title: Louis Kahn

text: Kahn worked closely with engineers and contractors on his buildings. In addition to the influence Kahn's more well-known work has on contemporary architects (such as Muzharul Islam, Tadao Ando), some of his work (especially the unbuilt City Tower Project) became very influential among the high-tech architects of the late twentieth century (such as Renzo Piano, who worked in Kahn's office, Richard Rogers, and Norman Foster). His prominent apprentices include Muzharul Islam, Moshe Safdie, Robert Venturi, Jack Diamond, and Charles Dagit.


title: Louis Kahn

text: Many years after his death, Kahn continues to provoke controversy. Before his Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park at the southern tip of Roosevelt Island was built, a "New York Times" editorial opined:


title: Louis Kahn

text: There's a magic to the project. That the task is daunting makes it worthy of the man it honors, who guided the nation through the Depression, the New Deal and a world war. As for Mr. Kahn, he died in 1974, as he passed alone through New York City's Penn Station. In his briefcase were renderings of the memorial, his last completed plan.


title: Louis Kahn

text: ... simple and elegant. Drawing inspiration from Roosevelt's defense of the Four Freedoms—of speech and religion, and from want and fear—he designed an open 'room and a garden' at the bottom of the island. Trees on either side form a 'V' defining a green space, and leading to a two-walled stone room at the water's edge that frames the United Nations and the rest of the skyline.


title: Louis Kahn

text: A group spearheaded by William J. vanden Heuvel raised over $50 million in public and private funds between 2005 and 2012 to establish the memorial. Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park officially opened to the public on October 24, 2012.


title: Louis Kahn

text: Kahn was the subject of the 2003 Oscar-nominated documentary film "", presented by Nathaniel Kahn, his son. Kahn's complicated family life inspired the "Undaunted Mettle" episode of "".


title: Louis Kahn

text: In the 1993 film "Indecent Proposal", character David Murphy (played by Woody Harrelson), referenced Kahn during a lecture to architecture students, attributing the quote "Even a brick wants to be something" to Kahn.


title: Louis Kahn

text: Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Lewis Spratlan, with collaborators Jenny Kallick and John Downey (Amherst College, class of 2003), composed the chamber opera "Architect" as a character study of Kahn. The premiere recording was due to be released in 2012 by Navona Records.


title: Louis Kahn

text: In Showtime's "Billions" (Season 4, Episode 6), Taylor Mason and Wendy Rhoades meet at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park and discuss Kahn's genius and his relationship with his estranged son.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The Anzac" class (also identified as the ANZAC" class and the MEKO 200 ANZ type) is a ship class of ten frigates; eight operated by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) and two operated by the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN). During the 1980s, the RAN began plans to replace the River-class destroyer escorts (based on the British Leander Class) with a mid-capability patrol frigate and settled on the idea of modifying a proven German design for Australian conditions. Around the same time, the RNZN was seeking to replace their "Leander"-class frigates while maintaining blue-water capabilities. A souring of relations between New Zealand and the United States of America in relation to New Zealand's nuclear-free zone and the ANZUS security treaty prompted New Zealand to seek improved ties with other nations, particularly Australia. As both nations were seeking warships of similar capabilities, the decision was made in 1987 to collaborate on their acquisition. The project name (and later, the class name) is taken from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps of the First World War.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Twelve ship designs were tendered in 1986. By 1989, the project had selected a proposal by Germany's Blohm + Voss, based on their MEKO 200 design, to be built in Australia by AMECON at Williamstown, Victoria. The modular design of the frigates allowed sections to be constructed at Whangarei, New Zealand and Newcastle, New South Wales in addition to Williamstown. The RAN ordered eight ships, while the RNZN ordered two and had the option to add two more. The frigate acquisition was controversial and widely opposed in New Zealand, and as a result, the additional ships were not ordered.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: In 1992, work started on the frigates; ships capable of a top speed, and a range of at . The armament initially consisted of a single 5-inch gun and a point-defence missile system, supported by a missile-armed helicopter. In addition, the ships were fitted for but not with a torpedo system, anti-ship missiles, and a close-in weapons system. The last ship of the class entered service in 2006; by this point, the RAN and RNZN had embarked on separate projects to improve the frigates' capabilities by fitting the additional weapons, along with updates to other systems and equipment.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Since entering service, "Anzac"-class frigates have made multiple deployments outside local waters, including involvement in the INTERFET multi-national deployment to East Timor, and multiple operational periods in the Persian Gulf. , all ten ships are in service. The RAN intends to start replacing theirs in 2027 when their first "Hunter"-class frigate is commissioned, while the RNZN ships will remain active until the mid-2030s.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The "Anzac" class originated from the RAN's New Surface Combatant (NSC) project, which began in the mid-1980s to find a replacement for the RAN's six River-class destroyer escorts. By 1985, various design briefs ranging from displacement were under consideration, with the RAN emphasising anti-ship missile defence, damage control, and ship survivability based on Royal Navy experiences during the Falklands War. Eventually, the project settled on a ship of approximately displacement. At this time, it was also believed that Australia did not have the capability to design a major warship from scratch, so the decision was made to select a proven foreign design and fit it with an Australian-developed combat system. In early 1986, a review of policy regarding surface combatants saw the NSC classified into the middle of three tiers: a patrol frigate designed to operate on low- to mid-intensity operations in Australia's Economic Exclusion Zone.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Around the same time, the need to replace the RNZN's "Leander"-class frigate force with new warships was under consideration. The government saw maintaining a blue-water capable force built around three or four frigates as important, but the cost of acquiring and maintaining such a force was prohibitive, once it became clear on the basis of RN & RAN studies that the generally favored Type 21 design, lacked the space and volume for the required range & development, and a joint Anzac project offered the RNZN the first chance in 20 years, something like new deepwater warships. The NZ 1983 Defence Review on the basis of RN theoretical study and enthusiasm for the 2400 Vicker sub-project, saw a submarine force as the only way of maintaining an RNZN as a combat force, and the Muldoon government actually entered into a memo of understanding with Australia for the joint development of what became the Collins submarines and assigned staff to the Australian project, however, it became clear that surface vessels were also required and the cost risk was too high. Alternate suggestions, such as reducing the RNZN to a coast guard-type force responsible for coastal and fisheries protection, replacing the frigates with smaller offshore patrol vessels, or reorienting the navy to primarily operate submarines, were made in several venues, but were seen as an unacceptable loss in capability. Around the same time, the 1984-elected Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand implemented a nuclear-free zone, which incensed the United States of America and led to a deterioration of relations between the two nations, including the American withdrawal of support for New Zealand under the ANZUS security treaty. In response, the New Zealand government sought to improve ties with Australia; one such avenue was to promote military interoperability between the countries by standardising equipment and procedures where possible. The Australian NSC project was seen to have "virtually identical" requirements to the RNZN's proposed Replacement Combat Ship concept, and the need to replace the warships dovetailed with the need to improve relations with Australia.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: On 6 March 1987, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed by the two nations and RNZN representatives were invited to collaborate on the project. To recognise their involvement, the project was renamed the "Anzac" Ship Project, taking the name from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps of World War I. The New Zealanders' involvement was structured to allow their involvement in the selection of the design and shipyard and explore options for New Zealand industry involvement: when the time came to commit, they could either continue cooperating into the construction stage of the project, independently order the ships from the designer or abandon the project entirely.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The proposed baseline characteristics called for a vessel capable of reaching speeds of and a range of at based on a Combined diesel or gas (CODOG) propulsion system, able to operate in Sea State 5, and capable of operating a Seahawk-size helicopter. The ship was to be fitted with a main gun and an eight-cell launcher for a point-defence missile system, and fitted for but not with a torpedo system, anti-ship missiles, and a close-in weapons system. Tenders were requested by the project at the end of 1986, and 19 submissions were made, 12 of which included ship designs: the Netherlands' M-class (later "Karel Doorman"-class) frigate, a design based on the German MEKO 200 multipurpose frigate design, Italy's "Maestrale"-class frigate, the French F2000 design, the Canadian "Halifax"-class frigate, the German Type 122 (later "Bremen"-class frigate), Norway's "Nordkapp"-class offshore patrol vessel, the British Type 23 frigate (which was proposed by two different shipyards), South Korea's "Ulsan"-class frigate, and an airship design proposed by Airship Industries. By August 1987, a cost ceiling of A$3.5 billion (1986 terms) was established, and the submitted proposals were narrowed down in October to Blohm + Voss's MEKO design, the M class offered by Royal Schelde, and a scaled-down version of the British Type 23 proposed by Yarrow Shipbuilders. The Type 23 proposal was eliminated in November 1987, with the other two going into a development phase where the designer partnered with an Australian shipbuilder: Blohm + Voss with AMECON, and Royal Schelde with Australian Warship Systems.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: On 14 August 1989, the Australian government announced that AMECON had been awarded the tender for construction of the "Anzac" class based on Blohm + Voss' modified MEKO 200 design. Although both the MEKO 200 and M-class designs met the design requirements, the MEKO design was selected as more ships could be purchased for the budget cost. The A$5 billion contract was, at the time, the largest defence contract awarded in Australia. The decision was made despite ongoing debate in New Zealand over the project. New Zealand committed in principle to the purchase of two frigates plus the option for two more on 7 September, and the contract for the first two ships was signed on 10 November.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: In 1992, the Australian Force Structure Review contained plans to replace the three "Perth"-class guided-missile destroyers and four of the six "Adelaide"-class guided-missile frigates with air defence vessels. The initial proposal – to build an additional six "Anzac"-class frigates configured for wide-area anti-aircraft warfare – did not go ahead as the "Anzac" design was too small to effectively host all the required equipment and weapons. Instead, the RAN began to upgrade the "Adelaide"s in 1999 to fill the anti-aircraft capability that would be lost when the "Perth"s left service between 1999 and 2001, and began work on a long-term replacement of the destroyers with what became the "Hobart"-class air warfare destroyer.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: From the late 1960s decision of the UK government to withdraw the Royal Navy from East of Suez in the early 1970s considerable doubt existed within the RNZN, government, and community about the continuing relevance, viability, and usefulness of an RNZN force of 3 to 4 frigates. The option of the United States Coast Guard's (USCG) "Hamilton"-class cutters was seriously considered as an alternative to the order of HMNZS "Canterbury" in 1968, which was approved under the understanding that New Zealand would hold continued access to the UK market after Britain entered the European Economic Community and was affordable only because it was part of a British deal with the Yarrow shipyard to build seven RN, Chilean and RNZN "Leander"s at less than the cost to save shipyard jobs in Scotland.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: During the late 1970s, proposals for a modified "Hamilton"-class cutter with less range or the RN Type 21 frigate with similar anti-submarine capability to a "Leander" but with a smaller crew and with less AW, AA, and AD. Both these proposals and others for full combat Dutch and USS Oliver Hazard Perry frigates were rejected by the Muldoon government and in the early 1980s, a number of retired naval officers and political scientists like Helen Clark and Robert Miles were seriously debating and writing papers and articles, suggesting options such as RN OPVs, the "Castle"-class and the USCG's WMEC "Bear"-class. The navy was interested in some of these ideas, but only for the option proposed by the 1978 Defence Review of acquiring 2 OPV vessels to patrol the expanded EEZ and free the "Leander"s for other uses and for replacement of the inadequate and worn out "Lake"-class patrol vessels. After the election of the Lange Labour government, thinking on alternatives to frigates for the RNZN had moved towards purpose-built designs rather like the Irish Navy's "Eithne" patrol corvette, a sort of 1,800-ton high endurance corvette with "Leander"-like helicopter hangar and pad or small Meko 100–140 designs rather different from those built for Argentina. After the nuclear ships crisis and other events, the acquisition of some Anzac frigates was virtually certain, because the key Labour MP Jim Anderton, either accepted the Anzac ships as a necessary increased self-defence capability with the securing of a nuclear-free policy or tacitly agreed not to oppose it like Helen Clark.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The new most touted off-the-shelf options in 1986–88 (the "Castle" and "Bear"-class vessels) were no longer possible, as the Scottish shipbuilders had closed and development of the "Bear" cutter option into a stretched vessel was effectively impossible after the ANZUS impasse. The New Zealand government's planned acquisition of the "Anzac"-class frigates was a major point of debate and contention: researcher Peter Greener claims that it "was possibly the most strongly debated defence purchase of the century". In New Zealand at the time, "frigate" was a dirty word, and attempts to make the replacement of the old navy ships more palatable to the public included using euphemisms like "ocean combat ship" and "ocean surveillance vessel". The government's official stance was dedication to maintaining a blue-water navy, primarily in order to defend the nation and contribute to regional security. Despite this, the government was slow to respond to opponents of the project, which included peace campaigners, politicians (from both within and outside the Labour Party, and from both ends of the political spectrum), and military personnel. Most of the concern revolved around the cost of purchasing frigate-type ships, along with the idea that four high-capability warships would be too few and too overspecialised to operate in the roles envisioned for the RNZN.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The primary role foreseen for the RNZN was fisheries protection, particularly following the introduction of a Exclusive Economic Zone by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; this was thought to require a minimum of six vessels to effectively police. Peace campaigners claimed that the purchase of the "Anzac"s was a politically motivated decision made under pressure from Australia, which was trying to support its shipbuilding industry, and stated that the Fourth Labour Government was undermining its commitment to reduce the nation's deficit by spending so much on high-tech warships (although figures of $NZ20 billion for purchase and 20 years of operation was misquoted as an upfront lump sum). There were also concerns that by possessing modern warships, New Zealand would be "dragged" back into ANZUS. One proposal suggested to avoid this was that the New Zealand "Anzac"s be fitted with inferior engines that would reduce the vessels' top speed and make it impossible to operate with United States Navy fleets. However, these changes would have incurred major additional expenses. A recurring alternate proposal was the purchase of the British Castle-class patrol vessel design. Two months after tenders for the project closed, the managing director of Svendborg Skibsværft began to campaign for the construction of the Danish IS-86 patrol vessel (later designated the "Thetis"-class frigate) for the RNZN. In response to these proposals, the government indicated that it was committing to purchasing Australian ships, and that interoperability with the RAN (which the alternate ship designs were incapable of) was a major element in the decision.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: At the time of the August 1989 decision for AMECON to build the MEKO-based frigate, the controversy was still ongoing in New Zealand. David Lange, a major supporter of the "Anzac" project, had only just resigned from the prime ministership. Despite the Labour Party's national conference rejecting the frigate project a year earlier, the purchase of two "Anzac"s, with the option to acquire two more, was approved by Prime Minister Geoffrey Palmer's cabinet on 4 September, then a majority of the Labour caucus on 7 September. From the government's perspective, the "Anzac" project was being seen as a litmus test of New Zealand's commitment to (among other things) relations with Australia and regional defence, particularly after the problems between New Zealand and the United States.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Despite the government signing contracts for the purchase of two "Anzac"s in November 1989, the project continued to be a bone of contention in New Zealand politics, particularly after the Fourth Labour Government lost the 1990 election to the National Party, which formed the Fourth National Government. In 1992, Minister of Defence Warren Cooper began claiming in several arenas that exercising the option for two more frigates may not be necessary. Following the 1996 election, the National Party retained power, but only in coalition with the New Zealand First party, which opposed the purchase of additional frigates. Other options for replacing the two remaining "Leander"s were explored, but these were generally more expensive than purchasing the "Anzac"s. The US Clinton Administration partly discredited the option of a third Anzac by formally offering the RNZN two FFG-7s shorthulls of 15–17 years age, purportedly armed with SM1 Standard missiles and later 28 F-16s which it had refused to transfer to Pakistan. These offers were made partly because of US concern that Australia needed more regional defence support to conduct a more robust foreign and economic policy in SE Asia. However the F-16 offer, offered the NZ Cabinet an option and out and they took it, rather than be immensely unpopular in both Canberra and Washington by rejecting both. In the view of NZ PM Jenny Shipley the Australians had made a good offer, but it was not good enough and there were many alternative ship designs. Internal political opposition, particularly from New Zealand First, prevented the exercising of the contract option for two more ships before it lapsed on 10 November 1997, at which point the government was considering the purchase of a single frigate, outside the terms of the original contract. A year later, the idea was still being debated internally, although the proposal had been downgraded to buying one of the active Australian "Anzac"s second-hand, which the RAN could then replace by building an additional ship. At this point, the National-New Zealand First coalition had collapsed, and the National Party was only holding on to power by the support of minority parties and independents; support that was likely to be withdrawn if a third frigate was approved. Cabinet rejected the plan, and the issue of replacing the "Leander"-class frigate was deferred.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The "Anzac" design is derived from Blohm + Voss' MEKO 200 PN (or "Vasco da Gama"-class) frigate, and is identified by the company as the MEKO 200 ANZ. In addition to capability modifications to meet RAN and RNZN requirements, the ships were redesigned during the development phase to maximise the involvement of Australian and New Zealand industries through the use of locally sourced components: 80% of the materials (by value) was locally sourced, and within this, 20% must come from New Zealand. The "Anzac"s were designed to German Navy standards, except where Australian or United States standards were specifically requested.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Each frigate has a full load displacement. The ships are long at the waterline, and long overall, with a beam of , and a draught at full load of . The hull and superstructure are of all-steel construction, and the ships are fitted with fin stabilisers.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The frigates use a Combined Diesel or Gas (CODOG) propulsion machinery layout, with a single, General Electric LM2500-30 gas turbine and two MTU 12V1163 TB83 diesel engines driving the ship's two controllable-pitch propellers. Maximum speed is , and maximum range is over at . The frigates' range is about 50% greater than other MEKO-type frigates, due to an enhanced fuel supply. Originally, two gas turbines were to be fitted; this layout would have provided a top speed of . The starboard turbine was cancelled to save costs.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The standard ship's company of an "Anzac" consists of 22 officers and 141 sailors. Onboard electricity requirements are met by four MTU diesel generators. Each ship can carry up to of dry provisions, of refrigerated provisions, and of fresh water.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: At the time of construction, the main weapon for the "Anzac"s was a United Defense 5-inch 54 calibre Mark 45 Mod 2 dual purpose gun. The forward-mounted gun is capable of firing shells at a rate of 20 rounds per minute, to a distance of . The barrel can elevate to 65 degrees. This was supplemented by an eight-cell Lockheed Martin Mark 41 Mod 5 vertical launch system for RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missiles as a point-defence system. The Sea Sparrow is a semi-active radar homing missile, with a warhead, a range of , and a top speed of Mach 2.5. Two machine guns were fitted for close defence.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: A missile-armed helicopter was a key component of the frigates' armament. When construction started, both navies were planning for, but had yet to identify, new helicopters to be operated by the frigates; as an interim measure, the RAN used Sikorsky S-70B-2 Seahawks, while the RNZN embarked Westland Wasps.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Ships were fitted for but not with a close-in weapons system, two quad-canister Harpoon anti-ship missile launchers, and a second Mark 41 launcher. After the ships were completed, both navies fitted Mark 32 3-tube torpedo launchers to their frigates. These were taken from older ships where possible; for example, "Te Kaha"s launchers came from . The launchers were configured to fire the Mark 46 Mod 5 torpedo, an active/passive homing torpedo with a range of at , and a warhead.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The radar suite includes a Raytheon SPS-49(V)8 ANZ radar for aerial search and long-range surveillance, a Saab 9LV 453 Target Indication Radar for air and surface search, an Atlas Elektronik 9600 ARPA navigational radar, and a second Saab 9LV 453 unit for fire control. All ships were initially fitted with a ThomsonSintra Spherion B hull-mounted bow sonar, for active search and attack operations. From "Warramunga" onwards, ships were launched with a Petrel Mine and Obstacle Avoidance Sonar system. this was later retrofitted to "Anzac". All ships were fitted for but not with a towed-array sonar, with the RAN and RNZN following separate acquisition programs for these. The frigates were also fitted for but not with SATCOM and a Helo datalink.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Countermeasures and electronic warfare equipment fitted at launch included Mark 36 SRBOC launchers, an SLQ-25A towed torpedo decoy, four four-cell Nulka decoy launchers, Racal Thorn modified Sceptre-A electronic support measures (ESM) equipment, and a Telefunken PST-1720 Telegon 10 radar intercept unit. The "Anzac"s were fitted for but not with offboard active ECM systems. The Sceptre-A equipment was unable to meet the required performance specifications, and Thales UK (which previously acquired Racal Thorn) was contracted in 2001 to replace the units with the Centaur ESM.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The core of the "Anzac"s' combat system was built around CelsiusTech's (now Saab) 9LV 453 Mark 3 distributed command and fire-control system.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: On 14 August 1989, AMECON was awarded the tender to build the Blohm + Voss designed frigate. The frigates were to be constructed at the AMECON shipyard in Williamstown, Victoria (formerly Williamstown Naval Dockyard), but the modular design of the frigate allowed sections of the ships to be constructed throughout Australia and New Zealand, with final assembly in Williamstown. Each vessel was made up of six hull modules and six superstructure modules. All of lead ship "Anzac"s modules were assembled at Williamstown, but for later ships, the superstructure modules were fabricated in Whangarei, New Zealand, and hull modules were built at both Williamstown and Newcastle, New South Wales. Unlike previous shipbuilding contracts, AMECON was contractually obliged to meet only the navy's set commissioning dates for the ships; all other construction deadlines were to be determined at the shipbuilder's discretion.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The second and fourth ships to be built were allocated to the New Zealanders. The third and fifth ships to be produced were earmarked for the RNZN in the event that approval to order two more frigates was given, with two more ships for the RAN to be added at the end of the production run. Project offsets meant that construction costs for the New Zealand ships were about 20% less than the Australian vessels.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Steel cutting for the first ship, , commenced on 27 March 1992. Work on the first New Zealand ship, , began in February 1993. "Anzac" commissioned into the RAN in May 1996, and "Te Kaha" into the RNZN in July 1997. In early 2002, the first four ships found to have microscopic cracks in the bilge keel and hull plating. The ships' hulls were repaired and reinforced. Construction of the final vessel, , began in July 2003, with the vessel commissioning into the RAN in August 2006.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The "Anzac"-class ships were designed with a minimum standard of offensive and defensive weapons, with other equipment fitted "for but not with". The RAN and RNZN began to plan for upgrades to their frigates before all of the ships entered service; these upgrades were planned and executed on a national basis.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The RAN commenced plans to improve their frigates' combat capability in 1996, with the Warfighting Improvement Program (WIP). Upgrades proposed under the WIP included installation of a phased-array radar, a second Mark 41 vertical launch system. The WIP was scrapped near the end of 1999, and plans for a less ambitious anti-ship missile defence (ASMD) upgrade were made. In 2004, Tenix, Saab, and the Department of Defence formed a Private Public Partnership to upgrade the anti-ship missile defence (ASMD) capability of the "Anzac" class, through the installation of CEA Technologies' CEAFAR and CEAMOUNT active phased array radars, a Vampir NG Infrared Search and Track system, and Sharpeye Navigational Radar Systems. On 18 January 2010, "Perth" docked at the Australian Marine Complex in Henderson, Western Australia for the ASMD upgrade. Both of the frigate's masts were replaced, and the operations room layout was improved. Additional ballast was required to maintain stability, and the combined weight increase brought the ship's full load displacement to 3,810 tons. After completion in October 2010, "Perth" was used to test the modifications, with trials completed in July 2011. Approval to upgrade the other seven RAN "Anzac"s was granted in November 2011, with work on the A$650 million refits to begin in 2012. As of March 2017, all eight ships of the RAN had completed the upgrade.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: From "Warramunga" onwards, the frigates were launched with the ability to carry and fire the RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile (ESSM) as a replacement for the Sea Sparrow missile; these were quad-packed into the Mark 41 launcher for a payload of 32 missiles. "Warramunga" was the first ship in the world fitted with the ESSM, and the first test firing was conducted aboard on 21 January 2003. The modifications entered operational service aboard three ships in June 2004. A CEA Technologies solid-state continuous wave illuminator was also fitted as part of the ESSM system.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: From 2005 onwards, the RAN began fitting the "Anzac"s and the "Adelaide"s with Harpoon Block II missiles in two quad-tube canister launchers. The Australian "Anzac"s were fitted for but not with the launchers, but the originally planned location on 02 deck was found to be unsuitable, and the launchers were relocated to 01 deck, in front of the bridge. Around the same time, the RAN began to fit all frigates deploying to the Persian Gulf with two M2HB .50 calibre machine guns in Mini Typhoon mounts, installed on the aft corners of the hangar roof. Two TopLite EO directors are used with the guns.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The Mark 32 torpedo tubes aboard the Australian frigates were originally fitted with American Mark 46 anti-submarine torpedoes, but these were replaced with the French-Italian MU90 Impact torpedo prior to 2008. "Toowoomba" was the first Australian ship to fire an MU90 torpedo, during a test firing in June 2008, and "Stuart" performed the first 'warshot' firing of an armed MU90.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The RAN commenced tendering for a helicopter design to replace the Seahawks aboard the Australian "Anzac"s in 1996, with a contract for 11 Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters signed in 1997. In addition to the "Anzac"s, the acquired helicopter also had to be operable from the class of offshore patrol vessels the RAN was planning to build with the Royal Malaysian Navy (Malaysia later withdrew from the plan, and the RAN acquired the smaller "Armidale"-class patrol boats, which were not helicopter-equipped), with a second contract to be signed for these at a later date. In order to get the best capability for the cheapest price, the Australian Department of Defence opted to have Kaman acquire 40-year-old SH-2F Seasprite airframes decommissioned by the United States Navy, and fit modern flight systems to the reconditioned airframes. This approach led to major delays, and the helicopters were found to be inoperable in low-visibility conditions. By 2006, ten of the helicopters had been delivered, but none were permitted to fly. The Super Seasprite acquisition was cancelled outright in March 2008. Following the acquisition of the Romeo Seahawk helicopter variant, modifications to the "Anzac"s began to embark the helicopter.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: As part of the ANZAC Mid-life Capability Assurance Programme (AMCAP) upgrade under SEA 1448, Phase 4B, the SPS-49(V)8 was replaced with CEAFAR2-L L band phase array radar, along with replacements of the Cossar Mk XII IFF, Exelis ES-3701 ESM and upgrades to the LESCUT, AN/SLR-25C torpedo self-defence system, and the Nulka active missile decoy capability.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: Australia is planning to replace the Harpoon Anti-ship missiles with the Kongsberg Naval Strike Missile (NSM) by 2024. The Naval strike missile can be used against both land and sea targets and provides a significant increase in range.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: As soon as the New Zealand "Anzac"s entered service, a Phalanx CIWS weapons system, recycled from decommissioning various "Leander" frigates, was fitted to each new frigate in addition to the Mark 32 torpedo tube sets.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: In 1997, the RNZN began steps to acquire five Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters for the two frigates. Unlike the Australians, the New Zealand contract specified new-build helicopters. Kaman Aerospace loaned four SH-2F Seasprites to the RNZN while the new helicopters were constructed: the SH-2Fs operated from February 1998 to August 2001, when the first two SH-2Gs were accepted into service.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: In 2007, "Te Kaha" began undergoing a series of major upgrades as part of the four-stage Platform Systems Upgrade (PSU), planning for which started in 2004. The four areas of modification under the PSU were improved stability and compartment configuration changes, overhaul of the propulsion system, installation of a new Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS), and upgrades to onboard environmental control. The stability upgrades were to accommodate predicted increases in displacement as updated equipment was installed on the ships. As part of the modification, the ships' quarterdecks were partially enclosed, creating space for a gymnasium and improved laundry facilities. Propulsion changes are primarily focused on replacing the TB83 diesel engines with the TB93, providing an additional and higher speeds during diesel-only sailing. The IPMS replacement is prompted by the perceived obsolescence of the current system by 2013; as of 2009, tendering for the new system was underway. The environmental control upgrade is intended to improve personnel comfort during deployments to South East Asia, the Middle East, or similar climates, and will use more environmentally friendly products. Each stage of the upgrade is organised to occur simultaneously with ship maintenance dockings, with the first two upgrades being installed during each ship's major maintenance docking in 2009 and 2010 respectively, then the other two upgrades during the next docking in the 2011–2012 period.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: A series of austere upgrades were approved on 14 April 2014, at an original contract cost of NZ 446m under the ANZAC Frigate Systems Upgrade (FSU) programme. These include the replacement of the existing combat management system, with a system modelled on that of the RCN Halifax frigates awarded to Lockheed Martin, The British Sea Ceptor anti-air missile replaced the Sea Sparrow on 27 May 2014. Other changes included the Norwegian Penguin Mk 2 Mod 7 for the Seasprite helicopters and the fitting of a Sea Sentor Surface Ship Torpedo Defence, or SSTD system, as well as MASS (Multi Ammunition Softkill System). A new inertial navigation positioning system (Northrop Grumman) and navigation radar and SharpEye™ surveillance radars with an Agile Tracker has been fitted. The main radar will be the Thales SMART-S Mk2 3D radar. Other sensors and upgrades include Link 16, laser warning, and IFF. The Lockheed Martin Combat Management System 330 is also installed on the RNZN frigates, as it increases the eyes on each screen, covering lesser sensors and crew.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: In 1999, "Te Kaha" pursued Patagonian Toothfish poachers in the Ross Dependency, participated in the INTERFET multinational deployment to East Timor, and operated as part of the Multinational Interception Force in the Persian Gulf. The New Zealand frigates served periods as guardships at the Solomon Islands capital of Honiara between 2000 and 2001. In 2002, "Te Kaha" returned to the Persian Gulf, this time as part of Operation Enduring Freedom, after a four-month flag-showing deployment in Asian waters. The frigate was replaced in the Gulf by "Te Mana" in early 2003.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: In March 2003, "Anzac" provided fire support for Royal Marines during the Battle of Al Faw during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: A 2002 review of the RNZN's abilities found that the navy was not meeting its patrol capability requirements; one of the contributing factors was that the New Zealand "Anzac"s were both too few and overcapable for EEZ patrols, and deploying them in this manner prevented them from more effective use elsewhere. Remedying this was one of the aims of Project Protector, a multi-ship acquisition project which saw three new classes of ship enter RNZN service.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: From 2018, the Anzac-class frigates were undergoing their Midlife Capability Assurance Program (AMCAP) upgrade at the Australian Marine Complex, Henderson, Western Australia, a process scheduled to be completed by 2023. "Arunta" was the first ship to undergo the upgrade, followed by "Anzac" and "Warramunga".


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The RAN plans to begin removing their "Anzac"s from service from 2024 onwards. To replace them, the "Hunter" class of new frigates will be built under the SEA 5000 acquisition project. The frigates are predicted to have a displacement of up to , and although they will be primarily oriented towards anti-submarine warfare, they are expected to be capable of also operating against air, sea-surface, and land targets. Originally eight vessels were planned, but by August 2015, the number of planned ships had increased to nine, with an estimated cost of $20 billion. Construction is predicted to commence in 2020. The Abbott Government promised that the two-decade construction project will be headquartered in South Australia, with shipbuilding divided between ASC Pty Ltd in South Australia and BAE Systems' Williamstown Dockyard in Victoria. On 18 April 2016, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull (Abbott's successor) confirmed that BAE Systems' Type 26-class, Fincantieri's FREMM-class and a re-designed F-100-class frigate designed by Navantia had been shortlisted to replace the ANZAC-class in Australia. The Prime Minister confirmed that any frigate will be built in Adelaide and incorporate an Australian CEA phased array radar. The program is estimated to be worth $35 billion. In June 2018 it was confirmed that BAE Systems's Type 26 had won the SEA5000 competition, with the in-service date for the new vessels being set for 2027.


title: Anzac-class frigate

text: The New Zealand "Defence Capability Plan 2019" states that the RNZN's "Anzac"s will be replaced in the mid-2030s by "modern surface combatants relevant to New Zealand's prevailing strategic environment".


title: Paula Garcés

text: Paula Garcés (born March 20, 1974) is a Colombian and American actress. She is known for her appearance in films such as "Clockstoppers", "Man of the House" and the "Harold & Kumar" series, and on TV shows such as "", "On My Block", "The Shield", "", "The Sopranos", "Oz", "Devious Maids", "Guiding Light" and "All My Children".


title: Paula Garcés

text: Paula Garcés was born on March 20, 1974, in Medellín, Colombia. At a very early age she moved to East Harlem in New York City.


title: Paula Garcés

text: Garcés co-starred in Paramount Pictures' 2002 teen sci-fi adventure "Clockstoppers", starring opposite Jesse Bradford. She was then cast in Richard Benjamin's hip-hop comedy "Marci X" opposite Lisa Kudrow and Damon Wayans.


title: Paula Garcés

text: Garcés was next seen opposite Academy Award-winner Tommy Lee Jones in the Revolution Studios feature "Man of the House." In 2004, she starred in "National Lampoon's Pledge This!". She was featured on "" and starred in a four episode arc on NBC's "", as well as guest spots on HBO's hit series "The Sopranos" and "Oz". Garcés then landed a role as a cast member on "The Shield".


title: Paula Garcés

text: Garcés appeared in New Line Cinema's 2004 feature film "Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle", its 2008 sequel "Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay" and the 2011 sequel "A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas", as Maria, the love interest and later wife of John Cho's character.


title: Paula Garcés

text: Garcés was a series regular on the ABC drama series "Defying Gravity", playing documentarian Paula Morales during its single 2009 season.


title: Paula Garcés

text: Garcés has also co-starred on "Guiding Light" as Pilar Santos, and had a recurring role as Dr. Kelly Hernandez in season two of the Syfy TV series "Warehouse 13".


title: Paula Garcés

text: In May 2011, Garcés appeared in "Off the Beaten Path", the 11th episode of season one of "Breakout Kings".


title: Paula Garcés

text: In February 2013, Garcés appeared on the CBS series "Elementary", playing villainous police officer Paula Reyes in season one's episode "Details".


title: Paula Garcés

text: While attending a Comic-Con to promote one of the "Harold & Kumar" films, Garcés noted the sizeable Latino audience for superheroes, despite the low number of Latino characters in the genre. She created Further Lane Productions to issue a limited run comic book featuring the Latina superhero Aluna, later working with S2 Games to create, and voice, Aluna as a 2011 playable hero added to "Heroes of Newerth", S2's multiplayer online battle arena video game. In time for the 2014 Comic-Con, she worked with sekretagent Productions and Allegory Media to produce a four issue "Aluna" comic book series. In 2019, Aluna was developed into an action RPG.


title: Paula Garcés

text: Garcés is a naturalized United States citizen. Her first child, daughter Skye Mahoney, was born in 1992. In 2002, she married entrepreneur and producer Antonio Hernandez. The couple have a son (born 2013).


title: United States Africa Command

text: The United States Africa Command (USAFRICOM, U.S. AFRICOM, and AFRICOM), is one of the eleven unified combatant commands of the United States Department of Defense, headquartered at Kelley Barracks, Stuttgart, Germany. It is responsible for U.S. military operations, including fighting regional conflicts and maintaining military relations with 53 African nations. Its area of responsibility covers all of Africa except Egypt, which is within the area of responsibility of the United States Central Command. U.S. AFRICOM headquarters operating budget was $276 million in fiscal year 2012.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The Commander of U.S. AFRICOM reports to the Secretary of Defense. The current Commander of the U.S. Africa Command stated that the purpose of the command is to work alongside African military personnel to support their military operations. In individual countries, U.S. ambassadors continue to be the primary diplomatic representative for relations with host nations. The incumbent commander is Michael E. Langley.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Prior to the creation of AFRICOM, responsibility for U.S. military operations in Africa was divided across three unified commands: United States European Command (EUCOM) for West Africa, United States Central Command (CENTCOM) for East Africa, and United States Pacific Command (PACOM) for Indian Ocean waters and islands off the east coast of Africa.


title: United States Africa Command

text: A U.S. military officer wrote the first public article calling for the formation of a separate African command in November 2000. Following a 2004 global posture review, the United States Department of Defense began establishing a number of Cooperative Security Locations (CSLs) and Forward Operating Sites (FOSs) across the African continent, through the auspices of EUCOM which had nominal command of West Africa at that time. These locations, along with Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti, would form the basis of AFRICOM facilities on the continent. Areas of military interest to the United States in Africa include the Sahara/Sahel region, over which Joint Task Force Aztec Silence is conducting anti-terrorist operations (Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara), Djibouti in the Horn of Africa, where Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa is located (overseeing Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa), and the Gulf of Guinea.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The website Magharebia.com was launched by USEUCOM in 2004 to provide news about North Africa in English, French and Arabic. When AFRICOM was created, it took over operation of the website. Information operations of the United States Department of Defense was criticized by the Senate Armed Forces Committee and defunded by Congress in 2011. The site was closed down in February 2015.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In 2007, the United States Congress approved $500 million for the Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative (TSCTI) over six years to support countries involved in counterterrorism against threats of Al Qaeda operating in African countries, primarily Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Nigeria, and Morocco. This program builds upon the former Pan Sahel Initiative (PSI), which concluded in December 2004 and focused on weapon and drug trafficking, as well as counterterrorism. Previous U.S. military activities in Sub-Saharan Africa have included Special Forces associated Joint Combined Exchange Training. Letitia Lawson, writing in 2007 for a Center for Contemporary Conflict journal at the Naval Postgraduate School, noted that U.S. policy towards Africa, at least in the medium-term, looks to be largely defined by international terrorism, the increasing importance of African oil to American energy needs, and the dramatic expansion and improvement of Sino-African relations since 2000.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In mid-2006, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld formed a planning team to advise on requirements for establishing a new Unified Command for the African continent. In early December, he made his recommendations to President George W. Bush.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 6 February 2007, Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced to the Senate Armed Services Committee that President George W. Bush had given authority to create the new African Command. U.S. Navy Rear Admiral Robert Moeller, the director of the AFRICOM transition team, arrived in Stuttgart, Germany to begin creating the logistical framework for the command. The creation of the command was introduced to African military leaders by General William E. "Kip" Ward who traveled to various African countries. On 28 September, the U.S. Senate confirmed General Ward as AFRICOM's first commander and AFRICOM officially became operational as a sub-unified command of EUCOM with a separate headquarters. On 1 October 2008 became a fully operational command and incorporated pre-existing entities, including the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa that was created in 2002. At this time, the command also separated from USEUCOM and began operating on its own as a full-fledged combatant command.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In 2007, the White House announced that Africa Command "will strengthen our security cooperation with Africa and create new opportunities to bolster the capabilities of our partners in Africa. Africa Command will enhance our efforts to bring peace and security to the people of Africa and promote our common goals of development, health, education, democracy, and economic growth in Africa."


title: United States Africa Command

text: General Carter F. Ham said in a 2012 address at Brown University that U.S. strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa is to strengthen democratic institutions and boost broad-based economic growth.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 18 March 2019, AFRICOM conducted an airstrike over Mogadishu, Somalia aimed at "the terrorist network and its recruiting efforts in the region", specifically referencing al-Shabaab. AFRICOM reported that the number of terrorists killed by this airstrike was 3, but this fact, as well as how many civilian casualties there were is still under dispute.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The territory of the command consists of all of the African continent except for Egypt, which remains under the responsibility of Central Command, as it closely relates to the Middle East. USAFRICOM also covers island countries commonly associated with Africa:


title: United States Africa Command

text: The U.S. military areas of responsibility involved were transferred from three separate U.S. unified combatant commands. Most of Africa was transferred from the United States European Command with the Horn of Africa and Sudan transferred from the United States Central Command. Responsibility for U.S. military operations in the islands of Madagascar, the Comoros, the Seychelles and Mauritius was transferred from the United States Pacific Command.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The AFRICOM headquarters is located at Kelley Barracks, a small urban facility near Stuttgart, Germany, and is staffed by 1,500 personnel. In addition, the command has military and civilian personnel assigned at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti; RAF Molesworth, United Kingdom; MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; and in Offices of Security Cooperation and Defense Attaché Offices in about 38 African countries.


title: United States Africa Command

text: It was reported in June 2007 that African countries were competing to host the headquarters because it would bring money for the recipient country. Liberia has publicly expressed a willingness to host AFRICOM's headquarters, and in 2021 Nigeria expressed a similar interest. The U.S. declared in February 2008 that AFRICOM would be headquartered in Stuttgart for the "foreseeable future". In August 2007, Dr. Wafula Okumu, a research fellow at the Institute for Security Studies in South Africa, testified before the United States Congress about the growing resistance and hostility on the African continent. Nigeria announced it will not allow its country to host a base and opposed the creation of a base on the continent. South Africa and Libya also expressed reservations of the establishment of a headquarters in Africa.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The "Sudan Tribune" considered it likely that Ethiopia, a strong U.S. ally in the region, will house USAFRICOM's headquarters due to the collocation of AFRICOM with the African Union's developing peace and security apparatus. Prime Minister Meles Zenawi stated in early November that Ethiopia would be willing to work together closely with USAFRICOM. This was further reinforced when a U.S. Air Force official said on 5 December 2007, that Addis Ababa was likely to be the headquarters.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 18 February 2008, General Ward told an audience at the Royal United Services Institute in London that some portion of that staff headquarters being on the continent at some point in time would be "a positive factor in helping us better deliver programs." General Ward also told the BBC the same day in an interview that there are no definite plans to take the headquarters or a portion of it to any particular location on the continent.


title: United States Africa Command

text: President Bush denied that the United States was contemplating the construction of new bases on the African continent. U.S. plans include no large installations such as Camp Bondsteel in Kosovo, but rather a network of "cooperative security locations" at which temporary activities will be conducted. There is one U.S. base on the continent, Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti, with approximately 2,300 troops stationed there having been inherited from USCENTCOM upon standup of the command.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In general, U.S. Unified Combatant Commands have an HQ of their own in one location, subordinate service component HQs, sometimes one or two co-located with the main HQ or sometimes spread widely, and a wide range of operating locations, main bases, forward detachments, etc. USAFRICOM initially appears to be considering something slightly different; spreading the actually COCOM HQ over several locations, rather than having the COCOM HQ in one place and the putative "U.S. Army Forces, Africa", its air component, and "U.S. Naval Forces, Africa" in one to four separate locations. AFRICOM will not have the traditional J-type staff divisions, instead having outreach, plans and programs, knowledge development, operations and logistics, and resources branches. AFRICOM went back to a traditional J-Staff in early 2011 after General Carter Ham took command.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In the summer of 2020, U.S. Defense Secretary Mark Esper directed AFRICOM leadership to study a possible headquarters relocation outside of Germany after plans were announced that neighboring U.S. European Command would relocate to Belgium.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 20 November 2020 a new Army service component command (ASCC), U.S. Army Europe and Africa (USAREUR-AF) consolidated USAREUR and USARAAF. The U.S. Army Africa/Southern European Task Force is now the U.S. Army Southern European Task Force, Africa (SETAF-AF).


title: United States Africa Command

text: U.S. Africa Command completed fiscal year 2010 with approximately 2,000 assigned personnel, which includes military, civilian, contractor, and host nation employees. About 1,500 work at the command's main headquarters in Stuttgart. Others are assigned to the command's units in England and Florida, along with security cooperation officers posted at U.S. embassies and diplomatic missions in Africa to coordinate Defense Department programs within the host nation.


title: United States Africa Command

text: As of December 2010, the command has five Senior Foreign Service officers in key positions as well as more than 30 personnel from 13 U.S. Government Departments and Agencies serving in leadership, management, and staff positions. Some of the agencies represented are the United States Departments of State, Treasury, and Commerce, United States Agency for International Development, and the United States Coast Guard.


title: United States Africa Command

text: U.S. Africa Command has limited assigned forces and relies on the Department of Defense for resources necessary to support its missions.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 1 October 2008, the Seventeenth Air Force was established at Ramstein Air Base, Germany as the United States Air Force component of the Africa Command. Brig. Gen. Tracey Garrett was named as commander of the new USMC component, U.S. Marine Corps Forces Africa (MARFORAF), in November 2008. MARFORAF is a dual-mission arrangement for United States Marine Corps Forces, Europe.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 3 December 2008, the U.S. announced that Army and Navy headquarters units of AFRICOM would be hosted in Italy. The AFRICOM section of the Army's Southern European Task Force would be located in Vicenza and Naval Forces Europe in Naples would expand to include the Navy's AFRICOM component. Special Operations Command, Africa (SOCAFRICA) is also established, gaining control over Joint Special Operations Task Force-Trans Sahara (JSOTF-TS) and Special Operations Command and Control Element – Horn of Africa (SOCCE-HOA).


title: United States Africa Command

text: Headquartered on Lucius D. Clay Kaserne in Wiesbaden, Germany, U.S. Army Europe and Africa — Southern European Task Force - Africa (SETAF-AF), in concert with national and international partners, conducts sustained security engagement with African land forces to promote peace, stability, and security in Africa. As directed, it can deploy as a contingency headquarters in support of crisis response. The commander of SETAF-AF is DCG for Africa.


title: United States Africa Command

text: As of March 2013, the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 1st Infantry Division, the "Dagger Brigade", is being aligned with AFRICOM.


title: United States Africa Command

text: U.S. Naval Forces Europe - Naval Forces Africa (NAVEUR-NAVAF) area of responsibility (AOR) covers approximately half of the Atlantic Ocean, from the North Pole to Antarctica; as well as the Adriatic, Baltic, Barents, Black, Caspian, Mediterranean and North Seas. NAVEUR-NAVAF covers all of Russia, Europe and nearly the entire continent of Africa. It encompasses 105 countries with a combined population of more than one billion people and includes a landmass extending more than 14 million square miles.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The area of responsibility covers more than 20 million square nautical miles of ocean, touches three continents and encompasses more than 67 percent of the Earth's coastline, 30 percent of its landmass, and nearly 40 percent of the world's population.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Task Force 60 will normally be the commander of Naval Task Force Europe and Africa. Any naval unit within the USEUCOM or USAFRICOM AOR may be assigned to Task Force 60 as required upon by the Commander of the Sixth Fleet.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Air Forces Africa (AFAFRICA) is located at Ramstein Air Base, Germany, and serves as the air and space component to U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) located at Stuttgart, Germany. Air Forces Africa shares a headquarters and units with United States Air Forces in Europe, and its component Air Force, 3AF (AFAFRICA) conducts sustained security engagement and operations as directed to promote air safety, security and development on the African continent. Through its Theater Security Cooperation (TSC) events, Air Forces Africa carries out AFRICOM's policy of seeking long-term partnership with the African Union and regional organizations as well as individual nations on the continent.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Air Forces Africa works with other U.S. Government agencies, to include the State Department and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), to assist African partners in developing national and regional security institution capabilities that promote security and stability and facilitate development.


title: United States Africa Command

text: 3AF succeeds the Seventeenth Air Force by assuming the AFAFRICA mission upon the 17AF's deactivation on 20 April 2012.


title: United States Africa Command

text: U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Africa conducts operations, exercises, training, and security cooperation activities throughout the AOR. In 2009, MARFORAF participated in 15 ACOTA missions aimed at improving partners' capabilities to provide logistical support, employ military police, and exercise command and control over deployed forces.


title: United States Africa Command

text: MARFORAF conducted military to military events in 2009 designed to familiarize African partners with nearly every facet of military operations and procedures, including use of unmanned aerial vehicles, tactics, and medical skills. MARFORAF, as the lead component, continues to conduct Exercise AFRICAN LION in Morocco—the largest annual Combined Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) exercise on the African continent—as well as Exercise SHARED ACCORD 10, which was the first CJCS exercise conducted in Mozambique.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In 2013, the Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force - Crisis Response - Africa was formed to provide quick response to American interests in North Africa by flying marines in Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey aircraft from bases in Europe.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Special Operations Command Africa was activated on 1 October 2008 and became fully operationally capable on 1 October 2009. SOCAFRICA is a Subordinate-Unified Command of United States Special Operations Command, operationally controlled by U.S. Africa Command, collocated with USAFRICOM at Kelley Barracks, Stuttgart-Möhringen, Germany. Also on 1 October 2008, SOCAFRICA assumed responsibility for the Special Operations Command and Control Element – Horn of Africa, and on 15 May 2009, SOCAFRICA assumed responsibility for Joint Special Operations Task Force Trans – Sahara (JSOTF-TS) – the SOF component of Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara.


title: United States Africa Command

text: SOCAFRICA's objectives are to build operational capacity, strengthen regional security and capacity initiatives, implement effective communication strategies in support of strategic objectives, and eradicate violent extremist organizations and their supporting networks. SOCAFRICA forces work closely with both U.S. Embassy country teams and African partners, maintaining a small but sustained presence throughout Africa, predominantly in the OEF-TS and CJTF-HOA regions. SOCAFRICA's persistent SOF presence provides an invaluable resource that furthers USG efforts to combat violent extremist groups and builds partner nation CT capacity.


title: United States Africa Command

text: On 8 April 2011, Naval Special Warfare Unit 10, operationally assigned and specifically dedicated for SOCAFRICA missions, was commissioned at Panzer Kaserne, near Stuttgart, Germany. It is administratively assigned to Naval Special Warfare Group 2 on the U.S. East Coast.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) conducts operations in the East Africa region to build partner nation capacity in order to promote regional security and stability, prevent conflict, and protect U.S. and coalition interests. CJTF-HOA's efforts, as part of a comprehensive whole-of-government approach, are aimed at increasing African partner nations' capacity to maintain a stable environment, with an effective government that provides a degree of economic and social advancement for its citizens.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The programs conducted by AFRICOM, in conjunction with African military forces focus on reconnaissance and direct action. However, AFRICOM's directives are to keep American military forces out of direct combat as best as possible. Despite this, the United States has admitted to American troops  being involved in direct action during missions with African military partners, namely in classified 127e programs. As of 2019, there have been at least 139 confirmed drone strikes from AFRICOM operations in Somalia.  Estimates place the total number of deaths at least 965, with at least 10 civilians killed. Each AFRICOM operations has a specific mission.  Some of the operations in North and West Africa target ISIS, and Boko Haram.  In East Africa, missions focus on targeting terrorist group Al-Shabaab and piracy.


title: United States Africa Command

text: In January 2013, a senior Niger official told Reuters that Bisa Williams, the then-United States Ambassador to Niger, requested permission to establish a drone base in a meeting with Nigerien President Mahamadou Issoufou. On 5 February, officials from both Niger and the U.S. said that the two countries signed a status of forces agreement that allowed the deployment of unarmed surveillance drones. In that month, U.S. President Barack Obama sent 150 military personnel to Niger to set up a surveillance drone operation that would aid France in its counterterrorism efforts in the Northern Mali conflict. In October 2015, Niger and the U.S. signed a military agreement committing the two countries "to work together in the fight against terrorism". U.S. Army Special Forces personnel (commonly referred to as Green Berets) were sent to train the Niger Armed Forces (FAN) to assist in the fight against terrorists from neighboring countries. As of October 2017, there are about 800 U.S. military personnel in Niger, most of whom are working to build a second drone base for American and French aircraft in Agadez. Construction of the base is expected to be completed in 2018, which will allow the U.S. to conduct surveillance operations with the General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper to monitor ISIL insurgents flowing south and other extremists flowing north from the Sahel region.


title: United States Africa Command

text: The United States has roughly 400 troops in Somalia. American military forces work closely with African Union troops. Troops conduct raids with Somali troops and provide transport. American forces have engaged in firefights in self-defense and drone airstrikes have been called in to provide additional support.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Training exercises sponsored by the United States through AFRICOM and Morocco. Participants of this program came from Europe and Africa to undergo training in various military exercises and skills. Exercises conducted during African Lion included "command-and-control techniques, combat tactics, peacekeeping, and humanitarian assistance operations". Reported by AFRICOM to have improved the quality of operations conducted between the North African and United States military.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Training exercises sponsored by AFRICOM, European, and Western African countries for the first time in 2014. The goal of this exercise was to improve African forces' skills in conducting peace support operations. An ebola epidemic occurring from 2014 to 2015 resulted in the exercises being hosted by the Netherlands. During this exercise the mission command for the "United Nation’s Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission" in Mali was replicated. Name of exercise changed to United Accord some time later.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Training exercises conducted with the goal of increasing both the military knowledge and efficacy of collaborative interactions of the participating groups. Emphasis placed on crisis response tactics and fostering strong partnerships between participating groups. Forces came from Africa, the United States, and Europe. The Lake Chad Basin is an example of a regional mission conducted by The Multi-National Joint Task Force.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Series of training exercises originally began in 1998 with a series of exercises titled "Natural Fire". The Justified Accord was a further continuation of the large group of exercises conducted under the name Eastern Accord. Participating forces came from the United States and various African allies. Conducted with the goal of improving coordinated operations in East Africa. Notable aspects of the training included discussion-based modules focused on peace-keeping endeavors.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Annual training exercise sponsored by AFRICOM in conjunction with allied African forces over several years. In 2014 partners also included the United Nation Integrated Training Service and U.S. Army Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute. Exercises focused around the goal of peacekeeping. In 2017, Southern Accord was renamed as United Accord.


title: United States Africa Command

text: Series of training exercises held at sea off the coast of East Africa. The Cutlass Express series was conducted by the United States Naval Forces Africa, a group within AFRICOM. Exercises performed at this time focused on maritime security, piracy countermeasures and interception of prohibited cargo. Express series included operations Obangame Express, Saharan Express, and Phoenix Express.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) was a reconnaissance and raiding unit of the British Army during the Second World War.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: Originally called the Long Range Patrol (LRP), the unit was founded in Egypt in June 1940 by Major Ralph Alger Bagnold, acting under the direction of General Archibald Wavell. Bagnold was assisted by Captain Patrick Clayton and Captain William Shaw. The majority of the men were from New Zealand, but they were soon joined by a few Southern Rhodesian and British volunteers, whereupon new sub-units were formed and the name was changed to the better-known Long Range Desert Group (LRDG). The LRDG never numbered more than 350 men, all of whom were volunteers.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRDG was formed specifically to carry out deep penetration, covert reconnaissance patrols and intelligence missions from behind Italian lines, although they sometimes engaged in combat operations. Because the LRDG were experts in desert navigation, they were sometimes assigned to guide other units, including the Special Air Service and secret agents across the desert. During the Desert Campaign between December 1940 and April 1943, the vehicles of the LRDG operated constantly behind the Axis lines, missing a total of only 15 days during the entire period. Possibly their most notable offensive action was during Operation Caravan, an attack on the town of Barce and its associated airfield, on the night of 13 September 1942. However, their most vital role was the 'Road Watch', during which they clandestinely monitored traffic on the main road from Tripoli to Benghazi, transmitting the intelligence to British Army Headquarters.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: With the surrender of the Axis forces in Tunisia in May 1943, the LRDG changed roles and moved operations to the eastern Mediterranean, carrying out missions in the Greek islands, Italy and the Balkans. After the end of the war in Europe, the leaders of the LRDG made a request to the War Office for the unit to be transferred to the Far East to conduct operations against the Japanese Empire. The request was declined and the LRDG was disbanded in August 1945.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: Before the war, Major Ralph Bagnold learned how to maintain and operate vehicles, how to navigate, and how to communicate in the desert. On 23 June 1940 he met General Archibald Wavell, the commander of the Middle East Command in Alexandria and explained his concept for a group of men intended to undertake long-range reconnaissance patrols to gather intelligence behind the Italian lines in Libya.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: General Wavell was familiar with desert warfare, having been a liaison officer with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the First World War, and he understood and endorsed Bagnold's suggested concept. Wavell assisted in equipping the force.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The unit, initially known as the "No.1 Long Range Patrol Unit" (LRP), was founded on 3 July 1940. Bagnold wanted men who were energetic, innovative, self-reliant, physically and mentally tough, and able to live and fight in seclusion in the Libyan desert. Bagnold felt that New Zealand farmers would possess these attributes and was given permission to approach the 2nd New Zealand Division for volunteers; over half the division volunteered. Two officers and 85 other ranks including 18 administrative and technical personnel were eventually selected, coming mostly from the Divisional Cavalry Regiment and the 27th Machine-Gun Battalion. Once the men had been recruited, they started training in desert survival techniques and desert driving and navigation, with additional training in radio communications and demolitions.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRP could initially form only three units, known as patrols, but a doubling of strength allowed the addition of a new Heavy Section. In November 1940, the name of the LRP was changed to the "Long Range Desert Group" (LRDG), and the New Zealanders were joined by volunteers from British and Southern Rhodesian regiments. The British volunteers, who came mostly from the Brigade of Guards and Yeomanry regiments, were incorporated into their own patrols. The original patrol unit consisted of two officers and 28 other ranks, equipped with a Canadian Military Pattern (CMP) Ford 15 Imperial hundredweight (cwt) truck and 10 Chevrolet 30 cwt trucks. In March 1941 new types of trucks were issued and the patrol units were split into half-patrols of one officer and 15–18 men in five or six vehicles. Each patrol incorporated a medical orderly, a navigator, a radio operator and a vehicle mechanic, each of whom manned a truck equipped for their role.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The Long Range Patrol comprised a 15-man headquarters with Bagnold in command. There were three sub-units: 'R' Patrol commanded by Captain Donald Gavin Steele, 'T' Patrol commanded by Captain Patrick Clayton and 'W' Patrol commanded by Captain Edward 'Teddy' Cecil Mitford. 'T' and 'W' Patrols were combat units while 'R' Patrol was intended to be a support unit.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In November 1940, the LRP was reorganised and re-designated the Long Range Desert Group. It was expanded to six Patrols: 'T', 'W' and 'R' Patrols were joined by 'G', 'S' and 'Y' Patrols. Each patrol was expected to belong to the same regimental group, but only the Brigade of Guards and the Yeomanry regiments formed their own Patrols, 'G' and 'Y' respectively. The men of 'G' Patrol were drawn from the 3rd Battalion Coldstream Guards and the 2nd Battalion Scots Guards under command of Captain Michael Crichton-Stuart. The 'Y' Patrol men were drawn from the Nottinghamshire Yeomanry under command Captain P. J. D. McCraith, with additional men from the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. In December 1940, 'W' Patrol was disbanded and its personnel used to bring 'R' and 'T' Patrols up to strength, while 'G' Patrol took over their vehicles. By June 1941 the LRDG was re-organised into two squadrons: the New Zealand and Rhodesian 'A' Squadron with 'S', 'T' and 'R' Patrols, and 'B' Squadron with 'G', 'H' and 'Y' Patrols. There was also a Headquarters Section along with signals, survey and light repair sections. A Heavy section, initially equipped with four 6-ton Marmon-Herrington trucks, was used to provide logistical support by transporting supplies to bases and setting up hidden replenishment points at pre-arranged locations. In addition, there was an Air Section, using Waco ZGC-7 and YKC biplanes that transported key personnel, evacuated wounded and performed other liaison tasks.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In August 1941 an artillery unit was formed to attack Italian forts more effectively. Initially it used a QF 4.5-inch howitzer carried on a 10-ton Mack NR 4 truck, with an accompanying light tank as an armoured observation post. However, these were handed over to the Free French at Kufra. The unit was then issued a 25 pounder portee. The LRDG successfully attacked and captured the fort at El Gtafia using the gun, but later the truck had to be abandoned and the experiment ended.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In October 1941 the LRDG was expanded to 10 patrols by the simple method of splitting the existing patrols into two-half patrols; the New Zealanders formed A Squadron comprising 'R1', 'R2', 'T1', and 'T2' Patrols and the British and Rhodesians formed B Squadron comprising 'G1', 'G2', 'S1', 'S2', 'Y1', and 'Y2' Patrols. The 'H' Patrol had been disbanded in September 1941 after three months service.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: These two squadrons were joined in December 1941 by the Indian Long Range Squadron, which had been formed by volunteers from the 2nd Lancers, 11th Cavalry and the 18th Cavalry, all part of the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. The Indian Squadron was organized along ethnic and religious lines with the first two patrols originally known as 'J' (Jats) and 'R' (Rajput) Patrols. Their designations were changed to 'I1' and 'I2' to avoid confusion. In October 1942 two further Indian patrols were formed: 'M' (Muslim) and 'S' (Sikh) Patrols, which became the 'I3' and 'I4' Patrols. No. 1 Demolition Squadron, nicknamed "Popski's Private Army" and commanded by Major Vladimir 'Popski' Peniakoff, was briefly attached to the LRDG beginning in December 1942.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The vehicles of each patrol adopted their own markings. The New Zealand 'R' Patrol used a green Hei-tiki with a red tongue painted on the right side of the bonnet of the vehicle, and on the left a Māori place name beginning with the letter 'R' (for example, 'Rotowaro'). The 'T' Patrol vehicles had a black Kiwi over green 'grass' and a Māori name starting with 'Te' (for example, 'Te Anau') in the corresponding places. The 'W' Patrol vehicles had a Māori name or word starting with 'W' painted on their vehicles.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The British 'G' Patrol vehicles carried no distinctive markings, although some vehicles had the Guards insignia. They took over 'W' Patrol's vehicles when that unit was disbanded. The 'Y' Patrol vehicles were slightly different; 'Y1' half-patrol vehicles all had names of famous drinking establishments (such as 'Cock O' The North') and 'Y2' half-patrol had names from the "Three Musketeers" books (for example, 'Aramis') on the left sides of their vehicle bonnets. The Headquarters Section used a sequence of letters arranged in a square (see photo of "Louise"). The Rhodesian 'S' Patrol vehicles had names with a Rhodesian connection (such as 'Salisbury') painted on the left side of the vehicles' bonnets. By 1943 the practice of naming replacement vehicles was dropped.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRDG vehicles were mainly two wheel drive, chosen because they were lighter and used less fuel than four wheel drive. They were stripped of all non-essentials, including doors, windscreens and roofs. They were fitted with a bigger radiator, a condenser system, built up leaf springs for the harsh terrain, wide, low pressure desert tyres, sand mats and channels, plus map containers and a sun compass devised by Bagnold. Wireless trucks had special compartments built into the bodywork to house wireless equipment. Initially the LRDG patrols were equipped with one Canadian Military Pattern (CMP) Ford 15 cwt F15 truck for the commander, while the rest of the patrol used up to 10 Chevrolet 30 cwt 158.5" wheelbase (WB) trucks (the 'WA' model mentioned in some texts appears to be an 133" wheelbase version of the same vehicle). From March 1941 the 30 cwt Chevrolets were replaced by the CMP Ford 30 cwt F30, although in some ways this was a retrograde step as the four wheel drive and extra weight compared to the Chevrolets meant they used twice as much fuel, which reduced the range of a patrol. From March 1942 the Fords were progressively replaced by 200 Canadian Chevrolet 1533 X2 30 cwts, which had been specially ordered for the LRDG. From July 1942 Willys Jeeps began to be issued for the patrol commander and patrol sergeant.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The patrol vehicles were initially armed with 11 Lewis machine guns, four Boys anti-tank rifles and a Bofors 37 mm anti-tank gun distributed amongst their vehicles. By December 1940, the vehicle armaments had been improved and 'T' Patrol, for example, had five .303 Vickers Medium Mk. I machine guns, five Lewis guns, four Boys anti-tank guns and the Bofors 37 mm. Another Vickers gun used was the heavy Vickers .50 machine gun, which would be mounted at the rear of the vehicle. All of the unit's vehicles were armed with at least one gun; each vehicle was fitted with six to eight gun mountings, but normally only two or three of them would be in use.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: Supplementing their army-supplied weapons, the LRDG was equipped with surplus Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft guns, which were acquired for their high rate of fire. The most widely used of these was the Vickers K machine gun, which was sometimes used mounted in pairs. From mid-1941 the LRDG acquired .303 Browning Mk II's from RAF stocks, also mounted in pairs, with a combined rate of fire of 2,400 rounds per minute. When new vehicles were issued in March 1942, several were converted to carry captured dual-purpose 20 mm Breda Model 35s, which replaced the Bofors 37 mm, and each half-patrol was equipped with one Breda "Gun truck". In September 1942 the .50 Browning AN/M2 heavy machine gun began to replace both calibres of the Vickers machine guns and the Boys anti-tank rifle.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The men of the LRDG carried the standard British Second World War small arms, the Short Magazine Lee–Enfield (SMLE) No.1 Mk III* being the primary rifle. Other small arms carried were Thompson submachine guns and .38 Enfield, Webley & Scott or .45 Colt 1911A1 pistols. Several types of hand grenade were used: the Mills bomb, No. 68 Anti-tank and No. 69's. Each truck was outfitted with a Lee–Enfield EY rifle attachment with a discharger cup able to fire the No. 36M Mills rifle grenade. The LRDG also laid land mines, the most common being the Mk 2 mine. Other explosives used are the Lewes bombs, a custom made weapon using Nobel 808, were used to destroy aircraft and other targets, and sticky bombs used to destroy enemy vehicles.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: Captured German and Italian small arms were utilised including the Beretta M 1934, Luger P08 and Walther P38 pistols. The German MP40 submachine gun and MG34, MG42 along with Italian Breda M37 and Breda M38 machine guns were all used.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In the LRP, most of the radio operators were New Zealanders, but the LRDG radio operators were all from the Royal Corps of Signals. These men were skilled in communications and were able to maintain and repair their equipment without any outside help. On only three occasions did a broken radio prevent a patrol communicating with its headquarters. All LRDG patrols included one vehicle equipped with a Wireless Set No. 11 and a non-military Philips model 635 receiver. The No. 11 Set had been designed for use in tanks, and had transmitter and receiver circuits; the Royal Signals expected to use the No. 11 set to transmit and receive between and with the use of or antennas.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRDG used Morse code for all transmissions, and were able to transmit over great distances using either a dipole antenna system attached to a rod antenna mounted on the truck, which was adequate up to , or for greater distances, a Windom dipole system slung between two tall poles. The disadvantage of using the Windom system was that it took time to erect and work out the correct antenna length, so it could only be used in a relatively safe area. To power the No. 11 set extra batteries had to be carried by the radio vehicles.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The Philips receiver was used to monitor Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) time checks, which was vital for desert navigation.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: While on the move the lead vehicles of the patrol commanders and sergeants flew a small flag. Because the LRP was organised on divisional cavalry lines the leaders carried green flags for 'A' (HQ) Troop, black for 'B' Troop, yellow for 'C' Troop and red for 'D'. When the LRDG was organised into 11 vehicle patrols this was simplified to a green flag displaying the patrol letter in white; the later half-patrols used a plain green flag on occasion. When it became necessary to change course from an intended route, or in the event of enemy action, patrol movements were controlled by a simple semaphore flag system using blue and white signal flags, or hand signals, depending on how widely dispersed the trucks were.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: All trucks of the LRDG were equipped with the Bagnold sun compass and some trucks were also equipped with a P8 Tank Compass. Each patrol had a navigator who always rode in the second truck in the formation. He was equipped with a theodolite and astronomical position tables with which to plot star sightings, and maps. Watches were used and adjusted each evening using the GMT time check. One major problem faced early on by the LRDG was a lack of accurate maps for Libya in particular. Patrols had to do their own surveys and make their own maps of each route they took. In July 1941 the Survey Section was formed to carry out this task.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRDG area of operations between 1940 and 1943, known as the Western Desert, stretched about south from the Mediterranean to the Tibesti and the Jebel Uweinat mountains, and about from the Nile valley in the east to the mountains of Tunisia and Algeria in the west. Paved roads were non-existent and only small tracks and pathways crossed the area. The daytime temperatures could reach and at night drop below freezing. The only water in the area is found in a number of small oases, which is also where the only vegetation grows. While the vast majority of the 8th Army operated along the coast, the LRDG started operations inland south of the Great Sand Sea, were later based there and operated west and north, and were later based further west, well south of the coast.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The first LRP patrol began during the Italian invasion of Egypt. 'W' Patrol commanded by Captain Mitford set out on 15 September 1940 to carry out a reconnaissance of Kufra and Uweinat. Finding no trace of the Italians, they turned south and attacked fuel dumps, aircraft and an Italian convoy carrying supplies to Kufra. 'T' Patrol, commanded by Captain Clayton, reconnoitred the main route between Kufra and Uweinat, then drove south to meet up with 'W' Patrol; both units returned to base, having captured two Italian trucks and official mail. The Italian response to these raids was to reduce their front line forces and increase the number of troops garrisoning the area from 2,900 men in September to 5,500 by November 1940.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: On 27 December 1940, 'G' and 'T' Patrols left Cairo and crossed the desert to northwest of Kufra. On arrival they met with representatives from the Free French forces in Chad, and on 11 January carried out a joint raid on the Italian fort at Murzuk. After two hours' fighting the fort remained in Italian hands, but the adjoining airfield had been destroyed. The units then withdrew southwards towards the Free French post at Zouar.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: On 31 January they were intercepted by the Compagnia Autosahariana di Cufra, an Italian unit similar to the LRDG, in the Gebel Sherif valley. The LRDG had one man killed and three men captured, including Major Clayton, and three trucks destroyed during the battle. The Italian losses were five killed and three wounded, and one truck was abandoned. Four members of the LRDG escaped by walking to safety in ten days with no food and only a two gallon water can between them. The patrol arrived back in Egypt on 9 February; it had covered about , experiencing the loss of six trucks, four by enemy action and two by mechanical breakdowns. One vehicle with a broken rear axle had been towed about before it could be repaired. Total casualties were three dead and three captured. Major Clayton was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: After Operation Compass ended with the Italians forced out of Cyrenaica it was decided to move the LRDG from Cairo to Kufra (SE Libya). At the same time the LRDG was expanded with the addition of 'Y' and 'S' Patrols. When the German Afrika Korps under command of General Erwin Rommel counterattacked in April 1941, the LRDG was ordered to reinforce the Kufra area. 'R' Patrol were based at Taiserbo, 'S' Patrol at Zighen, and the headquarters LRDG, 'T' Patrol, and the Free French were at Kufra, under command of Bagnold. The detached 'G' and 'Y' Patrols were based at Siwa Oasis, under command of XIII Corps.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRDG air link was created during the occupation of Kufra by Major Guy Lenox Prendergast. Appreciating the value of aircraft for reconnaissance, liaison, evacuating wounded and flights to GHQ Cairo, he had two Waco aircraft fitted with long range fuel tanks. Prendergast flew one himself and Sergeant R. F. T. Barker flew the other. When Bagnold was appointed to the General Staff Cairo in August 1941, Prendergast was given command of the LRDG.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The LRDG now began a series of patrols behind the Axis lines. Near the end of July 'T' Patrol left for the desert to the south of the Gulf of Sirte. One 'T' Patrol truck managed to observe the main coastal road, along which Axis traffic was passing. They were followed two or three weeks later by 'S' Patrol, who carried out a similar reconnaissance between Jalo oasis and Agedabia. Both patrols returned safely to Kufra without being discovered. In August 1941 'R' Patrol relieved 'G' and 'Y' Patrols at Siwa and was joined by 'T' Patrol in October.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In November 1941 the LRDG, now under command of the newly formed Eighth Army, moved from Kufra to Siwa (central Libya). The patrols were given the task of watching the desert tracks south of Jebel Akhdar and report any signs of reinforcements and withdrawals. 'R1' Patrol was to pick up Captain David Stirling and 30 men who had parachuted behind the lines to raid airfields to the west of Tobruk. Only 21 men arrived at the rendezvous and were returned to the British lines, later becoming the nucleus of the Special Air Service (SAS). One of the other roles assigned to the LRDG was to transport SAS units behind enemy lines; this continued until the SAS were issued with their own transport in 1942. In early November 'T2' Patrol took four British officers to the Gebel and was to return and collect them three weeks later. The officers were the advance land party of Operation Flipper, which had planned to kill General Rommel.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: On 24 November, in support of Operation Crusader, the LRDG were ordered to attack Axis rear areas. Already on patrol, 'Y1' and 'Y2' Patrols attacked targets in the Mechili, Derna and Gazala area. 'Y1' damaged fifteen vehicles in a transport park and 'Y2' captured a small fort and about 20 Italians. 'S2' and 'R2' Patrols attacked targets in the Benghazi, Barce and Marawa area, where they ambushed nine vehicles. 'G1' and 'G2' Patrols were assigned the main road near Agedabia where 'G1' made two attacks on road traffic and shot up a few vehicles. After the Axis forces withdrew from Cyrenaica the LRDG moved to a base at Jalo oasis, about to the south-south-east of Ajdabiya.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The last operations of 1941 were in December, when the LRDG twice ferried the SAS to and from raids on Axis airfields, attacking the airfields at Sirte (twice), El Agheila, Ajdabiya, Nofaliya and Tamit, and destroying 151 aircraft and 30 vehicles. During the second raid at Sirte, the SAS devised a new method of attacking parked aircraft. They drove the LRDG trucks between the rows of aircraft, which were then engaged by machine guns and hand grenades. Prior to this the procedure had been to quietly infiltrate an airfield and place Lewes bombs on aircraft and vehicles, leaving before the bombs exploded, but this attack was so successful that it became the preferred method for attacking airfields.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: When the LRDG was based at Siwa, they took part in what has since become known as the 'Road Watch' along the Via Balbia (the Tripoli to Benghazi road). Three patrols were engaged on road watch duties at any one time, with one watching the road for a week to 10 days, another would be en route to relieve them and the third was returning to Siwa after having been relieved. The site of the road watch was about from the Marble Arch monument. The road watch patrol would park about 2 miles away from the road and the trucks would be camouflaged using camouflage nets, any local foliage and sand. Before dawn each day two men would move into a well camouflaged position about from the road. By day they would record the details of all vehicles and troop movements, and at night they would move to about from the road and guess what type of vehicles were passing by their sound and outline. At daylight they were relieved by another pair of men who took over that day's road watch.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: If tanks or a large number of troops were seen passing, they would radio the LRDG headquarters at Siwa immediately so that by the time the enemy reached the front line, GHQ at Cairo would know they were coming. Once a patrol was relieved they would transmit details of all they had seen back to Siwa. The LRDG did not lose any men or vehicles when on the road watch, but they did have some close encounters. On 21 March 'R1' Patrol was surrounded by a convoy of 27 vehicles and about 200 men who stopped for the night between the watchers and their vehicles. While the road watch was ongoing, other patrols would be attacking targets along other stretches of the Tripoli to Benghazi road, by planting mines or attacking vehicles with machine gun fire. The road was kept under constant observation around the clock from 2 March to 21 July 1942.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: After the Battle of Gazala and the fall of Tobruk, the LRDG were forced to withdraw from Siwa on 28 June. 'A' Squadron withdrew to Cairo to resupply and then moved back to Kufra, while 'B' Squadron moved to Faiyum.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: With the Eighth Army now holding the El Alamein line, plans were submitted to attack the Axis supply lines and the ports of Benghazi and Tobruk. In September 1942, British Commandos would attack Tobruk by land and sea (Operation Agreement). The SAS would attack Benghazi (Operation Bigamy) and the Sudan Defence Force would capture Jalo oasis (Operation Nicety). The LRDG would be used to guide the attacking forces to their targets and at the same time, a LRDG force would attack Barce (Operation Caravan). The Barce force consisted of 17 vehicles and 47 men of 'G1' and 'T1' Patrols, which had to travel to reach their target. On arrival 'T1' Patrol attacked the airfield and 'G1' the Barce barracks. The attack on the airfield destroyed 35 aircraft according to an Italian prisoner of war. Official Italian figures quote 16 aircraft destroyed and seven damaged.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: On 30 September 1942, the LRDG ceased to be under command of the Eighth Army and came under direct command of GHQ Middle East. The final LRDG operation in North Africa was in Tunisia during the Mareth Offensive when they guided the 2nd New Zealand Division around the Mareth Line in March 1943.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In May 1943 the LRDG was sent to Lebanon to retrain in mountain warfare. However, following the Italian armistice in 1943, they were sent to Leros, one of the Dodecanese islands, to serve as normal infantry. They later took part in the Battle of Leros, where the commanding officer John Richard Easonsmith was killed and replaced by David Lloyd Owen. After the battle the last New Zealanders, two officers and approximately 46 men, were withdrawn from the LRDG and returned to their division.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In December 1943, the LRDG re-organised into two squadrons of eight patrols. Each patrol contained one officer and 10 other ranks. Major Moir Stormonth Darling was given command of the British Squadron and Major Kenneth Henry Lazarus the Rhodesian Squadron. Patrols were then parachuted north of Rome to obtain information about German troop movements, and also carried out raids on the Dalmatian Islands and Corfu.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: In August 1944, British Squadron patrols were parachuted into Yugoslavia. One patrol destroyed two spans of a large railway bridge, which caused widespread disruption to the movement of German troops and supplies. The commanding officer Lieutenant-Colonel Owen and a team of 36 men were parachuted into Albania in September 1944. Their mission was to follow the German retreat and assist Albanian resistance groups in attacking them. In October 1944, two British Squadron patrols were parachuted into the Florina area of Greece. Here they mined a road used by the retreating Germans, destroying three vehicles and blocking the road. Firing on the stranded convoy from an adjacent hillside, they directed RAF aircraft in to destroy the rest of the convoy.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: After the end of the war in Europe, the leaders of the LRDG made a request to the War Office for the unit to be transferred to the Far East to conduct operations against the Japanese Empire. The request was declined and the LRDG was disbanded in August 1945.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The Long Range Desert Group was disbanded at the end of the Second World War. The only comparable British Army units today are the Mobility troops of the Special Air Service. Each of the regular army Special Air Service squadrons has a Mobility troop. Like the LRDG, they are specialists in using vehicles, trained in an advanced level of motor mechanics to fix any problem with their vehicles, and are experts in desert warfare.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The Long Range Desert Group is one of the Second World War units represented by the Special Air Service Association. Other wartime units represented include all the SAS regiments, the Special Raiding Squadron, the Special Boat Service (Wartime), the Phantom Signal Squadron, the Raiding Support Regiment and the Greek Sacred Squadron.


title: Long Range Desert Group

text: The New Zealand Army erected a permanent memorial to the LRDG at the New Zealand Special Air Service barracks, in the Papakura Military Camp. On 7 August 2009, two honour boards containing details of every New Zealand soldier who served in the LRDG were unveiled.