC units follow the battalion, or in cases of larger size, brigade structure. Air Force JROTC units are composed structurally based on size. Individual if one, detail if 2, element if more than 2 and no more than 8, flight if 26, squadron if more than 51, group if more than 101, and wing if more than 251 cadets. Navy JROTC typically follows the company (100-149 cadets), battalion (150-299 cadets), or regiment (300+ cadets) structure depending on the size of the unit.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: JROTC is partly funded by the United States Department of Defense with an allocation in the military budget of about $340 million dollars for the fiscal year 2007, of which about 68 million are personnel costs. The federal government subsidizes instructor salaries, cadet uniforms, equipment and textbooks. The instructors, usually retired military personnel, continue to receive retirement pay from the Federal government, but in addition, the schools pay the difference from what the instructors would receive if they were on active duty. The service concerned then reimburses the school for approximately one-half of the amount paid by the school to the instructor.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Although active duty officers may be assigned to JROTC, this is exceedingly rare, and is primarily limited to staff at the major command or sub-command headquarters overseeing each service's respective JROTC program or regional administrators overseeing a set number of individual units. Unlike the college/university ROTC program, which is an actual military officer training and accession track, the vast majority of NJROTC instructors are retired from the sponsoring branch of the Armed Forces. In the Army JROTC program, the cadet unit at each school is directed by at least one retired commissioned officer in the grade of Captain through Colonel) or a Warrant Officer (WO1 through CW5) who is designated as the Senior Army Instructor, and who is assisted by at least one retired Non-Commissioned Officer in the grade of Staff Sergeant through Command Sergeant Major who is designated as an Army Instructor (AI). In certain situations, there may be additional instructors.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: A new provision from the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540) that was signed into law in October 2006 permits retired Reserve Component officers and noncommissioned officers to be hired as instructors.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: There are no national requirements that JROTC instructors have the teaching credential required by other teachers in public high school, although there are a handful of counties that do require a teaching credential. In at least one jurisdiction (California), the government requires JROTC instructors to have at least four years of military experience and possess a high school diploma or equivalent. AJROTC instructors need to be within one year of retirement or retired from active military service for five or fewer years. MCJROTC instructors need to have graduated from high school, have at least 20 years of active military service and be physically qualified according to Marine Corps standards.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: AFJROTC previously required a minimum of 20 years of active duty but has since been overridden by a provision in the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540), signed into law in October 2006, permitting retired Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard officers and noncommissioned officers to be hired as instructors. Officer instructors need to have a minimum of a bachelor's degree, while a high school diploma or equivalent is sufficient for enlisted instructors.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: For AJROTC the Non-commissioned Officer has to attain an associate degree (AA), with teaching credential, in order to be assigned an AI. To be assigned as a SAI the AJROTC Instructor has to hold a BA degree, with teaching credentials.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: NJROTC also required a minimum of 20 years of active duty until it was overridden by a provision in the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540), signed into law in October 2006, permitting retired Reserve Component personnel (e.g., U.S. Navy Reserve officers, chief petty officers and petty officers) to be hired as NJROTC instructors. The minimum education requirement for an enlisted Naval Science Instructor (NSI) is a high school diploma or equivalent, with a baccalaureate degree from an accredited college or university required for a commissioned officer to serves as a Senior Naval Science Instructor (SNSI). The Navy requires that JROTC instructors be employees of the school or school district and that they are accorded the same status as other school faculty members.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC) offers similar programs as JROTC. NDCC units differ from JROTC in that they receive little or no financial support from the Armed Forces; uniforms, equipment, other materials and instructor salaries must normally be furnished by the school hosting an NDCC program. Except for the funding aspects, JROTC and NDCC programs are virtually identical, although the cadet corps is not limited by the federal statute that restricts JROTC to offering courses only for students in ninth through 12th grades. Per 2005, Chicago had 26 Middle School Cadet Corps enlisting more than 850 students.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The Code of Federal Regulations states that JROTC is "designed for physically fit citizens attending participating schools." In public schools, JROTC is usually an elective course with membership limited to US citizens and legal foreign nationals, those who will graduate with their 9th-grade cohort, and have not experienced an out of school suspension during the preceding six-month period. Often, students who participate for one year receive credit in lieu of a physical education class. Students who excel in the first year of JROTC can apply for a second year. Most schools offer three to four years of JROTC training.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Boarding schools or (pre-college) military schools may offer JROTC programs, with some requiring participation as a condition for acceptance to the school. Some public military schools mandate JROTC as a class for all grade levels, and have a curriculum that includes military history, military protocol, civics, and physical fitness. Chicago has six public military academies, more than any other city and one-third of all in the country.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The JROTC program stresses military discipline, with a curriculum that emphasizes study of military science and military history. Cadets typically wear their uniforms once or twice a week, usually standing for inspection, with the exception being those cadets who attend a JROTC-based military academy. Their creed encourages conduct that brings credit to family, country, school and the corps of cadets, loyalty, citizenship and patriotism. Many cadets participate in extracurricular activities such as the following:


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The most notable JROTC marching band is the Virginia 91st Air Force Junior ROTC Band of the Randolph-Macon Academy. Being a rare part of a JROTC unit, there are few in existence, with the state of Texas only boasting two units with marching bands.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: There are other extracurricular activities that the JROTC's programs provide for their cadets, including trips to military installations, ROTC college programs, and other sites that give the cadets a look at the military community. During the school year, there are regional competitions between JROTC units, with testing in all areas of military, naval and aerospace science. Some units organize special visits to US military bases during school breaks. There are also many summertime "leadership academies" for cadets hosted by various military installations. These academies include the JROTC Leadership and Academic Bowl (JLAB), and JROTC Cadet Leadership Challenge (JCLC), a physical fitness competition.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Cadets may be awarded ribbons, ribbon devices, medals and aiguillettes for participation in JROTC and team activities, as well as for personal academic and athletic achievement and leadership. Awards may be presented by organizations other than the cadet's JROTC program, such as other JROTC programs, Military Officers Association of America, American Veterans, Order of the Daedalians, American Legion, and the National Rifle Association. Ribbons and medals are positioned in order of precedence, as prescribed by the Cadet Field Manual and the senior JROTC instructor.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Some units also host an annual formal military ball (mess dress) and formal dinner. Usually, awards are presented. Female cadets are generally excused from wearing the dress uniform for military ball. Sometimes units also have a separate awards ceremony, which is attended by the instructors, guests, and parents. Fraternal organizations, such as the American Legion, often give out awards for military excellence, academics, and citizenship, in addition to the standard awards given by the JROTC program. The year may be finished with a change of command ceremony, where the new unit commander, executive officer, and other unit officers are named and take command from the current officers. Mid-level officers are also named. Some units choose the next year's NCO and junior officer corps based on officer and NCO candidate schools, usually held immediately following the end of the school year.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Successful completion of a JROTC Program (1–3 years of classes) can lead to advanced rank upon enlistment in the Armed Forces. For example, upon completion of 3 years of Air Force JROTC, cadets may at their instructor's discretion enlist in the Air Force at the rank of Airman First Class (E-3). However, JROTC participation incurs no obligation to join the military.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: A JROTC unit (through the Senior Instructor) may recommend current JROTC cadets for nomination to the Service Academy of the unit's branch. JROTC units designated as Honor Units may nominate up to three cadets to the Service Academy of any branch, in addition to the nominations to the unit's own branch academy.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The JROTC Leadership and Academic Bowl (JLAB) is a national academic competition which is the largest of its kind for high schools in the country. There are three levels of the competition, which units who complete levels 1 and 2 successfully attending the last level at Catholic University of America in Washington D.C. Subjects that are covered in all three levels include history, literature, current events and JROTC curriculum. Depending on the represented branch, there may be 4-8 cadets representing a school. Aside from Cadet Command, the competition is also sponsored by the College Options Foundation.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Established in 1982, the National High School Drill Team Championship is a joint-service exhibition drill competition for JROTC drill teams, held in Daytona Beach, Florida. Although it has been held since 1982, it only became an officially service-based sanctioned event when the U.S. Army Cadet Command became the sponsor in 1988.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: In every branch of the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, there is a branch creed that every cadet in their designated branches must remember.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I will seek the mantle of leadership and stand prepared to uphold the Constitution and the American way of life.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I am connected and faithful to every Corps of Cadets who served their community and nation with patriotism.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I earn respect when I uphold the Core Values of Integrity First, Service Before Self, and Excellence In All We Do.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I will always conduct myself to bring credit to my family, school, Corps of Cadets, community, and to myself.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I will hold others accountable for their actions as well. I will honor those I serve with, those who have gone before me, and those who will come after me.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I revere that long line of Splendid Coasties who, by their devotion to duty and sacrifice, have made it possible for me to be associated with a service honored and respected throughout the world.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I will cheerfully fulfill my commitments and obligations and shall endeavor to do more, rather than less, than my share.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: I shall endeavor to be a noble work, living by the Coast Guard's core values: Honor, Respect, and Devotion to Duty!


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Many members of JROTC go on to have careers in the United States Armed Forces as they are twice as likely to enlist than other high school students. Some notable former members of JROTC include:


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: There has been controversy about JROTC and militarism in schools. The American Friends Service Committee, the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (CCCO), Veterans for Peace, War Resisters League, and the Project on Youth and Non-Military Opportunities, actively oppose the JROTC for a number of reasons, including:


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: The Coalition For Alternatives to Militarism in Our Schools, formed by more than 50 teachers in the Los Angeles Unified School District, aims to "eliminate the Junior Reserves Officer Training Corps in our High Schools." Many cases of abuse by JROTC instructors, as well as credentialing issues, and of having students forced into JROTC due to lack of space in Physical Education classes have been noted in Los Angeles Public Schools. The group claims 2006 showed a reduction in JROTC enrollment in Los Angeles, with a drop of one-third or approximately 1,500 students, suggesting part of the explanation is efforts to stop the involuntary enrollment of students into JROTC. At Roosevelt High School in the Boyle Heights section of Los Angeles, a local campaign against JROTC cut the number of cadets 43 percent in four years, with a JROTC instructor reporting a 24 percent drop in enrollment from 2003–04 to 2006-07 for the rest of the Los Angeles unified School District.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: In October 2005, the New York Civil Liberties Union pressured Hutchinson Central Technical High School in Buffalo, New York to release students from a mandatory JROTC program, arguing that the practice violates the State's Education Law, which provides that no child may be enrolled in JROTC without prior written parental consent.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: In May 2008, the American Civil Liberties Union stated that JROTC violates the United Nations sponsored Convention on the Rights of the Child by targeting students as young as 14 for recruitment to the military. The United States has not ratified the convention, although it has ratified an optional protocol to the Convention on "the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict." However, recruiting is not an official goal of JROTC, as stated in United States Code pertaining to the program. Nor is it a stated goal in each of the individual service's JROTC program mission statements.


title: Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps

text: Sexual harassment and assault of JROTC cadets by instructors is reported to have occurred in the program, and some instructors have been criminally charged in relation to these crimes. Lack of oversight and the minimal training required for instructors have been cited as factors contributing to this problem.


title: Sobel operator

text: The Sobel operator, sometimes called the Sobel–Feldman operator or Sobel filter, is used in image processing and computer vision, particularly within edge detection algorithms where it creates an image emphasising edges. It is named after Irwin Sobel and Gary Feldman, colleagues at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL). Sobel and Feldman presented the idea of an "Isotropic 3 × 3 Image Gradient Operator" at a talk at SAIL in 1968. Technically, it is a discrete differentiation operator, computing an approximation of the gradient of the image intensity function. At each point in the image, the result of the Sobel–Feldman operator is either the corresponding gradient vector or the norm of this vector. The Sobel–Feldman operator is based on convolving the image with a small, separable, and integer-valued filter in the horizontal and vertical directions and is therefore relatively inexpensive in terms of computations. On the other hand, the gradient approximation that it produces is relatively crude, in particular for high-frequency variations in the image.


title: Sobel operator

text: The operator uses two 3×3 kernels which are convolved with the original image to calculate approximations of the derivatives – one for horizontal changes, and one for vertical. If we define A as the source image, and G and G are two images which at each point contain the horizontal and vertical derivative approximations respectively, the computations are as follows:


title: Sobel operator

text: The "x"-coordinate is defined here as increasing in the "right"-direction, and the "y"-coordinate is defined as increasing in the "down"-direction. At each point in the image, the resulting gradient approximations can be combined to give the gradient magnitude, using:


title: Sobel operator

text: where, for example, formula_7 is 0 for a vertical edge which is lighter on the right side (for formula_8 see atan2).


title: Sobel operator

text: Since the intensity function of a digital image is only known at discrete points, derivatives of this function cannot be defined unless we assume that there is an underlying differentiable intensity function that has been sampled at the image points. With some additional assumptions, the derivative of the continuous intensity function can be computed as a function on the sampled intensity function, i.e. the digital image. It turns out that the derivatives at any particular point are functions of the intensity values at virtually all image points. However, approximations of these derivative functions can be defined at lesser or larger degrees of accuracy.


title: Sobel operator

text: The Sobel-Feldman operator represents a rather inaccurate approximation of the image gradient, but is still of sufficient quality to be of practical use in many applications. More precisely, it uses intensity values only in a 3×3 region around each image point to approximate the corresponding image gradient, and it uses only integer values for the coefficients which weight the image intensities to produce the gradient approximation.


title: Sobel operator

text: As a consequence of its definition, the Sobel operator can be implemented by simple means in both hardware and software: only eight image points around a point are needed to compute the corresponding result and only integer arithmetic is needed to compute the gradient vector approximation. Furthermore, the two discrete filters described above are both separable:


title: Sobel operator

text: In certain implementations, this separable computation may be advantageous since it implies fewer arithmetic computations for each image point.


title: Sobel operator

text: N(x,y) represents the new matrix resulted after applying the Convolution "K" to "P", where "P" is pixel matrix.


title: Sobel operator

text: The result of the Sobel–Feldman operator is a 2-dimensional map of the gradient at each point. It can be processed and viewed as though it is itself an image, with the areas of high gradient (the likely edges) visible as white lines. The following images illustrate this, by showing the computation of the Sobel-Feldman operator on a simple image.


title: Sobel operator

text: The images below illustrate the change in the direction of the gradient on a grayscale circle. When the sign of formula_22 and formula_23 are the same the gradient's angle is positive, and negative when different. In the example below the red and yellow colors on the edge of the circle indicate positive angles, and the blue and cyan colors indicate negative angles. The vertical edges on the left and right sides of the circle have an angle of 0 because there is no local change in formula_23. The horizontal edges at the top and bottom sides of the circle have angles of − and respectively because there is no local change in formula_22. The negative angle for top edge signifies the transition is from a bright to dark region, and the positive angle for the bottom edge signifies a transition from a dark to bright region. All other pixels are marked as black due to no local change in either formula_22 or formula_23, and thus the angle is not defined. Since the angle is a function of the ratio of formula_23 to formula_22 pixels with small rates of change can still have a large angle response. As a result noise can have a large angle response which is typically undesired. When using gradient angle information for image processing applications effort should be made to remove image noise to reduce this false response.


title: Sobel operator

text: The Sobel–Feldman operator, while reducing artifacts associated with a pure central differences operator, does not exhibit a good rotational symmetry (about 1° of error). Scharr looked into optimizing this property by producing kernels optimized for specific given numeric precision (integer, float…) and dimensionalities (1D, 2D, 3D). Optimized 3D filter kernels up to a size of 5 x 5 x 5 have been presented there, but the most frequently used, with an error of about 0.2° is:


title: Sobel operator

text: Scharr operators result from an optimization minimizing weighted mean squared angular error in the Fourier domain. This optimization is done under the condition that resulting filters are numerically consistent. Therefore they really are derivative kernels rather than merely keeping symmetry constraints. The optimal 8 bit integer valued 3x3 filter stemming from Scharr's theory is


title: Sobel operator

text: A similar optimization strategy and resulting filters were also presented by Farid and Simoncelli. They also investigate higher-order derivative schemes. In contrast to the work of Scharr, these filters are not enforced to be numerically consistent.


title: Sobel operator

text: Derivative filters based on arbitrary cubic splines was presented by Hast. He showed how first and second order derivatives can be computed correctly using cubic or trigonometric splines by a double filtering approach giving filters of length 7.


title: Sobel operator

text: Another similar operator that was originally generated from the Sobel operator is the Kayyali operator, a perfect rotational symmetry based convolution filter 3x3.


title: Sobel operator

text: Orientation-optimal derivative kernels drastically reduce systematic estimation errors in optical flow estimation. Larger schemes with even higher accuracy and optimized filter families for extended optical flow estimation have been presented in subsequent work by Scharr. Second order derivative filter sets have been investigated for transparent motion estimation. It has been observed that the larger the resulting kernels are, the better they approximate derivative-of-Gaussian filters.


title: Sobel operator

text: Here, four different gradient operators are used to estimate the magnitude of the gradient of the test image.


title: Sobel operator

text: The above MATLAB code will use an image which is packaged with MATLAB itself ('gantrycrane.png') to demo the Sobel filter. There will be outputs with original image, grayscale version of original image and the output from the Sobel filter.


title: Comparison of European road signs

text: European traffic signs present relevant differences between countries despite an apparent uniformity and standardisation. Most European countries refer to the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals. The convention has been adopted by the following countries (including acceding states): Albania, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. The convention has not been adopted by Ireland, Iceland or Malta.


title: Comparison of European road signs

text: In Albania, Andorra, Belarus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Monaco, Russia, San Marino, Sweden, and Ukraine, destinations on direction signs are written in capital letters. In Ireland, they are written in all-capital letters in English and in mixed-case letters in Irish. In Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein. Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland both capital and lowercase are used. In Spain, destinations reached by motorway are written in capital and lowercase, while those reached by other roads are written in capital letters. In the United Kingdom and Portugal, regional destinations names and cardinal directions are written in capital letters, while the remaining destinations names are written in capital and lowercase.


title: Comparison of European road signs

text: Under the Vienna Convention the begin and end built-up area signs imply a change between built-up area and rural traffic rules including speed limit. In many European countries the dark background with light coloured text version of the sign is intended for information only. Poland uses white text on a green background (E-17a/E18a) to show the political boundary of a place as information and uses the black on white pictogram version (D-42/D-43) to designate the change of traffic rules.


title: Damn Yankees

text: Damn Yankees is a 1955 musical comedy with a book by George Abbott and Douglass Wallop, music and lyrics by Richard Adler and Jerry Ross. The story is a modern retelling of the Faust legend set during the 1950s in Washington, D.C., during a time when the New York Yankees dominated Major League Baseball. It is based on Wallop's 1954 novel "The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant".


title: Damn Yankees

text: The show ran for 1,019 performances in its original Broadway production. Adler and Ross's success with it and "The Pajama Game" seemed to point to a bright future for them, but Ross suddenly died of chronic bronchiectasis at age 29, several months after "Damn Yankees" opened.


title: Damn Yankees

text: NOTE: This is the plot of the 1994 Broadway revival of the show; there are differences from the original 1955 version. For the 1958 film version, see "Damn Yankees" (film).


title: Damn Yankees

text: Middle-aged real estate agent Joe Boyd is a long-suffering fan of the pathetic Washington Senators baseball team. His wife, Meg, laments this ("Six Months Out Of Every Year"). After she has gone to bed, he sits up late, grumbling that if the Senators just had a "long ball hitter" they could beat "those damn Yankees". Suddenly, the smooth-talking Mr. Applegate appears. He offers Joe the chance to become "Joe Hardy", the young slugger the Senators need. He accepts, even though he must leave Meg ("Goodbye Old Girl"). However, his business sense makes him insist on an escape clause. The Senators' last game is on September 25, and if he plays in it, he is to stay as Joe Hardy forever. If not, he has until 9:00 the night before to walk away from the deal and return to his normal life.


title: Damn Yankees

text: At the ballpark, the hapless Senators vow to play their best despite their failings ("Heart"). Then Joe Hardy is suddenly discovered and joins the team. Gloria Thorpe, a sports reporter, praises him ("Shoeless Joe from Hannibal, Mo"). His hitting prowess enables the team to move up in the standings.


title: Damn Yankees

text: Though Joe is increasingly successful, he truly misses Meg and moves into her house as a boarder in his persona as Joe Hardy. They begin to bond, especially over her "lost" husband ("A Man Doesn't Know"). Fearful of losing his deal, Applegate calls Lola, "the best homewrecker on [his] staff", to seduce Joe and ensure his loss of the bet. She promises to deliver ("A Little Brains, A Little Talent"), and Applegate introduces her as a sultry South American dancer named "Señorita Lolita Banana". She sings a seductive song ("Whatever Lola Wants"), but Joe's devotion to Meg proves too strong, even for her. Applegate punishes her by firing her, where she performs with other past workers for Applegate ("Who's Got the Pain").


title: Damn Yankees

text: Applegate decides to switch tactics to ensure Joe's failure. He releases false information about Joe's true identity being "Shifty McCoy", an escaped criminal and con artist. When Gloria discovers this information, she presses charges, and he is forced into court.


title: Damn Yankees

text: The Senators prepare for the final game against the Yankees for the pennant and worry about Joe, but they vow to think of nothing but winning ("The Game"). Meanwhile, angry fans are seeking him out, so he decides to leave home. As he does so, he tells Meg indirectly that he is her old husband ("Near to You"). Meanwhile, Applegate is exhausted by the work he has put into winning one bet and thinks about the "simpler" times in his long history ("Those Were the Good Old Days").


title: Damn Yankees

text: Joe's trial is held on September 24, the last day he can back out of his deal. As he technically does not exist, he cannot produce any kind of identification. The owner of the Senators, their coach, and even Lola (disguised as "Señora McCoy") testify, but their opinions carry no weight. Gloria suggests that Applegate take the stand, but he is unable to take the oath since it requires him to tell the truth. Joe realizes that Applegate is simply stalling to keep him from meeting his 9:00 deadline. Applegate claims that Joe "just needs time to think" and sends him to where Lola is, where history's most famous lovers wait. Lola meets him there and realizes that he truly loves Meg. She helps him by sending him into the final game and delays Applegate by coercing him into a duet ("Two Lost Souls").


title: Damn Yankees

text: When Applegate finally arrives at the game, it is 8:55, and Joe is at bat. As time runs out, Meg, her friends, and even Lola begin cheering for him. Applegate uses his powers to give Joe two strikes. The clock strikes nine, and Applegate claims victory, but at the last second, Joe cries, "Let me go!" The deal is broken, and he reverts to his old self but is still able to hit a home run, winning the pennant for the Senators.


title: Damn Yankees

text: Back at home, Joe rushes into Meg's arms. Applegate appears on the scene, claiming that Joe owes him his prize. He begs Meg to hold him and not let go, and she begins to sing ("Finale (A Man Doesn't Know)"). Applegate promises to make him young again and even ensure a World Series victory. But his powers are useless against their true love, which Lola points out. He shouts that such a thing cannot exist, but he is wrong. He and Lola vanish back to where they came from, defeated, with Joe and Meg united.


title: Damn Yankees

text: The producers Frederick Brisson, Robert E. Griffith and Harold S. Prince had decided that the lead actress for the part of "Lola" had to be a dancer. They offered the role to both the movie actress Mitzi Gaynor and ballet dancer Zizi Jeanmaire, each of whom turned down the role. Although Gwen Verdon had sung just one song in her previous show ("Can-Can"), the producers were willing to take a chance on her. She initially refused, preferring to assist another choreographer, but finally agreed. Choreographer Bob Fosse insisted on meeting her before working with her, and after meeting and working for a brief time, they each agreed to the arrangement. This was the start of an artistic and personal partnership between Fosse and Verdon, who married in 1960.


title: Damn Yankees

text: The show opened on Broadway at the 46th Street Theatre on May 5, 1955, transferred to the Adelphi Theatre on May 17, 1957, and ran for a total of 1,019 performances. It was directed by George Abbott, with scenery and costumes by William and Jean Eckart, dances and musical numbers staged by Fosse, musical direction by Hal Hastings, orchestrations by Don Walker, and dance music arrangements by Roger Adams.


title: Damn Yankees

text: The show starred Ray Walston (Applegate), Verdon (Lola), Shannon Bolin (Meg), Robert Shafer (Joe Boyd), Elizabeth Howell (Doris), Stephen Douglass (Joe Hardy), Al Lanti (Henry), Eddie Phillips (Sohovik), Nathaniel Frey (Smokey), Albert Linville (Vernon, Postmaster), Russ Brown (Van Buren), Jimmy Komack (Rocky), Rae Allen (Gloria), Cherry Davis (Teenager), Del Horstmann (Lynch, Commissioner), Richard Bishop (Welch), Janie Janvier (Miss Weston), and Jean Stapleton (Sister).


title: Damn Yankees

text: A West End production played at the London Coliseum beginning on March 28, 1957, where it played for 258 performances. It starred Olympic skater Belita (aka Gladys Lyne Jepson-Turner) as Lola, but the Fosse choreography was alien to her style, and she was replaced by Elizabeth Seal. It also starred Bill Kerr as Applegate, and Ivor Emmanuel as Joe Hardy.


title: Damn Yankees

text: In the mid-1970s, Vincent Price starred as Applegate in summer stock productions of the show. In the late 1970s and early 1980s film actor Van Johnson did so in productions throughout the U.S.A. In July, 1981, a production was performed at the Jones Beach Marine Theater in Wantagh, New York. It was notable due to former New York Jets quarterback Joe Namath being cast in the role of Joe Boyd.


title: Damn Yankees

text: A Broadway revival opened at the Marquis Theatre on March 3, 1994 and ran for 519 performances and 33 previews. Featured were Jarrod Emick as Joe Hardy, winner of the 1994 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Bebe Neuwirth as Lola and Victor Garber as Applegate. Garber was succeeded by Jerry Lewis, making his Broadway debut, on March 12, 1995, who then starred in a national tour and also played the role in a London production. Jack O'Brien directed, with choreography by Rob Marshall, assisted by his sister, Kathleen. O'Brien is also credited with revisions to the book.


title: Damn Yankees

text: The 1994 revival production opened in the West End at the Adelphi Theatre on June 4, 1997 (previews started May 29) and closed on August 9, 1997. Jerry Lewis reprised his role as Applegate and April Nixon played Lola.


title: Damn Yankees

text: In 2006, North Shore Music Theatre in Beverly, Massachusetts, presented a revised production with the Washington Senators replaced with the Yankees' traditional rivals, the Boston Red Sox. The revised book was written, with permission, by Joe DiPietro


title: Damn Yankees

text: In 2007, Reprise! Broadway's Best produced a revival. Jason Alexander directed, resetting the show to 1981 Los Angeles and making changes to accommodate a largely African-American and Hispanic cast. It opened November 7, 2007 and ran through November 25.


title: Damn Yankees

text: A revival was produced by the City Center Encores! Summer Stars series from July 5 to July 27, 2008. It starred Jane Krakowski as Lola, Sean Hayes as Applegate, Randy Graff as Meg, Megan Lawrence as Gloria Thorpe (replacing an injured Ana Gasteyer during rehearsal), PJ Benjamin as Joe Boyd, and Cheyenne Jackson as Joe Hardy. John Rando directed and the original Fosse choreography was reproduced by Mary MacLeod. Given the substantial changes in the 1994 revival, this is considered by some the first authentic revival of the original production.


title: Damn Yankees

text: A one-night-only off-Broadway benefit performance was staged by Roundabout Theatre Company. The benefit, which was directed by Kathleen Marshall, occurred on December 11, 2017. It starred Stephen Bogardus as Joe Boyd, Matthew Morrison as Joe Hardy, Victoria Clark as Meg, Maggie Gyllenhaal as Lola, Whoopi Goldberg as a gender-bent Applegate, Danny Burnstein as Van Buren, and Adrienne Warren as Gloria. It was produced by Scott Landis, Jerry Frankel, and Jay and Cindy Gutterman.


title: Damn Yankees

text: The 1955 Original Broadway Cast recording is on RCA Victor, recorded May 8, 1955. The LP was originally issued in mono but in 1965 RCA Victor offered an electronic stereo version. The current CD edition was released in 1988. RCA Victor also released the film soundtrack in 1958. Although recorded in stereo, only the mono version was released. The 1989 CD edition marked the first release of the recording in stereo. The 1994 Broadway revival cast recording made by Mercury (and now on the Decca Broadway label) was released on May 17, 1994.


title: Damn Yankees

text: A film version, directed by George Abbott and Stanley Donen, was released in 1958. With the exception of Tab Hunter in the role of Joe Hardy (replacing Stephen Douglass), the Broadway principals reprised their stage roles.


title: Damn Yankees

text: A made-for-TV movie version was broadcast on April 8, 1967, on NBC. Phil Silvers played Applegate. Also starring were Lee Remick as Lola and Ray Middleton as Joe Boyd.


title: Damn Yankees

text: In 1983, Ray Walston expressed interest in recreating Applegate in "Raisin' Cane", a new musical in which the devil returns to ruin Broadway. In a spin on "Damn Yankees", this time Applegate takes a young girl and grows her up and gets her the lead in a Broadway show, planning to change her back, bankrupting all the investors. Book, music and lyrics are by San Francisco Bay Area writer/lyricist/composer Ted Kopulos.


title: Damn Yankees

text: In 2009, it was announced that a new contemporary film adaptation of the musical will star Jim Carrey as Applegate and Jake Gyllenhaal as Joe Hardy. No further announcements about this adaptation have been made since (as of December 2020).


title: MacConkey agar

text: MacConkey agar is a selective and differential culture medium for bacteria. It is designed to selectively isolate Gram-negative and enteric (normally found in the intestinal tract) bacteria and differentiate them based on lactose fermentation. Lactose fermenters turn red or pink on MacConkey agar, and nonfermenters do not change color. The media inhibits growth of Gram-positive organisms with crystal violet and bile salts, allowing for the selection and isolation of gram-negative bacteria. The media detects lactose fermentation by enteric bacteria with the pH indicator neutral red.


title: MacConkey agar

text: It contains bile salts (to inhibit most Gram-positive bacteria), crystal violet dye (which also inhibits certain Gram-positive bacteria), and neutral red dye (which turns pink if the microbes are fermenting lactose).


title: MacConkey agar

text: There are many variations of MacConkey agar depending on the need. If the spreading or swarming of "Proteus" species is "not" required, sodium chloride is omitted. Crystal violet at a concentration of 0.0001% (0.001 g per litre) is included when needing to check if Gram-positive bacteria are inhibited. MacConkey with sorbitol is used to isolate "E. coli" O157, an enteric pathogen.


title: MacConkey agar

text: The medium was developed by Alfred Theodore MacConkey while working as a bacteriologist for the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal.


title: MacConkey agar

text: Using neutral red pH indicator, the agar distinguishes those Gram-negative bacteria that can ferment the sugar lactose (Lac+) from those that cannot (Lac-).


title: MacConkey agar

text: This medium is also known as an "indicator medium" and a "low selective medium". Presence of bile salts inhibits swarming by "Proteus" species.


title: MacConkey agar

text: By utilizing the lactose available in the medium, Lac+ bacteria such as "Escherichia coli", "Enterobacter" and "Klebsiella" will produce acid, which lowers the pH of the agar below 6.8 and results in the appearance of pink colonies. The bile salts precipitate in the immediate neighborhood of the colony, causing the medium surrounding the colony to become hazy.


title: MacConkey agar

text: Organisms unable to ferment lactose will form normal-colored (i.e., un-dyed) colonies. The medium will remain yellow. Examples of non-lactose fermenting bacteria are "Salmonella", "Proteus" species, "Yersinia", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and "Shigella".


title: MacConkey agar

text: Some organisms ferment lactose slowly or weakly, and are sometimes put in their own category. These include "Serratia" and "Citrobacter".


title: MacConkey agar

text: Some organisms, especially "Klebsiella" and "Enterobacter", produce mucoid colonies which appear very moist and sticky and slimy This phenomenon happens because the organism is producing a capsule, which is predominantly made from the lactose sugar in the agar.


title: MacConkey agar

text: A variant, sorbitol-MacConkey agar, (with the addition of additional selective agents) can assist in the isolation and differentiation of enterohemorrhagic "E. coli" serotype "E. coli" O157:H7, by the presence of colorless circular colonies that are non-sorbitol fermenting.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: Tuvan throat singing, the main technique of which is known as khoomei (, , , Chinese: 呼麦, "hūmài"), includes a type of overtone singing practiced by people in Tuva, Mongolia, and Siberia. In 2009, it was included in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO. The term "hömey" / "kömey" means "throat" and "larynx" in different Turkic languages. That could be borrowed from Mongolian "khooloi", which means throat as well, driven from Proto-Mongolian word "*koɣul-aj".


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: In Tuvan throat singing, the performer produces a fundamental pitch and—simultaneously—one or more pitches over that. The history of Tuvan throat singing reaches far back. Many male herders can throat sing, but women have begun to practice the technique as well. The popularity of throat singing among Tuvans seems to have arisen as a result of geographic location and culture. The open landscape of Tuva allows for the sounds to carry a great distance. Ethnomusicologists studying throat singing in these areas mark "khoomei" as an integral part in the ancient pastoral animism still practiced today. Often, singers travel far into the countryside looking for the right river, or go up to the steppes of the mountainside to create the proper environment for throat singing.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: The animistic world view of this region identifies the spirituality of objects in nature, not just in their shape or location, but in their sound as well. Thus, human mimicry of nature's sounds is seen as the root of throat singing. An example of this is the Tuvan story of the waterfall above the Buyant Göl (Deer River in Tuvan), where mysterious harmonic sounds are said to have attracted deer to bask in the waters, and where, it is said, harmonic sounds were first revealed to people. Indeed, the cultures in this part of Asia have developed many instruments and techniques to mimic the sounds of animals, wind, and water. While the cultures of this region share throat singing, their styles vary in breadth of development.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: Ordinarily, melodies are created by isolating the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and 12th partial in accordance with the harmonic series. Thus, if the fundamental frequency were C3, the overtones would be G5, B♭5, C6, D6, E6, G6. However, it is possible to reach as low as the 2nd and as high as the 24th. The fundamental pitch is typically around E and G below middle C, and this affects the range of partials the singer can reach, with higher partials more easily reached on lower notes, and vice versa.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: The people of Tuva have a wide range of throat singing vocalizations, and were the pioneers of six pitch harmonics. There are several different classification schemes for Tuvan throat singing. In one, the three basic styles are , and , while the sub-styles include , , , and . In another, there are five basic styles: , , , and . The substyles include , , , , , , , , , , , , and . These schemes all use Tuvan terminology.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: "Khorekteer" refers to the "chest voice". This is the voice that throat singers use when using "khoomei", "kargyraa", or any other harmonic-inducing style. The term can also be used to refer to all styles of Tuvan throat singing, much like "khoomei". It can also refer to the feeling of chest resonance or pressure that one experiences when throat singing. "Khorekteer" is often used as a launching pad into the "khoomei", "sygyt", or "kargyraa" styles of throat singing.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: The most popular style of Tuvan throat singing is known as "khoomei" (or "khöömei", in Cyrillic: хөөмей). "Khoomei" is traditionally a softer sounding style, with the fundamental (or drone) usually in the low-mid to midrange of the singer's normal voice. In this style, usually two or three harmonics can be heard between one and two octaves above the fundamental. In "khoomei", the abdomen is fairly relaxed, and there is less tension on the larynx than in other styles. Pitch is manipulated through a combination of movements of the lips, throat, tongue or jaw.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: The term "khoomei" is also used as a generic term to designate all throat singing techniques in this region.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: "Sygyt" (in Cyrillic: сыгыт), literally 'whistling', has a midrange fundamental and is characterized by strong, flute-like or rather piercing harmonics, reminiscent of whistling. Also described as an imitation of the gentle breezes of summer, the songs of birds, the ideal sound for the harmonics is called Чистый звук—Russian for "clear sound".


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: To perform "sygyt", the tongue rises and seals around the gums, just behind the teeth. A small hole is left back behind the molars, either on the left or right side. The sound is then directed between the teeth to the front of the mouth. The lips form a bell-like shape, usually with an "ee" vowel, and the sound is directed through this small opening. Pitch is manipulated exactly the same way as in "khoomei" style.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: The more deep-sounding style of throat singing is known as "kargyraa" (in Cyrillic: каргыраа). "Kargyraa" has a deep, almost growling sound to it and is technically related to Sardinian bass singing in "Canto a Tenore" choirs, and also to Tibetan Buddhist chant. It uses both the vocal and the vestibular folds (also known as "false vocal cords") simultaneously, creating two connected sources of sound.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: By constricting the larynx, the vestibular folds can be brought together (adducted) and, under certain conditions, vibrate. It can produce an undertone exactly half the frequency of the fundamental produced by the vocal folds. Therefore, for each second vibration of the vocal folds, the vestibular fold completes a whole vibration cycle. While the larynx generates such rich sound, the mouth cavity may be shaped, just like in the manipulation of vowels, to select some particular harmonics, resulting in a sound that may be perceived as having different pitches simultaneously.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: This vocal mechanism has been elucidated and shown to be similar to Sardinian "bassu", which is one of the four voices of Sardinian "canto a tenore" choirs. It is also similar to the chant practiced in Tibet by the Gyuto monastery and other Buddhist orders.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: There are two types of "kargyraa": "dag" (mountain) and (steppe). The Dag style is deeper, while is raspier and sung at a higher pitch with more throat tension and less chest resonance. There are also the distinctive "kargyraa" styles of Vladimir Oidupaa and Albert Kuvezin, the latter also bearing the name "kanzat". This is sometimes described as the howling winds of winter or the plaintive cries of a mother camel after losing her calf.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: Of the following list, two effects that commonly employed in the "khoomei", "sygyt" and "kargyraa" styles: "Borbangnadyr" and "Ezengileer".


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: There were a few female throat singers in Tuva's history, though it was believed a woman performing throat singing could cause infertility. Choldak-Kara Oyun, the mother of the famous throat singer Soruktu Kyrgys and grandmother of the husband of famous Tuvan actress Kara-Kys Namzatovna Munzuk, throat sang throughout her life while milking her cows, singing lullabies to her children and sometimes while she was drinking Tuvan araga (fermented milk alcohol). Close relatives of famous singers, like Khunashtaar-ool's niece (in the 1960s) and Kombu's daughter (in the 1940s or 1950s), performed khoomei (throat singing) in public more than once. The wife of the throat singing shaman Bilek-ool from Manchurek, Aldinsova Tortoyavna, said that she has always sung khoomei "because it was innate to [her] from birth". She could not resist singing khoomei after she got married and had children, and sang khoomei in public in the 1950s and 1960s. But her sister, who also sang khoomei as a girl, gave up when others repeatedly reminded her of the supposed dangers.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: Valentina Salchak performed throat singing in public in 1979. Valentina Chuldum from Mongun-Taiga (1960Autumn 2002) toured European countries as a throat singer in the early 1990s. With the start of the International Symposium of Khoomei women could sing publicly there.


title: Tuvan throat singing

text: Tyva Kyzy (Тыва Кызы, pronounced ) (Daughters of Tuva, in Tuvan language), founded in 1998, is an all-female folk ensemble performing Tuvan throat singing, under the direction of Choduraa Tumat. It is the first and only women's group in Tuva that performs all styles of Tuvan throat singing.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: A state legislature in the United States is the legislative body of any of the 50 U.S. states. The formal name varies from state to state. In 27 states, the legislature is simply called the "Legislature" or the "State Legislature", while in 19 states the legislature is called the "General Assembly". In Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the legislature is called the "General Court", while North Dakota and Oregon designate the legislature the "Legislative Assembly".


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Every state except Nebraska has a bicameral legislature, meaning that the legislature consists of two separate legislative chambers or houses. In each case the smaller chamber is called the Senate and is usually referred to as the upper house. This chamber typically, but not always, has the exclusive power to confirm appointments made by the governor and to try articles of impeachment. (In a few states, a separate Executive Council, composed of members elected from large districts, performs the confirmation function.)


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Members of the smaller chamber represent more citizens and usually serve for longer terms than members of the larger chamber, generally four years. In 41 states, the larger chamber is called the House of Representatives. Five states designate the larger chamber the Assembly and three states call it the House of Delegates. Members of the larger chamber usually serve for terms of two years. The larger chamber customarily has the exclusive power to initiate taxing legislation and articles of impeachment.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Prior to the United States Supreme Court decisions "Baker v. Carr" (1962) and "Reynolds v. Sims" (1964), the basis of representation in most state legislatures was modeled on that of the U.S. Congress: the state senators represented geographical units, while members of the larger chamber represented population. In "Reynolds v. Sims" the Supreme Court decided upon the one man, one vote standard for state legislatures and invalidated representation based on geographical units regardless of population. (The ruling does not affect the U.S. Senate, because that chamber's makeup is prescribed by the U.S. Constitution.)


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Nebraska originally had a bicameral legislature like the other states, but the lower house was abolished following a referendum, effective with the 1936 elections. The remaining unicameral (one-chamber) legislature is called the Nebraska Legislature, but its members are called state senators.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: As a legislative branch of government, a legislature generally performs state duties for a state in the same way that the United States Congress performs national duties at the national level. Generally, the same system of checks and balances that exists at the Federal level also exists between the state legislature, the state executive officer (governor) and the state judiciary, though the degree to which this is so varies from one state to the next, nor is this a requirement for state governments (i.e. a state is permitted to use a parliamentary system, or any other system of government, if it so desired).


title: State legislature (United States)

text: During a legislative session, the legislature considers matters introduced by its members or submitted by the governor. Businesses and other special interest organizations often lobby the legislature to obtain beneficial legislation, defeat unfavorably perceived measures, or influence other legislative action. A legislature also approves the state's operating and capital budgets, which may begin as a legislative proposal or a submission by the governor.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Under the terms of Article V of the U.S. Constitution, state lawmakers retain the power to ratify Constitutional amendments which have been proposed by both houses of Congress and they also retain the ability to call for a national convention to propose amendments to the U.S. Constitution. After the convention has concluded its business 75% of the states will then be required to ratify what the convention has proposed. Under Article II, state legislatures choose the manner of appointing the state's presidential electors. Formerly, state legislatures appointed the U.S. Senators from their respective states until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913 required the direct election of Senators by the state's voters.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Generally, the legislative bodies and their committees use either "Mason's Manual of Legislative Procedure" or an amended form thereof. During official meetings, a professional parliamentarian is available to ensure that legislation and accompanying discussion proceed as orderly as possible without bias.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: The lawmaking process begins with the introduction of a bill in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. Bills may be introduced in either house, sometimes with the exception of bills increasing or decreasing revenue, which must originate in the House of Representatives. The order of business in each house provides a proper time for the introduction of bills.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Bills are usually assigned consecutive numbers, given in the order of their introduction, to facilitate identification. Usually a bill cannot become enacted until it has been read on a certain number of days in each house. Upon introduction, a bill is usually read by its title only, constituting the first reading of the bill. Because a bill is usually read by title only, it is important that the title give the members notice of the subject matter contained in the bill.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: As with other legislative bodies throughout the world, U. S. state legislatures operate mainly through committees when considering proposed bills. Thus, committee action is probably the most important phase of the legislative process. Most bills cannot be enacted into law until it has been referred to, acted upon by, and returned from, a standing committee in each house. Reference to committee usually follows the first reading of the bill.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Standing committees are charged with the important responsibility of examining bills and recommending action to the Senate or House. Often on days when a legislature is not in session, the committees of each house meet and consider the bills that have been referred to them to decide if the assigned bills should be reported for further action.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: For most bills, the recommendations of the committee are followed, although either house is free to accept or reject the action of the committee. Bills reported favorably by a committee may be placed on a regular calendar (the agenda of the deliberative body).


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Most of the work of the legislature is done by committees. The legislature as a whole relies on its committees to report out only those bills deserving the consideration of the entire house.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Through standing committees, each bill is addressed by a group of members who have special knowledge of its subject. Some members of the legislature have expert knowledge of particular subjects of legislation, and these members are usually placed on committees to take full advantage of this specialized knowledge. For this reason, the legislature often accepts the final recommendations of its standing committees. As has been noted, however, the legislature does not completely abdicate its responsibility for the consideration of pending bills. If the need arises, the members of either house can force a committee to take action on a bill, or they can ignore the committee's recommendations.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Across the country, pocket veto powers are not uncommon in state legislatures, which allows a committee to "kill" a bill, sometimes without even a public vote; in Colorado, the power was notably repealed in a citizen initiative constitutional amendment in 1988 driven by various reform groups.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: When a committee refuses to vote a bill out of committee, a discharge petition can be passed by the broader membership. The specifics vary from state to state; for example, in 2004, a report found that New York State "places more restrictions than any other state legislature on motions to discharge a bill from a committee", which led to subsequent reforms.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: After a committee has completed work on a bill, it reports the bill to the appropriate house during the "reports of committees" in the daily order of business. Reported bills are immediately given a second reading. The houses do not vote on a bill at the time it is reported; however, reported bills are placed on the calendar for the next legislative day. This second reading is made by title only.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: The regular calendar is a list of bills that have been favorably reported from committee and are ready for consideration by the membership of the entire house.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Regardless of how a bill is placed on the calendar, once the bill is considered and adopted, this is called the third reading. It is at this third reading of the bill that the entire legislature gives consideration to its passage. At this time, the bill may be studied in detail, debated, amended, and read at length before final passage.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: A bill that is passed in one house is transmitted, along with a formal message, to the other house. If the bill is not reported from committee or is not considered by the full house, the bill is defeated.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: The house of origin, upon return of its amended bill, may take any one of several courses of action. It may concur in the amendment by the adoption of a motion to that effect; then the bill, having been passed by both houses in identical form, is ready for enrollment. Another possibility is that the house of origin may adopt a motion to non-concur in the amendment, at which point the bill dies. Finally, the house of origin may refuse to accept the amendment but request that a conference committee be appointed. The other house usually agrees to the request, and the presiding officer of each house appoints members to the conference committee.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: A conference committee is often empaneled to discuss the points of difference between the two houses' versions of the same bill, and tries to reach an agreement between them so that the identical bill can be passed by both houses. If an agreement is reached and if both houses adopt the conference committee's report, the bill is passed. If either house refuses to adopt the report of the conference committee, a motion may be made for further conference. If a conference committee is unable to reach an agreement, it may be discharged, and a new conference committee may be appointed. Some highly controversial bills may be referred to several different conference committees. If an agreement is never reached in conference prior to the end of the legislative session, the bill is lost.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: When a bill has passed both houses in identical form, it is then ready for transmittal to the governor.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: The governor may sign bills presented by the legislature, which completes its enactment into law. From this point, the bill becomes an act, and remains the law of the state unless repealed by legislative action or overturned by a court decision. Governors who do not approve of the bill may veto it. In the event of a veto, the governor returns the bill to the house in which it originated with a message of objections and amendments (if applicable) which might remove those objections. The bill is then reconsidered, and if a simple majority of the members of both houses agrees to the proposed executive amendments, it is returned to the governor for signature.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: On the other hand, a qualified majority (two-thirds) of the members of each house can choose to approve a vetoed bill precisely as the legislature originally passed it, in which case it becomes a law over the governor's veto. If the governor fails to return a bill to the legislative house in which it originated within a specified number of days after it was presented, it becomes a law without their signature.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: The bills that reach the governor less than a specified number of days before the end of the session may be approved within ten days after adjournment. The bills not approved within that time do not become law. This is known as a "pocket veto". This is the most conclusive form of veto, for the legislature (having adjourned) has no chance to reconsider the vetoed measure.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Sometimes what the legislature wishes to accomplish cannot be done simply by the passage of a bill, but rather requires amending the state constitution. Each state has specified steps intended to make it difficult to alter the constitution without the sufficient support of either the legislature, or the people, or both.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: In most states, a new state legislature convenes in January of the odd-numbered year after the election of members to the larger chamber. The period during which the legislature remains in session varies by state. In states where the legislature is considered part-time, a session may last several months; where the legislature is considered full-time, the session may last all year, with periodic breaks for district work.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Some states have varying lengths for odd-numbered and even-numbered years, or allow for a fixed number of either legislative or calendar days. Georgia for example, allows only 40 legislative days per year, and Wyoming allows 60 legislative days per term and no more than 40 per one calendar year. Whereas in Michigan, New Jersey, New York (in odd-numbered years), Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin (in odd-numbered years), the sessions usually last all year.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Four state legislatures - Montana, Nevada, North Dakota and Texas meet only biennially. In early 1960s, only 19 legislatures met annually, but by mid-1970s, it had increased to 41. The latest legislature to switch to annual sessions was Oregon in 2011, following a voter-approved ballot measure.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Currently, there are 7,383 state legislators in the United States. They are usually assisted by staff aides to help prepare and analyze legislation, to review and amend submitted budgets, and to help solve constituents' grievances with the state government.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Many state legislators meet every year at the National Conference of The Council of State Governments (CSG), headquartered in Lexington, Kentucky, with offices in Washington, DC; New York City; Chicago; Atlanta; and Sacramento, and at the annual meetings of CSG's regions, The Southern Legislative Conference, The Midwestern Legislative Conference, the Eastern Regional Conference and CSG West, and at the Legislative Summit of the National Conference of State Legislatures, which is headquartered in Denver, Colorado and has a lobbying office in Washington, D.C.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: Additionally, privately funded organizations with ideological leans have annual meetings attracting many legislators. These include the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), a conservative organization, and the State Innovation Exchange (SiX), its progressive counterpart.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: As of 2017, 24 of 99 chambers have limits on the number of bills that a legislator can introduce per year.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: When a bill passes based on votes mostly from the minority party and "moderate" members of a majority party, it is referred to as the majority being "rolled". Political scientists study "roll rates" as a measure of the ability of the majority party to avoid votes on bills which a majority of the majority oppose. An empirical analysis of state legislatures found that of the 99 studied, 53 had roll rates below 5% and 83 have roll rates below 10%.


title: State legislature (United States)

text: The legislatures of the initial Thirteen Colonies usually consisted of an elected lower house and an appointed upper house, the latter of which also functioned as an advisory council to the colonial Governor. After the American Revolution and the establishment of the United States, most states wrote new constitutions which had direct elections for both chambers of the legislature. This model helped influence the U.S. Constitution and was then adopted by new states which later joined the union.


title: University of Queensland

text: The University of Queensland (UQ, or Queensland University) is a public research university located primarily in Brisbane, the capital city of the Australian state of Queensland. Founded in 1909 by the Queensland parliament, UQ is one of the six sandstone universities, an informal designation of the oldest university in each state. As per 2023, The University of Queensland is ranked as 2 in Australia and 42 in the world. Also, UQ is a founding member of edX, Australia's leading Group of Eight and the international research-intensive Association of Pacific Rim Universities.


title: University of Queensland

text: The main St Lucia campus occupies much of the riverside inner suburb of St Lucia, southwest of the Brisbane central business district. Other UQ campuses and facilities are located throughout Queensland, the largest of which are the Gatton campus and the Mayne Medical School. UQ's overseas establishments include UQ North America office in Washington D.C., and the UQ-Ochsner Clinical School in Louisiana, United States.


title: University of Queensland

text: The university offers associate, bachelor, master, doctoral, and higher doctorate degrees through a college, a graduate school, and six faculties. UQ incorporates over one hundred research institutes and centres offering research programs, such as the Institute for Molecular Bioscience, Boeing Research and Technology Australia Centre, the Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, and the UQ Dow Centre for Sustainable Engineering Innovation. Recent notable research of the university include pioneering the invention of the HPV vaccine that prevents cervical cancer, developing a COVID-19 vaccine that was in human trials, and the development of high-performance superconducting MRI magnets for portable scanning of human limbs.


title: University of Queensland

text: UQ counts two Nobel laureates (Peter C. Doherty and John Harsanyi), over a hundred Olympians winning numerous gold medals, and 117 Rhodes Scholars among its alumni and former staff. UQ's alumni also include University of California, San Francisco Chancellor Sam Hawgood, the first female Governor-General of Australia Dame Quentin Bryce, former President of King's College London Ed Byrne, member of United Kingdom's Prime Minister Council for Science and Technology Max Lu, Oscar and Emmy awards winner Geoffrey Rush, triple Grammy Award winner Tim Munro, former CEO and Chairman of Dow Chemical Andrew N. Liveris, and current director of multiple organisations including IBM.