title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The actions in Sigel's attack against A.P. Hill's division were typical of all the attacks near Stony Ridge that day. Although the unfinished railroad provided natural defensive positions in some places, in general the Confederates maintained all but a static defense, absorbing the Union blows and following up with vigorous counterattacks. (These were the same tactics that Jackson would employ at the Battle of Antietam a few weeks later.) Schurz's two brigades (under Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig and Col. Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski) skirmished heavily with Gregg and Thomas, with both sides committing their forces piecemeal. Hand-to-hand combat ensued in the woods to the west of Sudley Road as Krzyzanowski's brigade clashed with Gregg's. As Milroy heard the sound of battle to his right, he ordered his brigade forward, the 82nd Ohio and 5th West Virginia in front and the 2nd West Virginia and 4th West Virginia in the rear as support troops. The two forward regiments were immediately met with volleys of Confederate musket fire, in the confusion, the 82nd Ohio found an undefended ravine in the middle of the railroad embankment known as "The Dump" and got in the rear of Isaac Trimble's Confederate brigade. However, Trimble was quickly reinforced by part of Bradley Johnson's Virginia brigade and the 82nd Ohio was forced to retreat. Its commander, Col. James Cantwell, was shot dead and the regiment fled in panic, causing the 5th West Virginia behind them to also retreat in disorder. In just 20 minutes of fighting, Milroy's brigade had taken 300 casualties. Schenck and Reynolds, subjected to a heavy artillery barrage, answered with counterbattery fire, but avoided a general advance of their infantry, instead merely deploying skirmishers which got into a low-level firefight with Jubal Early's brigade. While this was going on, Meade's brigade came across wounded men from King's division, who had been abandoned by their comrades and left on the field all night. Medical personnel attempted to evacuate as many of the wounded as possible under the ongoing firefight. With his brigade in shreds, Milroy attempted to rally the survivors. He then came across Brig. Gen Julius Stahel, one of Schenck's brigadiers, and ordered him to defend against any Confederate counterattack coming from the woods. Although a hundred or so Confederates came bounding out of the woods in pursuit of Milroy, they were quickly driven back by artillery fire and Stahel returned to his original position south of the turnpike.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Assuming that Kearny's division of the III Corps was poised to support him, Schurz ordered another assault against Hill around 10 a.m., now that Schimmelfennig's brigade, plus the 1st New York from Kearny's division, had come up to reinforce Krzyzanowski. The fighting in the woods west of Sudley Road resumed and it came down to a standstill until the 14th Georgia came down to reinforce the South Carolinans. They let loose multiple volleys of musket fire that sent Krzyzanowski's men running in panic. The Confederates came charging after the disorganized mass of Union troops, clubbing, bayoneting, and knifing resisters, but as they exited the woods and came out onto open ground, Union artillery positioned on Dogan's Ridge opened fire on them and forced them to retreat. To the north, Schimmelfennig's three regiments, the 61st Ohio, 74th Pennsylvania, and 8th West Virginia, engaged part of Gregg and Branch's brigades, but were forced to retreat. Kearny however did not move forward. His three brigades instead marched to the banks of Bull Run Creek, where Orlando Poe's brigade forded the creek. The arrival of Poe's brigade aroused panic at Jackson's headquarters, as the dreaded scenario of Union troops getting in the Confederate rear seemed to be turning to reality. Jackson ordered his wagons evacuated from the area and Maj. John Pelham's horse artillery wheeled into position. The horse artillery and several companies of the 1st Virginia Cavalry engaged in a firefight with Poe's brigade for several minutes. Nobody on the Union side realized that they were getting in the rear of the Confederate line, and the sight of gray infantry in the distance was enough to discourage Poe from advancing any further, so he pulled back across the creek. Robinson's brigade remained in position along the banks of the creek while Birney's seven regiments scattered. One was directed to support the corps artillery on Matthews Hill, another held idly in reserve, and the remaining three accompanied Poe to the banks of the creek until Confederate artillery fire became too hot for them and they pulled south into the woods where they joined in skirmishing with A.P. Hill's troops.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Sigel for his part was satisfied with the progress of the battle so far, assuming he was merely supposed to perform a holding action until Pope arrived. By 1 p.m., his sector was reinforced by the division of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (III Corps) and the brigade of Brig. Gen. Isaac Stevens (IX Corps). Pope also arrived on the battlefield, where Sigel graciously ceded command to him. He expected to see the culmination of his victory, but instead, he found that Sigel's attack had failed completely with Schurz and Milroy's troops shot up, disorganized, and incapable of further action. Reynolds and Schenck's divisions were fresh, but they were committed to guarding the army's left flank. However, Heintzelman's corps and the two divisions of Reno were also available, giving a total of eight fresh brigades, but Pope also assumed that McDowell would be on the field and that McClellan would come down from Washington DC with the II and VI Corps. Instead, there was no sign of any of these troops anywhere. Pope momentarily considered withdrawing to Centreville, but became worried of the political fallout that would result if he was seen as insufficiently aggressive. Around this time, a messenger arrived and delivered Pope a note announcing that McDowell's corps was close up and would soon be on the field. Pope thus decided that he would drive at Jackson's center. By this time, Longstreet's initial units were in position to Jackson's right. Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood's division straddled the turnpike, loosely connected with Jackson's right flank. To Hood's right were the divisions of Brig. Gens. James L. Kemper and David R. "Neighbor" Jones. Brig. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox's division arrived last and was placed into reserve.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Stuart's cavalry encountered Porter, Hatch, and McDowell moving up the Manassas-Gainesville Road and a brief but sharp firefight halted the Union column. Then a courier arrived with a message for Porter and McDowell, a controversial document from Pope that has become known as the "Joint Order". Historian John J. Hennessy described the order as a "masterpiece of contradiction and obfuscation that would become the focal point of decades of wrangling". It described the attacks on Jackson's left, which were already underway, but was unclear about what Porter and McDowell were supposed to do. Rather than moving "to" Gainesville and striking Jackson's supposedly unprotected right flank, it described a move "toward" Gainesville and "as soon as communication is established [with the other divisions] the whole command shall halt. It may be necessary to fall back behind Bull Run to Centreville tonight." Nowhere in the order did Pope explicitly direct Porter and McDowell to attack and he concluded the order with, "If any considerable advantages are to be gained from departing from this order it will not be strictly carried out," rendering the document virtually useless as a military order.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Meanwhile, Stuart's cavalry under Col. Thomas Rosser deceived the Union generals by dragging tree branches behind a regiment of horses to simulate great clouds of dust from large columns of marching soldiers. At this time, McDowell received a report from his cavalry commander, Brig. Gen. John Buford, who reported that 17 regiments of infantry, one battery, and 500 cavalry were moving through Gainesville at 8:15 a.m. This was Longstreet's wing arriving from Thoroughfare Gap, and it warned the two Union generals that trouble lay to their front. The Union advance was again halted. For some reason, McDowell neglected to forward Buford's report to Pope until about 7 p.m., so the army commander was operating under two severe misconceptions: that Longstreet was not near the battlefield and that Porter and McDowell were marching to attack Jackson's right flank.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: As Longstreet's men were placed into their final positions, General Lee ordered an offensive against the Union left. (Longstreet later remembered that Lee "was inclined to engage as soon as practicable, but did not order".) Longstreet, however, saw that the divisions of Reynolds and Schenck extended south of the Warrenton Turnpike, overlapping half of his line, and he argued against making the attack at that time. Lee eventually relented when Jeb Stuart reported that the force on the Gainesville–Manassas Road (Porter and McDowell) was formidable.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Pope, assuming that the attack on Jackson's right would proceed as he thought he had ordered, authorized four separate attacks against Jackson's front with the intent of diverging the Confederates' attention until Porter delivered the fatal blow. Brig. Gen. Cuvier Grover's brigade attacked at 3 p.m., expecting to be supported by Kearny's division. With Isaac Stevens's division behind him as support, Grover moved his brigade into the woods and charged right at Edward Thomas's Georgia brigade. Grover's men got all the way to the railroad embankment and unleashed a volley of near point-blank fire on Thomas's regiments, followed by a bayonet charge. Taken by surprise, the Georgians fell back and fierce hand-to-hand combat ensued. Maxcy Gregg's South Carolinans came to reinforce them, followed by Dorsey Pender's brigade of North Carolinans. Pender hit Grover's brigade in the flank and sent the men fleeing in panic with over 350 casualties. Pender's brigade then surged out of the woods in pursuit of Grover, but once again the Union artillery on Dogan Ridge was too powerful; a strong barrage forced Pender to retreat. Meanwhile, to the north, Joseph Carr's brigade had been engaged in a low-level firefight with Confederate troops, in the process wounding Isaac Trimble, one of Jackson's most dependable brigadiers since the Valley Campaign the previous spring. With Nelson Taylor's brigade of Hooker's division in support, James Nagle's brigade of Reno's division surged forward and slammed into Trimble's brigade, temporarily leaderless. Trimble's men were routed and began to retreat in disorder, but like all the previous Union attacks during the day, Nagle was unsupported and had no chance against overwhelming enemy numbers. Henry Forno's Louisiana brigade counterattacked and drove Nagle back. Bradley Johnson and Col. Leroy Stafford's 9th Louisiana joined in the assault. To the south, John Hood's division had just arrived on the field, forcing back Milroy and Nagle. Milroy's already exhausted brigade fell apart and started to run from the onslaught. To check the Confederate counterattack, Pope pulled Schenck from south of the turnpike and with artillery support, forced the Confederates back to the shelter of the railroad embankment. While all this was going on, Kearny still remained out of the action.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Reynolds was ordered to conduct a spoiling attack south of the turnpike and encountered Longstreet's men, causing him to call off his demonstration. Pope dismissed Reynolds's concern as a case of mistaken identity, insisting that Reynolds had run into Porter's V Corps, preparing to attack Jackson's flank. Jesse Reno ordered a IX Corps brigade under Col. James Nagle to attack the center of Jackson's line again. This time Brig. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble's brigade was driven back from the railroad embankment, but Confederate counterattacks restored the line and pursued Nagle's troops back into the open fields until Union artillery halted their advance.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: At 4:30 p.m., Pope finally sent an explicit order to Porter to attack, but his aide (his nephew) lost his way and did not deliver the message until 6:30 p.m. In any event, Porter was in no better position to attack then than he had been earlier in the day. But in anticipation of the attack that would not come, Pope ordered Kearny to attack Jackson's far left flank, intending to put strong pressure on both ends of the line. At 5 p.m. Kearny sent Robinson and Birney's brigades surging forward into A.P. Hill's exhausted division. The brunt of the attack fell on Maxcy Gregg's brigade, which had defended against two major assaults over eight hours that day and was nearly out of ammunition in addition to having lost most of its officers. As they fell back onto the edge of a hillside, Gregg lopped some wildflowers with his old Revolutionary War scimitar and remarked, "Let us die here my men, let us die here." With both Thomas's and Gregg's brigades on the verge of disintegrating, A.P. Hill sent a message to Jackson calling for help. Meanwhile, Daniel Leasure's brigade of Isaac Stevens's division crept around to the south and forced back James Archer's Tennessee brigade. Jubal Early's brigade, which had begun the day on the extreme right of the Confederate line, and Lawrence O'Bryan Branch's brigade, which had thus far been held in reserve, counterattacked and drove back Kearny's division. During the fighting, one of Hill's brigadiers, Charles W. Field, was severely wounded and command of his brigade, which had also taken a beating over the course of the day, fell to Col. John M. Brockenbrough of the 40th Virginia.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: On the Confederate right, Longstreet observed a movement of McDowell's force away from his front; the I Corps was moving divisions to Henry House Hill to support Reynolds. This report caused Lee to revive his plan for an offensive in that sector. Longstreet once again argued against it, this time due to inadequate time before dusk. He suggested instead that a reconnaissance in force could feel the position of the enemy and set up the Confederates for a morning attack. Lee agreed and Hood's division was sent forward. As soon as McDowell arrived at Pope's headquarters, the latter urged him to move King's division forward. McDowell then informed Pope that King had fallen ill and relinquished command of the division to Brig. Gen John P. Hatch, whom Pope had taken a considerable disliking to early in the campaign. Hatch had originally led a cavalry brigade and failed to carry out an order from Pope to raid down into the Richmond outskirts. Displeased at this, Pope reassigned Hatch to infantry command. He now ordered Hatch to go up the Sudley Road and attack, but Hatch protested that the road was clogged with Kearny's troops, it would not be possible to clear them out of the way before darkness. Exasperated, Pope repeated his order for Hatch to advance on the Confederate right, but was soon distracted by actions going on the other side of the line. John Hood's division had arrived on Jackson's right and McDowell ordered Hatch to reinforce Reynolds despite Hatch's protests that two of his three brigades (Gibbon and Doubleday's) were exhausted from the fight at Brawner's Farm the previous day. Hatch deployed Doubleday's brigade out in front. Hood's division forced Hatch and Reynolds back to a position on Bald Hill, overrunning Chinn Ridge in the process. As night fell, Hood pulled back from this exposed position. Longstreet and his subordinates again argued to Lee that they should not be attacking a force they considered to be placed in a strong defensive position, and for the third time, Lee cancelled the planned assault.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Hood's withdrawal from Chinn Ridge only reinforced Pope's belief that the enemy was retreating. When Pope learned from McDowell about Buford's report, he finally acknowledged that Longstreet was on the field, but he optimistically assumed that Longstreet was there only to reinforce Jackson while the entire Confederate army withdrew; Hood's division had in fact just done that. Pope issued explicit orders for Porter's corps to rejoin the main body of the army and planned for another offensive on August 30. Historian A. Wilson Greene argues that this was Pope's worst decision of the battle. Since he no longer had numerical superiority over the Confederates and did not possess any geographical advantage, the most prudent course would have been to withdraw his army over Bull Run and unite with McClellan's Army of the Potomac, which had 25,000 men nearby.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: That evening, Pope wired Halleck with a report of the day's fighting, describing it as "severe" and estimating his losses at 7000–8000 men. He estimated Confederate losses at twice this many, an extremely incorrect estimation given that Jackson had been fighting a mostly defensive battle. Although Confederate casualties were lower, their officer losses had been high; aside from the loss of two division commanders on August 28, three brigade commanders, Trimble, Field, and Col. Henry Forno, had been wounded. For comparison, only one Union brigade commander had been wounded so far, Col. Daniel Leasure, and no general officers.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: One of the historical controversies of the battle involves George B. McClellan's cooperation with John Pope. In late August, two full corps of the Army of the Potomac (William B. Franklin's VI Corps and Edwin V. Sumner's II Corps) had arrived in Alexandria, but McClellan would not allow them to advance to Manassas because of what he considered inadequate artillery, cavalry, and transportation support. He was accused by his political opponents of deliberately undermining Pope's position, and he did not help his case in history when he wrote to his wife on August 10, "Pope will be badly thrashed within two days & ... they will be very glad to turn over the redemption of their affairs to me. I won't undertake it unless I have full & entire control." He told Abraham Lincoln on August 29 that it might be wise "to leave Pope to get out of his scrape, and at once use all our means to make the capital perfectly safe".


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The final element of Longstreet's command, the division of Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson, marched and arrived on the battlefield at 3 a.m., August 30. Exhausted and unfamiliar with the area, they halted on a ridge east of Groveton. At dawn, they realized they were in an isolated position too close to the enemy and fell back. Pope's belief that the Confederate army was in retreat was reinforced by this movement, which came after the withdrawal of Hood's troops the night before.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Pope thus directed McDowell to move his entire corps up the Sudley Road and hit the Confederate right flank. McDowell however protested this order, stating that he had no idea what was happening down on the Confederate left and he would much prefer to have his troops on Chinn Ridge. He then said that it would make more sense to attack the Confederate right with Heintzelman's troops, since they were closer to this area. Pope gave in, but decided to detach King's division to support Heintzelman.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: At an 8 a.m. council of war at Pope's headquarters, his subordinates attempted to convince their commander to move cautiously. Probes of the Confederate line on Stony Ridge around 10 a.m. indicated that Stonewall Jackson's men were still firmly in their defensive positions. John F. Reynolds indicated that the Confederates were in great strength south of the turnpike. Fitz John Porter arrived later with similar intelligence. However, Heintzelman and McDowell conducted a personal reconnaissance that somehow failed to find Jackson's defensive line, and Pope finally made up his mind to attack the retreating Southerners.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: While Porter was bringing his corps up, a further mix-up in orders resulted in the loss of two brigades. Abram Sanders Piatt's small brigade, which had been detached from the defenses of Washington D.C. and temporarily attached to the V Corps, and Charles Griffin's brigade both pulled out of Porter's main column, marched back down to Manassas Junction, and then up to Centreville. Morell, using an outdated set of orders from a day earlier, had assumed Pope was at Centreville and he was expected to join him there. Piatt eventually realized that something was amiss and turned back around towards the battlefield, arriving on Henry House Hill at about 4 p.m. Griffin and his division commander Maj. Gen George W. Morell however stayed at Centreville despite their discovery that Pope was not there. Eventually, at 4 p.m., Griffin began moving his brigade towards the action, but by this point, Pope's army was in full retreat and a mass of wagons and stragglers were blocking the roadway. Additionally, the bridge over Cub Run was broken, making it impossible for him to move any further west.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: As Ricketts's division approached the Confederate lines, it became clear that the enemy was still there in force and was showing no sign of retreating. Pope, unnerved by these reports, contemplated waiting for McClellan to arrive with the II and VI Corps, but then worried that McClellan would take credit for any victory in the battle, so he decided to attack immediately rather than wait. Shortly after noon, Pope issued orders for Porter's corps, supported by Hatch and Reynolds, to advance west along the turnpike. At the same time, Ricketts, Kearny, and Hooker were to advance on the Confederate left. This dual movement would potentially crush the retreating Confederates. But the Confederates were not retreating, and were in fact hoping to be attacked. Lee was still waiting for an opportunity to counterattack with Longstreet's force. Although he was not certain that Pope would attack that day, Lee positioned 18 artillery pieces under Col. Stephen D. Lee on high ground northeast of the Brawner Farm, ideally situated to bombard the open fields in front of Jackson's position.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Porter's corps was actually not in position to pursue west on the turnpike, but was in the woods north of the turnpike near Groveton. It took about two hours to prepare the assault on Jackson's line, ten brigades numbering roughly 10,000 men, with 28 artillery pieces on Dogan Ridge to support them. On the right, Ricketts' division would support Heintzelman while Sigel's corps remained in reserve to the rear. Reynolds' division was stationed near Henry House Hill, with King's division on its right. Porter would strike Jackson's right flank with his 1st Division. Since General Morell was not present, command of the remaining troops fell to Brig. Gen Daniel Butterfield, the ranking brigadier in the division. George Sykes' division of regular army troops was held in reserve. As noon approached and the sun climbed high up in the sky, temperatures on the battlefield topped 90 °F.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The Confederates, however, attempted to strike the first blow. Elements of Hill's and Ewell's divisions came charging out of the woods and surprised some of Ricketts' men with a volley or two, but once again the Union artillery on Dogan Ridge was too much for them and after being blasted by shellfire, they withdrew back to the line of the unfinished railroad.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The Union men faced a formidable task. Butterfield's division had to cross of open pasture, land owned by widow Lucinda Dogan, the final of which were steeply uphill, to attack a strong position behind the unfinished railroad. Porter then ordered John Hatch's division to support Butterfield's right flank. Hatch formed his four brigades into a line of battle, the attack being spearheaded by his own brigade, now commanded by Col. Timothy Sullivan since he assumed division command the day earlier. Hatch's division had only to traverse, but was required to perform a complex right wheel maneuver under fire to hit the Confederate position squarely in its front. They experienced devastating fire from Stephen Lee's batteries and then withering volleys from the infantrymen in the line. In the confusion, Hatch was knocked from his horse by an artillery shell and taken off the field unconscious. Nevertheless, they were able to break the Confederate line, routing the 48th Virginia Infantry. The Stonewall Brigade rushed in to restore the line, taking heavy casualties, including its commander, Col. Baylor. In what was arguably the most famous incident of the battle, Confederates in Col. Bradley T. Johnson's and Col. Leroy A. Stafford's brigades fired so much that they ran out of ammunition and resorted to throwing large rocks at the 24th New York, causing occasional damage, and prompting some of the surprised New Yorkers to throw them back. To support Jackson's exhausted defense, which was stretched to the breaking point, Longstreet's artillery added to the barrage against Union reinforcements attempting to move in, cutting them to pieces. Hatch's brigade fell back in confusion, the men running into Patrick's brigade and causing them to also panic. The mob quickly contacted Gibbon's brigade, which remained some distance to the rear, while Doubleday's brigade had inexplicably wandered away from the field of action. Meanwhile, Butterfield's hard-pressed division was buckling under heavy Confederate musketry and artillery blasts and coming near to disintegrating.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Trying to shore up Butterfield's faltering attack, Porter ordered Lt. Col Robert C. Buchanan's brigade of regulars into action, but Longstreet's attack on the Union left interrupted him. The withdrawal was also a costly operation. Some of the jubilant Confederates in Starke's brigade attempted a pursuit, but were beaten back by the Union reserves posted along the Groveton-Sudley Road. Overall, Jackson's command was too depleted to counterattack, allowing Porter to stabilize the situation north of the turnpike. Concerned about Porter's situation, however, Irvin McDowell ordered Reynolds's division to leave Chinn Ridge and come to Porter's support. This may have been the worst tactical decision of the day because it left only 2,200 Union troops south of the turnpike, where they would soon face ten times their number of Confederates.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Lee and Longstreet agreed that the time was right for the long-awaited assault and that the objective would be Henry House Hill, which had been the key terrain in the First Battle of Bull Run, and which, if captured, would dominate the potential Union line of retreat. Longstreet's command of 25,000 men in five divisions stretched nearly a mile and a half from the Brawner Farm in the north to the Manassas Gap Railroad in the south. To reach the hill, they would have to traverse 1.5 to of ground containing ridges, streams, and some heavily wooded areas. Longstreet knew that he would not be able to project a well-coordinated battle line across this terrain, so he had to rely on the drive and initiative of his division commanders. The lead division, on the left, closest to the turnpike, was John Bell Hood's Texans, supported by Brig. Gen. Nathan G. "Shanks" Evans's South Carolinians. On Hood's right were Kemper's and Jones's divisions. Anderson's division was held in reserve. Just before the attack, Lee signaled to Jackson: "General Longstreet is advancing; look out for and protect his left flank."


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Realizing what was happening down on the left, Porter told Buchanan to instead move in that direction to stem the Confederate onslaught and then also sent a messenger to find the other regular brigade, commanded by Col. Charles W. Roberts and get it into action. The Union defenders south of the turnpike consisted of only two brigades, commanded by Cols. Nathaniel C. McLean (Schenck's division, Sigel's I Corps) and Gouverneur K. Warren (Sykes's division, Porter's V Corps). McLean held Chinn Ridge, Warren was near Groveton, about further west. Hood's men began the assault at 4 p.m., immediately overwhelming Warren's two regiments, the 5th New York (Duryée's Zouaves) and 10th New York (the National Zouaves). Within the first 10 minutes of contact, the 500 men of the 5th New York had suffered almost 300 casualties, 120 of them mortally wounded. This was the largest loss of life of any infantry regiment in a single battle during the entire war. The Zouave regiments had been wearing bright red and blue uniforms, and one of Hood's officers wrote that the bodies lying on the hill reminded him of the Texas countryside when the wildflowers were in bloom.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: While all this was going on, Pope was at his headquarters behind Dogan Ridge, oblivious to the chaos unfurling to the south. Instead, he was focused on a message he had just received from Henry Halleck announcing that the II and VI Corps, plus Brig. Gen Darius Couch's division of the IV Corps, were on the way to reinforce him, and moreover, McClellan had been ordered to stay behind in Washington DC. This would give Pope 41 brigades, all of them completely under his command and with no interference from McClellan whatsoever. Only after Warren had collapsed and McLean was being driven from the field did Pope finally realize what was happening.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: McDowell ordered Ricketts' division to disengage from its attack on the Confederate left, which had also failed to achieve any breakthrough, and reinforce the Union left. McDowell rode out with Reynolds to supervise the construction of the new line of defense on Chinn Ridge, just as Porter's shattered troops came running out of the woods to the west. Reynolds protested the order to move to Chinn Ridge, arguing that his division was needed to prevent a Confederate attack from the woods. McDowell, however, told Reynolds that the Confederate attack was not coming from that direction, but from the south and to move his division there immediately. Even before this happened, one of Reynolds' brigade commanders, Col. Martin Hardin (commanding Brig. Gen Conrad F. Jackson's brigade after Jackson had called in sick the previous day), took the initiative by himself and marched down to stem the Confederate onslaught. Taking with him Battery G of the 1st Pennsylvania Artillery, Hardin's brigade unleashed a volley of musket fire that stunned the 1st and 4th Texas regiments, but the 5th Texas to the right kept coming on and quickly shot down most of the gunners of Battery G. Nathan Evans' South Carolina brigade now arrived to reinforce the Texans and got in the rear of Hardin's brigade. Hardin fell wounded and command of the brigade devolved on Col. James Kirk of the 10th Pennsylvania Reserves. Kirk was shot down within minutes and a lieutenant colonel took over. The crumbling remains of the brigade fell back, some soldiers pausing to take shots at the oncoming Confederates. Nathaniel McLean's brigade of Ohioans arrived on the scene, but was assailed on three sides by the brigades of Law, Wilcox, and Evans, and soon joined the survivors of Hardin's brigade in a disorganized mob on Henry House Hill.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The first two Union brigades to arrive were from Ricketts's division, commanded by Brig. Gen. Zealous B. Tower and Col. Fletcher Webster, temporarily commanding Col. John Stiles' brigade. James Ricketts had been at the same battlefield a year earlier, at First Bull Run, where he had commanded a regular gun battery and had been captured at the fight for Henry Hill. Tower's brigade slammed Wilcox's Alabamians in the flank and sent them reeling, but was then immediately confronted with the fresh Confederate division of David R. Jones. Webster lined up his four regiments to face the Confederate attackers, but was struck by an artillery shell and collapsed dead on the field. Disheartened by Webster's death, his men began to fall back. Meanwhile, Tower was shot from his horse and carried off the field unconscious. Robert Schenck then ordered Col. John Koltes' brigade, which had been held in reserve during Sigel's attack on the Confederate left the previous day and was fresh, into action, along with Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski's brigade, which had been heavily engaged and was tired. Koltes however was quickly struck by an artillery shell and killed. Overall command devolved onto Col. Richard Coulter of the 11th Pennsylvania, the highest-ranking officer remaining on the field, and a Mexican War veteran. Although Koltes and Krzyzanowski's six regiments held their ground for a little while, they were quickly overwhelmed by yet more fresh Confederates in the brigades of Lewis Armistead, Montgomery Corse, and Eppa Hunton and started to fall back in disorder.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: During the first two hours of the Confederate assault, McDowell had constructed a new line of defense consisting of Reynolds' and Sykes' divisions. Longstreet's last fresh troops,


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Richard Anderson's division now took the offensive. The regulars of George Sykes's division along with Meade and Seymour's brigades, plus Piatt's brigade, formed a line on Henry House Hill that held off this final Confederate attack long enough to give the rest of the army time to withdraw across Bull Run Creek to Centreville.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Stonewall Jackson, under relatively ambiguous orders from Lee to support Longstreet, launched an attack north of the turnpike at 6 p.m., probably as soon as his exhausted forces could be mustered. Historian John J. Hennessy called Jackson's delays "one of the battle's great puzzles" and "one of the most significant Confederate failures" of the battle, greatly reducing the value of his advance. The attack coincided with Pope's ordered withdrawal of units north of the turnpike to assist in the Henry House Hill defense and the Confederates were able to overrun a number of artillery and infantry units in their fierce assault. By 7 p.m., however, Pope had established a strong defensive line that aligned with the units on Henry House Hill. At 8 p.m., he ordered a general withdrawal on the turnpike to Centreville. Unlike the calamitous retreat at the First Battle of Bull Run, the Union movement was quiet and orderly. The Confederates, weary from battle and low on ammunition, did not pursue in the darkness. Although Lee had won a great victory, he had not achieved his objective of destroying Pope's army.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The final significant action of the battle occurred around 7:00 PM as Lee directed J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry to go around the Union flank and cut off their retreat. Brig. Gen Beverly Robertson's cavalry brigade, accompanied by Col. Thomas Rosser's 5th Virginia Cavalry headed for Lewis Ford, a crossing in Bull Run Creek that would enable them to get in the rear of the Union army. However, Robertson and Rosser found the crossing blocked by John Buford's cavalry and after a short, but fierce engagement, Buford's superior numbers won out and the Confederate horsemen pulled back. The cavalry clash lasted only about ten minutes, but resulted in Col. Thomas Munford of the 2nd Virginia Cavalry being wounded. Col. Thornton Brodhead of the 1st Michigan Cavalry was shot dead, and John Buford was also wounded. The Union army's retreat however had been safeguarded.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: The Second Battle of Manassas, like the First (July 21, 1861), was a significant tactical victory for the Confederates and was another blow to Union morale. Union casualties were about 14,000 killed and wounded out of 62,000 engaged (22.5%); the Confederates lost about 1,000 killed and 7,000 wounded out of 50,000. (16%)


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: As the Union Army concentrated on Centreville, Lee planned his next move. He sent Jackson on another flanking march in an attempt to interpose his army between Pope and Washington. Pope countered the move and the two forces clashed a final time at the Battle of Chantilly (also known as Ox Hill) on September 1. Lee immediately began his next campaign on September 3, when the vanguard of the Army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac River, marching toward a fateful encounter with the Army of the Potomac in the Maryland Campaign and the Battle of Antietam.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Pope was relieved of command on September 12, and his army was merged into the Army of the Potomac as it marched into Maryland under McClellan. He spent the remainder of the war in the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota, dealing with the Dakota War of 1862. Pope sought scapegoats to spread the blame for his defeat. On November 25, Fitz John Porter was arrested and court-martialed for his actions on August 29. Porter was found guilty on January 10, 1863, of disobedience and misconduct, and he was dismissed from the Army on January 21. He spent most of the remainder of his life fighting against the verdict. In 1878, a special commission under General John M. Schofield exonerated Porter by finding that his reluctance to attack Longstreet probably saved Pope's Army of Virginia from an even greater defeat. Eight years later, President Chester A. Arthur reversed Porter's sentence.


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: James Longstreet was criticized for his performance during the battle and the postbellum advocates of the Lost Cause claimed that his slowness, reluctance to attack, and disobedience to Gen. Lee on August 29 were a harbinger of his controversial performance to come on July 2, 1863, at the Battle of Gettysburg. Lee's biographer, Douglas Southall Freeman, wrote: "The seeds of much of the disaster at Gettysburg were sown in that instant—when Lee yielded to Longstreet and Longstreet discovered that he would."


title: Second Battle of Bull Run

text: Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park. Located north of Manassas, in Prince William County, Virginia, it preserves the site of two major American Civil War battles: the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21, 1861, and the Second Battle of Bull Run which was fought between August 28 and August 30, 1862 (also known as the First Battle of Manassas and the Second Battle of Manassas, respectively). The peaceful Virginia countryside bore witness to clashes between the armies of the North (Union) and the South (Confederacy), and it was there that Confederate General Thomas J. Jackson acquired his nickname "Stonewall". The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved of the Second Battle of Bull Run battlefield in more than 10 transactions since 2000.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Slavery in ancient Egypt existed at least since the Old Kingdom period. Discussions of slavery in Pharaonic Egypt are complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of dynastic history; interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone. There were three types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labor, and forced labor. But even these seemingly well-differentiated types of slavery are susceptible to individual interpretation. Egypt's labor culture encompassed many people of various social ranks.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: The word translated as "slave" from the Egyptian language does not neatly align with modern terms or traditional labor roles. The classifications of "servant," "peasant," and "slave" could describe different roles in different contexts. Egyptian texts refer to words 'bAk' and 'Hm' that mean laborer or servant. Some Egyptian language refers to slave-like people as 'sqrw-anx', meaning "bound for life". Forms of forced labor and servitude are seen throughout all of ancient Egypt. Egyptians wanted dominion over their kingdoms and would alter political and social ideas to benefit their economic state. The existence of slavery not only was profitable for ancient Egypt, but made it easier to keep power and stability of the Kingdoms.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: During the Old Kingdom Period, prisoners of war captured by Kemit’s army were called "skrw-'nh" ("bound for life"). This was not a distinct term for "slave" but for prisoners of war, as already stated. The term, hm, emerged with at least two distinct usages: 1) “Laborer” and 2 “Servant”. Documented evidence exists as early as the reign of Sneferu, in the 26th century BC, war campaigns in the territory of Nubia, in which war-captives would be labeled "skrw-'nh" - and Libyans all of whom would be used to perform labour—regardless of their will otherwise—or – if warranted, would be conscripted into the military. Reliefs from this period depict captured prisoners of war with their hands tied behind their backs. Nubia was targeted—because of its close geographical proximity, cultural similarity, and competitiveness in imperial dominion, and then the scope of campaigns intended to acquire foreign war captives expanded to Libya and Asia. Local Kemites also entered into servitude due to an unstable economy and debts. Officials who abused their power could also be reduced to servitude.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: During the First Intermediate Period, slaves were first defined as men with dignity but remained treated as property. When borrowed money owed to wealthier individuals in Egyptian society could not be paid back, family members were sold in return into slavery - especially women. During the Middle Kingdom, records show that coerced laborers included conscripts ("hsbw"), fugitives ("tsjw"), and royal laborers ("hmw-nsw"). The Reisner Papyrus and the El Lahun papyri depict prisoners being employed in state enterprises. Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446 also shows forced labor being performed on arable state land. If an individual coerced into labor attempted to escape or was absent from their work, they might be condemned to coerced labor for life. One of the El-Lahun papyri describes an example of this occurring: "Order issued by the Great Prison in year 31, third month of the summer season, day 5, that he be condemned with all his family to labor for life on state land, according to the decision of the court." Military expeditions continued to reduce Asiatics to slavery, and state-owned slaves (royal laborers) shared in the same status as these Asiatic slaves. Asiatics could often have Egyptian names but sometimes inscriptions or papyri mentioning them would still apply an ethnic qualification, such as one which mentions an "Asiatic Aduna and her son Ankhu". Both Asiatics and state-owned slaves could perform a variety of jobs: "We find royal laborers employed as fieldworkers, house servants, and cobblers; female laborers as hairdressers, gardeners, and weavers." If a household servant failed to adequately perform their job, they could be dismissed from the home they worked at. In some cases, servants appear to have become emotionally important to their household as depicted on the Cairo Bowl.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: One of the Berlin papyri show that by the time of the Second Intermediate Period, a slave could be owned by both an elite individual (like the king) and a community. In addition, the community had grown in power and now held the capacity to own and administer to public property, including that of slaves, replacing some of the traditional power of the king and his private royal laborers. By this period, slaves could also sometimes become citizens. One method by which this could happen was through marriage.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: During the New Kingdom period, the military and its expenses grew and so additional coerced labor was needed to sustain it. As such, the "New Kingdom, with its relentless military operations, is the epoch of large-scale foreign slavery". Many more slaves were also acquired via the Mediterranean slave market, where Egypt was the main purchaser of international slaves. This Mediterranean market appears to have been controlled by Asiatic Bedouin who would capture individuals, such as travelers, and sell them on the market. The tomb of Ahmose I contains a biographical text which depicts several boasts regarding the capture of foreign Asiatic slaves. Egyptian servants were treated more humanely as employees, whereas foreign slaves were the objects of trade. The foreigners captured during military campaigns are, for example, referred to in the Annals of Thutmose III as "men in captivity" and individuals were referred to as "dependents" ("mrj"). In reward for his services in the construction of temples across Egypt, Thutmose III rewarded his official Minmose over 150 "dependents". During and after the reign of Amenhotep II, coerced temple labor was only performed by male and female slaves. At Medinet Habu, defeated Sea Peoples are recorded as having been captured as prisoners of war and reduced to slavery. During this period, slaves could sometimes be rented. One manuscript known as Papyrus Harris I records Ramses III claiming to have captured innumerable foreign slaves:


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: "I brought back in great numbers those that my sword has spared, with their hands tied behind their backs before my horses, and their wives and children in tens of thousands, and their livestock in hundreds of thousands. I imprisoned their leaders in fortresses bearing my name, and I added to them chief archers and tribal chiefs, branded and enslaved, tattooed with my name, their wives and children being treated in the same way."


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: In the Adoption Papyrus, the term "slave"/"servant" is contrasted with the term "free citizen ("nmhj") of the land of the pharaoh". Often, the phrase "nmhj" traditionally refers to an orphan or poor. Methods by which slaves could attain their freedom included marriage or entering temple service (being 'purified'). The latter is depicted in, for example, the Restoration Stela of Tutankhamen. Ramesside Egypt saw a development in the institution of slavery where slaves could now become objects of private (rather than just public) property, and they could be bought and sold. Slaves themselves could now own some property and had a few legal protections, although they were not many.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: The Chattel slaves were mostly captives of war and were brought to different cities and countries to be sold as slaves. All captives, including civilians not a part of the military forces, were seen as a royal resource. The pharaoh could resettle captives by moving them into colonies for labor, giving them to temples, giving them as rewards to deserving individuals, or giving them to his soldiers as loot. Some chattel slaves began as free people who were found guilty of committing illicit acts and were forced to give up their freedom. Other chattel slaves were born into the life from a slave mother.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Ancient Egyptians were able to sell themselves and children into slavery in a form of bonded labor. Self-sale into servitude was not always a choice made by the individuals' free will, but rather a result of individuals who were unable to pay off their debts. The creditor would wipe the debt by acquiring the individual who was in debt as a slave, along with his children and wife. The debtor would also have to give up all that was owned. Peasants were also able to sell themselves into slavery for food or shelter.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Some slaves were bought in slave markets near the Asiatic area and then bonded as war prisoners. Not all were from foreign areas outside of Egypt but it was popular for slaves to be found and collected abroad. This act of slavery grew Egypt's military status and strength. Bonded laborers dreamed of emancipation but never knew if it was ever achievable. Slaves foreign to Egypt had possibilities of return to homelands but those brought from Nubia and Libya were forced to stay in the boundaries of Egypt.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: One type of slavery in ancient Egypt granted captives the promise of an afterlife. Ushabtis were funerary figures buried with deceased Egyptians. Historians have concluded these figures represent an ideology of earthly persons' loyalty and bond to a master. Evidence of ushabtis shows great relevance to a slavery-type system. The captives were promised an afterlife in the beyond if they obeyed a master and served as a laborer. The origin of this type of slavery is difficult to pinpoint but some say the slaves were willing to be held captive in return for entrance into Egypt. Entrance into Egypt could also be perceived as having been given "life". Willingness of enslavement is known as "self-sale." Others suggest that shabtis were held captive because they were foreigners. The full extent of the origins of shabtis are unclear but historians do recognize that women were paid or compensated in some way for their labor, while men were not. However payment could come in many forms. Although men did not receive monetary wages, shabtis were promised life in the netherworld and that promise could be perceived as payment for them. So Shabtis are associated with bonded labor but historians speculate that there was some sort of choice for the Shabtis.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: In the slave market, bonded laborers were commonly sold with a 'slave yoke' or a 'taming stick' to show that the slave was troublesome. This specific type of weaponry to torture the slave has many local names in Egyptian documents but the preferred term is called 'sheyba'. There are other forms of restraint used in Ancient Egypt slave markets more common than the shebya, like ropes and cords.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Several departments in the Ancient Egyptian government were able to draft workers from the general population to work for the state with a corvée labor system. The laborers were conscripted for projects such as military expeditions, mining and quarrying, and construction projects for the state. These slaves were paid a wage, depending on their skill level and social status for their work. Conscripted workers were not owned by individuals, like other slaves, but rather required to perform labor as a duty to the state. Conscripted labor was a form of taxation by government officials and usually happened at the local level when high officials called upon small village leaders.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Masters of Ancient Egypt were under obligations when owning slaves. Masters were allowed to utilize the abilities of their slaves by employing them in different manners including domestic services (cooks, maids, brewers, nannies, etc.) and labor services (gardeners, stable hands, field hands, etc.). Masters also had the right to force the slave to learn a trade or craft to make the slave more valuable. Masters were forbidden to force child slaves to harsh physical labor.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Ancient Egypt was a peasant-based economy and it was not until the Greco-Roman period that slavery had a greater impact. Slave dealing in Ancient Egypt was done through private dealers and not through a public market. The transaction had to be performed before a local council or officials with a document containing clauses that were used in other valuable sales. However Pharaohs were able to bypass this, and possessed the power to give slaves to any they saw fit, usually being a vizier or noble.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Many slaves who worked for temple estates lived under punitive conditions, but on average the Ancient Egyptian slave led a life similar to a serf. They were capable of negotiating transactions and owning personal property. Chattel and debt slaves were given food but probably not given wages.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: There is a consensus among Egyptologists that the Great Pyramids were not built by slaves. Rather, it was farmers who built the pyramids during flooding, when they could not work in their lands. The allegation that Israelite slaves built the pyramids was first made by Jewish historian Josephus in "Antiquities of the Jews" during the first century CE, an account that was subsequently popularized during the Renaissance period. While the idea that the Israelites served as slaves in Egypt features in the Bible, scholars generally agree that the story constitutes an origin myth rather than a historical reality. In any case, the construction of the pyramids does not appear in the story. Modern archaeologists consider that the Israelites were indigenous to Canaan and never resided in ancient Egypt in significant numbers.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Egyptian slaves, specifically during the New Kingdom era, originated from foreign lands. The slaves themselves were seen as an accomplishment to Egyptian kings' reign, and a sign of power. Slaves or "bak" were seen as property or a commodity to be bought and sold. Their human qualities were disregarded and were merely seen as property to be used for a master's labor. Unlike the more modern term, "serf", Egyptian slaves were not tied to the land; the owner(s) could use the slave for various occupational purposes. The slaves could serve towards the productivity of the region and community. Slaves were generally men, but women and families could be forced into the owner's household service.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: The fluidity of a slave's occupation does not translate to "freedom". It is difficult to use the word 'free' as a term to describe slave's political or social independence due to the lack of sources and material from this ancient time period.


title: Slavery in ancient Egypt

text: Much of the research conducted on Egyptian enslavement has focused on the issue of payment to slaves. Masters did not commonly pay their slaves a regular wage for their service or loyalty. The slaves worked so that they could either enter Egypt and hope for a better life, receive compensation of living quarters and food, or be granted admittance to work in the afterlife. Although slaves were not "free" or rightfully independent, slaves in the New Kingdom were able to leave their master if they had a "justifiable grievance". Historians have read documents about situations where this could be a possibility but it is still uncertain if independence from slavery was attainable.


title: Pyromania

text: Pyromania is an impulse control disorder in which individuals repeatedly fail to resist impulses to deliberately start fires, to relieve some tension or for instant gratification. The term "pyromania" comes from the Greek word ("pyr", 'fire'). Pyromania is distinct from arson, the deliberate setting of fires for personal, monetary or political gain. Pyromaniacs start fires to release anxiety and tension, or for arousal. Other impulse disorders include kleptomania and intermittent explosive disorder.


title: Pyromania

text: There are specific symptoms that separate pyromaniacs from those who start fires for criminal purposes or due to emotional motivations not specifically related to fire. Someone with this disorder deliberately and purposely sets fires on more than one occasion, and before the act of lighting the fire the person usually experiences tension and an emotional buildup. When around fires, a person with pyromania gains intense interest or fascination and may also experience pleasure, gratification or relief. Another long term contributor often linked with pyromania is the buildup of stress. When studying the lifestyle of someone with pyromania, a buildup of stress and emotion is often evident and this is seen in teens' attitudes towards friends and family. At times it is difficult to distinguish the difference between pyromania and experimentation in childhood because both involve pleasure from the fire.


title: Pyromania

text: The World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (11th Revision) ICD-11, regarded as the global standard, was released in June 2018 and came into full effect from January 2022. It states the following about pyromania:


title: Pyromania

text: It also notes that pyromania has no relation to intellectual impairment, substance abuse, or other mental and behavioral disorder. ICD-11 was produced by professionals from 55 countries out of the 90 countries involved and is one of the most widely used reference worldwide by clinicians, with the other being the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR from 2022, DSM-5 from 2013, or their predecessors)


title: Pyromania

text: The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, First Edition, released in 1952, categorized pyromania as a subset of Obsessive–compulsive disorder. In the Second Edition, the disorder was dropped. In the Third Edition, it returned under the category of impulse-control disorders.


title: Pyromania

text: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), released in 2022, states that the essential feature of pyromania is "the presence of multiple episodes of deliberate and purposeful fire setting." Pyromania moved from the DSM-4 chapter "Impulse-Control Disorders Not Otherwise Specified," to the chapter "Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders" in DSM-5.


title: Pyromania

text: According to DSM-5, there are six signs of pyromania. Pyromania is mainly categorized by the purposeful setting of fire, tension or arousal before a fire is set, interest in or attraction to fire, and pleasure or relief after setting a fire. These fires not set for personal gain, are not meant to express anger or conceal illegal activity, are not in support of sociopolitical ideologies, are not in response to delusions, and are not signs of intellectual disability. For diagnosis, the setting of fire should not be better explained by a conduct disorder, manic episode, or a personality disorder (antisocial personality disorder). ICD-11 also adds substance abuse to this list. According to ICD-11, signs of fire setting may occur "in response to feelings of depressed mood, anxiety, boredom, loneliness, or other negative affective states." Those with pyromania exhibit problems in social environments and learning disabilities. Women pyromaniacs "often report histories of exposure to trauma, including sexual abuse, and self-harm." Episodic fire setting may become more intense and violent over time, becoming potentially chronic if untreated.


title: Pyromania

text: Most studied cases of pyromania occur in children and teenagers. There is a range of causes, but an understanding of the different motives and actions of fire setters can provide a platform for prevention. Common causes of pyromania can be broken down into two main groups: individual and environmental. This includes the complex understanding of factors such as individual temperament, parental psychopathology, and possible neurochemical predispositions. Many studies have shown that patients with pyromania were in households without a father figure present.


title: Pyromania

text: Pyromania can be common in those with substance use disorders, problem gambling, mood disorders, disruptive behaviour, anti-social disorders, and/or another impulse-control disorder.


title: Pyromania

text: Environmental factors that may lead to pyromania include an event that the patient has experienced in the environment they live in. Environmental factors include neglect from parents and physical or emotional abuse in earlier life. Other causes include early experiences of watching adults or teenagers using fire inappropriately and lighting fires as a stress reliever.


title: Pyromania

text: The appropriate treatment for pyromania varies with the age of the patient and the seriousness of the condition. For children and adolescents treatment usually is cognitive behavioral therapy sessions in which the patient's situation is diagnosed to find out what may have caused this impulsive behavior. Once the situation is diagnosed, repeated therapy sessions usually help continue to a recovery. Other important steps must be taken as well with the interventions and the cause of the impulse behavior. Some other treatments include parenting training, over-correction/satiation/negative practice with corrective consequences, behavior contracting/token reinforcement, special problem-solving skills training, relaxation training, covert sensitization, fire safety and prevention education, individual and family therapy, and medication. The prognosis for recovery in adolescents and children with pyromania depends on the environmental or individual factors in play, but is generally positive. Pyromania is generally harder to treat in adults, often due to lack of cooperation by the patient. Treatment usually consists of more medication to prevent stress or emotional outbursts, in addition to long-term psychotherapy. In adults, however, the recovery rate is generally poor, and if an adult does recover, it usually takes a longer period of time.


title: Pyromania

text: Pyromania was thought in the 1800s to be a concept involved with moral insanity and moral treatment, but had not been categorized under impulse control disorders. Pyromania is one of the four recognized types of arson, alongside burning for profit, to cover up an act of crime and for revenge. Pyromania is the second most common type of arson. Common synonyms for pyromaniacs in colloquial English include firebug (US) and fire raiser (UK), but these also refer to arsonists. Pyromania is a rare disorder with an incidence of less than one percent in most studies; also, pyromaniacs hold a very small proportion of psychiatric hospital admissions. Pyromania can occur in children as young as age three, though such cases are rare. Only a small percentage of children and teenagers arrested for arson are child pyromaniacs. A preponderance of the individuals are male; one source states that ninety percent of those diagnosed with pyromania are male. Based on a survey of 9,282 Americans using the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", 4th edition, impulse-control problems such as gambling, pyromania and compulsive shopping collectively affect 9% of the population. A 1979 study by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration found that only 14% of fires were started by pyromaniacs and others with mental illness. A 1951 study by Lewis and Yarnell, one of the largest epidemiological studies conducted, found that 39% of those who had intentionally set fires had been diagnosed with pyromania.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia (born July 9, 2000), known professionally as mxmtoon, is an American singer-songwriter and YouTuber. Her music is characterized by emotionally transparent, confessional lyrics, and often employs the ukulele. She released her first EP, "Plum Blossom", in 2018; her debut album, "The Masquerade", was released in September 2019. This was followed by the twin EPs "Dawn" and "Dusk" in 2020, and second studio album "Rising", which was released on May 20, 2022.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia was born on July 9, 2000, in Oakland, California. She grew up near Lake Merritt. Her mother is Chinese-American, and her father is German and Scottish. While at school, she enjoyed taking art and architecture classes. She became interested in music from a young age; her brother took violin lessons, and in first grade, Maia joined him. A few years later, she began playing classical cello and trumpet.


title: Mxmtoon

text: In fifth grade, she auditioned for her school rock band. Expecting to audition for cello, she was instead asked to sing Oasis' song "Wonderwall", and ended up joining as a vocalist, where she recalls singing "The Middle" by Jimmy Eat World. In sixth grade, she began playing guitar, learning in part from her father.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia first coined the name "mxmtoon" on her Instagram account, where she drew cartoon sketches. She started a YouTube channel in September 2013, and began playing the ukulele in middle school. She wrote her first song at age 13.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia began self-releasing songs on YouTube under the online alias "mxmtoon" in 2017. The alias "mxmtoon" is derived from her initials. She recorded with GarageBand in her parents' guest bedroom, and created percussion tracks with found objects such as hair straighteners. After initially attempting to write comedy songs, she began writing in a confessional, emotionally embodied style.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Her 2017 collaboration with lo-fi producer Peachy, "Falling for U", reached nearly 40 million streams on Spotify by June 2019. Maia began secretly releasing music to the public, but was later compelled to tell her friends and family after experiencing rapid online growth. In 2018, Maia released her debut EP, "Plum Blossom"; the EP gained more than 100 million streams on Spotify by August 2019.


title: Mxmtoon

text: After high school, Maia took a gap year by postponing college to focus on her music. She was planning to study architecture after graduating from high school, until her music went viral in April 2018. In November 2018, she announced the "Plum Blossom Tour", for March 2019. While it was initially scheduled for five US shows with fellow Californian singer-songwriter Khai Dreams in March 2019, it sold out and was extended to include additional concerts in North America and Europe, including opening appearances for bedroom pop YouTuber Cavetown.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia's debut studio album, "The Masquerade", was released on September 17, 2019. The album peaked at number 45 on the US Indie Albums Chart. "Prom Dress", the lead single, found considerable usage on social media platform TikTok, where it has been used in over a hundred thousand videos. The album's release had been accompanied by "21 Days", a podcast in audio diary format by Spotify that concerned Maia's activities while working on the project in New York City.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia embarked on The Masquerade Tour, of North America and United Kingdom, in the same month of the album's release. She released her first graphic novel, "The Adventures of Mxmtoon: The Masquerade", in October 2019.


title: Mxmtoon

text: On November 2019, Kobalt Music Group announced that they would be signing Maia to their label under a global publishing deal. Emily Bines, a senior creative director at Kobalt, said, "Mxmtoon is exactly the type of forward-thinking creative that we dream about working with at Kobalt. Her vision, matched with her team's passion to bring it to fruition is unwavering. We will be hearing from Maia for a long time to come."


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia released "The Masquerade (The Edits)" three days later. The EP features remixes from songs on "The Masquerade" from artists like Chloe Lilac, Alexander 23 and Chloe Moriondo. Maia was featured in "Dork"'s Hype List of 2020, alongside artists including Girl in Red, Beabadoobee and Maisie Peters.


title: Mxmtoon

text: In December 2019, Maia re-recorded the song "Prom Dress" in Simlish, the fictional language used in "The Sims" games. The Simlish version was added to "The Sims 4" on December 12, 2019. A week later, she released the music video for "Unspoken Words", the first song in "The Masquerade".


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia released her first single of 2020, "Fever Dream", in January. "Fever Dream" was followed by EP "Dawn" in April; accompanying album "Dusk" was released in October, and was soon amalgamated with "Dawn" to form album "Dawn & Dusk".


title: Mxmtoon

text: In March 2021, Maia was announced as the singing voice for Alex Chen, the protagonist of the Square Enix game "".


title: Mxmtoon

text: In February 2022, Maia announced a North American tour for her then-upcoming album "Rising", entitled "rising (the tour)". It was indicated that fellow musician Chloe Moriondo would be joining her for the tour. She also released "Mona Lisa", which served as the lead single for the album. Further tour dates across the United Kingdom, Europe, and Australasia were announced in the following month, with Ricky Montgomery accompanying her on European and British touring dates.


title: Mxmtoon

text: "Rising" was released on the twentieth of May, after releases of singles "Sad Disco", "Victim of Nostalgia", and "Coming of Age".


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia has been credited with having an "endearingly intimate presence". The singer-songwriter's music has been described as "warm folk-pop tunes with acoustic ornamentations", "one part acoustic-pop a-la Kina Grannis, mixed with sharp lyricism and avant-garde, off-kilter melodics akin to Fiona Apple or PJ Harvey", that "explore[s] themes such as the trials of love, being a burden to those close to you, and connecting with your family's heritage." Joshua Bote of "Paste" wrote that Maia "might be the songwriter a new generation needs", noting that she is "made for these times" and is "armed with a ukulele, a sardonic charm and social media savvy."


title: Mxmtoon

text: Grant Rindner of "Nylon" wrote: "With a commitment to covering topics she rarely hears addressed by other artists, and a keen understanding of how to bond with her audience, she's emerged as a charming and relatable singer-songwriter with a massive platform." After attending Maia's performance at the Gramercy Theatre, Briana Younger of "The New Yorker" wrote, "She sang of routine high-school problems, such as crippling self-doubt and unrequited love, with an emotional sophistication that reminded us that there are some things we never outgrow." Joe Coscarelli of "New York Times" has compared Maia's bedroom pop style to that of Girl in Red, Clairo and Beabadoobee, as well as the folk-pop "simplicity" of Regina Spektor and The Moldy Peaches. Her manager, Max Gredinger, has presented her with Billie Eilish and Shawn Mendes as models for potential super-stardom.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Coscarelli wrote: "Maia, who overflows with earnestness and giggles, has assembled an independent, D.I.Y. mini-empire almost by accident." Bote described Maia as "really, really good at the internet". Maia makes comedy videos on the video-sharing platform TikTok where she has amassed 2.2 million followers and 88 million likes as of September 2020. To date, she has made appearances on Vine, Tumblr, Facebook, Twitch, Snapchat, Bandcamp, Pinterest and SoundCloud as well as TikTok. Her music has been streamed over 300 million times across all online platforms collectively.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia has cited Arctic Monkeys, The Black Keys, Sufjan Stevens and Elliott Smith as her influences. She also has credited inspiration from strong female artists, such as Clairo.


title: Mxmtoon

text: Maia identifies as "a young bisexual woman of color from a family of immigrants" and currently lives in Brooklyn, New York, where she writes, records, and produces her own music from her home that she shares with her younger brother. She graduated from high school in 2019. In Maia's youth, her parents played R&B and hip-hop, including Salt-N-Pepa and A Tribe Called Quest, which she still listens to "for nostalgia".


title: Music of The Lord of the Rings film series

text: The music of "The Lord of the Rings" film series was composed, orchestrated, conducted and produced by Howard Shore between 2000 and 2004 to support Peter Jackson's film trilogy. It is notable in terms of length of the score, the size of the staged forces, the unusual instrumentation, the featured soloists, the multitude of musical styles and the number of recurring musical themes used.


text: Shore wrote many hours of music for the trilogy, effectively scoring the film for its entire length. Over 13 hours of the music (including various alternate takes) have been released across various formats. Shore conceived the score as operatic and antiquated-sounding. He made use of an immense ensemble including a large symphony orchestra (principally, the London Philharmonic Orchestra), multiple instrumental "bands", various choirs, and vocal and instrumental soloists, requiring an ensemble ranging from 230 to 400 musicians.


text: The series music is widely regarded as a milestone in the history of film music. It became the most successful of Shore's career, earning three Oscars, two Golden Globes, and three Grammys, among other nominations. Some of his themes or leitmotifs (like the Shire theme) became individually popular. The music has attracted the interest of musicologists and Tolkien scholars. It is performed by choirs and orchestras around the world as symphony pieces, concert suites and live to-projection concerts. Shore invited the musicologist Doug Adams to observe the composition process and to document it in what became the 2010 book "The Music of the Lord of the Rings Films". It identifies the many themes of the score, and describes how these are used in each of the scenes of the film trilogy.


text: The music for the film series was voted the best soundtrack of all time by a Classic FM listener poll for six years in a row.


text: The Canadian composer and conductor Howard Shore composed, orchestrated, conducted and produced the trilogy's music.


text: The filmmakers had considered the American composer James Horner and the Polish composer Wojciech Kilar for the role. Shore visited the set in 1999, and composed a version of the Shire theme and Frodo's Theme before Jackson began shooting. In August 2000 he visited the set again, and watched the assembly cuts of "The Fellowship of the Ring" and "The Return of the King". In the music, Shore included over 50 leitmotifs to represent the different characters, cultures and places—the largest catalogue of leitmotifs in the history of cinema. There are for instance multiple leitmotifs just for the hobbits and the Shire. Although part of the score for the first film was recorded in Wellington, New Zealand, virtually all of the trilogy's score was recorded in Watford Town Hall and mixed at Abbey Road Studios in London. Jackson planned to advise the score for six weeks each year in London, though for "The Two Towers" he stayed for twelve.


text: Shore composed a main theme for the Fellowship rather than many different character themes, and the Fellowship's highs and lows are depicted during the series. On top of that, individual themes were composed to represent different cultures.


text: The score is primarily played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, ranging from 93 to 120 players throughout the recording. There are contributions by London Voices, the London Oratory School Schola boy choir, and artists such as Ben Del Maestro, Sheila Chandra, Enya, Renée Fleming, James Galway, Annie Lennox and Emilíana Torrini contributed. The actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen, Liv Tyler, Miranda Otto (extended cuts only for the latter two) and Peter Jackson (for a single gong sound in the second film). Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens wrote the libretto; David Salo translated it into Tolkien's constructed languages. The third film's end song, "Into the West", was a tribute to a young filmmaker Jackson and Walsh befriended named Cameron Duncan, who died of cancer in 2003.


text: In keeping with his operatic vision, Shore used the three scripts and the book itself to write themes even before having film reels to compose to. As a result, Shore spent nearly four years on the composition, compared to the 6–8 weeks per film, and a week or two of recording, typical for film composers. For the recording process, which extended over four weeks per film, he arranged the music in long suite-like pieces for the orchestra to go through during a day of playing, rather than short cues, making the score more cohesive. Only a few minutes of finalized music were recorded each day, to allow for input from director Peter Jackson and revisions to the music and performance. Shore began his work on the music early in the production of "", in late 2000. He recorded the first pieces of music, the Moria sequence, early in 2001.


text: Shore's orchestration called for an immense ensemble: a core 96-piece orchestra and 100-piece choir, as well as additional instruments for select sections of the score, onstage instrumental "bands" and additional choirs: overall, over 330 players. Among the less-usual instruments are contrabass clarinet in B-flat for Gollum's theme, horns doubling on Wagner tubas and trumpets in C, F, Bb and rotary valve. Shore spent 4 years composing and recording the score, constantly referring to Tolkien's book.


text: The film score for "The Lord of the Rings" incorporates extensive vocal music blended with the orchestral arrangements. The great majority of the lyrics used in the libretto are in the invented languages of Middle-earth, representing the various cultures and races in Tolkien's writings. These languages include Quenya and Sindarin associated with Elves, Adûnaic and Rohirric for Men, and Khuzdul for the Dwarves. The score follows Tolkien's use of Old English as an analogue for Rohirric, while English is used as an analogue for the Common Tongue. Some of these languages had been developed extensively by Tolkien, while others were extrapolated by the linguist David Salo based on the limited samples of vocabulary and linguistic style available.


text: For example, the "Footsteps of Doom" song, in Sindarin, is heard in the "Prologue: One Ring to Rule Them All" introductory chapter of the film trilogy, at the start of "The Fellowship of the Ring". To a spoken narration by Cate Blanchett as the Elf-lady Galadriel, scenes of a long and violent history unfurl on screen, overlaid with several of Shore's themes, including "Lothlórien" for the Elves, "Threat of Mordor", "Sauron", "Evil of the Ring", "Ringwraith", and "Footsteps of Doom" for the forces of the Dark Lord; "Fall of Men", "Gondor in Decline", and "Minas Tirith" for the human allies of the Elves; and throughout the Prologue, the "History of the Ring" theme as the One Ring passes from one owner to another.


text: The libretto was derived from several sources, including songs and poems written by Tolkien, phrases from the screenplay (often sung against the corresponding dialogue or recitation) as well as original and adapted material from Shore and from screenwriters Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, and others, all translated by Salo while stressing good choral sounds.


text: The score includes a series of songs, some diegetic, some not. A selection of them, with the associated underscore, were released as single CD releases and music videos featuring footage from the film and the production, prior to the release of the entire soundtracks.


text: Some of the diegetic songs were not composed by Shore, but he orchestrated and conducted the orchestral accompaniment and even reprised some of them in his symphony. Thus, sees the hobbits celebrating and dancing vigorously to music by Plan 9, a group who had long worked with Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh. Shore commented that their music had "the right feel" for the scene, and liked the difference from his own music.


text: A few of the diegetic songs are settings of poems by Tolkien, interspersed in the text of "The Lord of the Rings". Among these is "The Road Goes Ever On", sung softly by Ian McKellen playing Gandalf arriving in Hobbiton in his farm cart, to a melody by Walsh.


text: Some of the non-diegetic songs, too, were by other composers; for instance, "May It Be" and "Aníron" (the theme for Aragorn and Arwen) were composed and sung by Enya. "The Funeral of Théodred" in "The Two Towers" was composed by Plan 9 and performed by the actor Miranda Otto, playing Eowyn; the words are not Tolkien's.


text: For the music to be played as the six-movement "The Lord of the Rings Symphony", over 200 musicians and singers are required on stage. To suit the complex narrative, with its contrasting cultures, Shore wrote music in different styles for each of the peoples of Middle-earth. For the Elves, the music is mainly women's voices, Rivendell designed to appear as a timeless place of learning, while Lothlórien was by intention "mystical and exotic". In contrast, the Orcs of Isengard were accompanied by a 5-beat rhythm on steel plates, Japanese drums, and metal chains, giving a harsh industrial effect. For Gollum, a corrupted Hobbit in two minds with a strange way of moving, Shore used the cymbaly, an instrument like a medieval hammered dulcimer, giving a trembling feeling. For some concerts conducted by Shore, images of Middle-earth by the films' conceptual designers Alan Lee and John Howe were projected while the music was played. There are over 50 leitmotifs in the music; the symphony begins with the rising and falling "The History of the Ring" theme with a "breathlike pattern to give the Ring a sense of consciousness and purpose". Shore comments that this could be taken as the central theme of the score. The "Fellowship" theme appears when the 9 heroes, the Fellowship of the Ring, first come together at the Council of Elrond at Rivendell; the theme splinters when the Fellowship breaks apart, and gradually reassembles as the Fellowship makes progress with its task. The symphony is edited to concert length from over 11 hours of film music. The symphony has a 19th century structure to give the audience a sense of history, hinting at the great lapse of time since the Third Age of Middle-earth. Shore, with Jackson and Walsh, wanted it to feel like opera. To represent the evolution of characters, the themes change; thus, the Hobbits' tin whistle is replaced by a flute when they return to the Shire. That return, to save the Shire, is a central theme of the story, accompanied by the Hobbits' theme.


text: "Live to Projection" is a series where "The Lord of the Rings" films (their soundtrack limited to dialogue and sound effects) are projected while the music is performed live in sync with the films. It is conducted by and Erik Eino Ochsner and was performed around the world, including Switzerland, Australia and the United States. The concerts, which consist of multiple movements, restore unused or alternate sections of the soundtrack (where other concerts of this kind for other films repeat the final film music) and even required Shore to edit several bars of the music, including a feature entr'acte suite.


text: In 2010, the musicologist and music journalist Doug Adams published what is effectively the official book of Shore's scores for the films, "The Music of the Lord of the Rings Films", as Shore had invited him to "organize and present a cohesive view of the score". The book is based on unique long-term access to Shore throughout the four-year composition period. It is illustrated with drawings by the films' conceptual artists, the illustrators John Howe and Alan Lee. Shore describes the book as "a wonderfully readable version of what I created in music". He states that Adams became a friend, and "from all of his detailed study, [is] much more an expert in this music than I am!" The films' writer/producer Fran Walsh writes that "Howard's music ... gave the cultures of the Elves and the Dwarves and the kingdoms of Men a powerful authenticity", and that "I feel enormously proud that [Shore's] beautiful work, beloved by so many around the world, has been so eloquently celebrated by Doug Adams in this fine book."


text: Adams states that Shore has woven over 100 themes or leitmotifs (over 160, if the music of the "Hobbit" films is included), which can be grouped by the Middle-earth cultures to which they relate. Each theme is named, with the film scene where it is first heard; it is shown in musical notation, and then described in a few paragraphs of text. When Adams has identified other themes on related subjects, they immediately follow in the same section. Thus, the first section on themes is "The One Ring", with the main theme "The History of the Ring", followed by "The Evil of the Ring (Mordor/Sauron)", "The Seduction of the Ring", and "The Fate of the Ring/The Destruction of the Ring". The account is illustrated both with pencil drawings by the artists and by stills from the films.


text: Adams states that Shore "instinctually" started with themes to ensure musical clarity. The first theme, "The Shire", may serve as an example. It features both in the films, many times, and in Shore's concert suite Concerning Hobbits. The melody, all in one key, occurs in pensive, rural, and hymn settings. The pensive setting is played classically, with the melody on whistle or clarinet according to the mood of the moment. The rural setting changes the theme into "a sprightly, Celtic-influenced peasant melody—the simple joy of Hobbiton in musical form." Adams notes that Shore commented that he wanted to give the impression that "the hobbits were playing the music", while Jackson said "Make it hobbity."


text: Shore combined all three variations of "The Shire" in the end credits of "The Fellowship of the Ring" to create the song "In Dreams". The song has lyrics by Fran Walsh, and the film version is sung by the boy soprano Edward Ross of the London Oratory School Schola.


text: Adams comments that "Like all Shore's music for the hobbits, this song is designed to feel as if it could be both about the Shire and from it—as if it were some sweetly nostalgic song sung at the closing of the Green Dragon [Inn] each night."


text: "The Shire" was soon followed by the Fellowship, Moria, and Dwarrowdelf themes. Shore worked from research into Western, African, and Middle-eastern music, from storyboards of the films; and sometimes straight from Tolkien's story. For example, he used the Arabic maqam Hijaz scale for the Elvish Lothlórien/Galadriel theme, to create a sense of antiquity.


text: The number of themes multiplied, but Shore took care to keep the orchestration to a limited "menu", so as to maintain a vision of "sturdy musical textures with orchestral color and detail coursing under the surface." Shore divided the orchestra to provide high, middle, and low sound degrees "regardless of instrument type"; Adams cites Shore's remark that "Orchestration is, in essence, about range. People think it's color, but it actually is range." The themes meanwhile evolved into "an interconnected network of dozens of leitmotifs", becoming not as Shore had anticipated in the style of Italian opera, but rather in the manner of Wagner and German opera. Adams describes the final bars of the score of "The Return of the King" as Wagnerian. Judith Bernanke similarly analyses Shore's "operatic" approach.


text: Adams describes the score for the three films of the trilogy in turn, scene by scene. He names the musical themes as they appear in each scene: the themes often recur. When a scene is accompanied by choral music, the lyrics are provided; when these are in one of Tolkien's constructed languages, an English translation is given alongside, line for line, and the source of the text (often Tolkien or the screenwriter/producer Philippa Boyens) and the translator (usually Salo) is stated.


text: For example, for the scene "The Court of Meduseld" in "The Two Towers", Adams describes the picture as Théoden King of Rohan sits slumped in his throne, being whispered lies by Saruman's spy, the traitor Wormtongue. The music is the "Gríma Wormtongue" theme, in which "contrabassoon, tuba, celli, and contrabasses wallow in a sepulchral, debauched chromatic line... colored by resonant bass drum strokes and a film of high string clusters." The music shifts as the wizard Gandalf and his companions Legolas and Gimli enter: the chorus sing "The King" (in Old English, the language Tolkien uses for Rohan), and the orchestra plays in turn the "Isengard" theme (for Saruman), the "Fellowship" theme (for Legolas and Gimli), and the "Gandalf the White" theme (for the wizard, returned from the dead). The account is illustrated with a drawing of the King on the throne, Wormtongue's head visible by his right arm; with the music of the "Wormtongue" theme modified by the "Rohan" theme's beat and Dorian mode; by a film still of the head of the aged and despondent king; and by the lyrics of "The King" in Old English and in translation.


text: The scores and soundtrack albums of the film trilogy have won three Academy Awards, three Golden Globe awards, and four Grammy Awards, including:


text: The philosopher and author Roger Scruton, for the "Future Symphony Institute", notes that the phrase "film music" has, however unfairly, often been used pejoratively by critics. He writes that, on the contrary, "the most successful film music today exhibits a quite extraordinary level of competence." In Scruton's view, "Howard Shore’s evocative music for "The Lord of the Rings" exhibit[s] a mastery of harmonic sequences, polyphonic organisation and orchestral effect that would be the envy of many a composer for the concert hall."


text: Kristin Thompson, in the scholarly book "Picturing Tolkien", writes that "even the film [series]'s harshest critics credit it with ... superb design elements, including ... music".


text: The Tolkien scholar David Bratman, in his survey of music inspired by Tolkien, provides what "Mythlore" called "justified and sharp" criticisms of the film score. Bratman describes the score as "uninspired hackwork" and states that Shore's Celtic music representing The Shire (played on a "Celtic assortment of instruments", namely bodhrán, dulcimer, Celtic harp, musette, mandolin, and guitar) is inappropriate, given that the hobbits' homeland is known to have been inspired by the English Midlands where Tolkien lived.


text: The folklorist Dimitra Fimi, also in "Picturing Tolkien", comments that "ethereal music" accompanies the procession of Elves in the extended version of "The Fellowship of the Ring" (scene 11, "The Passing of the Elves"). She states that the scene borrows visually from the "Celtic" imagery of John Duncan's 1911 Pre-Raphaelite painting "Riders of the Sidhe", giving an "otherworldly" effect very unlike the "playful tone" in Tolkien's text. Shore deliberately creates the "same 'Celtic' feel'", she writes, in the music for the Elves in Rivendell; Shore had approached the Irish "folk-cum-New Age" singer Enya, whose music represents "Celticity as melancholy over a lost tradition." In Fimi's view, the "'Celtic' air and ambience" that Jackson uses for the Elves is reinforced by what the film's conceptual designer Alan Lee called "the use of natural forms ... [and] of flowing graceful lines" and "elements of Art Nouveau and Celtic design". Fimi notes that both Tolkien and the historian Malcolm Chapman wrote "mocking[ly]" about the romantic stereotyping of Celts in this way, Tolkien speaking of "the wild incalculable poetic Celt, full of vague and misty imaginations", and Chapman of "high-flown metaphysical and moral conclusions drawn from 'Celtic' art by its admiring critics".


text: Vincent E. Rone writes that while many commentators noticed that Shore had borrowed techniques from "Romantic opera, especially his predilection for Wagnerian leitmotifs", the score is "far more nuanced" than that, identifying each people – Hobbits, Men, Elves – with their own system of harmony. In Rone's view, Hobbits are placed harmonically as familiar, using major-minor Diatonic scales. Men are placed as at once familiar and unfamilar, by means of modal diatonic scales. Finally, Elves are placed as unfamiliar, through the use of nondiatonic scales ("chromatic mediants"). Rone suggests that in this way the film score both echoes 19th century tradition and helps the viewer to understand the different peoples in the fantasy.


text: Matthew Young sets out to show that Shore's music is rooted both in Jackson's visual narrative and in Tolkien's text, and that Shore's leitmotivs give the audience a precise "musical affect" for the different cultures of Middle-earth. Young does this by analysing musemes, individual elements of the music analogous to phonemes in speech. Young further suggests that the way the themes change during the film series conveys to the audience an "emotional understanding of the evolution of the [leading] characters". For example, Young analyses the Shire Fiddle theme in "The Fellowship of the Ring", arguing that the fiddle and flute used relate to Tolkien's Hobbits, while in his view "the rural nature of Celtic music is consistent with the rural, peasant nature of Hobbits described by Tolkien."


text: Recordings of the score were originally issued on single-disc albums, named "", "", and "", that closely followed the cinematic releases of the films, or presented earlier versions recorded during the film's editing. The music on the disc was arranged as a concert-piece while also keeping reasonably with the plot progression of the film.


text: Starting in 2005, a year after the extended release of "The Return of the King", Reprise Records released one multi-disc set for each part of the trilogy. These annually published collections, titled "The Complete Recordings", contain the entire score for the extended versions of the films on CD, along with an additional DVD-Audio disc that offers 2.0 stereo and 5.1 surround mixes of the soundtrack, and liner notes by Doug Adams. They were re-released in 2018 by Rhino Entertainment.


text: The 2010 book by Doug Adams, "The Music of the Lord of the Rings Films", contains a companion CD, "The Rarities Archives", of alternate versions and otherwise unpublished music created during the composition process.


text: Two short documentary films have been made of the score's production process: "Howard Shore: An Introspective", released as a bonus DVD with "The Return Of The King" in 2003, and "Howard Shore - Creating The Lord Of The Rings Symphony", the latter recorded live in Montreal at the Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier in 2004.


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: What a Time to Be Alive is a collaborative commercial mixtape by Canadian rapper Drake and American rapper Future. It was released on September 20, 2015, by Young Money Entertainment, Cash Money Records, Republic Records, Epic Records, A1 Records and Freebandz. The mixtape was executive produced by Metro Boomin, who also produced or co-produced eight of its 11 songs. Additional producers include 40 (who also executive produced the mixtape), alongside Southside, Allen Ritter, Boi-1da, Frank Dukes, and others. It was released on the iTunes Store and Apple Music, and debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: "What a Time to Be Alive" was supported by Drake and Future's previous collaboration on the single "Where Ya At". As friends, they originally planned to record a mixtape together earlier in the year; the project never fully materialized. However, during recording sessions for "Where Ya At", the duo began working on the project, beginning in July.


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: According to a 2016 interview with Zane Lowe, Drake spent 6 days in Atlanta working on the project with Future. "Digital Dash" was the first song they made for the project, presented as a finished piece to Drake prior to him getting on the song. "Jumpman" was the last song the duo created for the project.


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: The mixtape was first teased by a range of sources; including DJ Skee, Angela Yee and Ernest Baker, and this project was officially announced on Drake's Instagram on September 19, 2015, when he revealed the mixtape's release date and cover art.


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: Drake and Future premiered the album on Beats 1 on OVO Sound's "OVO Sound Radio" show on September 20, 2015, and weeks after it was released on the iTunes Store and Apple Music.


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: "What a Time to Be Alive" received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 70, based on 24 reviews. "Billboard" described Drake and Future's chemistry as expected and said "Future deals with personal demons that he tries, and fails, to drown in drugs; Drake is mostly about insecurities and lesser gravity". "Rolling Stone" gave the album 3.5 out of 5 stars, attributing the "fresh and spontaneous" feel to the quick production of the album, where "both artists [are] playing off their louder-than-life personalities without overthinking the details". However, Sheldon Pearce in a "Pitchfork" review suggests that this limited time-frame for making the album is the sonic downfall of the mixtape arguing that the album "wasn't created with the care or the dutiful curation we've come to expect from both artists when solo."


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: In a mixed review, Sheldon Pearce of "Pitchfork" criticizes the "decided lack of chemistry between these two", because "they have difficulty sharing the same space" when on the same song. Pearce goes on to highlight how Future's presence, both in content and persona, is much more prevalent than Drake's, where the latter appears to be a "bystander" and "out of his element". Yet, he highlights moments where the collaboration works most effectively. On "Scholarships", Drake "throws Future the perfect alley-oop", "Jumpman" is a banger, and "Diamonds Dancing" is the first track between the two artists that "clicks on all cylinders". Additionally, Pearce lauds the production by Metro Boomin as "glimmering" and hails both rappers when they are able to work on their own and make music in their respective comfort zones in songs like Future's "Jersey" and Drake's "30 for 30 Freestyle".


title: What a Time to Be Alive

text: "Complex" said about Drake verses; "despite a corny bar here or there, Drake sounds way more energized with much better flows." "Entertainment Weekly" was disappointed with Drake on the album, quoting "despite a beat by Drake whisperer Noah "40" Shebib, the album-closing "30 For 30 Freestyle" doesn't come near clearing the admittedly high bar Drake has set for himself in 2015."