title: Humanz

text: Albarn revealed that there would be alternate versions of songs that would be released, one included an extended version of "Andromeda" with rapper D.R.A.M. and a Middle-Eastern version of "Busted and Blue", which was discovered to feature Syrian musician Faia Younan, who had previously collaborated with Albarn on the Africa Express project "The Orchestra of Syrian Musicians and Guests", on which she was featured on the song "Yah Mahla El Fus'ha". While alternate versions of songs also exists, there are also songs that did not make the album, which were registered online by the group, which revealed that the band had collaborated further with Sidiki Diabaté, Little Simz and Azekel (who has backing vocals on the song "Momentz"). These songs were eventually released as the bonus tracks of the "Super Deluxe" edition of "Humanz" which was released on 3 November 2017.


title: Humanz

text: In an interview with "Sound on Sound", recording engineer Stephen Sedgwick and executive producer the Twilite Tone revealed some more of the stories behind the songs on the record. Such as the song "Strobelite", which came from an initial drum pattern made by Albarn on a SEIKO drum machine watch. While the drum pattern was being recorded, the production team were having a conversation, which ended up being recorded and was kept on the final track. The Anthony Hamilton-featuring "Carnival" originated from Albarn's experiences of visiting a carnival in Trinidad and Tobago, which inspired Hamilton in both his lyrics and vocal performance, while song and title "Sex Murder Party" came from a newspaper headline that Twilite Tone and Albarn read, which prompted the song's creation.


title: Humanz

text: While promoting the album "Merrie Land" by the Good, the Bad & the Queen, Albarn revealed that he had reached out to singer Morrissey, from the Smiths, to appear on the song "Circle of Friendz", which ended up as a bonus track on the album's deluxe edition featuring Brandon Markell Holmes, but was unable to convince him to appear on the song.


title: Humanz

text: Albarn has said that with "Humanz" he set out to create something not overtly political, but "an emotional response to politics". The album's overarching theme is the emotional aftermath of an unexpected world-changing event. Albarn removed all references to Donald Trump on the album, saying "There's no references to [Trump] on the record – in fact, any time when anyone made any reference, I edited it out. I don't want to give the most famous man on earth any more fame, particularly. He doesn't need it!" There is however, a bonus track called "The Apprentice", referencing his former reality show. At one point, the album was titled "Transformerz", although this was later abandoned, for fear of confusion with the film series of the same name.


title: Humanz

text: Albarn was honoured at the Ivor Novello Awards where he picked up the lifetime achievement award for his work with Blur, Gorillaz, The Good, the Bad & the Queen, as well as his myriad of soundtracks and other work. During his acceptance speech, he spoke out about his love of the band Simple Minds and how they may be shaping the new Gorillaz record: "From someone who grew up in Leytonstone, it was a culture shock to say the least. Anyway, we were in this band and we had a guitarist who was an Edge from U2 obsessive, but we had a more kind of loose bass player who was really Simple Minds. Graham and me were a bit kind of more mercurial about what we like and what we don't like, but they were more adamant. Looking back at it now, I loved pretending that I was in U2, but I just think that Simple Minds were cooler. "Promised You a Miracle" – I listened to it when I started doing this new Gorillaz record and it just blew my mind, and it blew everyone who I was working with's mind. They hadn't even heard of Simple Minds, and they loved it – so that's testament to it being incredible."


title: Humanz

text: On 6 March 2017, Gorillaz announced they were headlining their own festival called "Demon Dayz" at Margate, England. It took place on 10 June at the Dreamland amusement park, with free access to rides, and was also broadcast live, via Red Bull TV. The tickets were put on sale in the morning of 10 March, at 9:00am, and they sold out hours later. The festival was revealed to feature a number of collaborators from the album and other musicians that influenced the band, such as Vince Staples, De La Soul, Fufanu, Danny Brown, Little Simz, Kali Uchis, Popcaan and Kilo Kish.


title: Humanz

text: On 23 March 2017, four new songs were premiered on various radio stations: "Saturnz Barz" and "Andromeda" on BBC Radio 1, "We Got the Power" on Radio X, and "Ascension" on Beats 1. The same day, all four songs were released for download, and a 360 Virtual Reality music video for "Saturnz Barz" was released in partnership with YouTube, being the first music video featuring the Gorillaz characters since 2012's "DoYaThing".


title: Humanz

text: The same day, Gorillaz redesigned their website and announced a secret live concert at Printworks Nightclub, London, on the evening of 24 March 2017, featuring the first full performance of the album, and made a livestream on their Facebook page at the event.


title: Humanz

text: A Gorillaz-themed augmented reality app created in collaboration with Electronic Beats was released on 10 April 2017, in which users interact with the band members, tour the studios, and listen to playlists made by the members. The next day, Gorillaz announced that the app would also be used to host the "Humanz House Party", a listening event touted as the "largest ever geo-specific listening experience". It took place on 21 April through 23, a week before the album release, and allowed fans to be the first to hear the new album in full. At the same time, Jamie Hewlett revealed in an interview with "Q" magazine that a 10-episode Gorillaz TV show was in the works.


title: Humanz

text: On 17 April 2017, the Humanz Tour was formally announced on the band's official website, with concerts in Europe, Asia, North and South America. A copy of the album was included with a ticket purchase.


title: Humanz

text: On 31 October 2017, "Garage Palace" featuring Little Simz was released as a single from the "Super Deluxe" Edition of "Humanz", which includes 14 additional songs and was released on 3 November 2017.


title: Humanz

text: "Humanz" received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 77, based on 32 reviews. Common points of praise from reviewers pertain to the album's political themes, as well as its dark, yet playful "party" sound. Josh Gray of "Clash" felt that the band had "created their most youthful album yet; a vibrant record which paints a picture of the near future so vivid it seems convincingly real." Kenneth Partridge from "Paste" gave it an 8.5 rating and wrote "The result: the most vibrant, consistently engaging Gorillaz album yet". Writing for "Exclaim!", Cam Lindsay posited that despite the album lacking any "Apple-friendly jingles", it "makes up for it with palatably overarching political themes and sequencing that gives it the wildly entertaining feel of a circus show." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album 4/5 stars (which he would later change to 3.5/5) and stated that he thought of it as more wild and unruly than the band's 2010 album, "Plastic Beach", due to the bigger focus on individual tracks as opposed to an overarching concept. He also noted that despite the album's very heavy R&B vibe and political undercurrent, he felt the album overall was "strangely uplifting, as if every musician who entered the studio found solace in the act of creation."


title: Humanz

text: Niall Doherty of "Q" magazine pointed out Albarn's diminished vocal influence on the album compared to the two albums he had been involved with prior, "Everyday Robots" and "The Magic Whip", concluding the review with "What "Humanz" lacks in memorable hooks, it makes up for in fist-clenching spirit – and 'We Got The Power' sums that up best. A defiant anthem featuring a thrilling turn from Savages' singer Jehnny Beth, it ensures an album about wading through the dark days ends on a triumphant note." Some reviewers overall felt that much of the band itself and its "cartoon image" fell to the wayside in the wake of its many collaborators. "Consequence of Sound" writer Nina Corcoran gave "Humanz" a B− grade, stating "In the end, "Humanz" structures itself like we’re watching Gorillaz host a party in a trendy club, all while the world burns. By positioning its four digital members just outside of the line of vision, though, it feels like an outlier in the band's catalog — which isn't necessarily a bad thing."


title: Humanz

text: The structure of the album has had some critics draw comparisons to Drake's "More Life". In terms of the album structure, critics have been more mixed. In a generally positive review, Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" acknowledged the album as a "scattershot collection of tracks, rather than a coherent album." "Record Collector" thought of it both as a flaw but also its strength, stating that "the album throws it all at you in one gloriously delirious barrage that has no real anchor." Will Hermes of "Rolling Stone" wrote "If it's an uneven LP, it's fairly brilliant by mixtape standards, which may be the best way to measure it."


title: Humanz

text: In the United States, "Humanz" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 behind Kendrick Lamar's "Damn", with 140,000 album-equivalent units, of which 115,000 were pure album sales. It serves as Gorillaz's fourth top-ten album in the United States.


title: Richard S. Castellano

text: Richard Salvatore Castellano (September 4, 1933 – December 10, 1988) was an American actor who is best remembered for his role in "Lovers and Other Strangers" and his subsequent role as Peter Clemenza in "The Godfather".


title: Richard S. Castellano

text: Castellano was born in the Queens borough of New York City on September 4, 1933. His parents, Mariantonia Angello and Filippo Castellano, were Italian immigrants from Castrofilippo, Sicily. His middle name, Salvatore, was in honor of his oldest brother who had died two years before he was born.


title: Richard S. Castellano

text: After his death, Castellano's widow Ardell Sheridan claimed that he was the nephew of Gambino crime family boss Paul Castellano, however this claim was dismissed by Richard's sister as false: "We're no relation".


title: Richard S. Castellano

text: Castellano gained worldwide fame for his role in "Lovers and Other Strangers" (1970), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award. He achieved further stardom in 1972 for playing the part of Peter Clemenza, in "The Godfather". "The Godfather" became the highest-grossing film up to that time. Castellano, along with several other cast members, became widely known from the popular film. He spoke one of the film's most famous lines, "Leave the gun; take the cannoli," which he partially ad-libbed.


title: Richard S. Castellano

text: Castellano also appeared on television, playing the lead role of Joe Girelli in the television situation comedy "The Super" (10 episodes in 1972). His real-life daughter Margaret Castellano portrayed his character's daughter Joanne. He also portrayed the lead Joe Vitale in "Joe and Sons" (1975–1976).


title: Richard S. Castellano

text: Castellano did not reprise his role as Clemenza in "The Godfather Part II" (1974). He was reportedly excluded because Castellano and his agent insisted on having control over the character's dialogue. Director Francis Ford Coppola said that this was untenable, and wrote Castellano's Clemenza out of the movie, creating the new character Frank Pentangeli (played by Michael V. Gazzo) in his place. This account was disputed by Castellanos widow in a 1991 letter to "People" magazine. Castellano said he did not have a part in the sequel because he did not believe that the character of Clemenza should become a traitor. He had other disagreements with Coppola, including confusion over how much weight he was expected to gain for the role. Bruno Kirby portrayed Clemenza as a young man in "The Godfather Part II". He had played the son of Castellano's character in "The Super".


title: On Cinema

text: On Cinema (also called On Cinema at the Cinema and On Cinema! and More in the Morning for the video series) is an American comedy web series and podcast starring Tim Heidecker and Gregg Turkington. The duo appear, using their own names, as a pair of hapless movie reviewers to promote new film releases. The show started as an independently released podcast from 2011 to 2013, before being picked up as a professionally produced web video series by Thing X in 2012–13 for its first two seasons, then moving to Adult Swim.com in 2013. The show moved to HEI Network, an independent service run by Tim, in 2021, with funding given by user subscriptions and Oscar special ticket purchases.


title: On Cinema

text: "On Cinema at the Cinema" is the hub of a 'fictional universe' that includes the podcast, 12 seasons of the video series, nine yearly live specials, a spin-off limited series entitled "The Trial", the spin-off series "Decker", a movie review app, an "On Cinema Live!" tour, and a film entitled "Mister America".


title: On Cinema

text: "On Cinema" also features a myriad of guest actors, some of whom play fictionalized versions of themselves, including Joe Estevez and Mark Proksch. The show and fictional universe have a dedicated cult following of fans who play along with the storylines via social media, often taking sides as "TimHeads" or "GreggHeads", or "Unityheads" for those that do not take a side. Heidecker and Turkington also started "Decker-Con", where they appear in character and interact with fans.


title: On Cinema

text: Early podcast episodes of "On Cinema" were usually no longer than one or two minutes. Heidecker and Turkington would "review" films without actually providing any meaningful information or critical insight. Following the shift to an online video series, episodes grew to an average length of ten minutes. With the video series, Tim and Gregg start using a rating scale of "bags of popcorn" ranging from 0–5. While Gregg respects the limit of five, Tim often goes overboard giving "6 bags" or dozens more, creating tension and confusion throughout the show. Almost every film gets a score of "5 bags"—known as a 'five-bagger'—or higher from both reviewers.


title: On Cinema

text: Although reviewing films remains the central conceit, the focus of the series quickly shifted from a mockery of amateur podcasting and YouTube criticism to an extended, improvisational character study of the two podcasters. Heidecker, in character on "On Cinema", frequently uses his time on camera to discuss anything on his character's mind except film, such as his bizarre ailments, personal crises, and right-wing political views, or to simply berate and belittle Turkington. Turkington's character fancies himself a "film expert," his only qualification being an enormous collection of forgettable mainstream films from the 1980s and 1990s on VHS. The series continues to provide reviews that purposely offer no real critical insight. Later seasons have seen Tim lose interest in reviewing movies, instead creating a TV show, "Decker", and starting a rock band, "Dekkar".


title: On Cinema

text: Guest appearances have included Jordan Hoffman, Jimmy McNichol, Joe Estevez, Lawrence Turman, Sally Kellerman, Candy Clark, Mark Proksch, John Aprea, Peyton Reed, Keith Gordon, Nicholas Meyer, Josh Trank, and Lee Garlington, some of whom also appear in the "Decker" series.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim is the creator and host of "On Cinema" and the CEO of 'HEI Inc.' Despite his role, he appears to know very little about the films he is discussing, often showing complete disdain for film in general. Tim regularly uses the show as a public platform to bully Gregg, voice his far-right conservative views, or promote his other creative projects. These include alternative medicine, his action web series "Decker", his book "Hog Shots", and his band "Dekkar." Tim is an aggressive, egomaniacal drug addict and alcoholic. He is extremely open about his personal life, devoting large portions of the show to his various health problems, addictions, and family troubles, much to the chagrin of Gregg.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim has been married at least four times. His second marriage ended in divorce between Seasons 2 and 3 after he underwent brain surgery in spite of his wife's objections. Tim later reveals he has an estranged teenage son from a previous marriage. Tim met his third wife, Ayaka, while she was staying with his family as a foreign exchange student. Ayaka and Tim's child, Tom Cruise Jr. Heidecker, died shortly after his birth following Tim's stubborn refusal to have him vaccinated. Their marriage rapidly fell apart following Tom Cruise Jr.'s death. Tim's various addictions spiralled out of control, and he became cold and abusive. After their divorce, Tim dated and married Juliana, the sister of fellow Dekkar band member Axiom. Following the events of "The Trial," Tim began a relationship with Toni Newman, the sole juror who refused to find him guilty. They wed at the end of season 11, then again during the 7th Oscar special in which he took her surname and became Tim Newman, although Toni later left him near the end of season 12.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim has committed numerous crimes throughout the series, including property damage (mainly the destruction of Gregg's film collection), arson and felony murder of 20 people, leading to his brief ejection from "On Cinema" and the events of "The Trial". Following this, Tim ran an unsuccessful campaign for District Attorney of San Bernardino against his own prosecutor, DA Vincent Rosetti, depicted in the film "Mister America". Tim was aided by Toni Newman, the one juror to find him innocent of the charges leveled against him. Following his failed political career, Tim eventually reacquired the "On Cinema" brand.


title: On Cinema

text: In the brief instances when Tim does appear to show interest in film, he has suggested that his favorite actor is Tom Cruise (or Tom Hanks and Kiefer Sutherland on some occasions) and that his favorite film is "Jack Reacher". He is an avid fan of Tom Clancy, regarding him as a great author and political commentator. Clancy's works, and the television series "24", in particular the character of Jack Bauer, are clear influences on "Decker". In the 2016 presidential race, Tim endorsed Donald Trump, describing his opponent Hillary Clinton as a criminal and calling for her to be sentenced and executed.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg is a regular guest of "On Cinema", sometimes acting as host when Tim is unwell or incarcerated. Gregg is a film buff and self-described movie expert, judging other experts and film scholars with disdain and uncertainty (likely stemming from a confrontation with Lawrence Turman, who derided his abilities as a reviewer). Despite his clear antipathy towards Tim, not to mention the near-constant abuse he suffers under him, Gregg repeatedly returns to "On Cinema" in the hopes that he will be made co-host. Gregg displays no empathy for or interest in Tim's life. Almost nothing is known about Gregg's personal life. He is mainly quiet and withdrawn, actively avoiding confrontation, redirecting almost every conversation into a movie reference and regarding real-world events and documentary films as pointless distractions. He has an extensive collection of VHS cassettes which he refers to as 'The Victorville Film Archives', boasting that it's one of the largest film archives in North America. The exact size of his collection remains unknown as Gregg has not yet opened it to the public. It has also, on multiple occasions, been destroyed by Tim.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg believes that "On Cinema" should be devoted exclusively to film criticism, despite his obvious lack of critical insight. Though not as openly hostile as Tim, Gregg is often stubborn and passive-aggressive, insisting on his incorrect knowledge when challenged and quietly criticizing Tim when he steals the limelight. He produces a number of segments for the show, such as "Popcorn Classics", where he will briefly discuss a film from his library, and "On Cinema On Location", where he documents various locations in Los Angeles where forgettable films were shot. He plays a secondary character on "Decker", the "Master of Codes" Special Agent Jonathan Kington. The character of Kington has proved to be a source of controversy within "On Cinema", with Gregg boycotting the Kingsman and Star Wars franchises, believing them to be plagiarisms of his character. Gregg wrote and directed the third season of "Decker", "Gregg Turkington's Decker vs. Dracula", a lengthy and ambitious project that would see the Taliban joining forces with Decker to defeat Dracula. Of the series' projected 20 episodes (including a 2-hour finale), only four were released. The series was cancelled by Tim, citing Gregg's "lack of professionalism" as the main factor in his decision, even though it was the highest rated season. During Tim's tour with Dekkar, Gregg hosted his own show "Our Cinema" with Mark Proksch: a micro-budget production frequently interrupted by Tim's abusive phone calls.


title: On Cinema

text: As the series has progressed, Gregg has shown himself to be almost as sociopathic as Tim. Between the 5th and 6th Oscar Special, Gregg stored a comatose Mark Proksch in his apartment, denying him access to medical treatment and eventually using a still-unconscious, intubated Mark as a prop for a "Living Oscar" segment (dressing him in a gold leotard and face paint, propped up on a sack truck). Following Mark's eventual revival, Gregg continued to manipulate him, setting him up as a street vendor for bootleg VHS cassettes (which Gregg mistakenly believed were public domain), leading to Mark's arrest. During the 7th Oscar special, Gregg left his 'Mobile VFA' (a car filled with VHS cassettes) running in the studio, causing a toxic buildup of carbon monoxide, rendering the entire studio of presenters and guests unconscious and resulting in the deaths of a production assistant and a caterer. After being confronted with evidence of the poisoning during the 8th Oscar special, Gregg stormed out of the building pursued by Tim's bodyguard, Michael "Larue" Matthews, who he then ran over with the Mobile VFA in an uncharacteristic rage.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg's favorite film is "The Hobbit". He describes himself as a "Hobbit Head" and campaigns every year for the Academy Awards to recognize Peter Jackson and give the Best Picture award to The Hobbit trilogy, believing that the Academy has "a write-in section".


title: On Cinema

text: Played by Zac Holtzman. Luther Sanchez, commonly referred to as "Dr. San", was a practitioner of alternative medicine, serving first as Tim's acupuncturist and later as his family physician with the birth of Tom Cruise Jr., responsible for convincing Tim not to vaccinate his child. He was for all intents and purposes a con-man, tricking Tim out of large sums of money for sub-standard acupuncture treatment with dirty needles and providing him with toxic vape pens, which would later cause the deaths of 19 people at Tim's 'Electric Sun' music festival. Though he frequently attempted to escape prosecution, he was eventually caught by police and taken into custody, committing suicide by hanging himself in his cell.


title: On Cinema

text: Ayaka Ohwaki, originally staying with Tim's family as a foreign exchange student, became Tim's second wife and mother of Tom Cruise Jr. They dated briefly before Ayaka moved back to Japan, only to reunite after a heartfelt plea by Tim during an episode of "On Cinema". Tim was by all accounts a cold and sometimes abusive husband, made worse by the death of Tom Cruise Jr. During Tim's trial for the felony murder of 20 people at the Electric Sun Festival, Ayaka revealed that Tim forced her to abort their second child, thereby terminating their relationship. Ayaka was living in Japan with a new husband when she came back to testify at Tim's trial. She is assumed to have returned to Japan after giving her testimony.


title: On Cinema

text: Much like Tim and Gregg, Joe Estevez, an American actor and the younger brother of actor Martin Sheen, portrays a fictionalized version of himself. He is a close friend of Tim and Gregg, becoming the second most regular guest on "On Cinema". He is friendly and forbearing despite Tim's uncertain temperament and numerous drunken tirades. He was one of the first actors to join the cast of "Decker", supporting Tim in his efforts to make a feature film before the project became a web series. He plays a recurring role as President Davidson and his son, President Davidson Jr.


title: On Cinema

text: Tom Cruise Jr. was Tim and Ayaka's son, named after Tim's favorite actor Tom Cruise. He died of an undisclosed illness after his father, under the supervision of Dr. San, refused to vaccinate him. Tim hotly contests this, claiming that Tom Cruise Jr.'s death was caused by a fatal buildup of black mold at Gregg's beach house, still believing vaccines to be dangerous and unethical. In the "On Cinema Fourth Annual Oscars Special", Tim has 'resurrected' Tom Cruise Jr. as a fully-grown CGI mannequin for the benefit of himself and Ayaka, and later at his wedding to Toni Newman. 'Tom Cruise Jr.' encourages his parents not to mourn, announcing that he has become happy and successful before fading away warning others not to vaccinate their children.


title: On Cinema

text: The character Mark Proksch, played by actor Mark Proksch, is an aspiring comedian and one-time "On Cinema" and "Our Cinema" host. Mark was originally hired by Tim and Gregg to perform impersonations of famous actors (such as Charlie Chaplin, W. C. Fields, and the Three Stooges) for the Oscar Specials, to play various characters in the series Decker, or to perform other menial tasks like concession store cashier or waiter, despite his lack of acting skills and general clumsiness. He regularly experiences verbal and physical abuse at the hands of Tim. During the "Fifth Oscar Special", he fell into a coma after being locked up in a scuba suit with no oxygen and is revived by accident during the "New On Cinema Oscar Special". Gregg kept a comatose Mark in his apartment and during the "New Oscar Special" he is used by Gregg as a prop Oscar Statue despite Gregg having full knowledge of the severity of his condition. He was accidentally resuscitated by Tim during the Oscar Special, apparently sustaining some form of brain damage, leaving him extremely quiet and docile. He was arrested at the end of season 11 for selling pirated VHS cassettes at the behest of Gregg, and was assaulted by drug addicts while in custody, causing him to fall into another coma. It was announced by Tim and Gregg over Twitter that Mark died shortly after this incident. However, later tweets reveal that Mark is not dead, but roaming the streets of LA. During the Eighth Annual Oscar Special, a brief video recording the fictional Proksch surfaces and suggests that he no longer wishes to be involved with the hosts of "On Cinema". However, he returns for season 12 and winds up getting hospitalized again during the events of the Ninth Annual Oscar Special.


title: On Cinema

text: Played by Alessandro Serradimigni. A guitar player Tim met at Guitar Center, he is the second member of Dekkar. At one point, Tim became romantically involved with Axiom's sister, Juliana. During The Trial, it is revealed that Axiom donated his hand to Tim via a hand transplant. He was appointed as one of the first board members of 'HEI INC.', along with Joe Estevez and Manuel. In between the 11th Season and the 7th Oscar Special, Axiom cut ties with Tim and Manuel following the dissolution of Dekkar. He eventually returned for Tim's wedding, saving the unconscious guests from the excess carbon monoxide fumes produced by Gregg's 'Mobile VFA'. Toni has an affair on Tim with Axiom at her birthday party, enraging Tim to the point he kicks Axiom out of the band. Tim and Axiom then reunite during the Wendy Kerby Valentine's Day Special, hugging it out.


title: On Cinema

text: Played by Manuel Giusti, Manuel is the third member of Dekkar. Much like Axiom, Manuel is overwhelmingly loyal to Tim, embarking on numerous doomed creative ventures with him, including a guest appearance as Special Agent Jonathan Kington on the film-within-a film "In Service to Our Flag" shown in the fourth season of "Decker". After Tim suffered horrible burns on his face in season 8, Manuel is chosen by Tim to be a skin donor. He was the best man at Tim and Toni's second wedding. When Wendy Kerby is brought in to form the musical group D4 and takes up residence in the Rock House, Tim explicitly forbids any physical contact between Wendy and Manuel.


title: On Cinema

text: Played by John Aprea as a fictionalized version of himself, Aprea is an associate of Tim and Gregg's first appearing on the 1st Oscar Special. He later serves as a guest host of "On Cinema" and a recurring "Decker" actor. Despite their working history together, Tim frequently forgets or misremembers his name. Aprea tends to maintain a professional composure lacked by many of the other characters.


title: On Cinema

text: Played by Terri Parks, Toni first appeared on the movie "Mister America" and continued on the main show. Toni was originally a juror in Tim's trial for murder who voted not guilty because she believed in his innocence. She was subsequently hired as the campaign manager for Tim's district attorney campaign, then as the CFO for Tim's new company. They married at the end of season 11 and again during the 7th Oscar Special. While Toni is more competent than Tim in some areas, she is often equally disorganized and doesn't hesitate to employ illegal tactics to achieve her ends. Toni, while drunk at her own birthday party, has an affair with Axiom, enraging Tim. She goes to rehab and later returns sober, revealing that she was constantly under the influence of alcohol the entire time she was a juror and with Tim, and admitting that he was guilty. She then kicks Tim out of her house and files for divorce, resulting in Tim and LaRue stalking her and stealing files from her rehab.


title: On Cinema

text: Played by Michael Matthews, LaRue was originally a bit actor from the TV show "Decker", and was subsequently hired by Tim as his bodyguard and private detective. Michael is a right-wing militant who believes in various conspiracies theories typically found on the Internet and is regularly sent by Tim on errands to obtain dox/personal information on his supposed enemies. He's also a gun enthusiast, which starts the On Defense series, host of Xposed, and an amateur rapper that performed with Tim's new band DEK4R. After LaRue was run over by Gregg during the 2021 Oscar Special, he has had to make use of an electric mobility aid vehicle.


title: On Cinema

text: Played by Jessica Ruth Bell. Wendy is a singer who frequents Tim and Toni's church and first appeared in the 2021 Oscar Special. She later joined Manuel and Axiom in the Rock House for the show of the same name and co-hosted the Wendy Kerby Valentines Day Special with Tim. She runs off set, presumably not to return, after she is creeped out by Tim's behavior during the Valentines Day Special.


title: On Cinema

text: The "On Cinema" podcast was produced independently by Tim and Gregg. The podcast consists of Tim, along with Gregg as a "special guest" for every episode, covering movies poorly and with little insight, and often engaging in arguments. Gregg later developed a more pretentious "film buff" persona, and Tim took a turn to being obnoxiously political, sometimes devoting entire episodes to conspiracy theories, much to the chagrin of Gregg.


title: On Cinema

text: A running joke that was carried over to the video series is Gregg's confusion between "" and "", stubbornly insisting that Tim is the one with the movies reversed, rejecting any evidence to the contrary.


title: On Cinema

text: The video series debuts on Thing X, a parody website created by Adult Swim, having changed its name to "On Cinema at the Cinema". The series is similar to the podcast, taking place on a set meant to look like a movie theater. Gregg is still never acknowledged as more than a guest, and begins his recurring segments "Popcorn Classics", where he brings in forgotten VHS movies to showcase, and "On Cinema On Location", where he travels to filming locations of obscure movies, respectively.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim reveals he has blood clotting in his brain but rejects surgery because of "side effects, the whole medical industry, and Obamacare", while Gregg pushes for him to get surgery. Late in the season, Tim introduces the first special guest other than Gregg: Ayaka Ohwaki, a foreign exchange student from Japan staying with Tim's family.


title: On Cinema

text: The first "On Cinema" Oscar Special airs, where Tim and Gregg livestream the Oscars and drink champagne. Tim gets very drunk and vomits on some of Gregg's VHS tapes which causes Gregg to walk off the set.


title: On Cinema

text: Thing X merges with Adult Swim's website, and the series moves with it. The season begins with Tim in a head bandage and in pain, as he went through with the brain surgery, although his wife divorced him for this choice. Gregg begins his goal of watching "500 movies in 500 days", hoping to make the "Guinness Book of World Records". Tim kicks Gregg off the show after Gregg drives all the way to San Francisco for an "On Location" segment, to rebuke Tim & (incorrectly) insist that San Francisco was the location of "Star Trek II". John Aprea and Ayaka are guests on the next episode, where Tim reveals he is dating Ayaka. In the season finale, Gregg returns to the show as Ayaka was deported back to Japan.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim begins season four with many health problems and introduces his personal doctor, Dr. San (Zac Holtzman), an alternative medical doctor treating Tim with "natural" remedies, including acupuncture. Dr. San begins coming onto the set with Tim, despite Gregg's objections. However, Tim's face becomes infected and he denounces Dr. San. Ayaka sends a letter to Tim on the show, announcing she is pregnant with Tim's child.


title: On Cinema

text: In the second Oscar Special, Tim and Gregg drink champagne, with Tim, again, getting belligerently drunk. Mark Proksch is introduced for the first time, doing impersonations of W. C. Fields and Charlie Chaplin.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim moves to Jackson Hole, Wyoming, and buys a motorcycle to commute back and forth to Hollywood for the "On Cinema" taping. He becomes a proponent of 'simple living' and state rights, embracing his Republican values. Tim premieres his new show "Decker", with Gregg initially angered by the fact Tim used footage of him without asking, although he later warms up to the role after positive fan feedback.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim announces that Ayaka has had an abortion, despite being opposed to that medical procedure. However, Gregg interviews Ayaka via Skype from Japan, revealing she gave birth and named the boy Tom Cruise Heidecker Junior, after the actor Tom Cruise. Ayaka moves back to America with Tom Cruise Junior, and into Gregg's apartment, after Tim denies paternity. This upsets Tim and he moves permanently to Jackson Hole, making Gregg host of the show.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg begins his first season as host, with a pre-recorded VHS tape of himself as the co-host. Tim returns as host in the second episode after he realized his new friends in Jackson Hole were white supremacists. He rekindles his relationship with Ayaka, and moves into Gregg's apartment with her and Tom Cruise Junior. In the season finale, Tim proposes to Ayaka and she accepts.


title: On Cinema

text: In the third Oscar Special, Peyton Reed comes on the Special to promote his new film "Ant-Man" and announces that Gregg has been cast as a minor character in the movie, which upsets Tim. In the finale segment, Gregg introduces James Dean, the former actor who was believed to be dead since 1955. Tim does not believe this is the real James Dean, leading to him verbally and physically threatening Dean before trashing the set.


title: On Cinema

text: "Decker: Port of Call: Hawaii" premieres during the season, with Tim and Gregg repeatedly traveling to Hawaii to shoot, exhausting them. Gregg accidentally spoils the planned ending, resulting in Tim shooting a new ending where he destroys all of Gregg's tapes. After this, Gregg leaves the show and plans to start his own.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg returns to the show after Tim promises to let him write, direct, produce the next season of "Decker". He also moves to Victorville, California, and opens the Victorville Film Archives in a storage locker, where he also lives. Tim gives "Ant-Man" a rare one bag of popcorn which upsets Gregg, leading to him accusing Tim of paying $15,000 to have a minor role in the new "Fantastic Four" movie. Tim starts a rock band named "Dekkar" with a man named Axiom. Their debut single "Empty Bottle" is released on the show, which annoys Gregg as it is not movie related. Season 3 of "Decker", titled "Gregg Turkington's Decker vs. Dracula", is cancelled after three episodes after Tim lambasted Gregg for making a "mockery" of the franchise, irritating Gregg.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg tells Tim that Dr. San, who Tim has been looking for since season four, is Ayaka's boss at her job. Tim storms off the set, set to confront him. However, in the next episode, both Tim and Dr. San forgive each other. Dr. San takes over as Tom Cruise Junior's new pediatric doctor. By the season seven finale, Tim announces that Tom Cruise Junior has died.


title: On Cinema

text: The fourth Oscar Special features periodic musical performances by Dekkar, much to the annoyance of Gregg. An animated rendering of Tom Cruise Junior as a young adult comes on stage, in which Tim and the animated Tom Cruise Junior come out against vaccination. Dr. San does a DNA test of James Dean, which proves that he is in fact, James Dean, angering Tim.


title: On Cinema

text: The show moves to Victorville, where Tim has now moved into the storage unit with Gregg. Together, they buy an abandoned movie theater and open it as the "Victorville Film Center" where instead of playing new releases, a nightly showing from Gregg's VHS collection of Popcorn Classics is played. Mark is hired as a concessions cashier.


title: On Cinema

text: Dr. San prescribes Tim a "nutritional vape system" in which Tim replaces all meals and food with an electronic cigarette full of supposed nutrients. Tim's physical condition worsens as he keeps using the vape, as he comes to the set sweating, bruised, hallucinating, and unfocused. Eventually, Tim goes to an actual doctor who informs him the vape and his blood are full of LSD, cocaine, and multiple other legal and illegal drugs. Tim quits the vape system and swears off Dr. San once again. Tim announces that Ayaka is pregnant with their second child. After Tim tries to get Ayaka to get an abortion, she leaves him and moves back to Japan. Tim begins a romantic relationship with Axiom's sister, Juliana.


title: On Cinema

text: A fire is started in the storage unit after Tim's vape pen overheats one night, burning the entire facility down including the Victorville Film Archive. Tim suffers third degree burns on all of his body, including his face and hands. After insurance will not cover the cost of the fire, he returns to the show in bandages so he can keep working to pay for the damages and lawsuits, which exceed $1,000,000. Tim returns to a surprise intervention from Gregg, Joe Estevez, John Aprea, Mark, Ayaka, Ayaka's father, and Axiom, encouraging Tim to live a healthier life. Upset, he yells and kicks everyone but Axiom out, and announces plans to start an electronic music version of Dekkar, now called "DKR". A remixed, electronic version of Empty Bottle is released, and Tim announces that Juliana is pregnant with his child while Ayaka will go through with her pregnancy too.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim moves back to Hollywood and opens "Six Bag Cinemas", a new movie theater with recliner chairs and a waiter (Mark) that brings food to customers during the movie. The Victorville Film Center is burned down, with Gregg suggesting that Tim burned it down for insurance money. Tim's skin dies after he stops using facial cream for his burns. Needing a skin transplant, Tim chooses Manuel from DKR to donate skin off of his lower back and buttocks for Tim's face and left hand.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim hosts the Electric Sun Desert Music Festival in Apple Valley, California, where Dr. San gave out free samples of his vape system, resulting in 20 deaths and over 100 injuries. Tim and Dr. San are arrested and jailed on murder and manslaughter charges. Gregg takes over as host with Mark as his co-host, and spend two episodes disparaging Tim. Tim returns on bail, and with his lawyer, Doug Lyman, pin the 20 deaths on Dr. San and the Apple Valley authorities who did not respond in time. However, Dr. San commits suicide in jail, so the relatives of the 20 who died now primarily blame Tim for the deaths. At the end of the season, Tim tells Gregg that he will never forget what he said about him on the show, no matter what happens.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim is put on trial for the death of the "Electric Sun 20". Frustrated with his attorney Mark Dwyer, Tim decides to represent himself and proceeds to threaten the prosecution led by Vincent Rosetti and its witnesses and falsify evidence. Tim is issued multiple contempt citations. Nicholas Meyer, director of "Star Trek II" and co-writer for "Star Trek IV", appears as one of the witnesses in an attempt by Tim to settle the San Francisco "Star Trek" argument with Gregg. Ultimately, Tim is found not guilty for only one of the 20 deaths, as that victim died of a heroin overdose. A mistrial is called for the remaining 19, due to a hung jury with 11 guilty and 1 not guilty verdicts.


title: On Cinema

text: During the fifth Oscar Special, Mark is locked tight into a standard diving dress while doing an impression of Matt Hooper from "Jaws", being hospitalized for asphyxiation. Tim revamps "On Cinema" with a new intro and set, along with its first sponsor: Rio Jenesis, a protein shake company that creates a "germ shield" that Tim drinks. Gregg announces that he has resurrected the VFA, which appears to now be several bins full of VHS tapes stocked in Mark's hospital room, and has started collecting and wearing movie promotional hats to Tim's vocal displeasure. Episodes 4 through 6 were filmed in 360-degree video.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim faces a civil suit from one of the families of the "Electric Sun 19". His assets, including "On Cinema" and "Decker", are being seized and he claims he might soon be facing bankruptcy. With help from his attorney Mark Dwyer, Tim manages to convince the family of one of the victims, the Delgados, to let him try to earn money for them with his various assets. The Delgado Media Holdings company is created and they hire Gregg as the managing editor, giving him creative control. Gregg's role quickly increases to that of host, while Tim's role was diminished to announcer. In the season finale, an irate Tim destroys the set, insults the Delgados, and announces his campaign for district attorney of San Bernardino County against the incumbent Vincent Rosetti.


title: On Cinema

text: In July 2019, it was announced that Magnolia Pictures was going to release a feature film called "Mister America", based on the "On Cinema" universe. The movie focuses on the storyline about Tim's failed campaign to become District Attorney for San Bernardino County between seasons 10 and 11 and introduces Toni Newman, the lone juror who voted not guilty at Tim's trial, who becomes Tim's campaign manager. The film was directed by Eric Notarnicola and debuted on October 4, 2019 at Beyondfest, held at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre.


title: On Cinema

text: The sixth Oscar Special is produced by Delgado Media Holdings and hosted by new arrival Rafael Torres, though Gregg otherwise is in charge of the show. Tim eventually invades the broadcasting studio to take back control of the special and to promote conspiracy theories from QAnon, and manages to erase Gregg's video tape collection with the help of a magnetic vest. Mark, still comatose, is used by Gregg as a "living Oscar". Tim later resuscitates Mark by accidentally knocking him over.


title: On Cinema

text: Delgado Media Holdings is sold back to Tim with the help of a suspicious online banking website called MoneyZap. Tim is quickly hit with debt from the Delgados' company (now renamed HEI Inc.), a lawsuit from Rafael Torres, and substantial cash owed to MoneyZap, which has interest rates on its loans exceeding 300%. Toni Newman joins HEI Inc. as its chief financial officer along with board members Joe Estevez, Axiom, Manuel, and militant conspiracy theorist Michael "LaRue" Matthews. LaRue joins Dekkar and they release a third version of "Empty Bottle", with rap lyrics warning of the deep state. On advice from Toni, Tim disbands Dekkar and fires Joe Estevez from HEI Inc. At the end of the season, Tim announces that he and Toni have married.


title: On Cinema

text: Gregg also starts his Mobile VFA, which consists of him simply selling his old VHS tapes on the flea market. Later, he starts up a VFA Classic Movie program, where he sells public domain movies with commentary dubbed over the originals. Gregg bundles the original "A Star Is Born" with the 2018 adaptation, which gets Mark arrested for bootlegging. Mark gets put into a coma again while in prison, and goes missing after being discharged from the hospital.


title: On Cinema

text: In the seventh Oscar Special, Tim annulls his marriage to Toni, in order to stage a more elaborate second wedding with her at the special. Gregg arrives at the wedding dressed as the Joker, driving his car housing the Mobile VFA onto the set to celebrate the 39th anniversary of the film "Arthur". Gregg leaves his car running throughout the special, causing the entire production crew and wedding party to eventually fall unconscious due to carbon monoxide poisoning and leading to two deaths.


title: On Cinema

text: The show moves from Adult Swim to HEI Network, a subscription streaming service created by Tim, in early 2021. Tim and Gregg host separate Oscar specials in 2021, with Tim hosting his on HEI Network and Gregg hosting his on YouTube. Tim hosts his show with Toni, in a studio similar to that of a conservative talk show program, while Gregg hosts his special independently through his phone in his car. Tim reluctantly calls Gregg after being dissatisfied with Axiom's movie knowledge and asks him to come onto the show. Tim reveals footage of a fan finding Mark, who then says he wants nothing to do with either Tim or Gregg again. Gregg storms off set after LaRue declares him guilty for the carbon monoxide poisoning from the year prior, gets back in his car, and runs over LaRue after he gets in the way, handicapping him. Wendy Kerby, a singer from Tim and Toni's church, is introduced as the next big pop star. Gregg sells off the VFA to Tim in exchange for no charges being pressed. Between seasons, HEI Network releases a previously taped live special and the pilot to "Rock House", a reality show starring Axiom, Manuel, and Wendy. HEI Network also launches its own cryptocurrency, HEI Points, with the intent to replace the United States dollar by 2022.


title: On Cinema

text: Season 12 starts with a new intro, theme, and set. Toni, drunk at her birthday party, has an affair with Axiom at the "Rock House". Toni goes to rehab for her drinking problems while Axiom is kicked out of Dekkar, with Wendy Kerby taking his place, and the band is renamed to D4. Toni is released from rehab and tells Tim she is leaving him, confessing that she knew he was guilty during the Electric Sun 20 trial but was "out of her mind" from her alcoholism for the entire time she has known Tim. Mark is again spotted by a fan, this time performing as Spider-Man on a street in Hollywood. Tim convinces Mark to return, doing a pilot called "Mark's Cavalcade of Characters". Gregg reveals that he is working with Joe Estevez on a new movie, "Deck of Cards", focusing on "the original Joker", the playing card. Other pilots are made, including LaRue's "Xposed" and Gregg's "Popcorn Shuffle", with "Xposed" being chosen for a full season of its own.


title: On Cinema

text: Tim and Wendy Kerby host a Valentine's Day special in 2022. After an awkward staged sketch where Tim tries to instigate a kiss between Wendy and Manuel, she becomes uncomfortable and abruptly leaves, leaving D4 is unable to perform. Manuel convinces Tim to patch things up with Axiom, and the three give an impromptu Dekkar reunion.


title: On Cinema

text: The ninth Oscar Special takes place at the planned site of the HEI Ranch, Tim's proposed business and media center, located on a remote stretch of land near Apple Valley, California, where little work has been done. Gregg unveils the VFA Tour Bus, made from a hastily remodeled van. Mark falls down a hill while doing a Spider-Man impression, hospitalizing him. Tim introduces G. Amato, a financial backer who also has more HEI Points than anyone else. LaRue plays private tapes of Toni talking about her marriage with Tim where she reveals embarrassing information about Tim. The cast and crew are harassed by locals who drive dirt bikes on set, point rifle lasers, sabotage the power from the generator, and ultimately fire upon the crew at the end of the special. Gregg evacuates everyone in his tour bus except for Tim, who stays behind and confronts the locals. Tim fought the assailants and shattered several ribs, and was ordered to remain away from the stretch of land.


title: On Cinema

text: "Deck of Cards" released on September 2, 2022, albeit heavily edited by Tim, making a program similar to "Decker". Season 13 debuted October 26, with the program being retooled into a morning show titled "On Cinema! and More in the Morning". Tim is now accompanied by Kaili Amato, who is related to G. Amato of The Amato Group, who have provided funding and the new venue for the series. Kaili and Tim have expanded the focus from films to social media, celebrity gossip, and other forms of media. A Dekkar reunion tour goes awry when their tour bus, the open-top bus meant for Gregg's VFA Expert Tours, rolls into a ditch late at night, injuring Tim, blinding Axiom, and leaving Manuel in an unresponsive state.


title: On Cinema

text: Heidecker has stated that On Cinema was started out of a desire to mock the podcasting community. The first episode was recorded on the set of "The Comedy", where Heidecker and Turkington were working together, after Heidecker proposed the idea between takes. In April 2017, "On Cinema" initiated a Patreon page for funding, most of it going to the Oscar specials, with some of the higher options including receiving producer credits, walk-on roles for the Oscar specials, or live custom Skype reviews from Gregg Turkington.


title: On Cinema

text: In 2013, the "On Cinema Film Guide" app was released, featuring the voices of Turkington and Heidecker reviewing over 17,000 films.


title: On Cinema

text: The series moved premieres to Adult Swim's online live streams in 2017, with the series continuing to be posted on YouTube on a delay. The Adult Swim streams later picked up a fan-show series, "Big Unhappy Family", in 2019, as a companion to season 11 and "Mister America". However, in late 2020, following the COVID-19 pandemic and layoffs that shuttered the Adult Swim streams, it was announced that the show would move from Adult Swim's platforms to HEI Network, an independent streaming service created for the series.


title: On Cinema

text: The show has a dedicated cult following of fans who interact with the storylines via social media, often taking sides as "GreggHeads" or "TimHeads" in the frequent personal conflicts between the hosts which are often only tangentially, if at all, related to films or cinema. During the annual live Oscar special, Tim and Gregg both frequently provide interactive elements via online polls for fans to vote on. This cult following is especially found on YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter, the latter through Gregg and Tim's respective profiles, of which Gregg has completely devoted to the persona of his alter-ego. Heidecker and Turkington have also appeared in character on the podcasts "Kreative Kontrol with Vish Khanna" and "The Best Show" in 2015 and 2017.


title: On Cinema

text: Heidecker and Turkington also started "Decker-Con", where new episodes of "Decker" are shown to fans and the cast appears as their "On Cinema" characters to field questions.


title: On Cinema

text: For "The Trial", Heidecker and Turkington upended the traditional review aspect of the series, and staged an elaborate mock event where Tim's character was on trial for murder, which lasted over a week. It received acclaim from observers, some of whom called it "brilliant" and "ambitious."


title: On Cinema

text: In 2018 and 2019, Heidecker and Turkington initiated a nationwide "On Cinema Live!" tour with special guests from the "On Cinema"/"Decker" universe such as Joe Estevez and John C. Reilly, the band Dekkar and special content created only for the tour, such as live reviewing various major release films, including "Superfly", "", "", "", "Ant Man & The Wasp".


title: Jerry Wexler

text: Gerald Wexler (January 10, 1917 – August 15, 2008) was a music journalist turned music producer, and was a major influence on American popular music from the 1950s through the 1980s. He coined the term "rhythm and blues", and was integral in signing and/or producing many of the biggest acts of the time, including Ray Charles, the Allman Brothers, Chris Connor, Aretha Franklin, Led Zeppelin, Wilson Pickett, Dire Straits, Dusty Springfield and Bob Dylan. Wexler was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987 and in 2017 to the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: Wexler was born in The Bronx, New York City, the son of a German Jewish father and a Polish Jewish mother; he grew up in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan. Despite graduating from George Washington High School at age 15, he dropped out of the City College of New York after two semesters. In 1935, Wexler enrolled at what is now Kansas State University, where he studied intermittently for several years. Following his service in the Army, Wexler became a serious student, and he graduated from Kansas State with a B.A. in journalism in 1946.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: During his time as an editor, reporter, and writer for "Billboard Magazine", Wexler coined the term "rhythm and blues". In June 1949, at his suggestion, the magazine changed the name of the Race Records chart to Rhythm & Blues Records. Wexler wrote, "Race' was a common term then, a self-referral used by blacks. ... On the other hand, 'Race Records' didn't sit well. ... I came up with a handle I thought suited the music well – 'rhythm and blues.' ... [It was] a label more appropriate to more enlightened times."


title: Jerry Wexler

text: Wexler became a partner in Atlantic Records in 1953. There followed classic recordings with Ray Charles, the Drifters and Ruth Brown. With Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegun, he built Atlantic Records into a major force in the recording industry.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: In the 1960s, he recorded Wilson Pickett and Aretha Franklin, and oversaw production of Dusty Springfield's highly acclaimed "Dusty in Memphis" and Lulu's "New Routes" albums. He also cultivated a tight relationship with Stax Records, was an enthusiastic proponent of the then-developing Muscle Shoals Sound and launched the fortunes of Muscle Shoals Sound Studios and the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. In 1967 he was named Record Executive of the Year for turning Aretha Franklin's career around. In November 1966, Franklin's Columbia recording contract expired; at that time, she owed the company money because record sales had not met expectations. Working with Wexler and Atlantic, Franklin was "the most successful singer in the nation" by 1968. His work in this decade put Atlantic at the forefront of soul music.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: In 1968, he and Ahmet Ertegun signed Led Zeppelin to Atlantic Records on the recommendation of singer Dusty Springfield and from what they knew of the band's guitarist, Jimmy Page, from his performances with the Yardbirds. With its strong catalog, Atlantic Records was purchased by Warner Bros. Records in 1968. In 1975, Wexler moved from Atlantic to its parent Warner Records.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: In 1979, Wexler produced Bob Dylan's controversial first "born again" album, "Slow Train Coming" at Muscle Shoals; a single from that album, "Gotta Serve Somebody", won a Grammy Award in 1980. When Wexler agreed to produce, he was unaware of the nature of the material that awaited him. "Naturally, I wanted to do the album in Muscle Shoals—as Bob did—but we decided to prep it in L.A., where Bob lived", recalled Wexler. "That's when I learned what the songs were about: born-again Christians in the old corral. ... I like the irony of Bob coming to me, the Wandering Jew, to get the Jesus feel ... [But] I had no idea he was on this born-again Christian trip until he started to evangelize me. I said, 'Bob, you're dealing with a sixty-two-year-old confirmed Jewish atheist. I'm hopeless. Let's just make an album.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: In 1983, Wexler recorded with UK pop star George Michael. The most famous out-take of these sessions would prove to be a rare early version of "Careless Whisper", recorded in Muscle Shoals.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: In 1987, Wexler was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. He retired from the music business in the late 1990s.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: For most of the 1990s, Wexler lived on David's Lane in East Hampton, New York, where he shared living space with a Chinese family who aided him with daily functions and kept him company.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: In "Ray", the biopic of Ray Charles, Wexler is portrayed by Richard Schiff. Wexler is portrayed by Marc Maron in the 2021 movie "Respect", the life story of Aretha Franklin, and by David Cross in season three of the television show "Genius".


title: Jerry Wexler

text: Tom Thurman produced and directed a documentary film about Wexler, "Immaculate Funk" (2000). The film takes its name from Wexler's own expression for the Atlantic sound.


title: Jerry Wexler

text: Wexler married three times. In 1941, he married Shirley Kampf; they had three children before divorcing: Lisa, Paul, and Anita (predeceased). His second wife was Renee Pappas. His third wife was playwright-novelist Jean Arnold. He died at his home in Sarasota, Florida, on August 15, 2008, from congestive heart failure. Asked by a documentary filmmaker several years before his death what he wanted on his tombstone, Wexler replied "Two words: 'More bass'."


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby reducing biodiversity and species abundance. Habitat destruction is the leading cause of biodiversity loss. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of endangered species.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Activities such as harvesting natural resources, industrial production and urbanization are human contributions to habitat destruction. Pressure from agriculture is the principal human cause. Some others include mining, logging, trawling, and urban sprawl. Habitat destruction is currently considered the primary cause of species extinction worldwide. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, climate change, introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, water and noise pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land" and Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". However, the United Nations Environment Programme report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.


title: Habitat destruction

text: When a habitat is destroyed, the carrying capacity for indigenous plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that populations decline, sometimes up to the level of extinction.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity. Temple (1986) found that 82% of endangered bird species were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss, and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat. Endemic organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else within the world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as extinction debt. Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of infertile youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's giant panda, once found in many areas of Sichuan. Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of the country, as a result of widespread deforestation in the 20th century.


title: Habitat destruction

text: As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the species diversity offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of generalist species. Invasive species are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats. Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets the balance of species keeping up with the extinction threshold leading to a higher likelihood of extinction.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss. The reduction of the amount of habitat available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout a hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refers to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes. Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order Hymenoptera is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat fragmentation has a major impact on animal specie populations because it deprives species of what they are naturally accustomed to. This makes the species isolated, reduces the area where they can live, and creates new ecological boundaries. Some studies have shown that changes in the abiotic and biotic parameters have caused a greater impact on the ecology than the reduction in habitat size itself. They concluded that crowding a species into one space will eventually lead to the extinction of that species.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats are currently the leading factors in species extinction. This is because the loss and fragmentation of habitats results in much smaller populations. Reduced population sizes ends up creating higher chances of extinction.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Studies have shown that there is no relationship between habitat patch and species number when it comes to habitat specialist plants species located in fragmented landscapes. This could potentially be due to drastic declines of plant species areas due to changes in the surrounding land.


title: Habitat destruction

text: In recent times the destruction of habitat has been the cause of the loss of many species. Sometimes the area may be small of destruction but as time goes by slowly that will cause an increase in extinction. Loss of habitat is not always the direct cause of extinction; there are other reasons causes for extinction that connect back to the loss of habitat. For example, if the sole predator in an ecosystem were to go extinct, prey populations would increase, which could possibly result in overpopulation. A higher amount of any species that can cause them to use too much of their resources. Since many species depend on limited natural resources, with the overuse they will eventually run out degrade their habitat.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat destruction and fragmentation are the two most important factors in species extinction. The negative effects of decreasing size and increasing isolation of habitat are misinterpreted by fragmentation, but in reality they are much more larger effects on the population. Fragmentation generally has either no effect or a negative effect on population survival. Since habitat loss of fragmentation typically occurs together it is still not clear which process has a larger effect on extinction. Increasing isolation and habitat loss with fragmentation are all connected in a way that has negatively affected the environment.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Biodiversity hotspots are chiefly tropical regions that feature high concentrations of endemic species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's terrestrial species. These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include New Zealand, Madagascar, the Philippines, and Japan. South and East Asia—especially China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Japan—and many areas in West Africa have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated coastal cities also face degradation of their coral reefs or other marine habitat. These areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of South America, and the Caribbean Sea and its associated islands.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Regions of unsustainable agriculture or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction. South Asia, Central America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Amazonian tropical rainforest areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the East and Midwest. Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Currently, changes occurring in different environments around the world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity. However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Tropical rainforests have received most of the attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16 million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9 million square kilometers remain today. The current rate of deforestation is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Other forest ecosystems have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical rainforests. Deforestation for farming and logging have severely disturbed at least 94% of temperate broadleaf forests; many old growth forest stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities. Tropical deciduous dry forests are easier to clear and burn and are more suitable for agriculture and cattle ranching than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast and less than 8% in Madagascar remain from their original extents.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Plains and desert areas have been degraded to a lesser extent. Only 10–20% of the world's drylands, which include temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands, scrub, and deciduous forests, have been somewhat degraded. But included in that 10–20% of land is the approximately 9 million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of desertification. The tallgrass prairies of North America, on the other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Wetlands and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years. Between 60% and 70% of European wetlands have been completely destroyed. In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal housing and tourism which has caused a decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The rising sea levels and temperatures have caused soil erosion, coastal flooding, and loss of quality in the UK marine ecosystem. About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans. One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by overfishing, pollution, and invasive species; 90% of the Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed. Finally, over 35% of the mangrove ecosystems worldwide have been destroyed.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, and climate change is well documented in the fossil record. One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat destruction caused by humans includes land conversion from forests, etc. to arable land, urban sprawl, infrastructure development, and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and pollution are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. Desertification, deforestation, and coral reef degradation are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas (deserts, forests, coral reefs).


title: Habitat destruction

text: Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were the most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of agricultural expansion (96%), infrastructure expansion (72%), and wood extraction (67%). Therefore, according to this study, forest conversion to agriculture is the main land use change responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), permanent cultivation (48%), cattle ranching (46%), shifting (slash and burn) cultivation (41%), subsistence agriculture (40%), and fuel wood extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that shifting cultivation is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the construction of new roads) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Rising global temperatures, caused by the greenhouse effect, contribute to habitat destruction, endangering various species, such as the polar bear. Melting ice caps promote rising sea levels and floods which threaten natural habitats and species globally.


title: Habitat destruction

text: While the above-mentioned activities are the proximal or direct causes of habitat destruction in that they actually destroy habitat, this still does not identify why humans destroy habitat. The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as "drivers" of habitat destruction. Demographic, economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Demographic drivers include the expanding human population; rate of population increase over time; spatial distribution of people in a given area (urban versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to biodiversity hotspots. This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of the variation in numbers of threatened species across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing biodiversity. The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making conservation efforts not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests. The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning.


title: Habitat destruction

text: According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or socio-political factors (66%), and demographic factors (61%). The main economic factors included commercialization and growth of timber markets (68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban industrial growth (38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for cash crops (25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro-deforestation policies on land development (40%), economic growth including colonization and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%); property rights and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as corruption, lawlessness, or mismanagement (42%). The main technological factor was the poor application of technology in the wood industry (45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices. Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population density—a result of the first factor—in those areas (25%).


title: Habitat destruction

text: There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts with—and leads to—the establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes a growth in wood (logging) and food markets. Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related the proximate and underlying causes are to each other.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to natural disasters like flood and drought, crop failure, spread of disease, and water contamination. On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good management practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts. Eliminating swamps—the habitat of pests such as mosquitoes—has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as malaria.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Completely depriving an infectious agent (such as a virus) of its habitat—by vaccination, for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via erosion, salinization, compaction, nutrient depletion, pollution, and urbanization. Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as birdwatching, recreational uses like hunting and fishing, and ecotourism usually rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable ecosystem services. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon cycles, which has increased the frequency and severity of acid rain, algal blooms, and fish kills in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global climate change. One ecosystem service whose significance is becoming better understood is climate regulation. On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale, plant transpiration recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by sequestering carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat destruction include watershed management, nitrogen fixation, oxygen production, pollination (see pollinator decline),


title: Habitat destruction

text: waste treatment (i.e., the breaking down and immobilization of toxic pollutants), and nutrient recycling of sewage or agricultural runoff.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing carbon dioxide levels is one of the main contributors to global climate change. The loss of biodiversity may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that. Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of fungi, viruses, and bacteria.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations. Across the globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources "per capita", yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their "per capita" share of natural resources.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the opportunity cost of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with the removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The rapid expansion of the global human population is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as the world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years. In the past, continually moving to new land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The impending global food crisis will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more fertilizers and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation, degradation, or pollution. Any efforts to protect the world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Tropical deforestation: In most cases of tropical deforestation, three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes. This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country. Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country. This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as a new stabilization method. These can reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society


title: Habitat destruction

text: Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough. In areas where habitat destruction is more extreme (fragmentation or patch loss), restoration ecology may be needed.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction. Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen a reason for change to more sustainable practices. Education about the necessity of family planning to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The preservation and creation of habitat corridors can link isolated populations and increase pollination. Corridors are also known to reduce the negative impacts of habitat destruction.


title: Habitat destruction

text: The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption, sustainable extraction of resources, conservation areas, restoration of degraded land and addressing climate change.


title: Habitat destruction

text: Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing the underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize:


title: Habitat destruction

text: It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in the conservation and recovery of species, a limited amount of management plans are taking the spatial effects of habitat restoration and conservation into consideration.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Rodolfo Graziani, 1st Marquis of Neghelli (; 11 August 1882 – 11 January 1955), was a prominent Italian military officer in the Kingdom of Italy's "Regio Esercito" ("Royal Army"), primarily noted for his campaigns in Africa before and during World War II. A dedicated fascist and prominent member of the National Fascist Party, he was a key figure in the Italian military during the reign of Victor Emmanuel III.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Graziani played an important role in the consolidation and expansion of the Italian colonial empire during the 1920s and 1930s, first in Libya and then in Ethiopia. He became infamous for harsh repressive measures, such as the use of concentration camps that caused many civilian deaths, and for extreme measures taken against the native resistance of the countries invaded by the Italian army, such as the hanging of Omar Mukhtar. Due to his brutal methods used in Libya, he was nicknamed "Il macellaio del Fezzan" ("the butcher of Fezzan"). In February 1937, after an assassination attempt against him during a ceremony in Addis Ababa, Graziani ordered a period of brutal retribution now known as Yekatit 12. Shortly after the Kingdom of Italy entered World War II, he returned to Libya as the commander of troops in Italian North Africa but resigned after the 1940–41 British offensive routed his forces, this unlucky campaign caused him other stress attacks again (which he suffered from a snake accident during his military service in Libia, happened a few years before World War I).


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Following the fall of the Italian Fascist regime in 1943, he was the only Marshal of Italy who remained loyal to Benito Mussolini and was named the Minister of Defence of the Italian Social Republic, commanding its army and returning to active service against the Allies for the rest of the war.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Graziani was never prosecuted by the United Nations War Crimes Commission; he was included on its list of Italians eligible to be prosecuted for war crimes, but Allied opposition and indifference to the prosecution of Italian war criminals frustrated Ethiopian attempts to bring him to justice. In 1948, an Italian court sentenced Graziani to 19 years of imprisonment for his collaboration with the Nazis, but he was released after serving only four months. In the last years of his life he went into politics, entering in Italian Social Movement (becoming also "Honorary President" 1953, probably for their carrier during the fascist period in Italy) and died a few years later, in 1955.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Rodolfo Graziani was born in Filettino in the province of Frosinone on August 11, 1882. His father, Filippo Graziani, was the village doctor. He was educated in a seminary in the town of Subiaco and then went on to study in the Liceo Torquato Tasso in Rome. Due to economic restraints, Graziani could not apply to the Military Academy of Modena and so decided to study law at university instead, at the urging of the father.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: In 1903, he joined the Royal Italian Army as a reserve officer cadet whilst studying at university. In 1906, he passed a competitive examination for reserve officers to be made regular and became a second lieutenant, stationed at the 1st regiment of Grenadiers in Rome.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Graziani's first posting was to Italian Eritrea where he learned Arabic and Tigrinya. In 1911, whilst in the Eritrean countryside, he was bitten by a snake which resulted in him being hospitalized. Because of this, he never served in the Italo-Turkish War. After his convalescence, he was repatriated to Italy where he was promoted to Captain. In 1918, during World War I, Graziani in the "Regio Esercito" became the youngest "Colonnello" (Colonel) in Italian history.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: In 1930, the Fascist government appointed Graziani Vice-Governor of Cyrenaica and commander of the Italian forces in Libya. He served there until 1934. During those four years, he suppressed the Senussi rebellion. In this so-called "pacification", he was responsible for the construction of several concentration camps and labor camps, where thousands of Libyan prisoners died. Some prisoners were hanged, such as Omar Mukhtar, or shot, but most prisoners died of starvation or disease. His deeds earned him the nickname "the Butcher of Fezzan" among the Arabs. But Italians called him the Pacifier of Libya ("Pacificatore della Libia").


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935 and 1936, Graziani was the commander of the southern front. His army invaded Ethiopia from Italian Somaliland and he commanded the Italian forces at the battles of Genale Doria and the Ogaden. However, Graziani's efforts in the south were secondary to the main invasion launched from Eritrea by "Generale" Emilio De Bono, later continued by Marshal of Italy Pietro Badoglio. It was Badoglio and not Graziani who entered Addis Ababa in triumph after his "March of the Iron Will". But it was Graziani who said: "The "Duce" will have Ethiopia, with or without the Ethiopians."


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Addis Ababa fell to Badoglio on 5 May 1936. Graziani had wanted to reach Harar before Badoglio reached Addis Ababa, but failed to do so. Even so, on 9 May, Graziani was rewarded for his role as commander of the southern front with a promotion to the rank of Marshal of Italy. During his tour of an Ethiopian Orthodox church in Dire Dawa, Graziani fell into a pit covered by an ornate carpet, a trap that he believed had been set by the Ethiopian priests to injure or kill him. As a result, he held Ethiopian clerics in deep suspicion.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: After the war, Graziani was made Viceroy of Italian East Africa and Governor-General of Shewa / Addis Ababa. After an unsuccessful attempt by two Eritreans to kill him on 19 February 1937 (and after murders of other Italians in occupied Ethiopia), Graziani ordered a bloody and indiscriminate reprisal upon the conquered country, later remembered by Ethiopians as "Yekatit 12". Up to thirty thousand civilians of Addis Ababa were killed indiscriminately; another 1,469 were summarily executed by the end of the next month, and over one thousand Ethiopian notables were imprisoned and then exiled from Ethiopia. Graziani became known as "the Butcher of Ethiopia". In connection with the attempt on his life, Graziani authorized the massacre of the monks of the ancient monastery of Debre Libanos and a large number of pilgrims, who had traveled there to celebrate the feast day of the founding saint of the monastery. Graziani's suspicion of the Ethiopian Orthodox clergy (and the fact that the wife of one of the assassins had briefly taken sanctuary at the monastery) had convinced him of the monks' complicity in the attempt on his life.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: At the start of World War II, Graziani, now styled 1st Marquis of Neghelli, was still Commander-in-Chief of the "Regio Esercito"′s General Staff. After the death of Marshal Italo Balbo in a friendly fire incident on 28 June 1940, Graziani took his place as Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of Italian North Africa.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini had given Graziani a deadline of 8 August 1940 to invade Egypt with the 10th Army. Graziani doubted the ability of his largely un-mechanized force to defeat the British and put off the invasion for as long as he could.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: However, faced with demotion, Graziani ultimately followed orders, and four divisions of the 10th Army invaded Egypt on 9 September. The Italians achieved only modest gains in Egypt and then prepared a series of fortified camps to defend their positions. In December 1940, the British counterattacked and completely defeated the 10th Army. On 25 March 1941, Graziani was replaced by General Italo Gariboldi. Graziani remained mostly inactive for the next two years. During his time in Italy, he played a role in suppressing the Italian anti-fascist movement.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Graziani was the only Italian Marshal to remain loyal to Mussolini after the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy, and joined Mussolini in the north after the Italian surrender (someone say that he choose to adhere to Italian Social Republic for his dislike for Pietro Badoglio, who had signed the Armistice of Cassibile with the allies and because he was his worst enemy during the fascist period). He was appointed Minister of Defense of the Italian Social Republic by Mussolini and oversaw the mixed Italo-German Army Group Liguria ("Armee Ligurien"). Graziani defeated Allied forces in the December 1944 "Battle of Garfagnana", leading a mixed Italian / German force that included the "Monte Rosa" alpine division and the "San Marco" marine division.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: When Mussolini fled northward on 25 April 1945, Graziani was left as the "de facto" leader of what remained of the RSI. Mussolini was captured and executed on 28 April 1945. The following day, German forces in Italy surrendered, and Graziani's own surrender followed on 1 May 1945.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: At the end of World War II, Graziani spent a few days in the San Vittore Prison in Milan before being transferred to Allied control. He was brought back to Africa in Anglo-American custody, staying there until February 1946. Allied forces then felt the danger of his assassination or lynching had passed (many thousands of fascists were murdered in Italy in the summer and autumn of 1945), and moved Graziani to the Procida prison in Italy.


title: Rodolfo Graziani

text: Before the Second World War, the League of Nations did not prosecute Graziani and the Italian authorities for war crimes in Ethiopia. In one case, Graziani had ordered his troops to use chemical weapons against Nasibu Zeamanuel's troops in Gorrahei on 10 October 1935. Although the Ethiopian Minister of Foreign Affairs gave the League of Nations irrefutable evidence of what the Italian military had done from within a few hours of its invasion on 3 October 1935 to 10 April of the following year, no action was taken. Incidents included the use of poison gas and the bombing of Red Cross hospitals and ambulances.